RIVISTA ITALIANA DI GEOFISICA E SCIENZE Vol. V AFFINI 19781979 Volume speciale dedieato al prof. Mario Bosso1.asco The Enigma of Jointing Apnian E, Scuripeccte (*) ( Invroductory. Remarks. Joints are ubiquitous phenomena. They aire visible ‘outcrop, road cut, mountain side in materials, ranging from firm, solid plutonic rocks to extremely friable recent sediments. Any «crack» in rock has been called «joint ». There are evidently several different types of such cracks, and it is quite clear that not all of them have been formed in the same fashion. For some types, c.g. columnar jointing in lava, an obvious origin by cooling can immediately be assigned. However, the bulk of the «ordinary » joints in rock outcrops do not fall into such an obvious category and thus their origin is subject to some controversy (PRICE, 1966). Most « ordinary » joints have a fresh, smooth appearance. They form the jagged surface of every ‘outcrop, they are evident fissures within the rock and they constitute the surfaces of « banking » or splitting if the rock is blasted or quarried. Most of them are planar and smooth as if cut by a k cheese. They have no fillings evidence of any motion at all. Visible heterogeneites, like pebbles in breccias or « Nagelflub ». cleanly cut through by the joint surfuce. After examining thousands of joints in a multitude of outcrops all over the world and making statistical valuations of their orientations, the author found the following phenomenological generalities 1) Ata single outcrop, one finds ordinarily three joint systems which are usually very definite: One 1 (dips 0° t 40%) and cor responds 1 sume lithological Fictors the ether U8e systems are near-vertical and almost orthogonal 16 each other (angle of intersection 80"-90". no slickensides, no system is near-horizon () Vorstand, Institut fr Georhysih, Technische Universitit Wien, Gusshausstrase 27-28, AcIQUO Wien, Aus, ° 2) The non-lithological joints in fresh outcrops appear te cut clear across joint systems of obviously older age. These joints are therefore interpreted as «tectonic » joints. 2) Several outerops near to each other (within a few kilometers) usually show preferential joint orien- tations that are consistent with each other. 4) Outcrops within a region (10-20. km radius) commonly show, if treated together, delinite pre- ferential «tectonic » joint orientations, When the ouicrops are considered singly, however, one often finds that about 1/4 of them show «anomalous » tectonic joint orientations which are rotated up ts about 30 with regard to the « regionally » preferential orientations. The «unomalous» outcrops are not randomized, but show a consistency amongst each other. 5) Thus, the rotated joims may «come throu! as secondary, weak maaima in a regional joint dit gram, The latter. then, has the following features (One strong lithological maximum, wvo strong maxims corresponding to two near-orthogonal regional orien tations, and wo further, but weak, near-orthogonal maxima corresponding to the «tectonic » joints. in the « anomalous » outcrops. 6) The well-developed regional joint system commonly be explained in terms of global plat tectonics if the bisectrices of the regional joint strikes are taken as principal horizontal tectonic stress directions. The documentation of the above general facts is contained in the papers of the author devoted tw regional studies of joints (ScHEDEGCER, 1977, b, c,d). The crux of the evaluations was the statistical procedure developed by Kolitare & SCUFDIGGIR (1977) whieh. for the first time, has provided a means for assigning confidence limits to the inferences from the data,Icis now possible to evaluate the existing theories of joint formation in the light of the new (statistical) evidence. 11 will be shown that only the idea that joints represent shear-flow lines in the tectonic stress field does not contradict some of the available evidence. (ii) Tension cracks. A britile material under tension becomes cracked. A tensional stress state in the earth occurs primarily uring the cooling of hot masses. for instance in a lava flow, whose density increases during cooling so tha they shrink. During the shrinkage. typical col- ummnar joints are formed which are pentagonal or hexagonal in cross-section, The riechanies of cracks due to thermal contraction hhas been studied by LacheNmrucn (1962) in quite general terms, Although the latter author had mainly applications 10 permafrost in mind, he stressed explicitly that his argument is also applicable 10 cooling eracks in rock. Lacuexnetcn, in fact, made an analysis of the Formation of tension cracks. He noted that a straight, vertical crack, when it is being formed, causes stress elie in the medium which ranges from + maximum, sy. om in the direction perpendicular to the crack to & minimum may, (where m is Poisson's ratio) parallel (0 it, Thus, 2 crack induces an ap. preciable stress anisotropy within the medium in which it propagates. Since a tension crack tends to propagate in the direction perpendicular to maximum tension, a crack advancing in an oblique direction will tend toward the normal to a pre-existing crack alter entering its zone of stress relief. Therelore. the imersection of a crack with a pre-existing one tends to be omthogonal. Conversely, an orthogonal inter section between tension erucks suggests that one of the cracks involved predates the other. ‘Ay noted above, simultaneously arising eracks in cooling substances do not intersect each other oF: thogonally, but at some obtuse angle. One can, in effect, show that a system of regulir hexagonal col- lumns releases the maximum elastic strain energy per ‘unit crack area in a medium under tension. However, regarding the actual mechanics of formation of the wiple junction, there are only conjectures. One of the more satisfactory theories assumes that obtuse junctions form from bifurcation or branching of growing cracks. If cach of the branches diverges from the original direction by an angle of about 60°, and each branch again bifureates when it attains Prescribed length, patterns of the type actually observed in nature could be generated, However, no actual mechanical analysey of this hypothetical process seem to be available, (iiiy Pressure cracks. An elongated sample under axial pressure tends to buckle. In this conneetion, cracks may open par- allel to the maximum pressure direction as this is well known from the phenomenon of exfoliation. The case of a package of parallel laminae being subject to & pressure acting parallel to the layering was discussed by BRUNNER & ScHEIDEGGER (1973) based fon the well known analysis of forces acting on el: lipsoidal cracks that had been made long ago by GrurrimH, The result of all such calculations is that the crack is most likely to be parallel to the largest compression and will open up in the direction of the smillest compression. This, however, can happen only if this smallest compression is very small indeed, ‘The tension a; induced at the tip of an elliptical crack in a twordimensional stress-siate (6), ¢4) is where o, is the largest. oy is the smallest principal stress and a is the axis of the ellipse parallel to the «, th the axis parallel to the aydirection, If ay is larger than the tensile strength s, of the material, then the crack will extend itself. If one takes the overburden pressure for ay where z is the density, g the gravity acceleration and H the depth, then one finds for the limiting depth Which a crack can extend itself Humu = a (VE Dalby For reasonable values of the material constants (r= 6 MNim2, 9 = 2500 kgym*) and a represen- tative value of 9, = 10 MNim% one finds for H approximately 0 m which shows that the envisaged mechanism can reach at most to this depth. This bears out the fact that the envisaged mechanism can be invoked for an explanation of exfoliation: The force normal to the surface is evidently zero, and thus « leafing » can be induced by the compression, It is difficult (0 sce, however. how this mechanism could be invoked for an explanation of joints other than those parallel to a free surface, (iv) Slaty cleavage. « Joints » can also be the in the form of so-galled slaty cleavage. This is a form of cleavage which occurs normal to the maximum principal pressure and involves rotation and deformation of the con- stituent grains, as well as pressure solution transfer and recrystallization of the components of the rock. The literature on the subject is very large: it has recently been summarized and reviewed by SIODANS (1972) and by Woon (1974). Inasmuch as a reorien- tation and reformation of the fabric of the rock isinvolved, a discussion of the mechanics of the formation of slaty cleavage goes beyond an analysis of fracture mechanics, but involves the mechanism of the actual genesis of the rocks in question during the meta- morphosis of earlier ones, Whereas « joints » as con: sidered heretofore are the result of tectonic forces acting on the «finished» rock, the formation of slaty cleavage always involves some degree of actual metamorphism and never oceurs in rock that is not being changed in the process. The pattern of slaty cleavage, therefore, depends on the forces that were acting during the genesis of the rocks and not on the tectonic forces acting at later stages of their history. ‘A similar « genetic» mechanism of «joint » for mation is that of the formation of « spaced cleavage » which consists of numerous discontinuity surfaces bounding undeformed slats of water-soluble rocks oriented subparallel to the axial planes of associated folds. These «joints» are thought to be caused by dissolution-phenomena related to shortening in a direction roughly normal to the axial plane of the folds (cf. ALvarez, Excruper & Lownir, 1976). (9) Shear fractures. It has been proposed that the ubiquitous joints visible in fresh outcrops can be interpreted reason- ably, at least phenomenoiegically, as Mohr-type fractures produced by the present-day tectonic system (ANDERSON, 1951). In such an interpretation there is, however, an immediate paradox: The vertical stress at the surface of the Earth, where most joints are observed, is evidently zero, and is, thus, the smallest compression. The two other principal tectonic stress directions are horizontal. and according to Mohr’s theory. the potential fracture surfaces should contain the inter- ‘mediate principal stress directions: the joints, if they are interpreted as Mobr-fractures, should therefore be of the type of (miniature) normal or reversed faults. However, the overwhelming phenomenological evidence is that the tectonic joints are near-vertical and geometrically arranged as if the intermediate principal stress direction were vertical, the largest and smallest were horizontal. In fact. interpreting joints as Mohr-type fracture surtuces in a two-di- mensional (parallel to the Earth's surface) tectonic stress field yields results on a world-wide basis which are consistent with data from in-situ stress meas ements and earthquake source mechanisms, A second ps Joints as Mohr ype fractures is that the observed Angles of intersection between distinct joint sets at any one oulerop are (oo karge, i. €. they are too close to 90%, Mohr's theory states that the potential fra ture surfaces are inclined at about M¥ towards the maximum compression, which yields an angle of around 60° beeen conjugate fractures, In nature, stress alos in the above interpretation of conjugate joint sets are overwhelmingly found to enclose angles close to 90°, indicating that joints tend to form in the planes of maximum shear of tie horizontal tectonic stress field. It will be a problem of our further analysis to try to solve the above basic paradoxes. ‘An obvious attempt at a solution of the paradox is that of invoking the possibility that the joint- pattern was imprinted on the rocks st depth (where the weight produces enough vertical pressure for the latter to become the intermediate stress) prior to their being exposed in an outcrop. For the horizontal tectonic stresses at the surface one finds commonly values of some 10 MN/m*. This value is reached by the overburden pressure at some 30 m depth: — a depth at which it is certainly not unreasonable to assume the rocks t have been buried prior vo their exposure. The unloading hypothesis does not, however. explain the large (near-orthogonal) fracture angles. BARTON (1976) has shown that these angles come close 10 9° if the rock is in a critical state. Assuming reasonable values, e. g. for limestone, yields a critical state for an overburden pressure of upward from 250 MN/m* which would require a depth of burial of around 10.000 m, In view of the fact that jointing is observed ubiquitously, even in post-glacial holo- ene deposits, such necessary depths of burial evie dently obviate the theory. A further problem is how the « fracture design » can be «preserved » in the rock so that it becomes evident when the outcrop is exposed alter unloading. One possibility is to assume the stress 10 be « locked in» during the unloading process because of lateral constraints so that it is preserved right to the point of fracture. Finally, the possible role of dissipating pore pressure in «locking » in stresses should not be disregarded (cf. Vorcut. 1974). However. the presence of pore pressure (according to the Terzaght Principle) does not change the fracture characteristics, only the stress level at which failure occurs. (si) Shear flow tines. ‘The large angles between conjugate joint sets ma im fact, indicate that the fracture is not of the Mohs type at all. The joint sets align themselves very closely with the planes of maximum shenr in the tectonic stress field which may indicate that they are the result of some ductile oF plastic slippage process Thus, an obvious phenomenological explanation of joints would be that they ate the response to an instantaneous creep process induced in the horizontal plane by the momentarily acting tectonic. stresses. In fact, one knows that rocks respond to stresses by logurithmie creep so that yielding phenomena in the ies of maximum shear would at least be qualita tively expected. The joints, then, would be simply the Surface expression of the miiximum-shear phe nomena. This type of explanation entirely circum: 3vents all the problems posed by the « paradoxes », inasmuch as the flow-pattern would naturally reach up to the Earth's surface. The interpretation of joints in outcrops would therefore be that of their representing planes of maximum shear in a creep-flow-state of the « teciono- sphere». Local deviations simply represent irreg! larities in this flow whose average properties can be ascertained by corresponding averageing. The tra jectories following the (mean) directions (strikes) ‘of the joints on a map represent the slip lines of the «tectonic flow» present in the urea, (vil) Concluding remarks. In summary, we note that there are in fact, two ‘groups of theories of the origination of joints in a triaxial stress state. The first group predicts jointing to occur at some intermediate angle (30°-459) 10 the maximum pressure direction, the second group pre. icts jointing to occur either parallel (tension, pres: sure cracks) oF normal (slaty cleavage) to a principal stress direction. It is quite possible, of course, that all mechanisms discussed can occur on occasion, However, with regard to the second group (joints normal oF parallel to a principal stress direction), one must stare that these mechanisms can only occur under very special circumstances. Clearly. cooling eracks do occur and exist primarily in lava flows, « Pressure cracks » describe well the exfoliation of surficial rock layers, and sluty cleavage is wide: spread as a result of metamorphosis: it is part of the very lithology of a rock and hence connected with its genesis. The vast majority of « ordinary » joints, visible on every outcrop, are, however. not of this kind. The only explanation that remains for them, therefore, is that of some shear-type Fracture process caused by the tectonic stress filed. This explanation of «ordinary » joints is even more likely. because, purely phenomenologically, their orientation. on the « Age » as borne out by a statistical analysis. fits the orientation of the tectonic stress field of a region a determined by other means (earthquake fault-plane solutions, insitu measurements, global plate tectonics). Difficulties remain, however, regarding the actual mechanism of joint-formation in fresh outcrops at the surface of the Earth and regarding the near-or- thogonal angles between conjugate joint sets commonly found. These can be circumvented by assuming the joints as an expression of a creep-flow process al- fecting the whole tectonosphere right up to the surface. REFERENCES W. Atvanez, T. Encuroen & W. Lownie: Formation of spaced cleavage arid folds in brite liestone by dissolution Geology 4: 698-701 (1976), — E. M, ANDERSON: The Dynamics of Fanline and Deke Formation with Applications 10 Britain. London: Oliver & Boyd, 2nd Ed. 1951. — N. Bakros: The shear sirenath of rack and rock joins, Int. 1. Rock Mech, Min Sci 13: 258.279 (1976), — F-K. Baunnen & A.E, Scutt Deccan: Exjolarion, ROck Meth, 5: 41462 (1973). — F. Kott eck, A.E, Sciuprcare: On the theory of the evaluation of Joinvorientarion measuremens. Rack Mech. 9: 9-25 (197). — ALM. Lacuenanuen: Meehanies of thermal contraction cracks land iceowedee polygons in permafrost. Geol. Soe. Am. Spec. Pap. 70: 1-69 (1962). — N.J. Price: Fault and Jotar Develop ‘ment i Brinle and Somi-Brinle Rock. Oxford: Pergamon (1966). — A. E. Sewnipicorn: Joint in Ontario, Canada. Riv Ital, Geofis. © Se. AM. 4: 1-10 (19778), — A. E. Sctiogcrn: Joins in rhe Bahamas and shee geotectoiesinifcance, Riv. Wal. Gols, e Se, AT 43/4): 109118 (1977). — A- E. ScueIDEGGR Geotek nic strasedererminatins io Austra, Prox. First Intro, Syinpos. on Field Measurements in Rock Meshanies, Zurich, April 1977 (Uatkema, Rotterdam) 1: 197-208 (197%), — ACE, Scutioigen: Klufimesnungen ion Gelinde und ihre Bex deuning fir die Bestimmung des tektonischen Sparmunesfeldes in der Schweiz. Geographics Helvetica 1977 (3h: 12-134 (972d). — A.W. SioDAns: Slory cleavage ~ review of re= search since 1813. Barth Sei, Revs. 8: 205.232 (1972). — B, Voscit: mechanism Jor «lackinesin ogenic sess, Amer. J. Sei. 662-668 (197%), — D.S. Woon: Current views of the development of slat cleavage. Ann. Rev. Eatth a Planes, Sci 2: 369-401 (1974), Sunmars — The phenomenological feniures of the most common type of joins found in rock outcrops are reviewed, Iv is shown that most of the euttent theories of the Formation of joints contradiet the nature of these features. It is suggested thal joints are shear-surfaces in some sort of plastic or ereep= Iype flow of ine racks. Zusanmenfassune (Das Rétsel der Klifte) — Die charabte- eislischen Zige des verbeitetsten Typs von Klien sind zusam- imengetasst. Es wird gezett, dass die meisten zingigen Thetis der Enistehung von Kltfien mit der Natur derselben unver- finbar sind. Es wird vorgeschlagen, dass die Klufie Scher- Aichen in einer Art_von_plastischer oder logarthmisehet Kriechbewesung des Gesteins darstellen Résumé Uénieme des diaclases) — Les eats phénonvéno= lopiques des diacases sont considérés, 11 est démoniré que la Plupatt des theories de la Formation des dialases existantes actucllement ne s'accordent pas avec leur nature, II est pro- rosé que les diacases représentent des surfaces de csallement dans le Mage Jent des roches..Lk bonsete