Prepared by:

Introduction

Volatile oils are the odorous principles present in various

parts of the plant and are volatile in nature.
As they evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary
temperatures, they are also called as volatile oil or
ethereal oils.
They represent essence or active constituent of plant,
hence they are also known as essential oils.
They differ entirely in both chemical and physical
properties from fixed oils.

Fixed oil-Volatile oil

Fixed oil

Volatile oil

Source

99% obtained form seeds

Obtained from fruits, barks,

leaf, roots

Property

Do not evaporate at room Evaporate at room temperature

temperature

Property

Produce stain on paper

Do not produce stain on paper

Property

Can be saponified

can not be saponified

Uses

Used as a source of energy Used

as
flavoring
and
and are reserved food perfuming agents, carminative,
material
expectorants etc.

Uses

Physiologically
they
are They act as an antiseptic,
emolients and demulcents
anaesthetic,
disinfectants,
sedative, counter-irritant etc.

Examples

Castor oil, cottonseed oil

Turpentine oil, eucalyptus oil

Occurrence of Volatile oils

They are secreted in special sutures such as duct or

vittae, oil cell, schizogenous or lysigenous glands,
trichomes etc.
They are commonly found in the species of labiatae,
rutaceae, piperaceae, zingiberaceae, umbeliferae,
myraceae and lauraceae.
Within plant it is present in different organs viz.
Petals : Rose
Bark and leaves : Cinnamon
Rhizome : Ginger
Seeds: Cardamom, Nutmeg

Occurrence of Volatile oils

Wood: Sandalwood
Buds: Clove
Fruit peel and flowers : Orange
Fruits: Fennel, coriander
Entire plant : Conifers
Volatile oils are frequently found in the plant associated
with other substances such as gums and resins i.e. oleoresins and oleo-gum-resins.

Occurrence of Volatile oils

Depending on the plant family, volatile oils may occur in

specialized secretory structures,

Structure

Family

Example

Glandular hairs

Labiateae and
Compositae

mentha oil, lavender oil

Modified parenchyma or Lauraceae and Piperaceae Black pepper

oil cells
Oil tubes (ducts) or
Vittae

Umbelliferae

Fennel, coriander

Internal lysigenous or
schizogenous glands

Pinaceae or Rutaceae

Clove, Eucalyptus,
Gossipium

Physical properties of volatile oils

Volatile oils possesses characteristic odour. When fresh,

volatile oils are colourless but on aging they get oxidized

and resinify and thereby darker in color.
Volatile oils are soluble in organic solvents like ether,
alcohol, chloroform etc. therefore they are used in
preparation of aromatic tincture. and practically insoluble
in water.
They dissolve 1 in 200 parts of water (nearly insoluble)
however it is sufficient to impart characteristic taste and
smell to the water and therefore it is used in preparations
of aromatic waters in pharmacy.

Physical properties of volatile oils

They are usually lighter than water and their specific

gravity is less than one.
However, some volatile oils, like clove oil, have specific
gravity more than one.
They possess characteristic colors and they have high
refractive indices.
Generally they are optically active and this property is used
for their evaluation. Eg. Synthetic menthol is optically

inactive or racemic whereas natural menthol is levorotatory and natural camphor is dextrorotatory.

Functions and uses of volatile oils

Within the plant body the function of volatile oil is to attract

insects (helping pollination) or repel them (protecting the
plant).
Flavouring (Oil of Lemon)
Perfumery (Oil of Rose)
Starting materials to synthesize other compounds (Oil of
Turpentine)
Anti-septic - due to high phenols (Oil of Thyme). Also as a
preservative (oils interfere with bacterial respiration)
Anti-spasmodic (Ginger, Lemon balm, Rosemary,
Peppermint, Chamomile, Fennel, Caraway)
Insecticide, Carminative, Antinflammatory

Functions and uses of volatile oils

Local stimulant,
Expectorant,
Appetite stimulant,
Sedative,
Disinfectant,
Circulation stimulant,
Diuretic,
Anthelmintic,
Deodorant,
Insect repellent
Counter irritants in
rheumatism

inflammation,

swelling

and

Chemical Composition

Volatile oils are mixtures of terpene hydrocarbons and

oxygenated derivatives

Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetate mevalonate

pathway)
In the formation of terpene hydrocarbons, isoprene units
(C5H8) are linked together in head to tail fashion.

Isoprene units are 5-carbon unit compounds with 2 double

bonds
Terpene hydrocarbons are usually aliphatic in nature while
their oxygenated derivatives are aromatic in nature.
Terpene hydrocarbons are classified based on the number of
isoprene units incorporated in its formation.

Chemical Composition

Chemical Composition

Classification of volatile oils

Volatile oils with terpene hydrocarbons

Eg. Turpentine oil
Volatile oils with oxygenated derivatives
Alcohol V.O. - Coriander, Geranium, Palmarosa
Aldehyde V.O. - Cinnanmon bark, Cassia, lemon,
Lemongrass
Ketone V.O. - Spearmint, Caraway, Dill, Sage, Wormwood
Phenol V.O. - Clove, Cinnamon leaf, Ajowan
Phenolic ether V.O. - Anise, Fennel, Eucalyptus,
Camphor
Ester V.O. - Valerian, Garlic, Gaultheria
Peroxide V.O. Chenopodium, Cardamom, Eucalyptus

Chemical tests for volatile oils

To the thin section of the drug, add alcoholic solution of

sudan red III. Red colour obtained by globules indicate

the presence of volatile oil.

To the thin section of the drug, add a drop of tincture

alkane. Red colour indicates the presence of volatile oil.

Isolation of volatile oils

Volatile oils can be separated from crude drugs by 3 methods

Distillation method
A.
Water distillation
B.
Water-steam distillation
C.
Direct steam distillation
Ecuelle method
Enfleurage method

Water distillation

The material is completely immersed in water, which is

boiled by applying heat by direct fire, steam jacket.

The main characteristic of this process is that there is

direct contact between boiling water and plant material.

Volatile oil present in crude drug gets evaporated along

with steam produced by boiling water and is carried

upwards into a condenser where oil vapors and steam
condense to yield mixture of oil and water.

Oil-water condensate is collected in graduated tub .

Water distillation

Advantages

Cheap, suitable for field operation and easy to construct.

Since the material is in direct contact with water, it

permits processing of fine powder which otherwise
forms lumps on exposure to direct steam.

Steam cannot penetrate the lumps decreasing the yield

of volatile oil.

Disadvantages

Complete extraction of material is not possible because

of poor penetration power of water as a solvent.

Certain esters of volatile oils partly hydrolyze and
aldehydes tend to polymerise because of continuous
boiling.
Water soluble oil constituents as well as high boiling
constituents cannot be completely vaporized as they
require large quantity of steam and is time consuming
and economically infeasible.

Water and steam distillation method

This method is employed for

fresh or dried drug which is
thermolabile in nature.
In this method the plant
material is placed on a
perforated grid or screen and

this screen is inserted in a

distillation still at some distance
from the bottom filled with
water.

Water and steam distillation method

Level of the screen is above the level of water.

The water in the still is heated by external heat source.
Low pressure steam rises and passes through the plant
material and carries with it the vapors of volatile oil.
The vapors on condensation are collected in a suitable
glass jar from where oil and water are separated.

Advantages

The equipment is suitable for field operation since it

requires less fuel, less time and yields more volatile oil.

As the material is not boiled directly with water, chances

of decomposition are less.

Disadvantages

Lump formation of powdered material may take place

decreasing the yield of volatile oil.

Not suitable for high boiling constituents because of low

pressure of rising steam and time consuming.

Water soluble constituents of oil get collected in the

water below the screen. On its decomposition, it imparts

objectionable odour to the oil which is being distilled

out.

Direct steam distillation

This method is applicable to fresh plant drugs like

peppermint and spearmint, immediately after collection.

Fresh plant drug is cut and is placed on a perforated

basket inserted into the metal distillation tank.

At the bottom of the tank steam lines are attached.

High pressure steam passing through the steam lines

forces itself thr0ugh the fresh herbs and carries the oil
droplets along with it to the condenser attached at the top.

Direct steam distillation

Advantages

This process is superior to other methods in regard to

cost, rate of distillation and capacity of production.

Disadvantages

Due to high pressure steam, certain components of

volatile oil hydrolyses/decompose.

Ecuelle method

These method is employed when the

volatile oil content is very low and

when volatile oil may get decomposed
in presence of steam or heat.
Eg. Volatile oil from the peels of citrus
fruits.
There is a bowl, the inner surface of
which is lined by sharp needles.
The needles are long enough to
penetrate the volatile oil glands present
in the pericarp of citrus fruit peels.

Ecuelle method

When the bowl is rotated at high speed, the needles

puncture volatile oil glands present in the epidermis of
citrus peels.
Volatile oil from the glands is collected in the container
at the base of rotating bowl.
The residual volatile oil of peels is collected by washing
them with fine spray of water.
The oil-water
mixture is then separated by
centrifugation.

Enfluerage method

This method is used to isolate volatile oils from floral

parts.
Glass plates are fixed on wooden frames.
They are coated with fat/wax which is inert, bland and
odourless.
Fresh flowers are placed on this layer and another glass
plate coated with fat on both sides is mounted on this
plate.
Likewise glass plates are staked one above the other with
layer of flowers between them, creating air tight
compartments.

Enfluerage method

Continue..

Due to pressure, volatile oil exudes from the floral parts

and is absorbed by fats.
Flowers are removed when exhausted and again fresh
flowers are placed between them.
The coated fat which is laden with volatile oil is then
scrapped off and shaken with alcohol.
Volatile oil passes into alcohol and is collected by
removing the solvent.
The fat is sometimes heated and the molted fat is shaken
with alcohol to separate volatile oil.

Pneumatic method

This process is similar in principle to the enfluerage

method and involves the passage of a current of warm
air through the flowers.
The air laden with suspended volatile oil is then passed
through melted fat in which the volatile is dissolved and
absorbed.

Maceration method

The flowers are gently heated in melted fat (lard or fixed

oil) being incorporated and rotated in the fluid until
exhausted, then they are strained out, squeezed and the
exuded fluid is returned to the fat and so on until a
special concentration is reached.
The volatile oil containing fat is allowed to cool and the
volatile oil is obtained by 3 successive extractions with
alcohol.
The volatile oil can be obtained in pure form by recovery
of alcohol.

DRUGS CONTAINING VOLATILE OIL

Mentha
Cinnamon
Lemon peel
Caraway
Clove
Nutmeg
Chenopodium
Valerian

Coriander
Cassia
Lemon grass
Dill
Fennel
Eucalyptus
Cardamom
Sandal wood

UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS

Medicinal fruits derived from plants of the family

umbelliferae are one type, known as Cremocarp.

It is a variety of schizocarp or splitting fruit.

The cremocarp consists of two carpel, each containing

one seed, and is derived from an inferior ovary.

UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS

Umbelliferous fruits are usually classified according to the

character of the seed.

If the seed is flat on the inner / ventral surface is termed as

orthospermous.

E.g. Fennel

If it is on longitudinal groove on ventral surface is termed as

campylospermous.

E.g. Hemlock

If it is concave on the ventral surface is termed as

caelospermous. E.g. Coriander.

UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS

Orthospermous fruits.

Mericarp with six vittae & 5 primary ridges.

8 10 mm long 7-2mm wide greenish brown e.g. fennel

4 -6 mm long & 1 mm wide dark brown with yellowish ribs

e.g. Caraway.

2 mm long and 1 mm wide pale greyish brown. E.g. Ajown

UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS

Mericarp with six vittae & Five 1 ridge with the lateral

ribs being extended as wings.

Chocolate brown with pale brown ridges. E.g. Dill

Brown with yellow ridges. E.g. Indian Dill

Mericarp with Five 1 ridge & four 2 ridge bearing

emergence & trichomes. E.g. Cummin

Mericarp with Five 1 ridge & four 2 ridge bearing no

emergence & no trichomes. E.g. Visnaga

Mericarp with six - twelve vittae & Five 1 ridge. E.g.

Celery

Mericarp with thiry to fourty vittae on dorsal surface,

epidermis with short , stiff trichomes.e.g. Anise.

Volatile oil of Mentha

Synonym : Peppermint
Biological source: the drug
consists of volatile oil obtained by
steam
distillation
of
fresh
flowering plants of Mentha
piperita Linn.

It yields not less than 5% of

methyl acetate and not more than
60% of total menthol at least 1532% of ketone-menthone.
Family: Labiateae
G.S.: It grows wild in Europe,
while cultivated in Japan, France,
Italy, U.S.A., India.

Varieties
1)

Mentha viridis (M. Spicata), it is known as Spearmint and contain

carvone. It is useful in India as Phudina.

2)

Mentha pulegium contain pulegone.

3)

M. piperita is, as implied by the written botanical name, a hybrid

species from the two parents M. Spicata (viridis) ( 2n = 36 or,18) and
M. aquatica (2n= 96).

4)

M. viridis hybrid of M. longifolia and M. rotundifolia.

5)

Thus Mentha piperita is triple hybride

6)

The European and American oil appears to be derived to a large extent

from the two varieties M. piperita var. Vulgaris Sole ('Black mint' )
and M. piperita var. Officinalis Sole ('White mint' ).

Peppermint
Mentha piperita

Spearmint
Mentha spicata

M. piperita is a hybrid species from M. Spicata is a hybrid between M.

the two parents, M. spicata and M. rotundifolia and M. longifolia
aquatica.
Leaf: Opposite decussate, shortly Leaf: Opposite with acute or acuminate
petiolate, serrate margin with acute apex, serrate margin, Green color in
apex.
upper and lower surface
Stem: square
black mint -dark purple.
White mint- much more green.

Stem: square but bright green colored

free from purple color.

Contains 50-78% of free menthol

Menthol absent

Peppermint

Spearmint

Morphological description

Size: 40-70 cm high

perennial,
erect,
purpulish green herb.

Stem: Square

Flowers: Purplish.

Corolla: Campanulate.

Odour: Strong, aromatic

Morphological description
Leaf

Apex: acute

Margin: serrate

Opposite & decussate

Short petiole

Glabrous

Shape: Ovate, broad

Size: 3 8 cm long

3 8 cm long

Ovate, broad

Cultivation and collection

Black varieties of Mentha piperita is usually chosen for

commercial cultivation because of its greater power of
resistance to climatic conditions.
In autumn (October) sometimes even in may, the plants
are sown using suckers in the fields 30 cm apart.

Soil needed is well drained, fertile, sandy-loam.

Farmyard manure, nitrates and phosphates are used for
better growth.
Harvesting is done before the flowers open for 3 successive
years.

Continue

Harvested crop is cut down and left for a day to partially

dry in the sun.

It is then rolled up in mats and is carried to the stills

where the volatile oil extracted by steam distillation.

Chemical constituents

Peppermint oil contains chiefly menthol to the extent of

50-60% in free, as well as, in the form of esters,
depending upon variety (like American, Japanese,
Indian).
American peppermint oil contains 78% menthol while
Japanese oil contains 70-90%.
Other important constituents of peppermint oil are
menthone, menthofuran, jasmone, menthyl isovalerate,
menthyl acetate and several other terpene derivatives.
The other terpenes include l-limonene, cineole, pinene,
camphene, etc.

Chemical constituents

Jasmone and esters of menthol are responsible for

aromatic smell, while menthofuran causes resinification
and develops dirty smell.
Mentha oil is obtained by steam distillation from
Mentha arvensis var-piperascents (Japasnese mint).
It contains about 80% l-menthol. It also cultivated in
Japan, Brazil and California.

Menthol

Menthone

Description of oil
Color - Colourless to yellow
Odour - Characteristic and pleasant
Taste Pungent followed by cooling sensation
Solubility
It is soluble in 70% alcohol, ether and chloroform and
insoluble in water.

Microscopy of Mentha piperita

All variety of peppermint and spearmint shows

identical microscopical characters.
Lamina: dorsiventral with a single row of palisade cells
in the upper epidermis region and 3-4 layers of spongy
parenchyma
Trichomes: glandular trichomes with unicellular stalk
and 8 celled glandular head forming a shallow cup,
glandular sessile with 6 to 8 celled spherical head.
Stomata: dicytic (caryophyllaceous)

Microscopy of leaf
Upper epidermis

Collenchyma

Xylem
Phloem
Spongy parenchyma

Lower epidermis

Microscopy of leaf
Multicellular Glandular trichome

Single layer of palisade cells

Glandular trichome
(unicellular head &
unicellular stalk)

Surface view of the leaf by ultra high microscope

Uniseriate multicellular covering trichome
Glandular trichome
(unicellular head &
unicellular stalk)

Glandular trichome
(multicellular head &
unicellular stalk)

Uses

As
carminative,
stimulant,
counter irritant and antiseptic
As flavouring agent in chewing
gums, jelly, perfumery and
cosmetics
Mentha oil and menthol have
calcium
channel
blocking
activity causing spasmolytic and
smooth muscle relaxant effects,
and hence useful in irritable
bowel syndrome.

Substitutes and adulterants

Several species of mentha are known to contain oil.
Many a time, these oils are de-mentholized and used as
adulterants to the drug.
Storage
Peppermint oil should be stored in well-filled and air
tight containers protected from light and in cool place.
It becomes darken and viscous on storage
If cooled, separation of menthol crystals occurs
Other species of Mentha such as M. longifolis, M.
rotundifolia and M. spicata also yield volatile oils for
flavouring purpose.

Coriander

Synonyms:
Fructus
Coriandri, Dhaniya, Dhana,
Coriander Fruits, Kazbara
B.S.: Coriander consists of
dried fruits of Coriandrum
sativum Linn.
Family: Umbeliferae
G. S: Indigenous to Italy,
cultivated
in
Holland,
Central & Eastern Europe,
Mediterranean, China, India
& Bagladesh.

Macroscopical features

Fruit is cremocarp made up of

two mericarps.
Cremocarp is crowned by 5 small
sepals and a stylopod.
Each mericarp has 5 wavy
primary ridges and 4 straight
secondary ridges.

Size: 3 4 mm in diameter

Colour: Brownishyellow

Seed: Coelospermous

Stylopod
1 ridges
2ridges

Pedicel

Continue..

The fruit has 2 vittae on the ventral surface

Odour and taste: spicy, aromatic and characteristic

Unripe fruit has a strong disagreeable odour.

Cultivation and collection

Seeds are sown in march or autumn in calcareous loamy soil in

rows about 50 cm apart.
Harvesting is done in early mornings in the month of august to
avoid loss of fruit.

Umbels are dried in sun for 2 days.

Separated fruits are further dried in warm air.

During drying process, the fruit loose their objectionable foetid

odour and acquire agreeable odour and sweet taste.

Microscopic characters

The epidermis of the pericarp is made up polygonal tubular

cells with stomata.
Several epidermal cells contain prisms of calcium oxalate.
Mesocarp consist of inner and outer layer of parenchyma with a
layer of sclerenchyma in between them.

Inner epidermis of pericarp consists of parquetry cells.

Mesocarp shows 2 vittae at the ventral side and 5 vascular
bundles at the dorsal side.
Fixed oil globules are present in the endosperm, while volatile
oil in the vittae.
Aleurone grains are present in polygonal thick walled cellulose
parenchyma of endosperm.

Microscopical features
Endosperm

Sclerenchymatous layer
Vittae

Epicarp

Chemical constituents

0.5-1.0% volatile oil of that 90% is the alcohol d-linalool

(coriandrol).
13% fixed oil, 20% proteins
Also contain coriandryl acetate, and small quantities of Lborneol, geraniol, pinene, cymene.
Recently, decanal and a new compound trans-tridecene(2)-al-(1) have been isolated, trans-tridecene-(2)-al-(1)
(tridecenal) is responsible for bug like smell of green plant
In some Indian samples thymol has also been found
Coriander leaves are rich in vitamin A content.
During storage, the volatile oil composition alters
considerably.

Chemical constituents

Limonene

Linalool

- Pinene

- Pinene

Uses

The fruits, as well as,

volatile oil, are used as
an
aromatic,
carminative, stimulant
and flavouring agent.
Coriander oil is used
along with purgative to
prevent gripping.
It is an ingredient of
compound
spirit
of
orange
and
cascara
elixir.

Storage:
Coriander fruits are thoroughly dried and stored
in well closed containers as they are highly
prone to insects.
Substitutes:
It is substituted by Bombay Coriander fruits,
which contain less volatile oil and are
ellipsoidal, 5-8 mm long, 3-4.5 mm wide.

Cinnamon bark

Synonyms:
Ceylon
cinnamon, Kalmin-Dalchini,
Ceylon taj, Cortex cinnamonni
B.S.: It consists of dried inner
bark of the coppiced trees of
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Nees. having not less than
0.5% of volatile oil.
Family: Lauraceae
G.S.: Cultivated in Sri Lanka,
Java, Sumatra, South India,
Seychelles,
Madagascar,
Martinique, Cayenne, Jamaica
& Brazil.

Macroscopic characters

Shape: Found in the form of

compound quills
Size: Upto 1 m in length, 6-10
mm diameter, 0.5 mm thick
Taste:
Aromatic,
sweet
followed by warm sensation
Fracture: Splintery, short
Odour: Fragrant

Cultivation and collection

Cinnamon is propagated by seed.

Altitude upto 500 meter, damp climate and sandy soil with
plenty of humus, and 200-250 cm annual rainfall is suitable
for cultivation.
The seeds are sown in well prepared nursery beds at a
distance of 10 cm in June and July.
It takes 20 days for germination of seeds.
Seedlings are provided with shades and are allowed grow
for about 10-12 months.

Transplantation is done October/November or in rainy

season by keeping distance of 2 meter in between two
plants.

Continue..

Fertilizers are applied in two equal doses, first in monsoon and

second in october-november to encourage the growth of side
shoots.
Trees are coppiced to induce the formation of shoots.
The trees are allowed to grow further unless they turn to uniform
brown by formation of cork.
Harvesting is done in rainy season when it is easy to peel off the
bark from shoots.
The pieces of barks are made into bundles and wrapped in coir
matting for about a day.
Fermentation results in loosening of the outer cork and cortex,
which is then removed by scrapping with curved brass knives.

Continue..

During drying, the bark contracts and gets converted into quill.
The smaller quills are inserted into larger quills to form
compound quills.
The drug is dried in shade over the mats.
The quills are collected, packed into bundles of different grades
and sold.
Small pieces and debris produced during the handlings of the
quills are known as quilling and feathering.
These are also used for manufacture of cinnamon oil.

1 hectare plantation of cinnamon, on an average, produces 200300 kg bark.

Microscopic characters

Being an inner bark, the cork and primary cortex are

absent.
Rarely, patches of primary cortex may be present.
Sclerenchymatous pericycle is prominent.
The stelar part shows phloem, phloem fibers, biseriate
medullary rays and secretory cavities containing volatile
oil and mucilage.
Phloem fibers are lignified, slender, either isolated or in
small group arranged tangentially.
Starch grains in cortical parenchyma and medullary rays
and calcium oxalate crystals in parenchymatous cells are
also present.

Microscopic characters

Chemical constituents

0.5 to 1.4% of volatile oil, 1.2% of

tannins, mucilage, calcium oxalate,
starch and a sweet substance known as
mannitol.
The volatile oil is the active constituent
of the drug. It is light yellow in colour
and changes to red on storage.
Cinnamon oil contains 50-75% of
cinnamic aldehyde, 5-10% eugenol,
benzaldehyde, and other terpenes like
phellandrene,
pinene,
cymene,
caryophyllene,etc.

Cinnamic aldehyde

Eugenol

Chemical test

On addition of a drop of ferric chloride solution to a

drop of volatile oil, a pale green colour is produced.
With ferric chloride, cinnamic aldehyde gives brown
colour and eugenol gives blue colour, resulting in the
formation of pale green colour.
In cassia oil, brown colour is obtained as it contains only
cinnamic aldehyde.
Put 2 drops of chloroform extracts or of volatile oil on a
slide + 2 drops of 10% aqueous solution of
phenylhydrazin hydrochloride and cover with cover slip
small rod shaped crystals of phenylhydrazone of
cinnamic aldehyde

Uses

Bark is used as a carminative,

stomachic and mild astringent.

It is also used as flavouring agent,

stimulant,

an

aromatic,

and

antiseptic.

Commercially, it is used as a spice

and also in the preparation of
candy, dentrifices and perfumes.

Cassia

Synonym:
Chinese
cinnamon, Cassia bark,
Taj (Guj.), Tvak (Sans.)
B.S.: It consists of dried
bark of Cinnamomium
cassia Blume.
Family: Lauraceae
G.S.: China, Calcutta,
Saigon

Macroscopic characters

Colour: dirty brown

Odour: characteristic, sweet,
aromatic
Taste: slightly sweet, aromatic
Shape: single quills
Fracture: short granular on
outer part, occasional greyish
patches of cork.
Size: Upto 40 cm in length, 1-2
cm in width, 1-3 mm thick

Microscopic characters

Cork: consists of thick walled and thin walled alternate

layers of polygonal tubular cells, Few cells of cork are
lignified.
Phellogen is followed by scattered sclereides in cortical
tissues.

Pericycle is made up of continuous band of stone cells.

Oil glands, mucilage cells and bast fibres are located in the
phloem parenchyma.
Medullary rays are multiseriate in pericyclic region, while
very narrow towards centre.
Abundant starch grains and acicular crystals of calcium
oxalate are also present.

Microscopic characters

Chemical composition

Contains 12% of Volatile oil and is known as cassia oil,

which contains 75 90% of Cinnamic aldehyde.
10% mucilage, Starch, Phlobatannin, Epicatechin,
Caryophyllene and calcium oxalate also present.
Eugenol is absent.

Cassia bark also contain coumarin not found in cinnamon

bark.
Chemical test
Cassia oil shows bright greenish blue fluorescence due to
coumarins on addition of alkali which is not seen in
cinnamon oil.

Uses

Aromatic,

Antiseptic,

Mild astringent,

Stomachic,

Flavouring agent

Carminative.

Allied drugs

Saigon cinnamon: It consists of bark of Cassia loureirii. It

is greyish brown with single quills of about 15-30 cm length
and unpeeled. Taste is sweeter and odour stronger than
Ceylon cinnamon bark.
Java or Fagot or Batavia cinnamon: It is derived from
Cassia burmanii. It is peeled and found in the form of double
quills. It can be distinguished by tabular crystals of calcium
oxalate which are not found in other cinnamon bark.
Cayenne cinnamon: This plants are cultivated in several
other countries like West Indies, Brazil. This bark is collected
from older branches and is inferior to the bark obtained from
Ceylon.

Difference between Ceylon and Chinese cinnamon

Chinese cinnamon (cassia) Ceylon cinnamon(cinnamon)
Cinnamonium cassia

Cinnamonum zeylenicum

Eugenol is absent

Eugenol is present

Coumarin is present

Coumarin is absent

Single quill

Double quill

Cork is well developed

Cork is absent

Dirty in colour

Copper red in colour

With vanillin HCl and alcohol,

it gives crimson red colour

With vanillin HCl and alcohol,

no crimson red color.

Lemon peel

Synonym:
limonis.

Cortex

B.S.: It consists of fresh

or dried outer part of
pericarp (rind) of Citrus
limonia L.
Family: Rutaceae
G.S.: Native of India,
also cultivated in Spain,
Califormia, Australia and
Florida.

Collection

The plant is a small evergreen tree, about 4 meters in

height.
Fruits are collected before they are completely ripe and
when their colour changes from green to yellow from
October to January and are exported.
Fresh lemon peel is separated just before use and it
should contain as little as possible of inner white pithy
part called zest.
It is yellow in colour and its outer surface is smooth.
Dried lemon peel is separated by a sharp knife in spiral
pieces and dried.

Macroscopic characters

Colour: fresh lemon peel: outer

surface is bright green yellow,
internally white
Dried peels: outer surface is
yellow and inner surface pithy
white
Odour: strong, aromatic
Taste: aromatic, bitter
Size: 2 cm or more in length, 1.5
cm in width and 2-3 mm in
thickness

Chemical composition

Volatile oil 2 to 5%
Volatile oil contains 4% of aldehyde
Citral, Citronellal
Also
contains
terpenes
mainly
limonene 90% and Geranyl acetate and
other terpene derivatives in small
quantities.
Also contains flavones glycosides
Hespiridin, Vitamin C, Pectin,
Mucilage and Calcium oxalate.

Uses

Flavoring agent, Perfumery, Carminative, Stimulant, and

Stomachic.

Used for extraction of Pectin and Volatile oil.

Lemon grass

Synonym: East Indian lemon-grass

oil, Indian Melissa oil
B.S.: There are 2 plants from which
lemon grass oil is obtained
East Indian lemon grass oil is
obtained
from
Cymbopogon
flexuosus
West Indian lemon grass oil is
obtained from Cymbopogon citratus

Family: Graminae
G.S.: Kerala, Cymbopogon citratus
is cultivated in Guatemala, Kenya,
Africa, West Indies

Macroscopic characters

Odour: resembling to
lemon oil
Taste: similar to lemon
oil
Colour:
yellowishbrown liquid

Chemical composition

1 2% volatile oil of which 70 80%

Citral, which has strong lemon like
odour.
Other aldehyde are Citronellal and N decyl aldehyde.
Also
contains
Olefinic
terpene,
Myrecene, Limonene and Alcohol like
Nerol,
Geraniol,
Linalool
and
Furanerol.

Isolation

Lemon grass oil is obtained by hydro distillation of fresh

plant material.
From citrus fruits, oil is separated by ecuelle or by
expression method.
Fractional crystallization is a suitable method for
purification of citral.
Thin layer chromatographic plate is run with
chloroform, dried and sprayed with 2,4-dinitrophenyl
hydrazine reagent, citral gives yellow to orange spot with
Rf value 0.51.

Uses

Mosquito repellant, Flavoring agent and perfumery.

It is employed as a source of citral.
Citral is the starting material for the synthesis of
ionone.
ionone is the starting material for the synthesis of
Vitamin A.
Both East and West Indian lemon grass oil have same
kind of constituents.

Continue..

% of Citral is little bit more in East Indian lemon grass

oil.

There is also difference in solubility of these oils in 70%

alcohol.

West Indian oil is less soluble in 70% alcohol, than the

East Indian oil due to presence of Terpene, Myrecene, so

it tends to polymerise in presence of air and light.

Caraway

Synonym: Carum, Shahjiru

B.S.: It consists of the dried
ripe fruits of Carum carvi
Linn.
Family: Umbeliferae
G.S.: Wild & Cultivated in
Central & Northern Europe,
Holland, Denmark, Germany,
Russia,
Finland,
Poland,
Hungary, Britain, Egypt,
Morocco, Australia & China

Cultivation and collection

It is grown in dry and temperate climate. It needs

humus soil.
The total height of the plant is not more than a
meter.
For cultivation, the dried seeds are sown by
broadcasting method in rows.
The fruits are collected before ripening.
The entire plants are dried and fruits are thrashed
out. The yield is about 0.5 tone per hectare.

Morphological character

Colour: yellowish-brown
Odour: characteristic and
aromatic
Taste: characteristic and
aromatic
Fruit consists of 2 mericarps
Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm
wide
Outer surface: Brown, 5
primary ridge is yellow.

Stylopod
Ridges

Microscopical Features

Pentagonal in shape
Occasional stomata.
Strongly straited cuticle.
Reticulate parenchyma.
Pitted sclerenchyma
secretory canals
Dark,
red-brown
cells
containing a pale yellow or
colourless oleoresin
Thick cellulose walls
Rosette
Calcium
oxalate
crystals

Active Constituents

3-7 % Volatile oils

50-60% Carvone

Dihydrocarvone

Limonene
Carveole

8-20 % Fixed oils

Proteins
Calcium oxalates

Colouring matter

Resin
Volatile oil from which carvone is
separated, known as De-carvonized oil

Allied drug

Cuminum cyminum- jira

Ellipsoidal, 4-6 mm long, 2
mm wide
Five primary ridges
4 secondary ridges
Outer surface: brush like hair
2.5-4 % volatile oil
Cuminic aldehyde
Carvone absent

Adulterant drug

Black caraway
Kalajira
Carum bulbocastanum
Separate mericarps
Dark brown
Contains cumin
aldehyde

Dill fruits

Synonym:

Anethum,

European Dill

B.S: It consist of fruits of

Anethum graveolens Linn.

Family: Umbelliferae.

G.S:

Indigenous

to

south

Europe.

Cultivated

in

Germany, Romania.

England,

Morphological character

Colour: Yellowish or pale

brown with narrow wings
Odour & Taste: Aromatic &
characteristic
Size: 3-4 mm in length, 2 -3
mm wide, 1 mm thick
Shape: Separated mericarps
which are broadly ovate,
strongly
compressed
dorsally.

Morphological character

Each mericarp is glabrous, brown,

and traversed from base to apex
by five primary ridges, from
which two lateral ridges are
extended
as
wings,
the
remaining
three
being
inconspicuous;
Stylopod is seen at the apex of
each mericarp
Seeds: orthospermous
4 vittae on dorsal surface and 2 on
ventral surface

Stylopod
Wing
Carpophore

Primary ridges

Cultivation and collection

Seeds are sown in early spring, 40-50 cm apart in a

loamy soil.

In early summer the crop is harvested during morning.

The fruits are separated after threshing and thoroughly

dried under the sun.

Microscopical character

Chemical constituents

3 4 % volatile oil
20 % fixed oil & protein
Chief constituent of volatile oil
is Carvone (50 -60 %)
Dihydrocarvone absent
Also
contain
terpene
hydrocabon like Limonene,
Phellandrene
Flavone- Kaempferol

Carvone

Phellandrene

Uses

As Aromatic water

As a Stimulant, Carminative

In Gastric disturbance of infants &

children.

The oil of dill is used in the

preparation of Dill Water, Gripe
Water.

As a Flavouring agent

Indian Dill

Synonym: Sowa, Suva

B.S.: It cosists of dried ripe

fruits of Anethum Sowa
Roxb.

Family: Umbeliferae

G.S.: India

Morphological description

Sowa fruits are available in four distinct chemical forms:

Ghoda sowa, Vizag sowa, Pale Variyali and Dark Variyali
sowa.
Ghoda sowa consists of separate mericarps. Each mericarp
is dorsally compressed, broadly oval greyish green with
wide yellowish membranous wings.
Vizag and Variyali sowa consists chiefly of entire
cremocarp.
Pale brown coloured sowa fruits with broad wings and
slightly dorsally compressed cremocarps are called Pale
Variyali sowa, while dark brown coloured fruits with
narrow wings and strongly convex cremocarps are named
as Dark Variyali sowa

Chemical constituents
Variety

% of
Volatile
oil

% of
% of
carvone dihydrocavone

% of
dillapiol

% of
limonene

Ghoda
sowa

2.5-3.5%

36%

15%

12%

15%

Vizag
sowa

3.5-6%

46%

8%

Absent

45%

Pale
Variyali
sowa

4-6%

42%

5%

14%

39%

Dark
Variyali
sowa

2-3%

22%

25%

15%

22%

Also contain flavonoids Quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin

Chemical constituents

The volatile oil of Indian dill

contains Dill- apiole.

It is generally used in the

veterinary practices.

Dill- apiole is regarded as

poisonous substance.

Cultivated in Andhra Pradesh,

Punjab,

Utter

Maharashtra & Gujarat.

Pradesh,

Dill-apiole

Uses

Indian dill oils, gripe waters and dill water

contain dillapiol and should not be called
official.
However they were widely used apparently
without any harmful effect.
LD50 of India Dill oil was not more poisonous
than European Dill oil thus Indian dill oil
with low percentage of dillapiol and
containing carvone-dihydrocarvone according
to official standard may be incorporated in
Indian pharmacopoeia.
Carminative, stomachic, aromatic stimulant
in the preparations of gripe waters and
mixtures.

Indian Dill

European Dill

It consists of dried ripe fruits of It consists of dried ripe fruits of

Anethum sowa belonging to Anethum
graveolens
family Umbeliferae
belonging to family Umbeliferae
It grows in hotter regions of Indigenous to mediterranean
Gujarat
region and Southern Russia.
Cultivated in England, Germany
and Roumania and Kashmir in
India
Flavanoids present

Flavanoids absent

Dill-apiole and myristicin present

Dill-apiole and myristicin absent

It is not official in I.P. or B.P.

It is official in I.P. or B.P.

Fennel
Synoym: Variyali, Badi
saunph,
Fennel
fruit,
Fructus foeniculli
B.S: Fennel consists of the
dried
ripe
fruits of
Foeniculum
vulgare
Miller (Umbelliferae).
G.S:
Europe, India, China &
Egypt.
Mediterranean
origin.

Morphology

Fennel fruits occur in several

commercial varieties, varying
considerably in size and
appearance.
Colour : greenish or yellowish

brown

Shape: oblong

Size: varying from 5 to 10 mm

in length, 3 to 4 mm in width

Morphology

Odour : aromatic, sweet

Taste: camphoraceous

The

mericarps

frequently

remain united and attached to a

pedicel.

They are glabrous, and bear five

paler, very prominent, primary
ridges.

Microscopy

Microscopy

Epicarp: Outer epidermis, tabular epidermal cells, unstriated

cuticle, Trichomes absent
Mesocarp: 5 bicollateral vascular bundles, 4 vittae on dorsal
surface and 2 on ventral surface, reticulate parenchyma
above and below vascular bundles

Endocarp: Parquetry arrangement, cells appear tangentially

elongated in transaction
Testa: Narrow, tangentially elongated cells with brownish
granular contents

Endosperm: Polygonal parenchymatus cells with fixed oil

and aleurone grains

Active Constituents

3-7 % Volatile oil

50-60% Antethole, it is ppropenyl anisol and is aromatic,
has sweet odour and taste
18-20% Fenchone, is bicyclic
monoterpene,
has
camphoraceous taste and smell,
optically active
20% fixed oil
20% protein

Fenchone

Actions & uses

Carminative
Aromatic
Respiratory stimulant
Expectorant
As flavouring agent
Because of sweet taste, anethole is used in mouth and
dental preparations
As culinary purpose

Adulterant

A.

B.

Fennel is adulterated with exhausted fennel in which

part of volatile oil is removed either by extraction with
alcohol or steam-distillation
Alcohol exhausted fennel: fruits do not change much in
appearance and have fused oil odour, 1-2% of volatile
oil
Steam-exhausted fennel: They are darker in
appearance, contain less volatile oil and sink in water.

Bitter fennel
Foeniculum
vulgare,
vulgare, var. vulgare

Sweet fennel
subsp. Foeniculum
vulgare,
vulgare, var. dulce

subsp.

It contain 60% anethol

It contain not less than 80%

anethol

It contain 10-30% fenchone

It contain not more than 7.5%

fenchone

It contain high volatile oil content

It contain lower volatile oil content

T.S. of Fennel

T.S. of Coriander

Dried
fruits
of
Foeniculum Dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum
vulgare belonging to family sativum belonging to family
Umbeliferae
Umbeliferae
Mesocarp shows 4 vittae on dorsal Only 2 vittae on ventral side
and 2 on ventral side
Sclerenchyma absent

Two
types
of
sclerenchyma
tangential and longitudinal

Reticulated parenchyma on both Reticulated parenchyma absent

upper and lower sides of mesocarp
More number of vascular bundles Small vascular bundles only in outer
and are large in size, distributed on mesocarp
dorsal side of mesocarp
Shows 5 prominent ridges on dorsal Shows 5 primary ridges, 4 secondary
view
ridges on dorsal side

Clove

Synonym: Caryophylli, Clove

buds, Lavang (Hindi), Laving
(gujrati)
B.S.: It consists of dried flowering
buds of Eugenia caryophyllus
containing not more than 5% of its
stalks and not more than 1% of
other organic matter.

Family: Myrtaceae
G.S.:
Sumatra,

Madagascar,

Penang, West Indies,

Island of Zanzibar,
Amboiana

Ceylon,
Pemba,

Morphological description

Size:16-20 mm long,
lower
stalk
is
hypanthium and upper
dome portion is crown
Colour: Reddish brown
Hypathium:
subcylindrical, tapering
below, 10-13mm long, 4
mm wide
Crown: consists of
calyx, corolla, stamens,
style.

Crown

Corolla
Petal

Stamens

Sepal

Style
Ovary
Oil glands

Hypanthium
Columella

Morphological description

Corolla: dome shaped and made up of four petals,

Numerous stamens are enclosed in the crown.

Calyx: consists of four thick sepals.

Odour: strong, spicy, aromatic, characteristic

Taste: pungent, aromatic, characteristic

Cultivation and collection

Clove tree is evergreen 15-20 m in height.

Seeds are sown in well drained suitable soil spaced at 25
cm apart.
When plants are small, shade is provided by 1 m high
fames covered by banana leaves.
9 months seedlings are transplanted outside in rainy
season.
Shade is provided for 2-3 years by growing banana on
their sides.
At the 6th year the tree yields 3-4 kg of cloves till 70 years
of age.

Cont.

The young flower buds are white, becoming green and

finally crimson.

Before the white corolla expands, the buds are collected

by hand picking or knocked off by bamboos.

After separating from stalks, they are dried for 3 days

under the sun on mats made up of coconut leaves.

After loosing 60% of their weight, finally they become

reddish-brown in colour.

Collection season is September to March.

Chemical constituents

14-21% volatile oil,

13% gallotannic acid and caryophyllin
In volatile oil, 85-90% eugenol, and 3%
acetyl eugenol,
Characteristic aroma is due to methyl
amyl ketone
Eugenol is used for synthesis of vanillin
Also contain methyl furfural, dimethyl
furfural

Eugenol

Microscopy

Epidermis with thick cuticle and stomata

Zone of collenchymatous parenchyma contain numerous
ellipsoidal schizolysigenous oil glands
Parenchymatous cells contain tannins and cluster
crystals of calcium oxalate
A ring of 15 bicollateral vascular bundles, xylem consists
of 3-5 lignified spiral vessels
Parenchyma with air spaces below ring of vascular
bundle
20-25 small vascular bundles present at the periphery of
columella

Microscopy
Epidermis

Oil glands

Vascular bundles
Aerenchyma
Columella

Uses

Aromatic,
stimulant,
antispasmodic,
carminative,
antiseptic, as flavouring agent
In dental preparation and
mouth washes
Eugenol has local anaesthetic
action and large doses is
poisonous as it has irritating
action on striated muscles.
As spice and clove oil used in
perfumery

Adulterants
Exhausted clove
Volatile
oil is partially of totally removed by
distillation
Darker in colour and shrunken
When indented with nail, they do not yield oil and
float in freshly boiled and cooled water
Clove stalks
Pharmacopoeial limit of clove stalk is 5%
Odour and taste is similar to clove
Clove stalk contain calcium oxalate prisms and thickwalled stone cells which are not found in clove.

Adulterants
Mother clove (Clove fruits, Anthophylli)
Some clove buds ripen to fruits and are found in the
drug
Each fruit contains a single firm seed. Seed contain
starch and by its presence adulteration of clove fruits can
be determined
Fruits are 2-2.5 cm long and about 5 mm thick
Contain less percentage of volatile oil
Blown clove
Fully developed clove flowers with detached corolla and
stamens

Eucalyptus

B.S.: It consists of whole

or cut dried leaves of
Eucalyptus globulus,
E. polybractea and E.
smithii
Family: Myrtaceae
G.S.: Australia, Tasmania.
Cultivated for volatile oil in
France, Spain, Portugal,
India, California and U.S.A

Morphological description
Apex: Acute
Margin: Entire
Venation: Reticulate
Colour: Greyish brown
Odour: Characteristic, strong
Taste: Pungent, bitter and
characteristic
Base: Asymmetric
Shape: Falcate

Cultivation and collection

Grown in dry marshy lands. Requires plenty of water

Grows better in alluvial soils.

Chemical constituents

1-3% volatile oil of that 70-85% is cineole

Terpene hydrocarbons like pinene and
camphene
Piperitone and citronellal
Small quantities of butyric, valerenic and
caproic
aldehyde
responsible
for
unpleasant smell
Official oil must be free from large
amount of phellandrene. Oil is rectified
to remove aliphatic aldehyde and
hydrocarbons having irritant properties

Cineol

Microscopy

Lamina: Isobilateral
Upper epidermis: anomocytic (Ranunculaceous) stomata,
trichomes are absent
Mesophyll: Upper and lower palisade 3 to 5 layered
Oval to sub-globular schizogenous oil glands opening towards
the upper epidermis
3-5 layers of spongy parenchyma and contain calcium oxalate
prisms and sphaeraphides
Few layers of collenchymatous cells are found below upper
and above the lower epidermis
Vascular bundles are surrounded by an incomplete sheath of
fibrous pericycle.

Microscopy
Upper
epidermis

Palisade
parenchyma
Spongy
parenchyma
Oil glands
Lower
epidermis
Collencyma
Vascular bundles

Pericyclic fibres

Uses

Antiseptic
As flavouring agent
Diaphoretic, diuretic and
expectorant
In respiratory diseases
Used as inhaler, in nasal
drops and nasal ointment
Externally as counter
irritant
in
swelling,
inflammation
and
as
massage in rheumatism
and disease of cold

Chenopodium

B.S.: Volatile oil is obtained

by steam distillation from
fresh
aerial
parts
of
Chenopodium
ambrosioides
variety
anthelminticum
Family: Chenopodiaceae
G.S.: Cultivated in U.S.A.,
Germany,
Austria
and
Yugoslavia

Morphological description

Flowering and fruiting tops of the plant contain volatile

oil
Volatile oil is present in pericarp and ovary of fruit
Glandular trichomes of leaves and flowers contain
volatile oil
The herb contain 0.4% volatile oil, but in the fruit volatile
oil is 1-4%
Volatile oil is obtained by steam distillation of fresh or
dry flowering and fruiting topes of the plant

Chemical constituents

0.4% volatile oil of which 60-80%

terpene peroxide, ascaridol is

present
p-cymene,
-terpene,
Limonene,
Camphor

Ascaridol

Uses

As anthelmintic in round worms and hook worms

Due to little therapeutic range and danger of toxicity, it

is used only in veterinary practice

Sandalwood

Synonym: Safed chandan,

Sukhad (Guj)
B.S.: It consists of heartwood of Santalum album
Linn.
Family: Santalaceae
Geographical
source:
India, Malaysia. In Indian,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
U.P., M.P.

Morphological description

Medium sized evergreen, semi-parasitic tree with

drooping branches
The tree attains a height of upto 18 m.
Bark: Dark grey or brownish black in colour
Leaves: Simple, opposite, elliptic-lanceolate, entire and
glabrous
Flowers: Brownish purple, reddish purple or violet
Fruits: Globose drupes, purple black in colour
Colour: light yellowish brown when fresh and turns dark
reddish brown on exposure.
The wood is highly scented

Cultivation and collection

Cultivation requires much sunshine with annual rainfall

of 850-1200 mm and cool climate
Grows best at an altitude of 600-900 m
Seeds are sown in mounds. It is raised in nursery in pots
and then transplanted in field
Sandal starts flowering at an early stage age (3-4 years)
Seeds from 20 years old tree are considered good
Flowering takes place in Feb-April and fruiting season is
July-Sept.
Tress more than 25 years of age are normally selected for
the collection of the oil

Cont.

All the parts of wood contain volatile oil but leaves and

other parts of the tree are free of volatile oil

Heartwood and root are scented and therefore the

sandal is harvested by uprooting and not cutting so that
no root is left out

Heartwood formation is more in 20 years old tree

It is cut in small pieces and subjected to steam

distillation

Chemical constituents

Sandalwood oil is a volatile oil

containing sesquiterpens
2.5% volatile oil of which 95%
consists
of
2
isomeric
sesquiterpene alcohols, -santalol
and -santalol
Aldehyde- santalal
Santene, santenone, teresantol,
santalene are also present
-santalol

Uses

In treatment of dysurea and

tuberculosis of the bladder
In cosmetic industry
As diaphoretic, diuretic, skin
trouble and in burns

Substitutes

Eucarya spicata (santalaceae): Australian sandalwood

oil, contains fusanols (sesquiterpene alcohols)
Amyris
balsamifera
(Rutaceae):
West
Indian
sandalwood oil
Santalum preissianum (santalaceae): South Australian
Sandal wood
Santalum freycinetianum (santalaceae): Fiji sandal
wood

Adulterant

Oil of Erythroxylon monogynum

Due to fermentation it emits bad odour and detected
thereafter

Cardamom

Synonym: Chhoti elaichi,

Hail, Cardamom seed
B.S.: It consists of dried
ripe fruits of Elettaria
cardamomum
var.
minuscula. The seeds are
removed from fruits when
required for use
Family: Zingiberaceae
G.S.: Cultivated in Mysore
and Kerala states in South
India and Ceylon

Morphological description

Seeds: are small brown black, contained in a pod

in three double rows with about six seeds in each
row with axile placentation and are surrounded
by arillus

Size: Upto 4 mm in length and 3 mm in breadth

Shape: Irregularly angular

Colour: Dark reddish brown

Surface: Transversely wrinkled, longitudinal

groove at one side indicates raphe and
depression at one end is hilum
Perisperm: Large, contains starch
Endosperm & Embryo: small and contains
aleurone grains

Morphological description

Pods: 1-2 cm long

General appearance: Inferior triocular 3-angled
capsule
Shape: Ovoid or oblong
When treated with sulphur dioxide green colour of
pod changes to white

Odour: agreeable and pleasant

Taste: strongly aromatic and characteristic

The plant has a tuberous rhizome and long dark

green leaves 30-60 cm long and 5-15 cm wide
Flowers: green with white purple veined tip
They develop in groups of 2 or 3 and into oblong
green capsules

Cultivation and collection

Cultivation is done by sowing the seeds.

Annual rainfall: 150-600 cm
Altitude: 800-1200 m
Soil should be full of moisture and seeds are sown in
seed beds
It takes 4 months for the seeds to germinate
Fresh seeds should be used for cultivation in the months
from August to October
3-4 month old seedlings are transplanted in the nursery
beds and when they bear 8-10 leave and are 1-1.5 years
old, they are transplanted in the forest fields in monsoon

Cont.

Plant starts bearing from the third year of planting

Fruits are picked up just before ripening and capsules
are dried in sun or in artificial dryers
Artificial drying takes about 48 hours whereas natural
drying needs more time and bleaching of fruits takes
place to some extent
Green colour of capsule is maintained in artificial drying,
however sweet aroma is lost to a certain extent
70-80% of weight is lost during drying

Cont

Life of cardamom plant is 20-25 years and the yield

increases up to 50-70% kg/ha
For packaging, polypropylene is to be used because
flavour components diffuse through polythene
Low humidity and low temperature is required for the
storage of cardamom

Chemical constituents

3-6% volatile oil of that 50% is cineole

Terpinyl acetate
Terpineol,
Borneol,
Terpinene,
Limonene,
Dipentene,
Fixed oil,
Starch,
Proteins

Cineole

Terpineol

Microscopy of seed

Membranous arillus: outermost layer covering the testa

Epidermis: single layered elongated cells
Outer parenchymatous layer: 1 or 2 layered with
tangentially elongated cells
Oil cell layer: large rectangular thin walled
parenchymatous cells containing volatile oil are
arranged in single layer which becomes 2 or 3 layered
near raphe
Inner parenchymatous layer: several layers of thin
walled parenchyma

Microscopy of seed

Microscopy of seed
Testa

Epidermis

Outer parenchyma
Oil cell layers
Inner parenchyma

Sclerenchymatous layer
Parenchymatous layer
Perisperm
Endosperm

Embryo

Cont

Sclerenchymatous layer: single layer of dark-brown,

bowl shaped cells, thickened inner wall
Parenchymatous layer: single layered flattened cells
Perisperm: several layers of thin walled parenchymatous
cells packed with starch grains and prisms of calcium
oxalate
Endosperm: few layers of thin walled colourless
parenchymatous cells containing masses of protein. The
innermost tissue is embryo made up of small cells
containing aleurone grains

Uses

As aromatic, carminative and stimulant

As a spice
As flavouring agent

Substitutes and Adulterants

Long wild native cardamom: obtained from Elettaria
cardamom var. major, grown in ceylon.

Fruits are more elongated upto 4 cm in length, 1 cm in

diameter, dark brown in colour and coarsely striated
The seeds of this drug are less aromatic, bitter in taste and with
inferior aroma

The oil of the seeds has different composition

Ammomum Species: Several species of Ammomum yield fruits
which are usually larger in size but less aromatic.

Ammomum aromaticum and A. kepulaga yield Bengal

cardamoms (Bari Ilayachi) and round or cluster cardamoms
respectively. Their seed are adulterated with the authentic
drug.

Substitutes and Adulterants

Korarima cardamom: 4 2 cm in size, red-brown in

colour. Seeds do not show the presence of rugae, which is a
characteristic of the genuine drug
Cardamom husk is also adulterated drug and can be
distinguished by its ash content
Genuine drug should not have more than 6% of total ash and
3.5% acid insoluble ash
Loose or fully ripe seeds of cardamom: Due to long
exposure or due to ripening, they contain less volatile oil as
compared to authentic drug.

Nutmeg

Synonyms:
Myristica,
Jayfal, Nux Moschata, Semen
Myristicae
B.S.: It consists of dried
kernels
or seeds of
Myristica
fragrans
Houtten. The seeds are
devoid of seed coat and arillus
Family: Myristicaceae
G.S.: Indonesia, West Indies,
other tropical countries

Morphological description

9-12 m high dioecious evergreen tree

Leaves: elliptical, oblong-lanceolate

Flowers: are in umbellate cymes, creamy

yellow, fragrant
Fruits: yellow, globose with fleshy pericarp,
6-9 cm long, glabrous and often drooping

Seed: ovoid with purplish brown testa

Size: 2-3 cm long and 1.5-2 cm in diameter

Colour: greyish brown with reddish brown

spots and lines

Odour: strongly aromatic,

Taste: pungent aromatic

Cultivation and collection

Climate: hot and moist, Rainfall: 150-300 cm/annum

Soil: loamy friable with good drainage
It cannot grow above an altitude of 750 m
Propagation is done by seeds, fresh seeds collected from
mature fruits are dried for a day and sown directly at the
site or in nursery beds 30 cm apart
It takes up to 30 months to germinate
During wet weather the seedlings of 60-90 cm height are
transplanted into their permanent site with 6 m spacing
Young plants require shade which is provided by
growing bananas in advance of planting

Cultivation and collection

The trees bear fruits from 7th year and continue to bear
for 70-80 more year
Main harvesting season is June-October whereas fruits
are borne throughout the year
Only ripe fruit in which pericarp has split are collected.
They are picked up from the ground in the morning or
gathered from trees using a long stick
Average yield is 1,250 fruits per tree
After collection, the pericarp is removed and the seed
separated from the aril and dried
Drying is complete when the kernels rattle in the shell

Cultivation and collection

The kernels are removed with wooden hammers

Kernels are limed before drying to prevent insect attack
and to improve the storage life of nutmeg

Chemical constituents

5-15% of volatile oil of that 4-8% is myristicin,

Elemicine, terpene alcohol like terpeniol, borneol,
geraniol
Hydrocarbons pinene, camphene, dipentene
Also contains safrol, eugenol and isoeugenol
25-30% fat, which melts above 25C and contains
glycerides of myristic, oleic, palmitic, cauric and other
acids
Amylodextrin, starch, saponin and other colouring
matter also present

Chemical constituents

Apiole

Elemicin

Uses

As flavouring agent, carminative, aromatic

Used in controlling diarrhoea associated with certain
carcinomas
Possesses psychotropic and hallucinogenic action
This action is due to myristicin and elemicin which gets
transminated into amphetamine and further converted
into indole like compound which has psychotropic
properties
Spasmolytic and antiemetic action
On CNS, it has narcotic and anesthetic action
Peripherally, it has irritant action and irritates intestine
and uterus and is considered as an abortificient

Uses

Abortificient action is related to chemical structure and

increases with the number of OCH3 groups
Eg. Safrol has no irritant action as it is lacking -OCH3
group, myristicin has more action due to one -OCH3
group, Apiole has two -OCH3 group and exhibit
maximum irritant action.
Also as counter irritant externally in inflammation,
swelling and rheumatism
Also, incorporated in hair tonic preparation

Substitutes

Papua Nutmeg
B.S.:
Myristica
argentea
G.S.: New Zealand
Morphological
characters: 3.5 cm long
with brown surface,
Odour and taste: little
aromatic and acrid taste

Substitutes

Bombay nutmeg, Indian nutmeg

B.S.: Myristica malabarica
G.S.: India
Morphological characters:
Kernels are long and narrow
Odour: volatile oil is less and
the drug has little aromatic
odour

Valerian

Synonym:

European

Valerian, Al Nardeen,
Valerian root, Valerian
rhizome
B.S.: Valerian consist
dried rhizome and root of
Valeriana officinalis
Linn.
Family: Valarianaceae
G.S.: Britain, Holland,
France, Germany

Collection

Valerian is 1 -1.5 m high perennial herb, it is widely

distributed and occurs in different typed and races.
This is attributed to natural diploid, tetraploid and octaploid
Valariana exalta
Diploid, 2n=14
Valariana angustifolia
Valariana collina-tetraploid
V. sambucifolium
Octaploid
V. procurrens
Octalploid variety are very strong contain 2m height stem
and Leaves are very big.
Cultivation is carried out of tetraploid or octaploid species.

Collection

Valerian drug is obtained from cultivated plants.

Rhizome is dug out in autumn and washed well in
running water, large rhizomes are cut into transverse or
longitudinal slices.
Drug is dried as quickly as possible and preferable at low
temperature.
Fresh drug has no smell but dried drug is darker and
acquires characteristic isovaleric acid smell which is due
to hydrolysis of borneol isovalerianate present in the
drug.
If hydrolysis is more, drug becomes inferior and so it
should be dried as quickly as possible

Morphology

Shape: Blunt, conical, ovate, rounded.

Surface: on the crown one or more stem base

surrounded by brown membranous scale and on the
lateral and lower surface adventitious cylindrical root
and fibrous rootlet are present.

Roots: longitudinally striated. On the lower part of

rhizome occasionally one or two runners are seen which

curved upward and are covered with scale leaves

Morphology

Color: yellowish brown

Odour: characteristic

Taste: camphoraceous, slightly bitter

Fractured surface: in rhizome a narrow periderm, wide

parenchymatous starchy cortex, endodermis containing
volatile oil,

Collateral vascular bundles separated by medullary rays

and central pith are seen.

Chemical constituents

0.5 to 1% volatile oil

Borneol formate
Borneol acetate
Borneol isovalerinate
Sesquiterpene
Linonene
Camphene

Ester

Valtrate

Valeric acid

Chemical constituents

Bornyl isovalerianate on decomposition by enzyme yield

free isovaleric acid responsible for the unpleasent odour

of dried root.
Sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes are valerenic acid and
valeranone
Valepotriats or Valtrats
0.5% in European valerian
2% in Indian valerian, so it is considered as superior
drug.

Chemical constituents

Valerian contain 3 valtrats

Valtrat : 80-90% in V. officinalis
Acetoxy valtrat
Didrovaltrat,
While
V. wallaicnii contain didrocaltrat and
acevaltratin, so valerian has 3 chemical races
Valtrates are ester of isovaleric acid, isocapric acid
and -acetoxy isovaleric acids of polyhydroxy
cyclopentane pyran and contain epoxy oxide
Esterification takes place at 3 OH groups, So called
valepotriats

Uses

Tranquilizer and sedative, 2\3 activity due to

valtrate and 1\3 activity due to volatile oil
Spasmolytic, carminative, hysteria, insomnia,
nervous excitement and palpitation of heart
Spasmolytic valerenic acid
Along with sedation, it simultaneously
increases concentration and performance
capacity, it also helps to overcome abstinence
symptoms of alcohol and opium
Valtrat, acevaltrat, didrovaltrat (15:5:80) are
used in formulation as tranquiliser and is used
in lack of concentration, weakness, fear and
tension

Indian valerian

Synonyms: Valerian
Tagar, Billilotan

I.P.,

B.S.: It consists of dried

rhizomes, stolons and roots of
Valeriana wallichii De

Family: Valerianaceae

G.S.: Kashmir, Afghanistan

Collection: Rhizomes are dug

in autumn, washed, put on the
mats and dried in the sun.
Sometimes it is kept into trays
and dried by wood-fire below

Morphology

Rhizome: dull yellowish brown

Size: 4 to 8 cm long, 5-10 mm thick
Shape: subcylindrical, dorsiventrally grey, unbranched,
rough, and slightly curved
Upper surface: marked with raised encircling leaf scars
Crown bears remain of aerial stem base with scale-leaves
Stolons: 1.5 to 5 cm long, 2 to 4 mm thick, yellowish grey
and longitudinally wrinkled
It contains nods, internodes and adventitious roots
Roots: Yellowish brown, 3 to 5 cm long,1 mm thick.

Chemical Constituents

10 % volatile oil of which 2% valpotriates

(four times that of European)
3 valepotriate isolated from V. wallichiicytotoxic and antitumour for HTC
hepatoma cells.

Uses

Similar to European valerian

Differences
Indian Valerian

European Valerian

B.S.

Dried rhizomes, stolons & Dried rhizome & roots of

roots
of
Valerian Valeriana officinalis
wallichii

Size

Rhizome 4-8 cm long

Total
content

oil Contains 10% volatile oil

Rhizome 2-4 cm long

Contains 0.5-1% volatile oil

C.C.

2% of valpotriates or 0.5% of
valtrats. Nearly 4 times valtrats
more than European &
hence it is considered as
better drug than European

Authenticity

Allied drug

valpotriates

Authentic drug

or