BIOLOGY UNIT 2 NOTES BY Maaz Chati

DNA is a double stranded molecule, with the two twisted strands joint by Hydrogen bonds. Each
twisted strand is a polynucleotide which is made up of lots of single nucleotides via condensation.
This is a single nucleotide:
Every Nucleotide has 3 components:
Sugar called Deoxyribose; deoxyribose is a carbohydrate
A Phosphate Group
A Nitrogenous Organic Base (contains nitrogen):
Single Ring Bases: Cytosine & Thymine
Double Ring Bases: Adenine & Guanine
A = T with 2 H-Bonds; G C with 3 H-Bonds. Also this means
there will be the same percentage of Adenine as there is
Thymine and the same percentage of Guanine as there is of
Cytosine. This form of DNA found in all eukaryotes.
However, in different cells, there will be different percentages of each pair of bases as each cell
produces DIFFERENT PROTEINS and has DIFFERENT GENES and has DIFFERENT DNA BASE
SEQUENCES. DNA is also a polymer as it is made of monomers (nucleotides). DNA in eukaryotes,
ONLY EXISTS IN NUCLEUS, this is why red blood cells do not have DNA, as they have no nucleus
Function of DNA: Store information
Feature
How it helps
Feature
How it helps
Sugar-Phosphate
Provides strength
Double helix
Protects weak H-Bonds
backbone
Coiling
Gives compact shape
Hydrogen Bonds
Allows chain to split for
translation
Sequence of bases
Allows info to be stored Many Hydrogen
Gives molecules stability
Bonds
Long molecule
Stores large amounts
of info
Complimentary base
Info can be replicated
pairing
Gene: A sequence of DNA Bases that determine an amino acid (polypeptide). They determine the
proteins that are made. Each gene has a defined position on a chromosome, known as the
LOCUS of the gene.
Triplet Code: A MINIMUM of 3 bases makes one amino acid. Hence if you have a sequence of 12 bases,
the maximum number of amino acids they could code for is 12. Some amino acids have 1 triplet code
whilst other amino acids have 2-6 triplet codes. I.e. 2-6 different triplets would all code for the same
amino acid.
Cells may be genetically identical, but different in appearance, this is because:
1) Different genes are expressed in each
2) Therefore producing different enzymes
How different sequences of bases code for different proteins:
1) Proteins are made of chains of amino acids
2) Each amino acid has its own triplet code
Therefore in applications such as if you know the amino acid sequence
of a substance, you could make an artificial gene coded for that
substance as 3 bases code for one amino acid, therefore a correct base
sequence can be worked out.
In Eukaryotic Cells, there are many base sequences that do not code for
an amino acid, they are known as Introns, also there are many noncoding strands and addition of bases by mutations, therefore for these
reasons, the number of bases will be more than the number of amino
acids multiplied by 3 as the triplet code suggests.
In Prokaryotic Cells: 1) DNA molecules are circular 2) DNA molecules are not associated with proteins
In Eukaryotic Cells, DNA molecules are associated with proteins and coil up to form a structure called
CHROMOSOME. Chromosomes are UNITS OF DNA.
Explanation of the appearance of Duplicate Chromosomes is:
Two Sister Chromatids that are identical due to DNA replication
4 Chromatids joined by Centromere
Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 from mother, and 23 from father. Therefore Humans have 23 pairs
of Homologous Chromosomes in everybody cell. The 46 Chromosomes are the Diploid Number, and
23 unpaired chromosomes are the Haploid Number, Sex Cells have 23 chromosomes (Haploid

Number), but when they combine with another Sex Cell the Diploid Number (46 chromosomes) is
restored.
Allele: Different form of the same gene positioned in the same locus, one allele is inherited from each
parent, sometimes they are the same, e.g. Eye colour from dad is blue and from mom is also blue,
sometimes they are different, and however one will be the dominant one, e.g. Eye colour from dad is
blue but from mom it is brown.

Meiosis: Produces FOUR DAUGHTER NUCLEI, each

with Haploid Number of chromosomes, each cell
has a chromosome/chromatid from each homologous pair.
Process: 1) Random lining up of homologous chromosomes (Random Assortment)
2) Crossing over of chromatids to form recombinant chromosomes. Also, an exchange of
alleles between chromatids
Importance of Meiosis:
1) Halves chromosome number
2) Restores full chromosome number at fertilisation
3) It also introduces variation
Through this process, meiosis provides Genetic Variation through:
1) Random Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes
2) Crossing over
3) Reducing chromosome number makes random fertilisation possible
Usually in the first stage of meiosis, DNA in each chromosome replicates to
give two chromatids which have two copies of the gene, one on each
chromatid. Also the homologous chromosomes in the first stage are separated
by spindle fibres.
How homologous chromosomes cross-over:
Chromosomes in homologous pair twist around each other
Chromatids break and rejoin to chromatid on sister chromosome
Advantage of changing diploid cells into haploid cells in gamete production:
Fertilisation restores diploid number
How crossing over can contribute to genetic variation:
Sections of chromatids are exchanged, sections have different alleles
and therefore new combination of alleles
Homologous Chromosomes: each homologous pair consists of a maternal and paternal version of the
same chromosome, since the homologous chromosomes contain the same
genes; this also means we have two copies of each gene, one from each
parent.
Why DNA base sequences of homologous chromosomes are almost the same:
1) Homologous chromosomes have the same gene at the same loci
2) Different alleles usually have only small differences in base sequence
Although homologous chromosomes carry the same GENES, they are NOT genetically identical:
Because although both have same genes at the same loci, the alleles are different
(Alleles are different forms of the same gene)

If after MITOSIS, a cell looks like this:

After MEIOSIS, this same cell will look like:

Can you see how there is 3 homologous pairs (6 chromosomes) above after mitosis and after meiosis
there are three chromosomes, one chromosome from each homologous pair?
Sometimes, abnormal Sex Cells occur, this is due to:
1) Mutation affecting Sex Cell in small population
2) Errors during meiosis and interbreeding, thus increasing chance of inheriting allele

The difference between sex cells and normal body cells

1) Sex Cells are haploid
2) Body Cells are diploid
If an organism has an odd diploid number (e.g. 33)
It cannot undergo Meiosis as it would result in half
chromosomes, therefore this organism cannot make
haploid cells
Importance of Genetic Variation:
1) Causes Variation in phenotype
2) Selection of different phenotypes in different environment
eventually leads to species change
The greater the number of different alleles that all members of a
species posses, the greater the genetic diversity, the greater the
genetic diversity, the more likely that a species will adapt to
environmental change.
Mitosis produces 2 daughter nuclei that have the Diploid number
of chromosomes (i.e. same as parent cell), understand that
although the diploid number is retained, the Mass of DNA does
actually halve in mitosis and quarter in meiosis.
There are 4 stages: Interphase, Prophase, Metahphase, Anaphase, Telophase, (IPMAT)
Interphase: DNA Replicates, cell is actively synthesising proteins, chromosomes invisible. The DNA
Replication takes place ONLY ONCE in 1 cycle. When
the units of DNA have doubled, it means the DNA has
replicated. Hence the diploid number has doubled.
Prophase: Chromosomes become visible, nuclear envelope disappears, and nucleolus disappears, also
chromosomes coil and shorten
Metaphase: Chromosomes arrange themselves at equator of cell and spindle fibre forms and attaches
with the CENTROMERE of chromatids
Anaphase: Chromatids separate and migrate to opposite poles by contraction of spindle fibres, DNA
content halves to go back to the original
Remember: In anaphase, the chromatids look like
strands
Telophase: Nuclear envelope forms
After this, CYTOKENISES takes place, wherein both cells completely separate from each other.
Evidence of the cell at anaphase: Chromatids separating
Job of Spindle Fibres: To contract to allow attachment of centromeres and separation of chromatids
Job of Centromere: Holds chromatids together and attaches chromatids to spindle allowing the
chromatids to separate when required
ALWAYS REMEMBER THAT THE DNA/CHROMOSOMES ARE IN THE NUCLEUS.
Different people will have different number of cells at each stage in their body due to genetic
differences, age and time of day
Why an increase in the amount of DNA is important in the cell cycle:
Maintain chromosome number
How scientists can tell that a cell is in Interphase:
1) No visible chromosomes
2) Visible nucleus
If there were no Spindle Fibres:
Chromatids will not separate
Mitosis cannot be completed
Cell Division cannot take place
Number of cells does not increase
However people with cancer who are given medicine which prevents spindle formation have limited
number of cells as cells are formed by mitosis.
Mitosis produces GENETICALLY IDENTICAL CELLS, therefore very low Genetic Diversity.
OVERALL EXPLANATION OF MITOSIS:
1) Chromosomes shorten
2) Chromosomes contain two identical chromatids
3) Chromosomes move to equator of cell
4) They then attach to individual spindle fibres
5) Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles
6) Each pole receives identical copies of each chromosome
7) Nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes
Cancer Cells:

1) Cancer Cells often have damaged DNA

2) Therefore when this cell containing faulty DNA divides it divides uncontrollably and RAPIDLY
producing cancer
3) The time cancer cells spend at each phase during mitosis is much less as they are completing
cycles rapidly
A key factor that affects cancer is age. Also chemotherapy only kills some cancer cells; hence the
others continue to divide.
In cancer, medical screening is advised so that cancer can be diagnosed early.
Cancerous tumours result in a mass of cells with an inadequate blood supply and therefore a low
Oxygen environment.
Some cancer treatments reduce blood flow to cancer cells, this helps because:
Less Oxygen/Glucose to cancer cells
Therefore less carcinogens
Therefore reduction in spread of cancer cells
Importance of Mitosis:
Growth; daughter cell must have same genetic information as parent cell
Differentiation; different cell types each divide by mitosis to give tissue made of identical cells
Repair; If cells die, they must be replaced, therefore new cells must have identical genetic information
Produces identical cells
In Interphase, we discussed that DNA replication takes place. This replication is known as semiconservative replication.

This is how it is done:

1) DNA has two strands (polynucleotides), which are joined through bases via Hydrogen Bonding
2) H-Bonding is weak, therefore DNA HELICASE (enzyme) breaks bond and separates strands
3) These strands act as template and other free NUCLEOTIDES (see above) attach themselves to
their complimentary bases
4) Adenine joins with Thymine and Cytosine joins with Guanine
5) Once activated DNA POLYMERASE (enzyme) joins the attaching NUCLEOTIDES together and the HBonds reform
6) Hence you have two complete DNA molecules, each molecule retains a strand of the original DNA
molecule, therefore it is semi-conservative
Why DNA Helicase is important in DNA replication/Role of DNA Helicase:
It breaks H-Bonding to allow the strand to act as a template for free nucleotides
Why DNA Polymerase is important in DNA replication/Role of DNA Polymerase:
Joins the attaching FREE NUCLEOTIDES together allowing a strand to be formed thusallowing the HBonds to reform
Why DNA replication is described as semi-conservative:
1) DNA strand separates
2) New molecules formed have one old strand and one new strand
How DNA labelled 15N could be separated from DNA containing 14N:
1) DNA centrifuged in solution of Caesium Chloride
2) DNA separate depending on its mass
3) It is then compared with position of band formed by 14N
4) DNA with 15N further down the tube
Why specific base-pairing is important in DNA replication:
1) Identical copies of DNA made with same base sequence as original DNA
2) BOTH strands act as a template
Process of Mitosis and behaviour of chromosomes during:
1) Chromosomes thicken
2) Chromosomes form two identical Chromatids
3) Chromosomes more to equator of cell
4) Attach to individual fibres
5) Spindle Fibres contract
6) Chromatids move to opposite poles of Spindle
7) each pole receives genetic information/identical copies of each chromosome
8) Nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes
IN OUR BODY, THE BODY CELLS GO THROUGH 3 PHASES:
1) Interphase: 1) G1 Growth Phase: When proteins are produced
2) S Synthesis Phase: When DNA is replicated; (Gene Mutations are most likely to occur
during this phase)

3) G 2 Second Growth Phase: When organelles grow and divide and energy stores are
increased
2) Nuclear Division: NUCLEUS divides either into two pieces (Mitosis) or four pieces (Meiosis)
3) Cell Division: Process by which the WHOLE CELL divides into two pieces (Mitosis) or four pieces
(Meiosis)
All cells in the human body are specific to their function depending on which genes are expressed,
however initially all cells are identical but in time each cell becomes specialised in structure to suit
the function they are to carry out.
Cells that can complete the cell cycle quickly have the advantage that: They can REPLACE CELLS
RAPIDLY
Mutation: a change in the DNA base
sequence/gene
If the base sequence of DNA changes, it could lead
to a non-functional enzyme (protein):
1) Change in DNA base sequence changes
sequence of amino acids made
2) Therefore a change in Hydrogen bonds takes
place changing the shape of the active site of the
soon to be enzyme
3) Now the substrate shape is no longer
complimentary to shape of active site, therefore no
enzyme-substrate complexes
Hence if no enzyme-substrate complexes are
taking place, then the reaction catalysed by this
enzyme will no longer be taking place.
How a mutation can lead to cancer:
1) Mutation is a change in DNA
2) Therefore the base sequence is altered
3) Therefore gene has a different code and hence a different amino acid sequence
4) Thus protein has a different structure
5) Cell divides via mitosis
6) Rapid tumour cell growth
7) Tumour cells then spread via the blood and lymph system
How a mutation can cause a loss of one amino acid: mutation removes three bases
Some mutations do not affect amino acid sequence as although the DNA base sequence was
changed, the degeneracy code was taking place, i.e. luckily the three new mutated bases code for the
same amino acid as before
Sometimes mutations are only found in a particular population, but suddenly spread to different
populations across different areas; this is due to the FOUNDER EFFECT and INTERBREEDING.
Bacteria can grow resistant to Antibiotics and replicate either through Horizontal Gene Transmission
(Conjugation) or Vertical Gene Transmission. Horizontal Gene Transmission is when Bacteria pass their
resistant plasmid to another SPECIES of Bacteria. Vertical Gene Transmission is when Bacteria pass
their resistant plasmid to the next generation by replicating.
Horizontal Gene Transmission (Conjugation) is done in the following way:
USUALLY, WHEN NONE OF THE NITROGENOUS BASES ARE EQUAL PERCENTAGES, ITS BECAUSE THE
ORGANISM S DNA IS NOT DOUBLE STRANDED AS THERE IS NO BASE PAIRING TAKING PLACE.
Antibiotics:
1) Prevent Bacteria from forming a cell wall
2) Inhibit production of specific peptide cross linkages
Weaken cell wall so as to allow water to enter
from high water potential to low water
potential, therefore cell wall is not strong
enough to resist outward pressure, causing
Osmotic Lysis.
3) Binds to ribosomes, therefore inhibits
translation and protein synthesis
4) Inhibits nucleic acid, therefore prevents
transcription
Antibiotics do not work against viruses as they have a different covering from bacteria.
Antibiotics do not harm Mammalian Cells as they have no cell wall.
Selection Pressure: If only a few genes are resistant in bacteria, there will be a selection pressure
directed towards the resistant genes, which will then grow and multiply.

MRSA: Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus

MRSA is most common in hospitals because:
1) Patients have weak immune system
2) Many antibiotics given, therefore they grow resistant
3) Many people enter and leave
In MRSA, it is difficult to say whether it was the actual MRSA that caused death as sufferers usually
have other illnesses.
Ways to reduce transmission of MRSA in hospitals:
1) Isolation/Quarantine
2) Screening of patients, doctors, etc.
3) Sterilisation of wards
Bacteria usually becomes resistant to antibiotics when lots of antibiotics are given, this is because:
1) Mutation occurs
2) This creates a gene in the plasmid that is resistant to antibiotics
3) The resistant bacteria replicate via horizontal gene transmission/vertical gene transmission
When antibiotics are given, they are given in higher doses than the MIC, this is because:
1) All antibiotics may not be absorbed
2) Antibiotics may be metabolised
3) Some bacteria may be resistant to antibiotics
Sometimes a harmful bacteria may not affect you because it is outcompeted by another harmless
bacteria, however when antibiotics are used, the harmless bacteria may be reduced, thus allowing the
harmful bacteria to now harm you.
A lot of antibiotics stop enzymes; they do this by having a complimentary shape to the active site and
thus behaving as a competitive inhibitor.
How Bacteria travels from one species to another:
1) Horizontal Gene Transmission
2) Via conjugation
3) Plasmid is replicated and then plasmid is transferred
How Gene Transmission and selection have increased difficulty of treating bacteria with antibiotics:
1) Antibiotic resistant gene is produced
2) Therefore vertical transmission takes place and resistant bacteria reproduce
3) This increases frequency of resistant gene
4) Thus horizontal gene transmission takes place wherein the resistant plasmid is passed to
another species of bacteria
5) This is done via conjugation

2 Ways in which Bacteria becomes resistant to antibiotics:

1) Mutation
2) Horizontal Gene Transmission
What the resistant bacteria do to antibiotics:
1) Most resistant bacteria produce enzymes to break down antibiotics
Why Penicillin is very effective:
1) It keeps changing shape
2) Therefore enzyme of bacteria no longer complimentary to new shape of Penicillin
3) Therefore Penicillin not broken down
Some farmers add antibiotics into food of cattle, this is illegal, but it is beneficial for farmers because:
1) Antibiotics kill pathogenic bacteria
2) This reduces spread of infection
3) Therefore faster growth of animal as less energy wasted fighting disease
Why this action is illegal:
1) It favours antibiotic resistance
2) Therefore resistant bacteria may be formed
3) This may cause harm to humans
OVERALL SUMMARY OF STRUCTURE OF DNA AND HOW SEQUENCE OF DNA IS REPLICATED:
1) There are nucleotides present, which contain Deoxyribose, Phosphate and a Nitrogenous Base
2) There are 4 nitrogenous bases: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
3) Hence DNA has a sugar-phosphate backbone and contains two polynucleotide strands each
connected with specific base pairing
4) Between base pairs there are Hydrogen-Bonds which can easily be broken
5) In DNA Replication there are uncoiling of these strands via the enzyme DNA Helicase

6) The replication is semi-conservative as original DNA strands can act as a template for new
complimentary strands, together they form specific base pairing
7) Nucleotides of new strand joined together by DNA Polymerase
8) There are now two molecules of DNA, each containing a parent strand and a new stand
9) DNA is then inserted into Nucleus/Plasmids, which in the case of plasmids are self-replicating

Cell Differentiation: Process by which cells become specialised/ cells become adapted for different
functions
EXAMPLE: Sperm Cell; Function: Motility. It is specialised to carry out this function as it has
mitochondria and a tail
Tissue: A group of similar cells with a common origin, example: a group of Muscle Cells make Muscle
Tissue
Organ: A group of DIFFERENT tissues coordinated to perform a variety of functions
Organ System: A group of organs working together
Genetic Diversity: Difference in DNA Base Sequence/Gene
Things that decrease Genetic Diversity:
1) Selective Breeding: This is also known as artificial selection, offspring with particular alleles are
selected and others rejected, this reduces the variety of alleles as only certain individuals are
selected to breed, therefore the character that is required is based on an allele. Hence non-selected
alleles are eliminated whilst selected alleles increase in frequency.
Ensure not to confuse selective breeding with natural/directional selection wherein nature selects
against one extreme
2) Founder Effect: New colonies formed by a small number of individuals (individuals becoming
isolated), and founders have a small gene pool, or this could happen if a species become isolated
and then mutation occurs
3) Genetic Bottlenecks: When a chance event makes the population size very low, this reduces
variation of alleles and therefore Genetic Variation
Haemoglobin: Protein with QUATERNARY STRUCTURE that has 4 haem groups which can carry 4
molecules of oxygen. It is found in RED BLOOD CELLS (not the blood plasma).
We can prove that Haemoglobin has a quaternary structure as it has MORE THAN ONE POLYPEPTIDE.
Haemoglobin has different chemical structures in
different organisms as it can have a different
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
Haemoglobin must readily associate with oxygen
at the lungs, i.e. have a high affinity (high
attraction), but must also readily dissociate with
oxygen at respiring cells, i.e. have low affinity
(low attraction). Dissociation of Oxygen is
increased by low O2 pressure and high CO2
pressure, Association of Oxygen is increased by
High O2 Pressure and low CO2 pressure.
Partial Pressure: Measure of the concentration of
a gas
How Oxygen is loaded and unloaded in blood:
1) Partial Pressure of oxygen is high in lungs
2) O2 binds to Haemoglobin
3) Forms Oxyhaemoglobin
4) In red blood cells, Haemoglobin has a high affinity to Oxygen
5) Dissociation occurs when partial pressure of O 2 is low
6) Dissociation is increased by high CO 2 pressure
7) Partial Pressure of Oxygen is low in respiring tissue
8) Therefore Haemoglobin has low affinity to Oxygen
9) Dissociation curve shifts to the right
Throughout our whole body this graph will be moving from left to right shift constantly.
An easy way to remember this is: LEFT-LOADING-LUNGS, RIGHT-RELEASING-RESPIRATION
Once all the Haemoglobin groups are attached to Oxygen, increasing the partial pressure of Oxygen
will have no effect.
During respiration:
Curve moves to right as concentration of CO2 is high whilst O2 concentration is low
Advantage of having curve to the left in people who live at high altitudes:
1) Greater affinity of Haemoglobin to Oxygen at lower partial pressure of Oxygen
2) Higher saturation of Haemoglobin with Oxygen as high altitudes have low partial pressure of
Oxygen in lungs
People who live at high altitudes have more red blood cells, the advantage of this is:
More Haemoglobin, therefore can pick up more Oxygen
People at high altitudes also have their curves to the RIGHT, the advantage of this is:
Haemoglobin has lower affinity for Oxygen, therefore more Oxygen released into cells for
respiration
Advantage of having curve to the left in a foetus:

1) Foetus has higher oxygen affinity at lower partial pressure of Oxygen

2) At partial pressures when adult haemoglobin dissociates from Oxygen, foetus haemoglobin
takes up Oxygen from mothers blood
Disadvantage of having graph too much to the left:
1) Difficult to dissociate
2) Therefore cells suffer
Advantage of having curve to the right during exercise:
1) Haemoglobin has a lower affinity for Oxygen
2) Therefore more O2 for respiration

How having a lot of Haemoglobin can help an athlete:

1) More Oxygen can be absorbed for respiration
2) Therefore more energy released for muscle contraction
3) Thus delaying anaerobic respiration
Having a high concentration of Red Blood Cells in blood can increase blood pressure because:
Heart contractions are greater
During exercise, rate of respiration increases in muscle cells, hence the human haemoglobin unloads
more Oxygen due to:
1) Partial pressure of Oxygen very low in muscle cells
2) More CO2 produced
3) This lowers pH
4) Also temperature increases
5) Therefore increased dissociation of Haemoglobin with Oxygen
6) This results in the curve displacing to the right
7) This is known as the Bohr Effect

The Palisade plant cell as show is adapted so as to allow

maximum photosynthesis to take place:
1) Many Chloroplasts contain Chlorophyll light absorbing pigment
2) Shape of Chloroplast gives large surface area for CO 2 absorption
3) Chloroplasts have different pigments so as to absorb different
wavelengths
4) Stacking of grana maximises light catchment
5) Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis
6) Starch grains store products of photosynthesis
7) Long thin cells that form continuous layer to absorb sunlight
8) Large vacuole pushes chloroplasts to the edge.
9) Thin permeable wall to absorb CO2
10) Gaps between adjacent cells
11) They are elongated cells to allow maximum light absorption
The Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis.
Chloroplast ABSORBS LIGHT FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS, this is
because when light energy hits a chloroplast, it excites
Chlorophyll and thus releases electrons.
Chloroplast produces CARBOHYDRATES. Here is a look at a
Chloroplast in more detail: The following shows the Light
Dependent Stage, the Light Independent stage takes place in the
Stroma.
The functions of the Cell Wall of the Palisade plant cell are:
Provide mechanical strength against cell bursting from osmotic entry and strength to the plant
as a whole
To allow water to pass along it and so contribute to movement of water through plant
In plants, during the day:
Photosynthesis takes place
CO2 diffuses from external air into leaf through the STOMATA from a high concentration to a low
concentration
O2 diffuses out as does WATER VAPOUR in the process known as TRANSPIRATION
During the night:
Respiration takes place
O2 diffuses from external air into leaf through the
STOMATA from a high concentration to a low
concentration
CO2 diffuses out
When plants are watered:
Stomata are open due to greater turgor in guard
cells
How the Plant Cells are adapted for the above mentioned:
1. Thin flat shape to provide large surface area
2. Many small pores called stomata in lower epidermis,
which open in light, etc.
3. Numerous, interconnecting air spaces that occur
through the mesophyll
4. The opening and closing of Stomata controlled by Guard Cells
Some plant cells have chloroplasts; this is as well as a flagellum and a light sensitive eyespot.
Chloroplasts: Absorb light
Flagellum: Move cell towards light
Light Sensitive Eyespot: Detects light
How Carbon Dioxide in the air reaches Mesophyll Cells:
1) Carbon Dioxide enters via stomata which are opened by guard cells
2) Carbon Dioxide moves via diffusion through stomata down the concentration gradient
Some plants have other adaptations that help in the following ways:
1) Shorter stem; less energy used in stem growth
2) Thicker root; storage
3) Larger leaves; Photosynthesis
If a plant grows quicker, then this is beneficial for a farmer as it will produce its fruits quicker.

STARCH
Made up of single sugars of glucose molecules joined
together by condensation,
forming a polysaccharide
with Glycosidic Bonds.
The long polysaccharide
molecules are coiled to make
a compact structure.
Starch is a CARBOHYDRATE
Test for Starch
Add iodine and if starch is
present, solution will turn
BLUE-BLACK COLOUR.

GLYCOGEN
CELLULOSE
Made up of shorter
Made of -glucose molecules via
polysaccharide chains.
condensation forming Glycosidic
Bonds, in -glucose molecules, the
Found in the liver.
OH group alternates, up and
Highly branched molecule.
down.
Made up of -glucose

It
is polysaccharide/polymer
molecules via
condensation. Therefore it Polysaccharide run parallel to each
other
contains Glycosidic Bonds
(unbranched) with H-Bonds in
Glycogen is a
between
CARBOHYDRATE
The
Glycogen is a branched
Hmolecule
It is only found in animal
cells and not found in
plant cells at ALL
Bonds provide strength as they are
in large numbers
It is insoluble

Function
Function
Has Spiral Shape: This makes Storage molecule
it COMPACT, therefore can be
STORED
-glucose molecules can be
used in aerobic respiration
Insoluble: therefore does not
affect water potential or
osmosis and
Large Molecule: therefore does
not easily diffuse out of cell
For all the above reasons, a
plant stores starch in its cells
rather than glucose.

Function
In PLANT CELL WALL:
1) Cellulose is long, straight
unbranched of glucose joint by
Hydrogen bonds,
2) This forms Micro fibrils
3) Provide Strength, support and
rigidity to the Cell Wall
Prevent cell from bursting as water
enters via osmosis
Makes plant cell turgid, more
surface area for photosynthesis
Resists digestion

THE
FOLLOWING IS A -glucose
Overall Structure of Cellulose:
1) Made from -glucose joined by condensation through the 1:4 link
2) Alternate molecules flip over
Any time scientists wish to see if a cell has any of the above in it, they will cut a thin section of a
tissue.
It has to be a THIN SECTION because: 1) Only a single layer of cells is needed 2) Light must be able
to pass through
Ways in which Cellulose is similar to Starch:
1) Both are polymers; made of monomers
2) Both have monomers joined by condensation
3) Both have 1-4 links
4) Both contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

5) Both are made up of Glucose

6) Both are insoluble
7) Both contain Glycosidic Bonds
Ways in which Cellulose is different to Starch:
1) Starch made up of -glucose molecules, whereas Cellulose made of -glucose molecules
2) Starch is helix/compact, whereas Cellulose is straight
3) Starch forms no micro fibrils, whereas Cellulose does form micro fibrils

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

One way by which different species may be distinguished: Inter-breed to produce infertile offspring
Every species has a BINOMIAL NAME. First name is known as the GENERIC NAME and always has a
capital letter. The second name is referred to as the SPECIES NAME. E.g. Drosphiller malingitis
(Drosphiller = GENUS, malingitis = SPECIES)
Taxonomic Classification: This is referred to as a hierarchical classification which means large groups
containing small groups known as taxons in this case:
1) Kingdom 2) Phylum 3) Class
4) Order 5) Family
6) Genus/Genera 7) Species
Remember it like this: (K)eep (P)lucking (C)hickens (O)r (F)ear (G)etting (S)acked
Species: Organisms which have similar features and can breed to produce fertile offspring
An example of a KINGDOM is the Prokaryote Kingdom; it is different from all other Kingdoms as
Prokaryotes have no nucleus, no mitochondria, etc.
Closely Related: More recent common ancestor
The above system of classification consists of hierarchy. Hierarchy: Large groups containing smaller
groups with no overlap.
Also remember here that if two animals have the same Class, then they also have the same Kingdom
and Phylum also, obviously. In the same way if two animals have the same Family, then they also
have the same Order, Class, Phylum and Kingdom, obviously. Ensure to use this logic in all cases.
If two species have the same GENUS, then their ancestors are very common.
The way in which different species evolve from a common ancestor:
1) Mutations
2) Geographical isolation
3) Selection
The principles scientists use to classify organisms into Taxonomic Groups:
Number of Chromosomes
Hierarchical with no overlap
Features in common
Evolutionary relationships by looking at their ancestors, this is called PHYLOGENY
Anatomical features
Embryology
DNA
Homologous Structures
Fossil record
10)
Biochemical differences/Binomial Nomenclature
How biological classification supports the idea that animals in different groups have some genes in
common:
1) Classification is phylogenetic; based on evolutionary
PHYLOGENETIC: grouped according to evolutionary links (IMPORTANT DEFINITION)
2) Hierarchy start with close common ancestry (Genus, Species), then into larger groups and more
distant common ancestry (Family, Order, Class, Phylum) in same kingdom
HIERARCHY: groups within groups with no overlap between the groups (IMPORTANT DEFINITION)
3) Hence they must be related
Another way that scientists compare two species is through GENETIC COMPARISON.
Process:
1) Scientists take DNA from similar genes of two species
2) They heat both DNA molecules, breaking all the Hydrogen Bonds in between strands of both
molecules
3) All strands are now separate, two are marked as from one species whilst other two strands are
from other species
4) All four strands are left to cool, this allows strands from one species to form Hydrogen Bonds
with complimentary NUCLEOTIDES from strands of other species
5) The more Hydrogen Bonds formed between the bases of the HYBRID (the combination of two
strands, one from each species), the more related the two species are and the longer it will
take for the strands to separate when heated
When scientists take DNA, they take DNA from same gene from each species, this is because:
Base sequence will be similar
Bases will therefore bind together
Another way that scientists compare two species is through AMINO ACID SEQUENCE/PROTEIN
COMPARISON. This is because sequence of amino acids in proteins is determined by DNA, therefore
the more similar the amino acid sequence in SAME protein (it is very important that BOTH species
being compared make the protein the sequence of which we will compare), the more closely related
the species are. Also if the amino acids are actually different, then that means the bases of DNA for
each are different, therefore if we tried the GENTIC COMPARISON, few Hydrogen Bonds would form
between the two strands of the Hybrid.

It is still better to compare the base sequences of GENES rather than comparing structure of
proteins/amino acid sequence, this is because: DEGENERACY OF TRIPLET CODE in each species can be
compared.
Another way that scientists compare two species is through IMMUNOLOGICAL COMPARISON.
Process:
1) Serum injected from species A into random species C
2) Species C produces antibodies specific for Species A serum
3) These antibodies from Species C removed and put in tube
4) Serum from species B added to tube
5) Check to see how much precipitate forms, i.e. how much of the antibodies actually affect the
serum from Species B
6) The more the precipitate forms, the higher the relationship between Species A and Species B
OVERALL:
Compare DNA
1) Sequence of bases compared via DNA Hybridisation
2) DNA Strands are separated and mixed together
3) Heat required to separate hybrid strands indicates relationship, if a lot of heat required,
species more closely related as more complimentary bases, therefore more H-Bonds
formed
Compare Protein
1) Sequence of amino acids i.e. the primary structure compared, this reflects DNA base
sequence
Immunological Evidence
1) Inject serum into animal
2) Obtain antibodies
3) Add serum from other species
4) Amount of precipitate indicates relationship
Courtship Behaviour: Signals to communicate with a potential mate
Reason why Courtship Behaviour is necessary and how it increases probability of successful mating:
Recognition of same species
Recognition of opposite gender
Indication of sexual maturity
Form Pair Bond
Stimulates release of gametes
Synchronises mating
Releases Pheromones
If a male and female mate to produce FERTILE OFFSPRING, then the male and female are from the
same species.
Also usually when hybrids (offspring of two different species) are born, they cannot display proper
courtship behaviour which the females are attracted to and they will not produce fertile offspring as
they have a different chromosome number, gene pool, etc. Also two animals will not mate if they look
different to each other in colour, size, etc.
Species that are more closely related will have a higher chance of mating as they will have
compatible genitalia; also courtship is species-specific and can be used by scientists to check
relationship between two species as same species have similar calls.
The probability of fertilisation is increased if it takes place in a limited area. Offspring that are born in
burrows and hidden places have a high chance of survival as they are protected from predators.
Small Organisms (such as most single-celled organisms):
1) Have a large surface area: volume ratio, i.e. their surface area is quite large compared to their
volume.
2) Therefore substances diffuse into their body over the skin surface, usually their skin will
be/have:
Thin; to allow short diffusion pathway
Hairs; greater surface area for gas exchange
3) Therefore they lose more heat per gram of tissue, they therefore respire FASTER, and therefore
their Oxygen Dissociation Curve is displaced to the right as they need more Oxygen. This is
also the reason they are affected more by substances such as pesticides because the pesticide
diffuses into their body very quickly.
Large animals:

1) Have a small surface area: volume ratio, i.e. their surface area is quite small compared to their
volume.
2) Therefore they have specially adapted gas exchange surfaces
3) Also, the diffusion is slow as diffusion depends on surface area
4) The cells of a large organism are far away, therefore they must be supplied to by a transport
system
5) Large animals that are more active have high metabolic rate, therefore they Respire MORE as
respiration provides the heat to maintain body temperature.
6) Large animals also however, lose less heat per gram of tissue as they have fat, etc. for
insulation
7) Different organisms absorb things by different amounts
as each organism has a different metabolism.
The relationship between the size of a mammal and its
surface area: volume ratio is: The larger the mammal, the
smaller the surface area: volume ratio
Energy Lost In Respiration = Energy Attained Through Food
Energy Lost In Faeces & Energy Lost In New Body Mass
Features of Specialised Exchange Surface:
Large Surface Area : Volume ratio; increases rate of
exchange
Very thin so that the diffusion distance is short
Partially permeable to allow selected materials to cross
Movement of environmental medium (e.g. air) and internal medium (e.g. blood) to maintain
diffusion gradient
Insects are small and therefore water easily evaporates from their bodies, they reduce water loss by:
1) Waterproof coatings over their body surfaces
2) Small surface area to Volume ratio to minimise area over which water is los
Gas Exchange in insects:
The level of oxygen inside insect will decrease due to respiration. This means that the level of CO 2 will
increase in the insect. There is a concentration gradient of Oxygen from OUTSIDE INSECT (high) to
INSIDE INSECT (low), there is another concentration gradient of CO 2 (created from respiration) from
OUTSIDE INSECT (low) to INSIDE INSECT (high), therefore when the spiracles open Oxygen comes in
and AT THE SAME TIME CO2 goes out. Process:
1) Air enters through open spiracles
2) Then through trachea where there is a diffusion gradient
3) The trachea is closely associated with cells
4) Oxygen diffuses into cells of muscle fibre
5) Ventilation replaces air in trachea
WATER USUALLY ESCAPES WHEN THE SPIRACLES OPEN TO RELEASE CO 2
Spiracles in an insect open:
When concentration of CO2 increases
Concentration of Oxygen falls in trachea/tracheoles because:
Oxygen is used in respiration, therefore it diffuses from trachea into tissues
How an insect limits water loss:
1) Body covered with waterproof waxy layer
2) Spiracles are able to close, they will close in dry conditions to maintain water and prevent
dehydration
3) Sunken spiracles to trap moist air
4) Trachea cuticle lined so as to only lose water through tracheoles
The many small branching tracheoles provide a LARGE SURFACE AREA.
During this process you also have muscles which:
Create large movement of gases in and out of trachea
This speed up exchange of respiratory gases
Also, the gas exchange system has a large surface area as well as the tracheoles are BRANCHED,
inside the muscle fibre.
Features of an insects gas exchange system that allows efficient oxygen supply:
1) Lots of tracheoles give large surface area, loss of water from tracheoles also helps O 2 diffuse
from tracheoles
2) Short distance between tracheoles gives short diffusion pathway
3) Diffusion through MUSCLE is slow, therefore

Our lung alveoli have a moist surface; this is because Alveolar epithelium is permeable to small
molecules such as water.
The diagram shows how there is COUNTER-CURRENT FLOW system in gas exchange in fish.
The structure of gills allows efficient Oxygen uptake because:
1) Many filaments therefore large surface area
2) Large number of capillaries maintains a
diffusion gradient of high to low oxygen
concentration
3) Thin epithelium therefore shorter
diffusion pathway
Water containing Oxygen flows in opposite direction of blood flow, this is important because:
Water with high oxygen concentration
meets blood with low oxygen
concentration, therefore MAINTAINS
CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
Diffusion occurs across whole length of
GILL LAMELLA
Equilibrium is never reached
More Oxygen taken up which can be used
for respiration
Advantage for fishes of having a one-way flow of water over its gills: 1) less energy needed
2)
continuous flow of water
How a fish maintains a FLOW OF WATER over its gills:
1) Mouth opens and the floor of the mouth is lowered
2) Water enters due to decreased pressure
3) Mouth closes and floor of mouth raised results in increased pressure
4) Increased pressure forces water over gills
Always remember that surface waters have a higher concentration of Oxygen as water diffuses from
air into water as air has higher concentration of Oxygen than water
THE COUNTER-CURRENT FLOW SYSTEM MAINTAINS DIFFUSION GRADIENT.
ANOTHER WAY IN WHICH THE FISH MAINTAINS THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT IS:
BLOOD FLOW/CIRCULATION (REMOVES OXYGEN), VENTILATION AND RESPIRATION
A Fishs gills have a large surface area because: Gills have lamella on filaments and have lots of both
filaments and lamella
The difference between insects and fish in the transport of Oxygen to a muscle:
Blood not involved in insects in transport of Oxygen to a muscle
Some mammals such as dolphins are not able to extract oxygen from water, this is because:
1) Water too dense to move in and out of lungs
2) Low oxygen concentration in water
3) High metabolic rate in terms of activity in mammals
How a Concentration gradient is maintained between a fish gill and surrounding water:
1) Circulatory system brings in blood
with low concentration of Oxygen due
to respiration etc.
2) There is also a counter-current system
3) Also the water surrounding the fish is
highly oxygenated
4) Also the fish has a ventilation system
to replace water
How gills of a fish are adapted for efficient
gas exchange:
Adaptation
How it helps
Large surface area provided by
Increases diffusion
lamella
Thin epithelium between water and
Shorter diffusion pathway
blood
Water and blood flow in opposite
Maintains concentration gradient as water is always next
direction
to blood with lower concentration of Oxygen
Circulation
Replaces blood saturated with Oxygen
Ventilation
Replaces water
Large number of capillaries
Maintain concentration gradient

Some fishes have lungs and gills; this means that if they perform gas exchange through lungs a lot as
well, then it is likely that they can survive even after water dries up; this is because gills do not
function as efficiently in air as they do in water.
Features of Transport System:
1) A suitable transport medium
2) Form of mass transport in which transport medium is moved
3) Closed system of tubular vessels that contain transport medium
4) Mechanism (such as contraction) for moving transport medium within vessels
5) Mechanism to maintain flow movement in one direction
6) Means of controlling flow of transport medium to suit changing needs of different parts of
organism
Mammals have closed blood system. Speed in delivering blood to the rest of the body is important as
mammals have a high blood temperature and high metabolic rate. Also remember that blood vessels
have an ENDOTHELIUM.
Adaptations of a mammalian lung:
1) Only single layer of epithelial cells lining alveolus
2) Cells are flattened
3) Capillaries surrounded by single layer of cells
4) Capillaries and alveoli are close
5) Cell membrane permeable to gases
6) Walls of capillary and alveoli are thin to provide a short diffusion pathway

Type of
vessel

ARTERY/AOR
TA

VEIN

ARTERIOLE

CAPILLARY

How its structure is related to its function

1) No valves; constant high pressure therefore no back flow
2) Thicker muscle compared to veins; enables withstand blood at high pressure
3) Thick elastic fibres; elastic Recoil Action maintains pressure as it allows wall to
expand under high pressure when blood leaves the heart via the ventricle
contracting and spring back under low pressure when ventricle relaxes, therefore
evens out pressure
4) A lot of muscle; maintains pressure
5) Endothelium consists of flat cells which reduce friction with blood
Substances diffuse into the aorta through its wall via a blood vessel.
The changes in the pressure of the aorta would tell you the heart rate as each
pressure surge caused by one contraction of the heart.
1) Thin Walls; because it does not have to withstand high pressure as there is little
difference in a vein between the maximum pressure and minimum pressure
2) Valves throughout; prevent backflow when muscle contract and increase pressure,
valves close when pressure at one side of the valve is higher than pressure at the
other side of the valve
3) Muscle can contract; alter vessel diameter
4) Elastic layer relatively thin; low pressure
5) Endothelium consists of flat cells which reduce friction with blood
When muscles are not contracting in vein, the blood is returned to the heart by:
RESIDUAL PRESSURE
1) Muscle layer relatively thicker than in arteries (muscle fibres); controls blood flow
into capillaries by: contracting and lowering size of lumen
2) It is an organ; contains a variety of tissues
3) Elastic layer relatively thinner than in arteries; not as high blood pressure
4) Smooth; Reduces friction
1) Thin wall; allows SHORT DIFFUSION PATHWAY
2) Numerous and highly branched; provides large surface area for diffusion
3) Narrow lumen; reduces diffusion distance
4) Only endothelium present; short diffusion pathway

5) Narrow diameter; permeate tissues, i.e. ensures that no cell is far from capillary
6) Blood flow in capillaries is slow because:
Gives substances time to pass through wall of capillary
The
rate of
blood
flow

decreases from Aorta to Capillaries, this is because: Large increase in total cross-sectional area.
Remember Arteries will contain Oxygen, Glucose, Amino Acids, Lipids, etc. Veins will not.
Both capillaries and arteries are similar in the way that they both have an endothelium.
2 differences between veins and arteries:
1) Arteries have thicker muscular wall
2) Arteries have more elastic tissue
3) Vein have relatively larger lumen
4) Veins have valves
Why total number of Arterioles is more than total number of main arteries:
Arteries divide to form arterioles
Why the total number of main Arteries is same as total number of ain veins:
Blood goes to an organ along an artery and leaves by a vein
The more active a muscle, the more blood flow there is to the capillaries of that muscle, this helps
because:
1) More effective supply of Oxygen
2) This is needed to meet increased reparation demand of the muscle
Why water is always lost from the gas exchange surfaces of terrestrial organisms:
1) Gas exchange surfaces are permeable
2) Higher concentration of water inside animal than out
3) Water will diffuse outwards
How blood in a vein is returned to the heart:
1) Muscles surrounding veins contract
2) This presses on the walls of the veins
3) This squeezes blood along veins
4) Valves prevent backflow
5) Negative pressure in chest and recoil of heart draws blood from veins
6) The wide lumen little friction
With Veins, there is a disease known as Varicose Veins, which is found in the legs and treated by
wearing tight stockings, this helps because:
The external pressure stops blood collecting at the bottom of the leg

The above picture shows how tissue fluid at the Arterial end containing O 2 and Water is passed along
the capillary at the Venule end,
where it now contains CO2 and
waste material.
The reason of net loss of Water
from the capillary at the arterial
end:
Hydrostatic
Pressure/Blood Pressure
greater than pressure of
water potential gradient
The reason as to why there is a
high Hydrostatic Pressure/Blood
Pressure at the arterial end:
Contraction of left
ventricle in heart
Why Hydrostatic Pressure
decreases as blood moves along
capillary:
Frictional force from contact with wall
Loss of fluid
Total volume of fluid going from capillary is greater than volume coming back in, this is because:
Some fluid is removed by the Lymphatic Node, which returns the fluid to the blood
The blood flow in capillaries is slow, this is because:
To allow more time for diffusion of substances
Tissue fluid accumulates in the tissues of people who do not eat enough protein, this is because:
In an unhealthy person, less protein in blood
Therefore water potential gradient lower at venule end
Less water reabsorbed into capillaries via osmosis
How tissue fluid is formed:
1) High hydrostatic pressure at Aortic end pushes fluid out
2) Large proteins however, remain in blood as they cannot pass through capillary wall
How tissue fluid is returned to capillary:
1) Hydrostatic pressure lower in capillary at venule end
2) Water returns via osmosis from high water potential to low water potential
3) Low water potential in capillary caused by proteins in blood, i.e. proteins more concentrated
due to less or no water
4) Tissue fluid also returns to the circulatory system via lymph vessels
Also remember that Blood Plasma AND Tissue Fluid contain glucose and sodium ions; however Tissue
Fluid contains less Oxygen as Oxygen is used by respiring cells.
Why water potential is of Blood Plasma is lower than Blood Plasma at venule end:
1) Plasma proteins too large to leave capillary
2) Water lost, i.e. plasma proteins more concentrated
The lymph vessel has valves; these valves assist the return of lymph to blood plasma:
1) Stop backflow
2) No pumping action
The function of the Lymphatic vessels:
1) Drains excess fluid
2) Prevents accumulation of fluid
3) Transports fats

Osmosis: Diffusion through a partially permeable from less

negative water potential

to a more negative water

potential
Xylem: Transports water and ions up the root, and then up the stem, it has lignified walls to provide
support
Phloem: Transports soluble food molecules up the plant such as sucrose; it does this using Active
Transport and therefore
requires ATP

How an increase in rate of transpiration affects water potential of leaves:

1) Transpiration involves evaporation of water through the stomata
2) Reduced water content lowers water potential
How a decrease in water content of soil affects the rate of transpiration:
Reduces transpiration as less water uptake, therefore water potential gradient across leaves and
atmosphere reduced
How water enters root hair cells:
1) Active transport of mineral ions by the root hair cells reduce water potential gradient
2) Therefore water enters down the water potential gradient via osmosis
HOW WATER GETS TO THE XYLEM:
Cells of Cortex contain mineral ions and amino acids, therefore lowering water potential
Water moves from soil into the first cortical cell from high water potential to low water potential
via osmosis
This continues from cortical cells to cortical cell
Apoplastic Pathway (movement of water through cell walls):
1) Water moves through intra-cellular cellulose of CELL WALL fibres of Cortical Cells
2) It is caused by transpiration pull and water moves down a concentration gradient
3) Water movement is by cohesive properties of water
4) Water moves in continuous column until it reaches endodermal layer
5) Endodermal cells contain caparian strip, which is a water proof substance, at this point water
cannot pass
6) Water flips to the SYMPLASTIC PATHWAY and then by osmosis moves into cytoplasm of the
ENDODERMAL CELL as endodermal cell has a lower water potential
Symplastic Pathway:
1) Whole process takes place through cytoplasm (NOT VACUOLE) of cells
2) Water passes from cell to cell through plasmodesmata from high water potential to low water
potential via osmosis
3) Therefore a continuous column of cytoplasm present from root hair cell to xylem
Why all water passes through the ENDODERMIS by the same pathway:
1) Casparian strip is present
2) Therefore water MUST go through cytoplasm
Water ENTERS xylem by:
1) Xylem is non-living tissue
2) Active Transport of salts from endodermal cells into the xylem vessel
3) This is why Oxygen is necessary as Oxygen is used in respiration to produce ATP which causes
active transport
4) Water potential is lowered in xylem vessel
5) Water moves by osmosis from high water potential to low water potential which is a passive
process
6) This creates root pressure
How structure of xylem is related to its function:
Adaptation
How it helps
Thick Cell Walls
Withstand negative pressure
Lignin in Cell Walls
Withstand negative pressure
Xylem Cells have no end walls
Maintains continuous column of water
Xylem Vessels are stacked on top of each
Maintains continuous column of water
other
They no cytoplasm
Reduces resistance to flow of water
Xylem Cells have pores in side walls
This enables sideways flow
Molecules in Cell Walls
Allows adhesion
Role of Endodermis in entry of water and mineral ions into the Xylem:

1) Endodermis has waterproof strip so water must cross cell membrane go via Symplastic Pathway
2) Mineral ions move by active transport creating water potential for water to diffuse into Xylem
A SIMPLE BUT IMPORTANT THING TO REMEMBER IS THAT THE ENVIRONMENT AFFECTS RATE OF
TRANSPIRATION.
Three things force water up the Xylem/trunk of the plant:
1) Root Pressure
2) Cohesion Tension Theory
3) Capillarity (not needed for this unit)
Cause of Root Pressure:
1) Active Transport by endodermis of salts/ions into xylem
2) This lowers water potential in xylem
3) Therefore water enters via osmosis
4) Volume of water in xylem increases
5) Therefore pressure in xylem increases and pushes
water upwards
How water moves up the stem (Cohesion Tension Theory):
1) Solar Energy source
2) Therefore evaporation/transpiration of water takes
place
3) A water potential gradient is created across the leaf
mesophyll cells
4) Thus when water potential is low in leaf cells water
moves out of the xylem into surrounding tissues by
osmosis thus transpiration exerts force creating
tension in water columns
5) Hence water pulled up, however the polarity of
water causes
H-Bonds between water molecules, therefore cohesion
6) This maintains a continuous column as cohesion holds water columns together
7) The column does not break as there is also adhesion between the water and the walls of xylem
vessel
8) This decreases diameter of xylem vessels and therefore tree trunk
9) If an air bubble is present, the column is broken and the movement of water is blocked
Evidence that supports Cohesion Tension Theory:
1) Movement of water reaches maximum rate earlier than it does in trunk and evaporation takes
place during daytime
2) This creates tension/negative pressure
3) Also the fact that the diameter of the trunk falls during the day is also evidence of the Cohesion
Tension Theory
Evidence that supports Root Pressure Theory:
Guttation in plants, thus upwards pressure forces liquid out of leaves
Evidence AGAINST Root Pressure:
Root Pressure gives OUTWARD force, there xylem vessels should become wider
Why Transpiration takes place:
1) Water evaporates via osmosis from high water potential in leaves to low water potential in low
2) The stomata are open
Sometimes, when leaves are sprayed with grease or thick substance, transpiration rate decreases:
1) The stomata are covered
2) The thick substance gives longer diffusion pathway
3) Therefore less transpiration
How rate of flow of water in xylem is highest at midday:
1) Stomata are open
2) Transpiration highest around midday as middle of day is lighter and warmer
3) This increases the tension as more water is pulled up
4) Therefore, there is cohesion between water molecules
Why Xylem diameter is least during midday
1) Water pulled up trunk
2) Water column under tension
3) Adhesion between water molecules and xylem
4) Xylem pulled in
The values of pressure in Xylem are negative because:
1) Pressure inside Xylem lower than atmospheric pressure
2) Water is under tension

How the plant uses water:

Create turgor
Use as solvent for transport
Use as a medium for chemical reactions
OVERALL, HOW WATER ENTERS FROM ROOT TO XYLEM, THEN FROM XYLEM TO LEAVES (if asked in
exam):
1) Water enters xylem through Symplastic pathway as casparian strip blocks apoplastic pathway
2) Active transport by endodermis of salts/ions into xylem which lowers the water potential of
xylem
3) Water enters xylem down potential gradient via osmosis
4) Evaporation from leaves causes H-Bonding between water molecules/cohesion
5) This causes water molecules to bind to the xylem vessel
6) This creates continuous water column
When root tips are examined, they are cut off, stained and put on a slide, a cover slip is then placed
on top and used to squash the root tip.
Why the root should be stained:
So that chromosomes can be seen
Why the root should be squashed:
To allow light to pass through
In plants, scientists always try to cross plant between species, this is because:
1) Preserve variety of alleles (cross plants are still fertile, unlike in mammals)
2) Maintain genetic variation
3) Prevent inbreeding
Weeds are killed by spraying a salt solution on them, they die because:
Water potential decreases in salt solution, therefore water unable to enter root cells
Why less water is lost through the upper surface of leaves rather than through lower surface:
More stomata on lower surface
Waxy cuticle on upper surface
The relationship between rate of flow of water and total area of stomatal openings:
DECREASE is proportional
How water leaves mesophyll cells in leaf of plant:
1) Through the open stomata
2) Down the water potential gradient
3) By DIFFUSION (do not mention osmosis here)
Sometimes, the Stomatal openings are remaining constant, however, the rate of transpiration
increases, this is due to INCREASE IN TEMEPRATURE.
Why smaller diameter have faster water loss:
1) Diffusion gradient not as steep as diameter in stomata increases
2) Smaller stomata have more edge of area

The diameter of a trunk decreases as rate of flow of water increases because:

1) Increasing transpiration
2) Transpiration creates tension
3) Water molecules are cohesive, therefore adhesive forces between xylem and water
4) Produces water column
A Potometer measures rate of WATER UPTAKE (cm 3 per minute) via the following apparatus:
How the air bubble is returned to start of
capillary tube:
Open tap and add water from reservoir
Precautions to be taken to obtain reliable
results:
1) Seal joints
2) Cut shoot under water and cut shoot at
slant
3) Dry off leaves
4) Insert into apparatus under water
5) Note where bubble is at the start
6) Ensure no other air bubbles present

Measurements that are needed:

Distance moved by bubble in time period
Diameter of capillary tube
If he wanted to compare transpiration from different shoots he should also measure the surface
area of the leaves
Conditions that should be constant during the investigation:
1) Light
2) Humidity
3) Air Movement
4) Temperature
A photometer measures the rate of water uptake, it does not truly measure rate of TRANSPIRATION
because:
1) Water used for support
2) Water used for photosynthesis
3) Water produced in respiration
The fewer the leaves a plant has, the lower the rate of water uptake, this is because:
1) Less surface area
2) Fewer stomata
3) Therefore less transpiration
4) Therefore less cohesion
The shoot should be cut and put into the photometer under water because:
1) Preventing air entering
2) Maintain continuous water column
When a leaf is simply plucked out of the ground and its mass is measured at different intervals, its
mass will decrease rapidly at first, and then slowly, this is because:
1) Loss is mass as water loss is not replaced
2) Initially the stomata are open as there is a high water potential in leaf cells compared with
atmosphere
3) Therefore diffusion of water takes place and leafs mass decreases
4) Eventually water potential of leaf reduced, therefore diffusion gradient reduced and therefore
loss of water reduced
REMEMBER WATER UPTAKE IS THE OPPOSITE OF TRANSPIRATION; USUALLY TRANSPIRATION WILL
AFFECT WATER UPTAKE.

Factor
Affecting
How It Affects
Transpiration
If any
of the
above takes place, the Apoplastic Pathway
will decrease
as less water will have been lost
Transpiration
by the
leaves, therefore, decreasing the water potential gradient.
Xerophytic Plants: Plants
Photosynthesis
that do not have
onlyplentiful
occurs inwater
light,therefore
thereforehave
majority
adaptations
of stomata
to limit
are open
waterLight transpiration
loss through
for CO2
The best xerophytic plant
that will
survive in
is light
the one
with the
shallowest
roots, i.e. WIDE spread of
Therefore
increase
intensity
increases
transpiration
rootsTemperature
for rapid absorption.
As temperature increases, kinetic energy increases
Population: Total number
of organisms
a species in increases
an area
Therefore
rate ofoftranspiration
Bio Diversity: Variety of living organisms, the range of variety of genes, species, and habitat within a
When atmosphere is humid, there is similar amount of water in the leaf,
particular region
Humidity
thereforeBiodiversity:
there is littlePrevents
or no concentration
gradient
reducing rate of
Ethical argument for preserving
extinction and
loss of thus
habitats
(Measure of water
transpiration.
Howpotential
it reduces
rate
of transpiration
molecules in the air) If there is a low humidity, then water
very
high
in leaf than in
atmosphere, therefore a high concentration gradient, therefore rate of
transpiration increases
As water diffuses through the stomata, it accumulates a vapour around
Air Movement (wind) stomata
Therefore water potential around stomata increased, thus reducing
concentration gradient
Movement of air around the leaf will disperse the water vapour at leaf
surface increasing concentration gradient and thus the rate of reaction
Adaptation
Thick Cuticle
Impermeable to water
Greater diffusion distance
Sunken Stomata
Water evaporation into pit causes local humidity
Increased humidity results in reduction of concentration gradient
Epidermal Hairs
Create local humidity and decreases exposure to air currents
Therefore reducing diffusion gradient
Closed Stomata
Reduces area for evaporation
Rolling up leaves
Stomata region saturated with water vapour
NO water potential gradient, therefore transpiration reduced
Reduced surface area to
Reduces surface area for diffusion
volume ratio
Shallow/Extensive roots
Maximise water uptake and reach water that is further down
Swollen Stem
Water storage
Succulent Leaves and Stem Stores water
Close arrangement of Stomata Diffusion shells of individual stomata overlap
This interferes with water diffusion and slows evaporation
Stomata on lower surface of More humidity on lower surface reducing evaporation
leaf only
Root hairs
Larger surface area for diffusion

Species Diversity: Number of different species and number of individuals of each species within one
community
Genetic Diversity: Differences in DNA sequence
Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of habitats within a particular area
What we need to work out Index of Diversity:
Total number of organisms of all species
Number of organisms of each species
How you would find the number of individuals of one species in a habitat:
1) Suitable method of capture
2) Mark individuals and then release
3) Then count percentage recaptured
The index of diversity of insects increases when (the index of diversity decreases when the below
mentioned decreases):

1)
2)
3)
4)

Increase in variety of plants

Increase in variety of plants allows more habits
Greater variety of food sources
Insect diversity will usually be proportional to plant diversity

Why using index of diversity is a better measure of biodiversity than counting the different number of
species:
1) Measures number of individuals in a species and number of species
2) This is because some species may be present in low/high numbers
If an area contains mostly one species, then this would lower the Diversity Index.
Any time scientists GROW any kind of plant, they will only increase Index of Diversity as new plant
could provide as a habitat and food source.
Any environment that has harsh weather (such as freezing temperatures); will have fluctuation in
populations because:
1) Few species able to withstand harsh weather
2) Producing unstable ecosystem
3) There are very few alternatives
4) Changes in number of one species will affect those that feed on it
Economic reasons for maintain Biodiversity:
1) Medical uses
2) Commercial products
3) Tourism
4) Agriculture
5) Saving local forest communities
When you have a higher number of species, your diversity index will be automatically higher as there
will be more diversity.
Activities
How they affect environment
1) Contributed by humans
2) Species are selectively chosen which have high qualities
Impact of Agriculture
3) Resulting in less species, and therefore less variety of alleles
4) Less space available for other species, other species are
outcompeted
5) The overall effect is that it reduces species diversity
1) Deliberately done by humans
Impact of
2) Permanent clearing of forests, then the space used for agriculture,
Deforestation/Logging
housing
3) Manmade pollutants which produce acid rain which destroys forests
4) Increases CO2 atmosphere as less CO2 is being used up by plants in
photosynthesis, also CO2 produced by combustion whilst carrying out
deforestation
5) However Deforestation could also decrease CO 2 level in atmosphere
as there is less respiration happening by plants, animals, etc.
6) Habitat destruction leads to animals of prey moving out
7) Therefore less food for predators who eventually die out
8) Will cause change in proportion of species and decrease in total
number of species
1) Rate of species extension 100-1000 times faster/greater
Human Activity & Loss of 2) Main cause of species LOSS is clearance of land
Species in UK
3) Natural environment of high species diversity replaced with
agricultural environment of low species diversity
Advantage of variation in a species:
1) Different adaptations
2) Some survive to reproduce and pass on gene
3) This allows for changing environment
Causes of Variation:
Genetic Differences:
1) Mutations; different allele formed
2) Meiosis
3) RANDOM Fusion of Gametes; new combination of alleles
4) Different alleles
Even identical twins may differ at birth if they got different nutrient supplies during pregnancy.
Interspecific Variation: Variation between different species
Intraspecific Variation: Variation between members of same species

Sampling: Taking measurements of individual species from a selected population of organisms being
investigated
Reasons why sample may not represent of whole population:
1) Sampling Bias: investigators may make unrepresentative choices
2) Chance: Even if sampling bias has been avoided you may still get a bias sample by chance

Random Sampling:
1) Divide study area into grid of numbered line
2) Using random numbers, from a table or generated by computer, obtain a series of coordinates
3) Take samples at the intersection of each coordinates of number of individuals and number of
species
4) Repeat many times and take a mean
Sometimes, you may even lay quadrants every 10 metres rather than use random sampling, this is
because:
1) It is systematic sampling
2) To establish a pattern
Increasing Reliability:
Larger sample size; produces more reliable mean and ensures representative sample
Random number generator; removes bias
More samples
Also remember from Unit 1 that Isotonic Solutions can be used to dilute solutions because:
1) They have the same water potential
2) Therefore no osmosis
3) Therefore cells in solution will not burst
Standard Deviation: Measure of variation from the mean
The lower the standard deviation, the more reliable the results
ALL NOTES WERE MADE FROM EXAM PAST PAPERS BETWEEN JANUARY 2002 AND JUNE
2013
TRY TO MEMORISE ALL ANSWERS AS THEY ARE AQA ANSWERS!

In Graph Analysis and Drug Trials:

1) When describing a graph, mention peak points, increase and decrease in graph and overall
increase/decrease in graph
2) Sometimes the evidence from the graph may not be enough to draw a certain conclusion. WHY:
Any correlation does not mean there is a causal relationship
There may some other factor producing a rise/fall in both factors
Sometimes, there is no relation between both factors further along the graph
Also if a control group was not used, then effectiveness cannot be measured
Fluctuations in a graph are a clear sign that conclusions cannot be drawn from it
In graphs, where conclusions are being drawn regarding a disease, check if it says
reported cases, if it does you can mention about how we dont know the full amount of
disease cases as many were not reported and THEREFORE we cant draw conclusions.
3) Sometimes, data is given in a logarithmic form; this exaggerates the numbers and allows the
effect of low numbers to be seen, therefore it increases the range of values. Sometimes, data is
given in a ratio; this allows comparison as it shows proportional change.
4) In some graphs, medical cases are presented for the prevalence of a certain disease; however,
the number presented may not be the actual number of people with that disease as many
people do not go the doctors.
5) When an investigation involves metabolism, scientists may experiment on people of different
ages as metabolism rate differs on age.
6) When it asks you to describe a graph, be sure to mention a peak point if there is one, if not,
describe the correlation, i.e. whether it is negative or positive.
7) Sometimes data on a graph is given in a percentage, the advantage of this is:
1) Allows comparison
2) Shows proportional Change as sometimes the initial weight/size/volume etc. of substances
is different.
8) Experiments are repeated for the following reasons:
1) Allows anomalies to be identified
2) Makes the average more reliable
3) Allows more concordant results
4) Allows the mean to be calculated
5) To make the line of best fit and intercept on a graph more precise
9) Any questions in which data is regarding cancer, it would be important to remember that
cancer takes many years to develop; therefore this restricts conclusions drawn regarding it.
10)
When asked to give an evaluation on a claim or statement, mention all the points that
indicate the claim or statement to be true, and then mention how it could be false.
11)
If it asks you why a drug may not be perfect:
Unknown Long-Term side effects
Study should be carried out on humans and the study should be repeated
12)
Before carrying drug trials, scientists should consider the following regarding the drug:
Dose to be given
No serious side effects
How effective
Cost of drug
13)
When taking drug trial, scientists should consider the following of volunteers:
Age
Health
Gender
Ethnicity
Genetic Factors
Lifestyle
Body Mass

14)
When scientists wish to use an animal in a test, before deciding the number of animals to
use they must consider:
Ethical Consideration
Take a large number to improve reliability
Consider cost and space available
15)
When experiment involves volunteers, they must be healthy as they will have normally
functioning bodies. Also when dividing volunteers into groups, it should be done randomly to
avoid bias.
16)
If scientists use two drugs/vaccines and both combined have higher effect, then both
must be similar i.e. they must have the same antibodies, etc.
17)
Any time doctors wish to see how well the lungs work, they will use the gas Carbon
Monoxide, this is because:
It is not normally needed, therefore any present must have come from the test
18)
Blood flow is given per gram of tissue as organs differ in size, therefore it allows
comparison
19)
How mean can be found from a graph:
Draw line of best fit
Then find the gradient and divide it by the distance moved
20)
Any experiment wherein the words water and mention of the word partially permeable
come together, you should automatically realise that water potential will be involved somehow.
21)
Sometimes, in an experiment, they experiment on people of all the same age: this is so
that a comparison can be made.
22)
When in an experiment, people are assigned to different groups RANDOMLY; it means
everyone has an equal chance of being assigned to either group. They do this by using a
random number generator.
23)
Also remember your basics such as when you evaporate water from a substance, it
becomes more concentrated.
24)
When scientists measure something per unit of another thing it is so as to a comparison
between the two different things.
25)
If scientists wish to know the most common volume or concentration of a substance,
they take a large random sample.
26)
In a medical study, the information is useful to scientists because It allows scientists to:
Determine the most effective dose
Determine the most length of treatment
Investigate long-term effect
Find most cost-effective treatment
27)
Double Blind trials are trials wherein neither the volunteers nor the doctors know which
treatment a particular volunteer is receiving, this improves reliability because:
Prevents bias
Prevents positive/negative psychological effects
28)
When in a graph, the points are joined with straight lines rather than curves, it is
because: the intermediate values between points are unknown
29)
When something is normally distributed, it means median = mode, this is known as
continuous variation and has a bell-shaped graph
30)
In genetic research, scientists need to ensure that the environment is the same
IN MOST INVESTIGATIONS INVOLVING DATA, SCIENTISTS WILL ALSO WORK OUT THE STANDARD
ERROR OF THE MEAN
When working out percentage increase: (big number-small number small number) x 100
When working out percentage decrease: (small number-big number big number) x 100
When working out volume of a chemical after dilution:
Initial volume x concentration of chemical = volume of chemical that is in that initial volume, the rest
is basically water.
Although not always true, but just as a tip, in experiments regarding the heart, females tend to suffer
less from heart attack than males.
Be wary of questions in which the investigator recorded results of an investigation every couple of
seconds, then he displayed the investigation on a graph and the graph increases and then levels off.
If you think about it, after the graph has levelled off, if the investigator recorded results, he would

begin to observe same results, and therefore zero changes. Examiners could ask what did he observe
when the graph levelled off? The answer is nothing, zero.
Also be wary of cases where they present data regarding chickenpox, mumps and rubella as children
were made to catch these diseases by their parents as the symptoms of these diseases at childhood
are much less severe than they are after puberty, and these diseases take place only once usually
during ones lifetime.
STANDARD DEVIATION: Degree of variation from the mean.
When Standard Deviations overlap, conclusions cannot be made as effectively as results
may be due to CHANCE, if standard deviations do not overlap, we say the difference is REAL.
Why at times Standard Deviation is better than the mean:
1) Range only shows highest and lowest values
2) Also it is possible to have two very different data sets with the same range
3) Also range is affected by a single outlier
4) Standard Deviation shows spread about the mean and allows statistical use