ForcenturiesGreecehasexertedapeculiarenchantmentovertheimaginationsofmen.

TheRomans,who
incorporatedGreeceintotheirempireandintheprocessdidnotshrinkfromsackingitscitiesweredeeply
impressedbyit.YoungRomansweresenttostudyattheuniversityinAthens,andeducatedRomanslooked
totheGreeksastheirmastersinphilosophy,scienceandthefinearts.DespitetheRomans'confidenceintheir
ownimperialrrssionandtheirgiftforgovernment,theyfelt,alittleuneasily,thattherewasmuchinart,
lettersandthoughtwhichtheycouldneverhopetodoaswellastheGreeks.
WhentheItalianRenaissanceofthe15thcenturyA.D.broughtanintensifiedinterestintheancientworld,
Romeatfirstheldtheattention.ButbehindtheimposingRomanfaade,scholarsandpoetsfeltthepresence
ofsomethingmorepowerfulandmorealluring.Slowlythiswasdisentangledfromthemistsofthepast,and
thefullmajestyoftheGreekperformancewasrevealed.SogreatwasGreekprestigethatGreekideason
medicine,astronomyandgeographywereacceptedwithunquesdoningfaithuntilthe17thcentury,whenthe
birthofanewscientificspiritinauguratedtheeraofexperimentandinquiryintowhichweourselveshave
beenborn.
Eventoday,whenwehavediscardedsomanycreedsandcosmologies,theGreekviewoflifeexcitesand
exaltsus.GreekthoughtandGreekassumptionsarecloselywovenintothefabricofourlivesalmostwithout
ourknowingit,andforthisreasonaloneweaterighttowishtoknowabouttheGreeks,toassessthevalue
andthescopeoftheirachievement.Nopeoplecanaffordtoneglectitsownorigins,andthemodernworldis
fattoodeeplyindebtedtoGreecetoacceptinunthinkingingratitudewhatithasinherited.
AtthecentreoftheGreekoutlooklayanunshakeablebeliefintheworthoftheindividualman.Incenturics
whenlargepartsoftheearthweredominatedbytheabsolutemonarchiesoftheeast,theGreekswere
evolvingtheirbeliefthatamanmustberespectednotastheinstrumentofanomnipotentoverlord,butforhis
sakeTheysoughtatallcoststobethemselves,andintheywerehelpedbythenatureoftheircoultry.
Geographically,GreecewasinancienttimesverymuchwhatItIStodaythesouthernmostextremityofthe
hugeBalkanmass.AlandofhJtdlimestonemountainsscpatatedbydeepvalleys,itIScutalmosttwobythe
narrowd'VldcoftheCorinthianGulfiTotheeastthestructureofthematnlandisconunucdintermittentlyby
islands,andthewholepatternisroundedofftothesouthbythelongtampartofCrete,whichhasbecncalled'
'thesteppingstoncofcontinents"Evenincludingtheislands,Greeceisasmallcountry,smallcrthanthe
YemenotFlorida.Moreover,thissmallareahasneverbeenabletosupportmorethanafewmillion
inhabitants,andyetinthehistoryofWesterncivilizationithasplayedanenormouspart.
Thereasonispartlygeographical.InEgyptandMesopotamia,inthegreatrivcrlandsoftheNileandthe
Euphrates,itwaseasytosubjectalargepopulationtoasinglerulerandtoseethateachmanperformedan
allottedfunctioninavast,uniftedsystem.ButinGreece,whereeverydistrictwasseparatcdfromthenextby
mountainsorthesea,centralcontrolofthiskindwasimpossible,andmenwercforcedtobenotspecialistsin
thisorthatprofessionbutmastersofawholerangeofcraftsandaccomplishments.Eachseparategroupwas
deeplyawareofitsownbeing,andwithineachgroupitsmemberswerecognizantoftheirresponsibilities.
TheGreekclimate,dryandexhilaratingandgiftedwiththemostmagicalofskies,incitedtoaction,whilethe
sea,whichwasalwaysathand,developedinitsservantsanunusualskillofbothhandandeye,
NaturenursedtheGreeksinahardschool,butthismadethemconsciousofthemselvesandtheirworth.
Withoutthisselfawarenesstheywouldneverhavemadetheirmostimportantcontributiontohuman
experience:thebeliefthatamanmustbehonouredforhisindividualworthandtreatedwithrespectjust
becauseheishimselfInthewordsofthegreatAthenianstatesmanPericles:''EachSingleoneofourcitizens,
inallthemanifoldaspectsoflife,isabletoshowhimselftherightfullordandownerofhisownperson,and
dothis,moreover,withexceptionalgraceandexceptionalversatility.
ThisiswhattheGreeksmeantbyliberty.Justastheydetestedthethoughtofbeingconquered,sointheirown
circlesamanclaimedforhimselfthefreedomtodoallofwhichhewascapable,torealizehisfullpotential

withinhissociety,tospeakwhatwasinhismind,togohisownwaywithoutinterferencefromothermen.
Thebeliefinfreedomwassustainedbyadeeprespectforpersonalhonour,andnurturedbyaloveforaction.
ThisfeelingamongtheGreeksmayhavestartedassometllgvague,butitwasdeeplyfelt,anditmatured
intoreasonedphilosophywhichlongaftershaped,andstillshapes,ourown.Supportedbyethicaland
psychologicalarguments,itwasbasedonconvictionswhichwetakesomuchforgrantedtodaythatwecan
hardlyimaginewhateffortsmusthavebeenmadetoestablishthephilosophy,orwhatitsabsencemcant
outsideGrecce.Ithaditsowndangers,ofcourse,especiallytheriskthatin
itsrulassertingtheirownclaimsmenwouldpaytoolitaltitieattentiontotheirneighbours'andreduccsoci
Gretytoanarchy.AndindeedGreekstatesdidsuffernogravelyfrominternaldissensions.Neverthelessthey
survivedasccntresoforderbecausetheGreekerbeliefinlibertywasinextricablyassociatedwithwthe
existenceoflaw.
TheGreeksdidnotinventlawororiginatethetnotionofit.CodesoflawexistedinBabyloniaawhenthe
Grcekswerestilllittlebetterthansavages,andtheMosaicLawofIsraelisalsoancient.tButGreeklaw,
whichemergedintheseventhcenturyB.C.,differedfromtheseinseveralrespects.First,itwasnotintended
tocarryoutthewilleitherofanomnipotentmonarchorofagod;Greeklawatmedentirelyatimprovigthe
lotofmortalhumans.Secondly,whiletheseearliersystemscouldbechangedvirtuallyatthewillofkingora
priesthood,Greeklawwasusuallybasedonsomekindofpopularconsentandcouldbechangedonlyby
beingreferredtothepeoplefortheirapproval.Finally,Greeklawwasexpectedtosecurelifeandpropertyfor
allmembersofasociety,notjustforaselectgroupofleadersotpriests.TheGreeks

regardedthemselvesasvastlysuperiorinthisrespecttothePersians,who,utterlydependentontheirking's
whim,wereintheGreekviewnobetterthanslaves.
FromthefirstGreeklawgiversstemsthewholemajesticsucccssionoftheWest'slegalsystems.The
Romans,greatlawmakersintheirownright,learnedfromtheGreeks.Inturn,thecomprehensivecodesof
GaiusandJustiniangaverisetomostmodernlegalsystems.
Thebeliefinlawemphasizedandstrengthenedanethnicpridewhichshapedthewholepoliticaldevelopment
oftheGteeks.AGreekstateconsistedofacityandofthelandsarounditwhichprovideditslivelihood.Each
stateformeditsownhabits,rulesandgovernment;asaconsequencelocallovtalticswereremarkablystrong.
Butbeyondthis,the

1Greekshadasecondloyalty,vaguerperhapsandnotalwaysparamount,butintheendirresisble.y
Thoughtheyquarrelledandfoughtwithoneanothker,theyfeltstronglythattheywereallGreeks,menh
whospokesomeformofthesamelanguage,worshippedthesamegodsandobeyedthesamecustomsand
inallthcserespectstheysawthemselvesasvastlysuperiortootherracesornations,Thoughtheynever
createdatrulynationalstatesuchasthoseofthemodernworld,theypresentedastrongcontrasttothemulti
nationalempiresofBabyloniaorPersia,whichcomprisedalargenumberofdifferentpeoplesheldtogether
notbecausetheysharedacommoncultureotidealbutsimplybecausetheyweresubjectsofadespoticruler.
WhenevertheGreekswereattackedbyaforeignenemy,theyfoughtagainsthimtodefendtheirGreek
heritageaswellastheirlocalliberties.
TheGreeks'senseofpersonalachievement,ofaman'sobligationtomakethemostofhisnaturalgifts,led
themtogivetotheworksoftheirhandsthesamecareandattentionthattheygavetothestructureofpolitical
life.tntheGreekview,anythingworthdoingwasworthdoingwell,andtheremainsoftheirhumblestpots
havearemarkabledistinction.Evenobjectssoutiltarianascoinsarelittlemasterpiecesofreliefsculpturein
goldorsilver.
WernayaskwhysomuchoftheGreeks'work,whichhassurvivedthecenturiesbyaccidentandistherefore
trulyrepresentativeofwhattheydid,hassohighaquality,sofineadesign.Theanswerispartlythatthe
Greekartisansworkedforspecificpatronsinsteadofmanufacturingwholesaleforananonymouspublic.The
patrons(whoincludedthestate)knewwhattheywantedandinsistedongettingit.TheGreekswantedtheir
artsandhandicraftstostandtheacidtestsoftimeandtokeeptheirattractionforfuturegenerations;inthis
fashiontheyhopedtoprolongtheirowninfluenceintothefuture.Inaddition,theyhadastrongdesireto
imposeorderonanydisorderedmassofmaterial,suchasrockorclayinitsnaturalstate.Notcontenttoleave
thingsastheyfoundthem,theywishedtorearrangeandshapethem.Buttheyemployedrestraintinthis
process,andtheresulthasthatqualityofbalanceandcompletenesswhichwecallclassical.
Inthemajorarts,notablyinsculpture,thissenseoffineworkmanshipwasinspiredandreinforcedby
somethingmoreexalted.Greeksculpturewasmeanttobeseeninpublicplaces,principallyintemples,andit
hadtobcworthyofthegods.Ihadtohaveanobilityanddignity,andyetitcoulnotbetooremotefrom
everydaythings,forinthesthegodswerebelievedtobealwaysatwork.AlthisexplainswhyGreekartatits
bestneveraime
atviolent,grossorgrotcsquceffects.Insteaditshowedmeninthefullstrengthoftheirlithe,muscularbodies,
womenintheripplingdraperyoftheirfinestclothes.
WhenGreckartdealtwithanimals,asitoftendid,itdisplayeddogsalerttoeveryscentandsound,lions
leapingontheirpreywithsavagemastery,horseselegantlyonthemove.Thisartfounditsmateria)inthereal
world,buttheartistfeltthattodojusticetowhathesawhemustimparttoitanorderandbalance.Whatwas
trueofhighsculpturewasnolesstrueofhumblerartssuchasdecorationsonpottery.Theexplanationineach
caseisthatartwasintendedtoperpetuatesomethingvisiblybyrevealingwhatwasmostimportantinit.
TheGreekswereapeoplewholackedinhibitionsinspeakingaboutthenselves,andasmightbeexpected,
theydelightedinwords.Theyhadattheirdisposalawonderfullysubtle,expressiveandadaptablelanguage,
andtheymadefulluseofit.WiththeGreeks,aswithmanypeoples,poetrycamebeforeprose.Poetry,infact,
becamealmostasecondreligion,anditwascreatedwithallthecareandinsightthatwasaccordedtothe
visualarts.Poetswerehighlyesteemedapoet,saidthephilosopherSocrates,was"alightandwingedand
holything"andtheywroteaboutallsortsofsubjects:farming,locallore,theweather.Ifaman,anyman,
hadsomethingimportanttosayheoftensaiditinversewhichintheearlydaysmeantthathesaiditin
song,foralmostallGreekpoetrywasoriginallysungorspokentomusic.
PoetrywastheGreeks'immediateresponsetoawiderangeofexperience,andtoreflectthisvarietythey
inventedorperfectedmanyofthepoeticformsbwenowknow.Theyseemtohavebegunwiththecheroic

epic,whichisobjectivestorytellinginverseofexcitingandtragicevents.Theyfollowedthiswithamore
personal,moreemotionalpoetry,whichbwassungtothelyreandiscalledlyricforthisreaeson.Attheir
highnoontheGreeksinventedbothtragedyandcomedy,thefirstdealingwiththedarkaerandmore
difficultrelationsbetweenthegodsandmen,'thesecondviewingwithderisiveribaldryallmannerofhuman
foibles.Eveninlateryearstheycontinuedtowritecharmingpoetry,thoughitsstrengthhadbecome
diminishedanditssubjectslessmajestic.
ThemoststrikingqualityofGreekliterature,poetryandprosealike,isthatitisasaliveandrelevanttodayas
itwaswhenitwasfirstwritten,Wecannotfailtorespondtotheextraordinarypowetwithwhichitpresents
issuesofperennialurgencysWemayadmireitforitstechnicalskill,butwhatbindsustoitisitsprofound
humanity,itswiseappreciationofhumanvalues,Itdealswithpreciseissuesinauniversalway,anditgains
ourattentionnotbyarguingforthissideorforthatbutbypresentingasituationinfull,inallitspowerful
implications.Itsextraordinaryimmediacyanddirectnessdrivehomeitsthoughtswithanirresistiblepowcr,
andbe}nditwefeelthelivingforceofpeoplcwhowereeagertoexammetheirdestinieswiththeutmost
candourandpassion.
TheartswerenottheonlycreativefieldsinwhichtheGreeksexcelled.Thenatureofthephysicalworld
excitedtheircuriosityandledthemtomakespectacularscientifichypotheses.Beforethem,tobesure,much
ofapracticalnaturehadbeenaccomplishedinsuchfieldsasastronomyandengineeringbyEgyptiansand
Babylonians.TheGreeks'uniquecontributionwastoprovideatheoreticalbasisfortheseappliedsciences.
Theysoughtgeneralprinciples,andintheprocessbecamenotonlythefoundersofsciencebutofphilosophy
(literally,"loveofknowledge").TotheGreeksthetwofieldswerecloselyrelated,bothbeingmeansbywhich
mencouldseektofindoutmoreaboutthenatureofthings,andbothmovingbyargumentandprooffromone
hypothesistoanother.
IfintheirpracticalwaytheGreeksneededastronomyfornavigationandanunderstandingofweightsand
stressesforbuilding,thcysttChgthenedandbroadenedthistechnicalknowledgcwiththeoriesandgeneral
principlesaboutthettatUtcofmatterandspaceandmotion,whichthcycxprcecdinmathematics,especially
ingeometry.Thentheyoftenreapedthebenefitsinotherfields:Pythagorassetafirmfoundationformusic,
forexample,bydiscoveringthenumericalratiosofthelengthsofstringthatwouldproduceasevcnnotc
scale,
WhileGreekscicncewasdevelopingatheoreticalbasis,italsosawtheneedforobservationandexperiment,
WhenmedicinefloweredinthefifthcenturyB.C.undertheinspirationofthegreatphysicianHippocratesof
COS,itmadeitsfirsttaskthecollectionofdatafromwhichdeductionscouldbedrawn.Thusinthe
identificationofdiseasesaGreekdoctorsetgreatstoreonthecorrectdescriptionofsymptoms,andproceeded
fromthatpointtodowhathecouldtoeffectacute.Medicinewasofcourseverymuchinitsinfancy,and
doctorsweremuchbetteratdiagnosingacomplaintthaninknowingwhattodoforit,butatleasttheyhad
madeagreatadvanceovertheolddayswhenillnesseswerethoughttobecurablebyamulets,magiccharms
andthelike.Insurgerythebeginningswereprimitiveenough,butbyexperimenting
onamrnalsandlearningsomethingabouttherinciplesofphysiology,theGreekswereabletodealwith
fracturesanddislocations,whichwerecommonamongathletes,andwithwoundsespeciallyheadwounds
receivedinwar.
ThespiritwhichinspiredGreekresearchesuntonaturewasalsoatworkonhumanactions,anditmadethe
Greeksthefirsttruehistorians.accountsofpasteventsgraduallyChuagedfrcrnlegendtoverifiablefact:
"WhatIwriteheresa:dHecatacusofMilerusatthebegirn.goftheEthcenturyB.C.,('istheaccountof
whatIthoughttobetrue;forthestoriesoftheGreeks[ofothercenturies)arenumerous,andinmyopinion
ridiculous.

InpursuingtruthforitsownsaketheGreekswerehamperedbynorigidtheology.Sincetheywerenottiedto
creeds,theywerefreetoaskqzestionsabouttheschemeofthings.Suchinquiries,frombeingthought
impious,wereoftenregardedasaquasireligiousactivitybecausetheyshowedthewonderfulworkingsofthe
gods.AsthelosopherXenophanessaid,"Thegodsdidnotrevealeverythingtomenatthebeginning,but
men,astheyseekintime,findsomethingbetter."Thales,athoroughlyrationalman,whowasableto(oretell
aneclipsein585B.C.,neverthelessinsistedthattcallthingsarefullofgods",andthiswastheusualGreek
attitude.
ThusGreekartandGreeksciencefittedinhappLlvwithGreekreligion;indeed,religiondidmuchItoinspire
andsustainthepoetsandphilosophers.ThoughGreekgodsmightseemtomodernmindsoftentofallbelow
thestandardsdemandedofdivinity,theyhadsomethingimpressiveincommon.Theywerealltoahigh
degreeembodimentsofpower,whetherinthephysicalworldorinthemindofman.Fromthemcameliterally
everything,bothvisibleandInvisible,anditwasthetaskofthemortalstomaketheproperuseofwhatthe
godsprovided.
TheGreekstookallthefamiliarstepstokeepincontactwiththeirgods.Theyofferedprayersandhymnsand
sacrifices;theyconsultedallkindsoforacles;theyhadcountlessshrinescontaining1magesofthegods.They
hopedthatthegodswouldbekindtothem,andtheyspokeoftheminthelanguageoffriendship.Theyhadno
verycleatdoctrines.Evenonthesubjectoflifeafterdeaththeyvariedfromthinkingthatthedeadwere
insubstandalghoststoimagininganElysiumbeyondtheWesternSea.Theyfeltthegods'presence
everywhere,especiallyintimesofneedsuchasbattle,butequallyonhighoccasionsoffestivalandrejoscmg.
Theythoughtthegodsfarmorebeautifulthanmencouldeverhopetobe,andtheydidnotpectthemto
followtherulesofbehav10(lteWhatcountedwastheirpower.
Becausethegodswerethesoutcesotpowet,tr.cnhonouredeverykindofpowerandwishedtodplayItin
thetrownlives.Thisaprliedequa{lytowar,thearts,ath!eacgamesandthoughtIfaGreekdidwellinanyof
these,hewasmakingapropetofhisdivtnelyprovidedgiftsandtothatextenthewasgettingneatertothe
gods.ThisiswhatAristotlemeanswhenhesays:t'Wemustbejmmortalasfaraswecan."ThustheGreeks
stoodIneanambivalentrclatontothetrgods,atonceeagettobeasmuchlikethemaspossible,yetknowmg
thathumansmustnotattemptthistooeagerly,lesttheyimag.ethattheyweregods.
Thisambivalenceprovedofgreatvalue.FromitscamethecharactensticGreekmixtureorenergyand
moderation,bothinlifeandthearts.WhiletheGreekszestfullytriedever,'formofaction,theyftemperedit
withthemaxim"Nothinginexcess,andtheypratse.dthedesirabilityoftheMean,themiddlestatebetween
attemptingtoomuchandnotattemptingenough.Needlesstosay,theydidnotalwaysachievetheMean,butit
wasatleastanideal,anditsetitsmarkontheircivilization.Theyfeltinthemselvesadrivingstrengthwhich
camefromthegods,andtheyknewthatitwastheirtasktomakethemostofthis,notbyseekingpleasureand
sensation(thoughofcoursetheyenjoyedtheseastherewardfortheirefforts),butbyshapingtheirlivesto
rationalanddesirableends,AstheGreekssetouttomakethebestoftheirnaturalgiftsandtobeworthyof
theirhumannature,theydedicatedthemselvestonobletoil,tocreatingsomethingnewandsplendid,to
keepingtheirbodiesasfitastheirminds,tomakingorderoutofdisorder,andtolivinginharmonywiththeir
fellowcitizens