Chemistry

ProductionofMaterials

Fossilfuelsprovidebothenergyandrawmaterialssuchasethylene,forthe
productionofothersubstances.
Identifytheindustrialsourceofethylenefromthecrackingofsomeofthefractionsfrom
therefiningofpetroleum.
Petroleumisanaturallyoccurring,yellowtoblack
liquid
foundin
geologicalformations
beneaththe
Earth
'ssurface,whichiscommonlyrefinedintovarioustypesof
fuels
.

Steamcrackingisanoncatalyticprocessinwhichamixtureofalkaneswithsteamis
passedthroughveryhotmetaltubes(700C1000C)andatjustaboveatmospheric
pressuretodecomposethealkanescompletelyintosmallalkenessuchasethylene,
propeneandbutene.

Catalyticcrackingistheprocessinwhichhighmolecularweightfractionsfromcrudeoil
arebrokenintolowermolecularweightsubstancesinordertoincreasetheoutputof
highdemandproducts.Thecatalystsusedforcrackingalkanesareinorganic
compoundscalledzeolites:theyarecrystallinealuminosilicates.Thereactionistypically
carriedoutat500Cintheabsenceofairandwithpressuressomewhatabove
atmospheric.

Identifythatethylene,becauseofthehighreactivityofitsdoublebond,isreadily
transformedintomanyusefulproducts.

Becauseofitsdoublebond(whichisintotalstrongerthanasinglebondbuteachbond
onitsownisweakerthanasinglebond),ethyleneismuchmorereactivethanits
singlebondcounterpartethane.Alkeneshighreactivitycanbetestedinthebromine
waterexperiment.
Alkenesreactspontaneouslywithbrominewaterduetotheirunsaturatednature.The
reactionbetweenanalkeneandbromineinvolvesthebreakingopenofthealkenes
doublebondandtheinclusionofbromineinitsstructure(anadditionreaction).First,
brominewaterformsanequilibriumwiththewater,andthentheHOBrbreaksopenthe
doublebond.

AlkaneswillonlydecolourisethebrominebrowncolourifinthepresenceofUVlight,
andwillonlyreactslowly.

Becauseofthisusefulreactivity,ethylenecanbetransformedintomanyuseful
products.Firstly,ethenecanbemixedwithsteamandpassedoveracatalystcontaining
dilutesulfuricacidtoformethanol.Ethanolisusedextensivelyasasolventinproducts
suchasperfumesandvarnishes(beingtheexcellentsolventthatitis).

EthylenecanalsobeconvertedtoVinylChloride,whichisextraordinarilyusefulinPVC
plastics,whichwillbediscussedlater.

Identifythatethyleneservesasamonomerfromwhichpolymersaremade,Identify
polyethyleneasanadditionpolymerandexplainthemeaningofthisterm,Outlinethe

stepsintheproductionofpolyethyleneasanexampleofacommerciallyandindustrially
importantpolymer.(Imonfire,threeinone!)
Themonomerethylenepolymerisestoformthepolymer,polyethylene.Thesepolymers
areessentiallylongalkanemolecules:eachmoleculecontainsfromafewhundredtoa
fewthousandmonomerunits.Itscalledeitherpolyetheneorpolyethylene,youpick.
Polyethyleneiscalledanadditionpolymer.Thismeansthatitformsbymolecules
addingtogetherwithoutthelossofanyatoms.

Intheoldergasphaseprocess,(highpressure:1000to3000timesatmospheric,high
temperature(300C)alongwithaninitiator:anorganicperoxide,acompoundcontaining
aOOgroup)areused.Theproducthassignificantchainbranching.Thismeansthat
atsomecarbonatomsonehydrogenatomisreplacedbyanalkylgroup.Consequently
thealkanechainscannotpackclosetogetherorinanorderlyway:thisiscalled
low
densitypolyethylene
(LDPE).Inthisprocesstheinitiatorisnotstrictlyacatalyst
becauseitgetsincorporatedintotheactualpolymerformedoneinitiatormoleculeper
oneottwopolymermolecules,meaningper2000or3000monomerunits.

Thesecond(newer)processusespressuresofonlyafewtimesatmosphericand
temperaturesofabout60Candusesacatalystwhichisamixtureoftitanium(III)
chlorideandatriethylaluminumcompoundsuchastriethylaluminium.ThisZieglerNatta
processasitiscalledformsunbranchedpolyethylenemoleculeswhichareabletopack
closelytogetherinanorderlyfashion.Thisproduct,called
highdensitypolyethylene
(HDPE),ismorecrystallineandhasahigherdensitythanthebranchedchainproduct.

Highdensitypolyethyleneisexactlythat,highdensity,becausetheselongchainsare
abletointertwineandalignclosely.Therearestrongerdispersionforcespullingthese
polymerstogether,andsoitishighindensityandmeltingpoint,andisahardandtough
material.Forthisreason,itcanbeusedinapplicationssuchasrubbishbinsandkitchen

utensils(whicharedesignednottoflopabout,andalsorequireahighmeltingpointso
thatyourrubbishbindoesntmeltoneday)

Lowdensitypolyethyleneisexactlythat,lowdensity,becausethechainbranchingthe
moleculesarenotabletogetsoclosetooneanother,andthecorresponding
intermolecularforcesarelower,resultinginalowdensity,lowmeltingpoint,greater
flexibilityandsoftness.Forthisreason,itcanbeusedinclingwrap(whichisdesigned
nottoberigid),andsofttoys(whicharedesignedtobesquishable).

Identifythefollowingascommerciallysignificantmonomers:vinylchloridestyrene
byboththeirsystematicandcommonnames

Polyvinylchlorideisanotherpolymer,butonethatismadeinsteadfromvinylchloride,or
chloroethene.Oneofthesmallhydrogenshasbeenreplacedwithamassivechlorine,
resultinginchainstiffening.Everythinggetsstucktogetherrealgoodbecausethese
massiveatomslockthechainstogethereffectively.Also,theCClbondsareslightly
polar,renderingthematerialincredibletough.Thisstiffeningmakesthematerial
becomemuchstifferandmuchmorerigid.TheseCClbondshoweverareweakerthan
CHbonds,renderingPVCvulnerabletoattackbyultravioletlight.Forthisreason,PVC
isoftenusedunderground,whereitissafe.PVCisalsoinsolubleinwater,duetothe
factithasmanynonpolarbonds,henceitisoftenusedindrainageandsewagepipes.

Polystyrenehasamassivephenylgrouphangingoffit(basicallyjustabenzene),and
soisthemoststiffenedofthecommonplastics.Henceitisveryhardandrigid.With
onlyCCandCHbondsitisalsoverystabletoheatandu.v.light.Withminimalchain
branchingitiswidelyusedtomaketoolhandles,CDcases.(Ethenylbenzene)
Ifyoureallywanttothough,youcanbubblegasthroughthestyrenemixtureasitis
polymerising,andaverylightweightfoamisformedwhichsolidifiesasaveryspongy
material.Thesponginessarisesfromthegasbubblesthataretrappedinsidethe
polymerisedmaterial.Itcanthenbeusedtomakefoamdrinkcups,andasabeanbag
filler.

Somescientistsresearchtheextractionofmaterialsfrombiomasstoreduceour
dependenceonfossilfuels.

Discusstheneedforalternativesourcesofthecompoundspresentlyobtainedfromthe
petrochemicalindustry.
Oilandpetroleum,whicharecurrentlythemainsourceofpetrochemicals,areactually
nonrenewableresources.Somessourcesestimatethatwithinhalfacentury,ouroil
reservescouldbedangerouslydepleted,andbeinganonrenewableresource,oilwill
onlynaturallyreplenishovermanymillennia.Forsocietytocontinuetoexistasitdoes
todaywemustfindanalternativesourceforpetrochemicals,orelsereformsociety
completely,startingwithourtransportwhichrunsonpetrochemicals,orallourplastic
productswhichderivefromethylene.

Describethestructureofcelluloseandidentifyitasanexampleofacondensation
polymerfoundasamajorcomponentofbiomass,Describethereactioninvolvedwhen
acondensationpolymerisformed,Explainwhatismeantbyacondensationpolymer.
Tounderstandcellulose,wemustfirststartwithitsmonomer,betaglucose.

Now,celluloselookslikethis

Celluloseisanaturallyoccurringcondensationpolymer.Thepolymerisationoccursby
theeliminationofwatermoleculesbetweenpairsofglucosemolecules.Biomassis
biologicalmaterial
derivedfromliving,orrecentlylivingorganisms.Inthecontextof
biomassasaresourceformakingenergy,itmostoftenreferstoplantsorplantbased
materialswhichisnotusedforfoodorfeed.Celluloseisamajorcomponentofbiomass.

Identifythatcellulosecontainsthebasiccarbonchainstructuresneededtobuild
petrochemicalsanddiscussitspotentialasarawmaterial.Processinformationfrom
secondarysourcestosummarisetheprocessesinvolvedintheindustrialproductionof
ethanolfromsugarcane
Cellulosecontainslotsofcarbon,whichisgoodbecausepetrochemicalsaremadeof
carbon.First,wemustharvestthesugarcane,andcutitintosmallpieces.Thesugar
caneiscrushedandfilteredtoobtainpuresugarcanejuice.Thefirststepisconverting
thecelluloseintoglucose.Thisisdonebyheatingasuspensionofcellulosecontaining
materialswithmoderatelyconcentratedaqueoussulfuricacidsolutionwhichbreaks
celluloseintoglucose.

Then,weneedtofermentourglucose.Bubblesofcarbondioxideareslowlygivenoff.
Yeast(E.coli)canproduceethanolcontentsuptoabout15%.Alcoholconcentrations
abovethislevelkilltheyeastandstopfurtherfermentation.

Wecandistilltheethanoltoget95%ethanol,whichiswhatweusuallyuseinlabs.
Molasses,theleftoversyrupfromsugarmilling,iswidelyused.

Oncewehaveourethanol,itisasimpletasktodehydrateitbyheatingitwith
concentratedsulfuricacidwhichactsasacatalyst:

Andfinally,wehaveourbelovedethylene!

Useavailableevidencetogatherandpresentdatafromsecondarysourcesandanalyse
progressintherecentdevelopmentanduseofanamedbiopolymer.Thisanalysis
shouldnamethespecificenzyme(s)usedororganismusedtosynthesisethematerial
andanevaluationoftheuseorpotentialuseofthepolymerproducedrelatedtoits
properties.

Onebiopolymerispoly3hydroxybutyrate.ToproducePHB,firstlywemustacquirea
lotofthemicrobe:Alcaligeneseutrophus.Acultureofmicroorganisms,suchas
Alcaligeneseutrophus,isplacedinasuitablemediumandfedappropriatenutrientsso
thatitmultipliesrapidlyandgrowsintoalargequantity.Themainnutrientrequiredis
glucose,whichisarenewableresource.Thedietoftheorganismischangedtorestrict
thesupplyofoneparticularnutrient,suchasnitrogen.Undertheseconditions,the

organismisnolongerabletoincreaseitspopulationbutinsteadbeginstomakethe
desiredpolymer,whichitstoresforlateruseasanenergysource.Theorganismcan
produceaquantityofPHBfrom30%to80%ofitsowndryweight.Theorganismis
harvestedandthepolymerseparatedout.
PHBhasquiteadifferentchemicalstructurefrompolypropylene,althoughitsphysical
andmechanicalpropertiesarequitesimilar.Polypropylene,withasmallsidegroup,has
astiffnesssomewherebetweenLDPEandHDPE,andhenceisbothtoughandflexible,
andishenceusedinapplicationssuchasinthemakingofsyntheticrubber.

Otherresources,suchasethanol,arereadilyavailablefromrenewableresources
suchasplants.

Describeandaccountforthemanyusesofethanolasasolventforpolarandnonpolar
substances.
Ethanolisusedasasolventinmanyplacessuchascosmetics,foodcolourings,and
somecleaningagents.Ethanolisagoodsolventforpolarsubstancesbecauseithas
polarbondsCOandOH,owingtooxygensincrediblyhighelectronegativity.But
becauseofitsalkylpart,theCH3CH2,whichisnonpolar,ethanoloftendissolves
nonpolarsubstancesalso.Dispersionforcesformbetweenthishydrocarbontailandthe
nonpolarsolute.

Outlinetheuseofethanolasafuelandexplainwhyitcanbecalledarenewable
resource.Assessthepotentialofethanolasanalternativefuelanddiscussthe
advantagesanddisadvantagesofitsuse.Processinformationfromsecondarysources
tosummarisetheuseofethanolasanalternativecarfuel,evaluatingthesuccessof
currentusage

Ethanolisaliquidwhichreadilyburns.Itcanbecalledarenewableresourcebecauseit
canbeobtainedfromcellulose,(throughfirstdecomposingintoglucose,andthen
fermentation)whichisarenewableresource.Wecanuse10to20percentethanolfuels
inordinarycarswithoutanyenginemodification.However,touse100%ethanol,
enginesmustbemodified.Itcanbedescribedasrenewablebecausetherawmaterials
forcreatingethanol(cellulose)isCO2andH2Ofromplants(withphotosynthesis),and
aftertheethanolhasbeenburntitreturnstoCO2andH2O.

Theadvantagesofusingethanolasafuelare:Itisarenewableresourceandsocanbe
usedpracticallyunlimitedly,asstocksofnonrenewableresourcessuchaspetroleum
dwindle.Also,itcouldpotentiallyreducegreenhousegasemissionsbecauseburning
ethanoliscarbonneutral,andalsobecauseethanolcontainsanoxygen,andthusmore
completecombustionoccurs,loweringpollutantssuchascarbonmonoxide.

Thedisadvantagesofusingethanolincludethefactthatlargeareasofagriculturalland
wouldneedtobedevotedtogrowingsuitablecropswithconsequentenvironmental
problemssuchassoilerosion,deforestation,andfertiliserrunoff.Also,after
fermentationyoumustsomehowdisposeofthelargeamountsofsmellywasteliquors
afterremovalofethanol.Also,ethanolhasamolarheatofcombustionof1300kJ/mol,
whilstoctanehasamassivemolarheatofcombustionofabout5000kJ/mol.

Federalgovernmenthassetupsubsidiesandexciseconcessionstoencouragethe
productionofethanol.SignificantquantitiesofE10petrol,whichcontains10%ethanol,
areavailableacrossthecountry.Brazilisanexampleofacountrywhohashigh
productionofethanolfromsugarcane,fuelsinBrazilareataboutE20.Thisis
successfulalsobecauseitprovidesmanylocaljobs.

IdentifytheIUPACnomenclatureforstraightchainedalkanolsfromC1toC8.Identify
datasources,chooseresourcesandperformafirsthandinvestigationtodetermineand
compareheatsofcombustionofatleastthreeliquidalkanolspergramandpermole
Methane,ethane,propane,butane,pentane,hexane,heptane,octane.Bytheway,
fatteralkaneshavehighermolarheatsofcombustion,becausebiggermoleculesmeans
morebondsformed,andthereforemoreenergyisreleased.

Oxidationreductionreactionsareincreasinglyimportantasasourceofenergy.

Explainthedisplacementofmetalsfromsolutionintermsoftransferofelectrons.
Identifytherelationshipbetweendisplacementofmetalionsinsolutionbyothermetals
totherelativeactivityofmetals.Accountforchangesintheoxidationstateofspeciesin
termsoftheirlossorgainofelectrons.Describeandexplaingalvaniccellsintermsof
oxidation/reductionreactions.Outlinetheconstructionofgalvaniccellsandtracethe
directionofelectronflow.Definethetermsanode,cathode,electrodeandelectrolyteto
describegalvaniccells.Performafirsthandinvestigationtoidentifytheconditions
underwhichagalvaniccellisproduced
Adisplacementreactionissimplyareactioninwhichametalconvertstheionof
anothermetaltotheneutralatom.Oxidationisthelossofelectrons,andReductionis
thegainofelectrons.(OILRIG).Youcansplitadisplacementreactionintotwohalf
reactions,anoxidationhalfreactionandareductionhalfreaction.IfmetalAdisplaces
metalB,metalAdonateselectronstometalB,andishencemorereactivethanmetal
B.Themorereactiveametalis,themorelikelyitistoloseanelectrontobecomea
positiveion.Onthestandardpotentialsheet,themostreactivemetalsareplacedatthe
top.Ifanequationonthestandardpotentialsheethappensinreverse,simplyflipthe
signonthevoltage.Theoxidationstateoftheelementisthechargeontheion.The
oxidationstateofanelementpresentinitsstableelementalstateiszero,regardlessof
theformulaofthemoleculeoftheelement.Anincreaseintheoxidationstate

correspondstoalossofelectronsandsoisoxidation.Adecreaseinoxidationstate
correspondstoagainofelectronsandsoisreduction.

Agalvaniccellorvoltaiccellisadeviceinwhichachemicalreactionoccursinsucha
waythatitgenerateselectricity.Thesolutioniscalledtheelectrolyteandthebarsare
calledelectrodes,anelectrolyteisasubstancewhichinsolutionormoltenconducts
electricity.Abatteryissimplylotsofcellsputtogether.

Intheabovegalvaniccell,theZincisdisplacingthecopper,asitisgivingupelectrons
tothecopper.Ineffect,thezincisdissolving,andthecopperissolidifyingontothebar.
Inthissense,thelefthandsolutionandtherighthandbardontactuallyMEANanything
(i.e.aslongastheyarenotreactivetheycouldtechnicallybeanything).Asaltbridgeis
oftenusedsothatelectricalneutralitycanbepreserved,suchasPotassiumNitrateor
KNO3.(AnOxandaRedCat,henceoxidationoccursattheanodeandreduction
occursatthecathode).

Gatherandpresentinformationonthestructureandchemistryofadrycellandevaluate
itincomparisontooneofthefollowing:buttoncellintermsof:chemistrycostand
practicalityimpactonsocietyenvironmentalimpact.
DryCells


Attheanode,whichisthezinccontainer,thehalfreactionis:

Atthecathode,whichisthegraphiterod,thereductionhalfreactionis:

Manganeseishencereducedfromanoxidationstateof+4to+3,andZincisoxidized
fromanoxidationstateof+0toanoxidationstateof+2.
Thiscellisrelativelycheap,andwasthefirstcommercialbattery,andbeingrobustand
easytostoreanduse,isusedinmanyapplicationssuchastorchesandportable
radios.Itisalsocausesminimalenvironmentalproblems,themanganese(III)isreadily
oxidisedtostableinsolublemanganese(IV)

ButtonCells
Thesilveroxidecellisabuttoncellmeaningitissmallandlooksroughlylikeabutton.


Theanodereactionoccursatthegreen:

Thecathodereactionoccursatthepink:

Additionofbothreactionsyieldstheoverallreaction:

Hence,Zincisonceagainoxidizedfrom+0to+2,andthistimeAgisreducedfrom+1
to+0.Silverisanexpensivemetal,makingthecellreasonablyexpensive.Thecellis
verysmallandlightandwitharelativelylonglife,andthuscanbeusedinplacessuch
aswatches.Nontoxicnaturehasallowedforuseinsidethebody.Havetobe
discarded/recycledafteroneuse.KOHiscausticandZnandAgareheavymetals,
whicharetoxicandcanaccumulateinthefoodchain.

Nuclearchemistryprovidesarangeofmaterials

Distinguishbetweenstableandradioactiveisotopesanddescribetheconditionsunder
whichanucleusisunstable.


Describehowtransuranicelementsareproduced
Onemethodofformingtransuranicelementsistobombardthemwithneutronswithina
nuclearreactor.

Heaviertransuranicelementsaremadebybombardingheavynucleiwithhighspeed
positiveparticlessuchasheliumorcarbonnucleiforexamplecaliforniumwasmadeby
bombardinguranium238withcarbon.Thesehighspeedpositiveparticlesareproduced
inmachinescalledlinearacceleratorsandcyclotrons.

Describehowcommercialradioisotopesareproduced,identifyoneuseofanamed
radioisotope:inindustryinmedicine,describethewayinwhichtheabovenamed
industrialandmedicalradioisotopesareusedandexplaintheiruseintermsoftheir
properties.
Technetium99miswidelyusedinmedicinefordiagnosis.Itshalflifeisonly6hours.
Consequentlyithastobeproducedatthehospitalneedingitratherthantransported
fromanuclearreactor.Technetium99misformedbytheradioactivedecayof
molybdenum,99whichisafissionproductofuranium235.Molybdenum99hasa
halflifeof66hours:thisislongenoughforittobetransportedfromtheLucasHeights
reactor(southofSydney)toallmajorhospitalsinAustralia.
Molybdenum99ispreparedbyplacingspecialpelletsofUO2inthereactorcorefor
aboutaweek.TheUO2containsabout2%235U,someofthisundergoesfissionto
99Mo.Thismolybdenumisextracted,absorbedontoaluminaandpackagedintosmall
glasstubesfordespatchtohospitals.99Modecaysto99mTccontinuously.

Boythatscomplicated.Becauseitsshorthalflifeof6hours,technetium99mcanbe
safelyusedinmedicaldiagnosisasitwillsoondecay,andcauseminimaldamageto
thepatient.Ifinjectedintotheblood,itsdistributionthroughoutthebodycanbe
measuredwithascintillationcounterandusedtodetectbloodclots,constrictionsand
othercirculationdisorders.Itemitsgammaradiation.

Americium241isaradioisotopecommonlyusedinindustry.


Americium241hasahalflifeof432years,whichmeansitcanbeusedinindustrial
applicationswithouthavingtoconstantlyreplaceit.Itisoftenusedinsmokealarms.
Thealphaparticlesioniseair,theionsarecollectedbyanelectrodeandtheresulting
electricalcurrentmeasured.Whensmoke(smallsolidparticles)ispresentintheair,it
preventsionsreachingtheelectrodecausingareductionintheelectricalcurrentwhich
triggersanalarm.

Processinformationfromsecondarysourcestodescriberecentdiscoveriesofelements
Element117hasinrecentyearsbeenproducedinlaboratories,howeveritsshortlifeis
incrediblyshort(50milliseconds),asitissuchalargeatomthatitalmostimmediately
decays.TheyproducedtheUnunseptiumbyfusingaberkelium(97)andacalcium(20)
inasuperconductivesynchrotron,inajointeffortbetweenAmericaandRussia.

Useavailableevidencetoanalysebenefitsandproblemsassociatedwiththeuseof
radioactiveisotopesinidentifiedindustriesandmedicine
Benefitsformedicineincludethefactthatradioisotopeshaveopenedupawiderange
ofnoninvasivediagnosticproceduresthatwouldotherwisebeimpossible(onorgans
suchasheart,brain,kidney,thyroid),andhaveintroducedradiationtherapyformany
typesofcancers.Benefitsforindustryincludetheabilitytomakemonitoringequipments
thatismoresensitiveandprecise,toperformtaskssuchassterilisationofmedical
suppliesmoreefficientandreliable,anddothingsthatwouldbeotherwiseimpossible,
suchasexaminebuildingsandmachineryforweldandstructuralfaults.

Themainproblemisthatradiationisharmfultopeopleandallotherlifeforms.Theycan
causetissuedamage,cancer,andgeneticdamage.Tobesafe,radioactivematerials
mustbestoredinwellshieldedcontainers,andpeoplemustwearappropriatesafety
clothingsuchasleadlinedaprons.

Identifyinstrumentsandprocessesthatcanbeusedtodetectradiation
AWilsonCloudChamberisaninstrumentthatcontainsasupersaturatedvapourof
alcohol.Whenradiationpassesthroughit,itionisessomeoftheairtheionsformedact
asnucleiuponwhichdropletsofliquidform.Inthiswaythepathoftheradiationismade
visible.Alphaparticlesformstraightdensetracksbetaparticlesformlessdense
zigzagtracks.Gammaraysdonotproducemuchastheydonotionizeverymany
atoms.

AgeigerMullercounterisadevicethatisparticularlygoodatmeasuringbetaparticles.
Thebetarayentersthroughawindowandhitsagasmolecule(generallyargon)and
ionisesitbyknockinganelectronoutofit.Thehighvoltageacceleratesthiselectron
towardsthecentralelectrodeandasitgainspeeditionisesmoreargonatomsinits
path,sothatthereisacascadeofelectronsreachingthatelectrode.Thisconstitutesan
electricalpulsethatisamplifiedandmeasured.