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    European history

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    8 Ansichten9 Seiten

    General History

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    suranjanac
    European history

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    TRIAL MODE Note 1 : General History Timeline of European Architecture CLASSICAL PERIOD 800BC-400BC Etrusean 750BC-ADa50 Ancient Greece (6008C-g00BC Ancient Rome 40081C-AD700 Roman 300BC-200BC Eatly Classical 7 2008C-300AD Cl ‘MIDDLE AGES AD700-1050 Pre-Romanesque/Early Christian (often referred to as The Barly and Later Dark Ages ) ~ Asturian 711-910 ~ Carolingian 775-890, = Ottonian 950-1050 1000-1250 Kiev 1050-1175 Romanesque 1066-1190 Norman, 120-1220 Romanesque Brick 1150-1550 Gothic Gothic styles in England: ~ Norman 1066-1200 ~ Barly English 180-1275, ~ Decorated 1275-1380 ~ Perpendicular 1380-1550 Gothic styles in France (Opus Francigemum): ~ Karly 1140-1260 ~ Late or Flamboyant 1150-1550 = Rayonnant 1160-1250 ~ High 1200-1320 ~ Southern 1gthC Gothic in Germany and Eastern Europe: ~ Brick Gothie (Backsteingotik) 1175-1425 Gothic styles in Taly ~ Development ofthe Cistercian 1150-1228 ~ Karly 1228-1290 ~ Mature 1290-1985 ~ Late 1985-1550 Gothic styles in Spain: ~ Early ~ 12th ~ High ~ 1gth = Mudejar— 1g-15thC ~ Levanto 14thC ~ Flamboyant ~ 15th ~ Isabelline~ 15th ITALIAN RENAISSNACE 1400-1600 Renaissance ~ Quattrocento (Early) 1400-1500 ~ High Renaissance 1500-1525 ~~ Mannerism 1520-1600 1475-1600 Tudor 1540-1600 Elizabethan 1600-1780 Baroque ~ Talian 1580-1780 ~ Sicilian 1585-1640 ~ Russian 1620-1730 ~ French 1630-1750 ~ English 1660-1715 1600-1660 Jacobean 1620-1700 Palladianism 1725-1850 Georgian 1750-1870 Neodlassieal REVIVALS: 1800-1900 Neogathic 1850-present day Gothic Revival 1870-1900 Romanesque Revival 1900-present day Baroque Revival 1900-present day Modernist Page 1 of 9 a a Note 1 : General History lm Areas onder stam hus Frankish Kingdoms si wm Sassonid Empire | = soe Jem visigoth Kingdom 2 Major hes ie oe ae Bukhare roa am Aves under Islan ‘arabian, mm Byzantine Empire ‘sea mn Sassanid Empire 32 me Vis igoth Kin, nkish Kingdom n mms Areas under Islam mm Byzantine Empire mat Frankish Kingdom MEVisigoth Kingdom ¢ Major ches Page 2 of 9 ‘TRIAL MODE 0 valid icense wil remove iis message. See the keywords property ofthis PDF fer more intermation, Note 1 : General History Tae mm Areas under Islam mm Byzantine Empire mar - kish Kingdom jsigoth Kingdom «* Major Cities MIDDLE AGES 4.4. Middle Ages : Introduction Petrarch, an Italian poet and scholar of the fourteenth century, famously referred to the period of time between the fall of the Roman Empire (c. 476) and his own day (c. 1330s) as the Dark Ages. Petrarch believed that the Dark Ages was a period of intellectual darkness due to the loss of the classical learning, which he sav 2 light. Later historians picked up on this idea and ultimately ‘the tem Dark Ages was transformed into Middle Ages. Broadly speaking, the Middle Ages is the period of time in Europe between the end of antiquity in the fifth century and the Renaissance, or rebirth of classical leaming, in the fiteenth century and sixteenth centuries. 4.2. Not so dark after all Characterizing the Middle Ages as a period of darkness falling between two greater, more intellectually significant periods in history is misleading. Compared to the classical civilizations, this age was bleak. Language, letters, arts, technology, culture, governance of the classical ages were all lost and its true that most of it was not revived until the Italian Renaissance. Stil, the Middle Ages was not a time of complete ignorance and backwardness, but rather a period during which Christianity flourished in Europe. Christianity, and specifically Catholicism in the Latin West, brought with it new views of life and the world that rejected the traditions and leaming of the ancient world, The developments of this period were built on an Page 3 of 9 ‘TRIAL MODE 0 valid cense wil remove tits message. See the keywords property ofthis PDF fer more intermation, TRIAL MODE Note 1 : General History amalgamation of partial revival of Roman culture, the local tribal culture and the ruling Muslim cultures that were Continually in conflict with the Christian culture. During this time, the Roman Empire slowly fragmented into many smaller poliical entities. The geographical boundaries for European countries today were established during the later Middle Ages. This was a period that heralded the formation and rise of universities, the establishment of the rule of law, numerous periods of ecclesiastical reform and the birth of the tourism industry. Many works of medieval literature, such as 13, In the medieval West, the Roman Empire fragmented, but in the Byzantine East, it remained a strong, centraly-focused political entity. Byzantine emperors ruled from Constantinople, The Byzantine Empire experienced two periods of Iconoclasm (730-787 and 814-842) — discussed later, when images and image-making were problematic. Iconoclasm left a visible legacy on Byzantine art because it created limits on what artists could represent and how those subjects could be represented. Byzantine Artis broken into three periods. Early Byzantine or Early Christian att begins with the earliest extant Christian works of art c. 250 and ends with the end of Iconcclasm in 842. Middle Byzantine art picks up at the end of Iconoclasm and extends to the sack of Constantinople by Latin Crusaders in 1204. Late Byzantine art was made between the the Canterbury Tales, the Divine Comedy, and The Song of Roland, are widely read and studied today. ‘The visual arts prospered during Middles Ages, which created its own aesthetic values. The wealthiest and most influential members of society commissioned cathedrals, churches, sculpture, painting, textiles, manuscripts, jewelry and situa items from artists. Many of these commissions were religious in nature but medieval artists also produced secular art. Few names of artists survive and fewer documents record their business dealings, but they left behind an impressive legacy of art and culture, Byzantium which they thought of as the New Rome. Constantinople housed Hagia Sophia, the world’s largest church until 1520, land was a major center of artistic praduction, sack of Constantinople and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1483, In the European West, Medieval artis often broken into smaller periods. These date ranges vary by location. 500-800 ~ Early Medieval Art .780-900 - Carolingian Art €.900-1000 — Ottonian Art ©1000-1200 ~ Romanesque Art ©1200-1400 — Gothic Art Christianity, an introduction 2.4. How little we know ‘Almost nothing is known about Jesus beyond biblical accounts, although we do know quite a bit more about the cultural and political context in which he lived—for example, Jerusalem in the first century. What follows is an introductory, generally agreed upon historical summary of Christianity. It hardly needs stating that there are many interpretations and disagreements ‘among historians. The First Four Hundred Years : The Roman Catholic Church has undergone many changes during its long history. We have previously discussed the Doctrine of Petrine Succession, which holds that the Popes derive their authority directly from Peter, who was commissioned by Jesus. Nonetheless, during the frst four centuries of the development of Christianity, there were other powerful centers of the Christian Churches besides Rome. Not unti the division of the Roman Empire into East ‘and West after 395 did Rome become dominant in the West ‘There were many bishops in Europe but the Bishop of Rome ‘was supreme to all of them. (nttpsfacutty.uce.edu/egh-damerow/papal_monarchy.htm) 2.2 Jesus v. Rome ‘The biblical Jesus, described in the Gospels as the son of a carpenter, was a Jew and a champion of the underdog. He rebelled against the occupying Roman government in what was then Palestine (at this point the Roman Empire stretched ‘across the Mediterranean), He was crucified for upsetting the social order and challenging the authority of the Romans and their local Jewish leaders. The Romans crucified Jesus, a typical method of execution—especially for those accused of crimes against the government. Jesus’ followers claim that after three days he rose from the grave and later ascended into heaven. His original followers, known as disciples or apostles, travelled great distances and spread Jesus’ message. His lfe is recorded in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which are found in the New Testament. “Christ” means messiah or savior (this belief in @ Savior is a traditional part of Jewish theology) 2.3. Old and New Testaments Early on, there were many ways that Christianity was practiced and. understood, and it wasn't untl the 2nd century that, Christianity began to be understood as a religion distinct from Judaism (i's helpful to remember that Judaism itself had many different sects). Christians were sometimes severely persecuted by the Romans. In the early 4th century, the Roman Emperor Constantine experienced @ miraculous conversion and made it legally acceptable to be a Christian. Less than a hundred years, later, the Roman Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official state religion. ‘The first Christians were Jews (whose bible we refer to as the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible). But soon pagans too converted to this new religion. Christians saw the pradictions of the prophets in the Hebrew Bible come to fulfilment in the life of Jesus Christ—hence the "Bible" of the Christians includes both Page 4 of 9 an i rence ence, Wn ab apn arena a ta POP tor se terete, Note 1 : General History the Hebrew Bible (or the Old Testament) and the New Testament. In addition to the fufllment of prophecy, Christians saw parallels between the events of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. These parallels, or foreshadowings, are called typology. One example would be Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son, Isaac, and the later sacrifice of Christ, God's ‘son, on the cross. We often see these comparisons in Christian art offered as a revelation of God's plan for the salvation of mankind, 2.4, Different Christianities Unlike Greek and Roman religions (there was both an official “state religion as well as other cults), Christianity emphasized belief and a personal relationship with God. The doctrines, or main teachings, of Christianity were determined in a series of councils in the early Christian period, such as the Council of Nicea in 326. Nevertheless, there is great diversity in Christian belief and practice, This was true even in the early days of Christianity; today there are approximately 2.2 billion Chretiane who belong toa muttitude of sects. ‘The two dominant early branches of Christianity were the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, rooted in Western and Eastem Europe respectively. Protestantism (and its different forms) emerged only later, at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Before that there was essentially just one church in Western Europe—what we would call the Roman Catholic Church today (to differentiate it from other forms of Christianity in the West such as Lutheranism, Methodism etc). Christianity spread throughout the world. In the 16th century, the Jesuits (@ Catholic order), sent missionanes to Asta, Nortn and South America, and Africa often in concert with Europe’s colonial expansion. 2.8. Christian Practices : Christianity holds that God has a three-part nature—that God is a trinty (God the father, the Holy Spint, and Jesus Christ)" and that it was Jesus's death on the cross—his sacrifice—that allowed for human beings to have the possibilty of etemal ite in Heaven. In Christian theology, Christ is seen as the second ‘Adam, and Mary (Jesus's mother) is seen as the second Eve. ‘The idea here is that where Adam and Eve caused original sin, and were expelled from paradise (the Garden of Eden), Mary and Christ made it possible for human beings to have etemal life in paradise (heaven), through Christ's sacrifice on the cross. Christian practice centers on the sacrament of the Eucharist, which is sometimes referred to as Communion. Christians eat bread and drink wine to remember Christ's sacrifice for the sins of humankind, Cheat himectf initiated thie practice at the Last ‘Supper. Catholics and Eastern Orthodox believe that the bread ‘and wine literally transform into the body and blood of Christ, whereas Protestants and other Christians see the Eucharist as symbolic reminder and re-enactment of Christ's sactifce. Christians demonstrate their faith by engaging in good (charitable) works (works of art—ike the frescos by Giotto in the ‘Arena Chapel—were often created as good works). They often engage in rituals (sacraments) such as partaking of the Eucharist or being baptized. Traditional Christian churches have a hierarchical structure of clergy. Clergies are authorises or ‘ordained people who can perform religious rites. Devout men and women sometimes take vows of chastity, obedience and poverty become nuns or monks and may separate themselves from the world and live a cloistered life devoted to prayer and {good deeds in a monastery or abbey. All monks may not be @ clergy ie. he may not have the authority to perform religious duties. Around 8-9" century, to spread Christianity among literate people, the lure of eternal heaven and fear of eternal burning hl afer death was used as a strong motivator by the clergy. The correctness or infulness of any action could be judged by whether is a sin or a good deed. A person's entire life came to be judged by whether it will ensure his stay in heaven or send him to hel. 2.6. Christianity in Europe Christianity in Europe was prevalent and spreading after t was made the state religion by Constantine nearly 4” century. Eastern Empire maintained the dominance of Christianity. Once the Germanic prince of Rome adopted Christianity, West Europe was slowly Chirstanising. The Franks were one ofthe firsts to convert to Christianity and to spread the religion. The Franks originated from Scandinavia, setting in Germany and moving towards present day northem France. Frankish ruler Charlemagne was a devout Christian and an able ruler who unified many of the tribes under his rule. Even though the his grandfather was the fist most major emperor ofthis family and the one who ensured in battle of Tours (733) that the Muslims do not spread into Europe from Spain, the Carolingian dynasty was named after Charlemagne (Charles the Great or, in German, Carolos Magnus). Seeing him to be 8 charismatic ruler and a devout Christian Bishop of Rome, i. the Pope seized this opportunity to strengthen the ties between Church and state In 800, on Christinas, when Charlemagne was attending Mass in Rome, the Pope crowned him the Holy Roman Empire (the term was coined later). After the sack of Rome in 476, more than three centuries later, there was thus another empire in west Curope that was Christan and was ted to Rome by the verdict of Pope. From this period onwards, the Franking emperors and the Ottonians were spreading Christianity in West Europe, converting the fragmented tribes to Chvistianiy by penalty of death In 1068, Wiliam the Conqueror, a Norman (i. from Normandy or north of present day France) conquered Britain and slowly Chirstianised the Anglo-Saxons with great effor. Central and Southern Spain was under Muslim Caliphate upto 12” Century. italy was divided between Byzantines, Normans and Muslims for a long time and ther architecture shows © mix of all syle for the medieval and renaissance period both Page 5 of 9 ‘TRIAL MODE 0 valid cense wil remove tits message. See the keywords property ofthis PDF fer more intermstion, Note 1 : General History 2.7. A New Pictorial Language: he Image in Early Medieval Art Definition of Icons Icons (from the Greek eikones) are sacred images representing the saints, Christ, and the Virgin, as well {as narrative scenes such as Christ's Crucifixion. While today the term is most dosely associated With wooden panel painting, in Byzantium icons could be crafted in all media, including marble, ivory, ceramic, gemstone, precious metal, enamel, textile, fresco, and mosaic. Icons ranged in size from the ‘miniature to the monumental. Some were suspended around the neck as pendants, others (called "triptychs") had panels on each side that could be opened and closed, thereby activating the icon. Icons could be mounted on a pole or frame and carried inta battle: Altematively, icans could be of a more permanent character, such as fresco and mosaic images decorating church interiors. Icons are not to be confused with surface sculpture and relief in medieval architecture. The sculptures in medieval period are almost invariably religious, even when they depict apparently non-religious subjects. The philosophy behind medieval period of sculpture is fundamentally common with the creation of Christian icons but the subject matter of icon is limited and subject matter of sculptures are vast. Christian art, which was initially influenced by the illusionary quality of classical art, started to move away from naturalistic representation and instead pushed toward abstraction. There was @ general feeling that ‘realistic’ art was a falsehood (its not what it appears to be). It may lead people to idolatry (idol worship), ie. idol(falsehood-) worship which is against God's will. The New Testament prohibits worshipping graven images. Open hostility toward religious representations began in 725 when Emperor Leo Ill publidy took a position against icons; this resulted in their removal from churches and their destruction. This marks the period of iconociasm (=removal of icons) period during the years 726-87 and 815-43 in Byzantium. This petiod resulted in the removal / destruction / plastering over of a great number of icons from byzantine Churches. Once this period was over and icons were re- admitted in religious architecture, they became extremely stylized and each posture and colour had certain significance. In classical art human figure itself wes an object of study, appreciation and artistic presentation. In Christianity, human figure had strict theological principles. The contemplation of icons allowed the viewer direct communication with the sacred figure(s) represented, and through icons an individual's prayers were addressed directly to the petitioned saint or holy figure. Miraculous healings and good fortune were among the requests. Simuttaneously with the religious movement regarding icons, the classical knowledge of producing realistic images and sculptures were lost with the fall of Western roman empire. ‘As a result, artists began to abandon classical artistic conventions like shading; modeling = and Perspective conventions that make the image appear more real. They no longer observed details in nature to record them in paint, bronze, marble, or mosaic. Most of the professional and well-known artists were working for the church, so what they made was what the church wanted made. So, instead of realistic art, artists favored flat representations of people, animals and objects that only looked nominally tke their subjects in real life, Artists were no longer creating the lies, as these abstracted images removed at least some of the temptations for idolatry. This new style, adopted over several (generations, created a comfortable distance between the new Christian empire and its pagan past. The eyes were large and prominent because they reflected the soul. The raised hands, facial expressions all represented religious messages. In Westem Europe, this approach to the visual arts dominated Until the imperial rule of Charlemagne (800-814) and the accompanying Carolingian Renaissance. This controversy over the legitimacy and orthodoxy of images continued and intensified in the Byzantine Empire. The issue was eventually resolved, in favor of images, during the Second Coundil of Nicaea in 787. It should be noted here that the debate over icons are not limted to Christianity and the abovementioned historical period alone. 1. EDUCATION AND ARCHITECTURE IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD : The Carolingian Revival : When Charlemagne became the king, the scenario of Westem Europe was quite bleak in all senses. There was no education, even among the priests who gave sermons in churches. Each said his own prayers. The Nobilly could not read or write. The Latin language decayed Into what is called Dog Latin, to which even the most educated person was limited. The Eastern Roman Empire referred to the westerns as barbarians (after the Barber tribe) and uncivlsed and they continued to do so for centuries afterwards. Charlemagne changed all this. He was very enthusiastic about education. He brought Latin scriptures and manuscripts from Rome, brought teachers from Rome whom he sent to different Page 6 of 9 a a TRIAL MODE Note 1 : General History corners of his empire where they educated the priests. Often the nobility also received education, Charlemagne himself started learning to read and write. Purpose of education was primarily to spread and preach Christianity. In addition, it was required to run matters of church as church and monasteries were self-sufficient settlements themselves. They required accountants, artisans, masons, doctors and above all people to preach the religion, train novice monks and copy manuscripts The common people were serfs, i.e. that worked in fields and workshops and they did not require education. Thus the monasteries came to accommodate schools within the premises in the Carolingian period. The revival of education led to the revival of art, architecture and culture, This revival is known as Carolingian revival or Renaissance in instrumental for the germination of Romanesque and Gothic architecture. The later monarchs were not as enthusiastic or able but the trend of education continued under the patronage of Royally ‘and nobility. As number of towns grew in size and number, education was also required for operating business as well as religion. Early Middle Ages : During the early Middle Ages, any type of higher education was usually available only in monasteries and cathedral schools, where Christian monks and nuns taught each other and preserved the writings of classical authors, But by the eleventh-century, medieval Europe was becoming more turban and complex, and royal governments needed highly trained men to run their bureaucracies. Students and teachers ‘were also demanding better ways to be educated, and the solution to this came about with the creation of universities. Universities come from the Latin word universitas, which means guild, and these schools were essentially groups of students and teachers who got together into their own groups for the purposes of leaming ~ in some universities it was the students themselves who paid the teachers and ran the institution. The main curriculum was based on seven areas - grammar, thetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy - all of which were important for a cleric in the Catholic church. in some universities, other subjects were also important - Salemo was renowned as a place to study medicine and Bologna for lav. Later Middle ages : By the twelfth and thiteenth centuries Luniversities were becoming important centres of learning and some would become quite famous - like Oxford and Cambridge in England, and the University of Paris in France. In the later Middle Ages, universities would emerge in most other parts of Europe too, as monarchs and cities wanted them as sources of highiy-skiled bureaucrats and to increase their own reputation. Occasionally, though, the relations between university students ‘and their local communities could get hostile, and since students were treated as clergy, it meant that they could not be tried by local courts for crimes, only the much more lenient ecclesiastical courts. ‘While very few medieval men (and no women) could be part of 2 university, the institution did develop and grow throughout the Middle Ages, and became home to some of the periods greatest thinkers. The university has since become the standard of higher education not just in Europe, but throughout, the world. 2. MUSLIM INCURSION AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE : In less than 100 years, Muslim warriors conquered lands for Islam from Persia to Spain. Muslims then pushed further into Europe. Their incursion into Western Europe was stopped in France. Their invasion from the east was finally halted at the gates of Vienna. Bogi The prophet Mohammed was bom around 570AD in Mecca. In 610 AD a divine experience changed his life and the Muslim religion was bon, Mohammed and his followers gathered force and increased in numbers, occupying Mecca and Medina followed by others cities and progressing in both east and west. In the west, it was slowly eating onto the Byzantine Empire. In the east, it moved towards India and South East Asia. In the process, the Muslims occupied in 637 the Holy City of Jerusalem, damaging the Byzantine Church of The Holy ‘Sepulcher. This church was said to have been erected on the very spot where Jesus was crucified. This was a major blow to the Christians, both eastern and western. The Invasion of Europe by the Muslims Muslims gradually captures and Carthage fram the Byzantines Egypt and progressed towards the north-west end of Ifriqiya i.e. what later became Africa. The capture of Morocco (N-W of Arica) in 669 AD was a major milestone. In 711-715 Musiims captured Spain by beating the Visigoth rulers and started a 00year jong rule. Cordova (Qurtuba) becomes the capital of Muslim holdings in Andalusia (Spain). Ater capturing Spain, the Muslims progressed towards Gaul or modem day France, Before they could occupy much, they were thoroughly beaten by Charlemagne’s grandfather, Frankish King Charies Marte! (also the father of the first Carolingian King) in the Battle of ‘Tours in 733 AD. This is a very significant battle since itis said to have stopped the Muslim occupancy of the Westem Europe. ‘Thus most of Europe was saved from Muslim rule and to this day remain Chistian Aftermath Nevertheless, the expansion of Islam was astounding. In just 100 years since Muhammad first claimed prophethood, Isiam had by force of ams, conquered all of Arabia and then ‘expanded out and conquered as far west as Spain and as far east as Alghanistan. The Islamic Caliphate had become the largest empire the world had yet known, controling some of the most important centers of civilization. OF the5 Christian Patriarchates (the 5 great urban centers of Christianity in the 6th-7th centuries AD), 3 of them now fell under Islamic rule (Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch), with only Rome and Constantinople stil under Christian rule. From this point on, much of Mediteranean history would be characterised by the struggles between the Christian and Islamic faiths, the Christians holding the north side of the Mediterranean and the Page 7 of 9 an i rence inne, Wn Rab pte arena ata POP ter nse terete, Note 1 : General History Muslims the south side, The battlegrounds were to be Spain, Jerusalem, Constantinople, and the islands caught in the middle. Influence on Art and Architecture Islamic art took from the civilizations surrounding it and also impacted them. The Chinese were influenced in their vases and carpets. Medieval Europe were influenced in their arts and showed it from their adoption of arches to their lluminations of Latin and Hebrew manuscripts. For instance, Gothic architecture was influenced by Istamic architecture. Specifically Islamic architecture influenced gothic architecture with the architectural feature, the pointed arch. The pointed arch was introduced to Europe after the Norman conquest of Islamic Sicily in 1090, the Crusades which began in 1098, and the Islamic presence in Spain, which all brought about knowledge of this significant structural device. It is probable also that decorative carved stone screens and window openings filed with pierced stone also influenced Gothic tracery. In Spain, in particular, individual decorative motifs ‘occur which are common to both Islamic and Christian architectural mouldings and sculpture. Of course the epitome of Islamic art can be seen in the greatest Islamic masterpieces such as the grand mosques of Cordova in Spain, the Taj Mahal in India, and the Blue mosque in Turkey. The works of these Muslim artists have become prototypes and models on which other artists and craftsmen patterned their own works, or from which they derived the inspiration for related work. Even in the pre-Romanesque period architecture (Charlemagne’s palatine chapel at Aachen, Gemmany, 2” century) influence of the Great Mosque of Cordova is evident The evidence is stronger in the Romanesque period arches and surface decoration of churches. Even though the pointed arch in Gothic style is commonly agreed upon to be a knowledge derived from the Muslims, the European regions under Muslim rule in the pre- Gothic area show occurrences of pointed arch as in crossing of the duomo of Pisa. In the 17th century, renowned architect Christopher Wren went as far as coining a term, “Saracen Style” to denote the major contributor of Gothic Style. ‘Some significant milestones in Christianity and their significance: TRIAL MODE 21008C | Calling ofAbraam-theFather ofthe Jevish ation, 325. | Conan cle he ret coun at Nica nd oly | esa Sar ea ci tf Pon On cfs ae nar ate aa ors, meen Cote ae patos | catibor The Biche war Lsd'y Mews te woes eae’ | M® | At Epfnue (at Turkey, Pope Leo | devers his

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