Role of climate change in shaping or de-shaping of ancient Indian

civilization
The geography of India boasted of a unique terrain and diverse regional
climate, spreading from snowy mountains to open plateaus. Historically
geographical features of a region and climate are the primary drivers of
how a civilization shapes up. Indias civilization was driven by the
Himalayan Mountains, separates India from the rest of Asia; preventing
hostile invading forces and immigration into the subcontinent. Moreover,
Ganges and Indus, the two rivers were the foundations of Indian
civilization along with the Khyber pass, the only traversable path between
India and Kabul.
Monsoons and winds that mark the seasons also affected the formative
period of the Indian civilization. The timings of these winds and monsoons
were also critical since it affected the harvest of the season and in turn
the produce, since the civilization was largely agrarian. Sometimes too
much rainfall caused flooding along the banks of the rivers. The ideal area
for thriving civilizations was the Deccan plateau with mild temperatures
and optimum rainfall.
The lost cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa marked the earliest Indian
civilization along the sides of the Indus river. Indus valley civilization,
thrived between 3000 and 1900 BCE, with an estimated population of
about 2-5 million. However, after 700 years of stability, the civilization
declined because of climate change (drier and colder due to weaker
monsoons) and by 1800 BCE cities were abandoned, with the population
migrating to more fertile lands in the east around the Ganges and Jamuna
river.
Importance of Greek sailor Hippalus journey to India and the
interlinkage of monsoon and the spice trade route
Located at the center of the world, India became on the most important
players in the first global economy. The roots of trade though were
established by Hippalus (Greek captain) who is credited for discovering
the direct route from Red Sea to India by plotting the scheme of the sea
and the location of the ports coastline. His discovery through monsoons
made the geographers realize the north-south direction of Indias west
coast and that one could reach south India faster by crossing the Indian
Ocean. This discovery and that the ships could sail to India in 40 days
established the prosperity of trade with the Roman province of Aegyptus
from 1st century BCE. Chief among the items traded were spices (black
pepper and cinnamon), since the Russians were great connoisseurs of
spices and used it as a luxury item- from aroma induced baths to cuisines

sprinkled with oriental spices. Before, the Arabs had control over the spice
trade via sea with India. However, equipped with the knowledge of the
monsoons, the Romans were successful in thwarting the monopoly of the
Arabs and thus prospered the Indian-roman spice trade.
Silk route and the invasion of Kushans
From 200 BCE to 1500 CE, eastern and western traders traded along the
Silk Road, a network of trade routes that linked Rome in the West and Xian
in the East. The name was derived from Silk, one of the most imported
materials by the Mediterranean. Additionally, among the traded materials
were gems, metals, horses, apricots, raisins. Moreover, the commerce also
included exchange of technology, art and medicine. Buddhism, an Indian
culture was also spread through this Silk Route when traders were
accompanied by Chinese monks, who then advanced the doctrines and
teachings of Buddhism. The route eventually closed down with the
upsurge of Mongolianism.
The Kushans or Yuen-Chi built their empire through the Silk Route. They
ruled in the Post Mauryan era, around 127 AD under Kanishka, where its
summer capital was Peshawar and winter capital was Mathura. These
mighty conquerors migrated from Central Asia and at their peak ruled
from the Aral Sea to the Bay of Bengal. This era marked the heights of
economic development, accompanied with the introduction of the gold
coins. Gandharan art, the synthesis of western artists carving/sculpting
eastern subjects became famous in this era. Under the Kushans, sea trade
was at its helm, since they positioned themselves strategically at the
center of the Silk Road. This gave them unprecedented commercial power
because they controlled the Central Asian commerce with the Romans.
The era of the Kushans was noticeable with spiritual, economic and artistic
prosperity.
The invasion of India by Mahmud of Ghazni initiated what is
known as the Great clash of civilization the great religion of
Islam meeting the incumbent religion of Hinduism in India. What
is the outcome of this clash? What role does the Sufi saint play in
this clash of civilization?
Islams first contact with the Hindu hinterland came in around the 7 th
century AD. However, the invasion of Turkish ruler Mahmud Ghazni around
1000 AD marked the clash of Hinduism and Islam. Between 1000 AD and
1025 AD, he invaded India 17 times, most important of which was the
plundering of Somnath temple. Mahmud Ghazni was a plunderer and a
fanatic. His patronized art and literature and wanted to establish the glory

of Islam for which he ransacked temples and destroyed the idols of Hindu
deities.
During Mahmuds time, the Hindu and Islam culture crossed each other for
the first time. According to some, he was a renowned Sufi and was
heralded as a champion of Islam for having converted temples into
mosques. He had a zeal for demolition and desecration of Hindu temples
and idols. Out of his rule, a clash between Hinduism and Islam, India was
left utterly ruined and its prosperity suffered for times to come. Also the
Rajputs were shown to be weak and this paved the ground for further
Mughal conquests.
Sufis paved the way for Muslim Hindu cultural interaction. The linguistic
affinity of the Muslim culture in India came through Ghazni and Bukhara.
The Ghaznavid conquest of Lahore had instrumental cultural results which
facilitated contact between the two civilizations. Persian was adopted as a
language for literary conversations and continued its presence throughout
Mughal rule. Famous scholars such as Abu Rayhan al-Biruni whose Kitab
al-Hind was among the earliest literature about India's religious and
philosophical traditions existed during the Ghaznavid era. Besides the first
extant of the Sufi existed during this period.
How did the Mughals govern such a large empire? Did the Britain
learn some lessons of governance from the Mughals?
Mughal empire flourished in India in the 16 th and 17th century, with their
empires spreading across now Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and
India. Babar, the first Mughal ruler took over the empire by defeating the
Lodhis of the Delhi Sultantate. Mughal Empire indicated an age of golden
literature and architecture with Akbar being the greatest of the Mughal
rulers. They expanded by winning wars across the subcontinent, because
of technological might and skillful deployment of cavalry and artillery,
which was later followed by the British.
The Mughals also ruled wisely and decisively, with a tolerance for the
Hindu culture, though never allowing for any sort of uprisings It also
promoted arts, literature and commerce which the population found
resonance with most of the Mughal rulers. Besides all the defeated rulers
were incorporated as Nawabs who were entrusted with the administration
of an area and were entitled to collect taxes. A part of this was remitted to
the Mughal Empire. The law of the land though was of the Mughal Empire.
Royal marriages also helped in maintaining alliances. All this greatly
helped the Mughals in their administration of such a large empire.

The British too in their dominion over India followed somewhat similar
tactics. They were able to maintain their Raj and win victories because of
their greater military prowess and sophisticated technology. Their system
of dividing areas into provinces, introduction of bureaucracy through a
Civil Services body, revenue/tax collection officers, legislative and
executive councils was fundamental to maintaining supervision. Besides,
nawabs and kings were given nominal rule over their areas. Besides, the
British also followed non-intervention in religious matters and declared
English as the official language of the Raj.