Mantle (geology)

The mantle is a layer inside a terrestrial planet and some

other rocky planetary bodies. For a mantle to form,
the planetary body must be large enough to have undergone the process of planetary dierentiation by density.
The mantle lies between the core below and the crust
above. The terrestrial planets (Earth, Venus, Mars and
Mercury), the Moon, two of Jupiter's moons (Io and
Europa) and the asteroid Vesta each have a mantle made
of silicate rock.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] Interpretation of spacecraft data suggests that at least two other moons of Jupiter
(Ganymede and Callisto), as well as Titan and Triton
each have a mantle made of ice or other solid volatile
substances.[9][10][11][12]

rock of varying thickness, on average about 200 km (120

mi) thick,[16] and the lowermost part of the lithosphere
composed of rigid rock about 50 to 120 km (31 to 75
mi) thick.[17] A thin crust, the upper part of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and is about 5 to 75 km
(3.1 to 46.6 mi) thick.[18] Recent analysis of hydrous
ringwoodite from the mantle suggests that there is between one[19] and three[20] times as much water in the
transition zone between the lower and upper mantle than
in all the worlds oceans combined.
In some places under the ocean the mantle is actually exposed on the surface of Earth.[21] There are also a few
places on land where mantle rock has been pushed to the
surface by tectonic activity, most notably the Tablelands
region of Gros Morne National Park in the Canadian
province of Newfoundland and Labrador and St. Johns
Island, Egypt or Zabargad in the Red Sea.

Earths mantle

1.1 Structure
The mantle is divided into sections which are based upon
results from seismology. These layers (and their thicknesses/depths) are the following: the upper mantle (starting at the Moho, or base of the crust around 7 to 35 km
(4.3 to 21.7 mi) downward to 410 km (250 mi)),[22] the
transition zone (410660 km or 250410 mi), the lower
mantle (6602,891 km or 4101,796 mi), and anomalous coremantle boundary with a variable thickness (on
average ~200 km (120 mi) thick).[15][23][24][25]
The internal structure of Earth

The top of the mantle is dened by a sudden increase in

seismic velocity, which was rst noted by Andrija Mohorovii in 1909; this boundary is now referred to as
the Mohorovii discontinuity or Moho.[23][26] The uppermost mantle plus overlying crust are relatively rigid
and form the lithosphere, an irregular layer with a maximum thickness of perhaps 200 km (120 mi). Below the
lithosphere the upper mantle becomes notably more plastic. In some regions below the lithosphere, the seismic
shear velocity is reduced; this so-called low-velocity zone
(LVZ) extends down to a depth of several hundred km.
Inge Lehmann discovered a seismic discontinuity at about
220 km (140 mi) depth;[27] although this discontinuity
has been found in other studies, it is not known whether
the discontinuity is ubiquitous. The transition zone is an
area of great complexity; it physically separates the upper
and lower mantle.[25] Very little is known about the lower
mantle apart from that it appears to be relatively seismically homogeneous. The D layer at the coremantle
boundary separates the mantle from the core.[15][23] In

The interior of Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a
layer between the crust and the outer core. Earths mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of
2,886 kilometres (1,793 mi).[13] The mantle makes up
about 84% of Earths volume.[14] It is predominantly solid
but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous uid.
The mantle encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel,
which makes up about 15% of Earths volume.[14] Past
episodes of melting and volcanism at the shallower levels
of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized
melt products near the surface, upon which we live.[15] Information about structure and composition of the mantle
either result from geophysical investigation or from direct
geoscientic analyses on Earth mantle derived xenoliths
and on mantle exposed by mid-oceanic ridge spreading.
Two main zones are distinguished in the upper mantle: the inner asthenosphere composed of plastic owing
1

1 EARTHS MANTLE

2015, research using gravitational data from GRACE

satellites and the long wavelength nonhydrostatic geoid
indicated viscosity[28] increases by a factor of ten to 150
about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) below earths surface;
separate research also indicates sinking tectonic plates
stall at this depth, leading Robert van der Hilst to speculate In terms of structure and dynamics, 1,000 kilometers could be more important (than the currently accepted 660 km depth upperlower division).[29]

650 km (400 mi), all of the minerals of the upper mantle begin to become unstable. The most abundant minerals present, the silicate perovskites, have structures (but
not compositions) like that of the mineral perovskite followed by the magnesium/iron oxide ferropericlase.[30]
The changes in mineralogy at about 400 and 650 km (250
and 400 mi) yield distinctive signatures in seismic records
of the Earths interior, and like the moho, are readily detected using seismic waves. These changes in mineralogy
may inuence mantle convection, as they result in density changes and they may absorb or release latent heat as
1.2 Characteristics
well as depress or elevate the depth of the polymorphic
phase transitions for regions of dierent temperatures.
The mantle diers substantially from the crust in its The changes in mineralogy with depth have been investimechanical properties which is the direct consequence gated by laboratory experiments that duplicate high manof chemical composition change (expressed as dierent tle pressures, such as those using the diamond anvil.[31]
mineralogy). The distinction between crust and mantle
The inner core is solid, the outer core is liquid, and the
is based on chemistry, rock types, rheology and seismic
mantle solid/plastic. This is because of the relative meltcharacteristics. The crust is a solidication product of
ing points of the dierent layers (nickeliron core, silmantle derived melts, expressed as various degrees of
icate crust and mantle) and the increase in temperature
partial melting products during geologic time. Partial
and pressure as depth increases. At the surface both
melting of mantle material is believed to cause incompatnickeliron alloys and silicates are suciently cool to be
ible elements to separate from the mantle, with less dense
solid. In the upper mantle, the silicates are generally solid
material oating upward through pore spaces, cracks,
(localised regions with small amounts of melt exist); howor ssures, that would subsequently cool and solidify at
ever, as the upper mantle is both hot and under relatively
the surface. Typical mantle rocks have a higher magnelittle pressure, the rock in the upper mantle has a relasium to iron ratio and a smaller proportion of silicon and
tively low viscosity. In contrast, the lower mantle is under
aluminium than the crust. This behavior is also predicted
tremendous pressure and therefore has a higher viscosity
by experiments that partly melt rocks thought to be repthan the upper mantle. The metallic nickeliron outer
resentative of Earths mantle.
core is liquid because of the high temperature, despite
the high pressure. As the pressure increases, the nickel
S
Focus of
iron inner core becomes solid because the melting point
SS
earthquake
S
S
of iron increases dramatically at these high pressures.[34]
P
P
P

K
P

PP

S
K
Inner
core

S
P

SKS
SKP

Outer core
P
Lower mantle
P

PKP

Upper mantle
Crust

PPP
0

10,000
Kilometers

Mapping the interior of the Earth with earthquake waves.

Mantle rocks shallower than about 410 km (250 mi)

depth consist mostly of olivine, pyroxenes, spinelstructure minerals, and garnet;[25] typical rock types are
thought to be peridotite,[25] dunite (olivine-rich peridotite), and eclogite. Between about 400 km (250 mi)
and 650 km (400 mi) depth, olivine is not stable and is replaced by high pressure polymorphs with approximately
the same composition: one polymorph is wadsleyite (also
called beta-spinel type), and the other is ringwoodite (a
mineral with the gamma-spinel structure). Below about

1.3 Temperature
In the mantle, temperatures range between 500 to 900
C (932 to 1,652 F) at the upper boundary with the
crust; to over 4,000 C (7,230 F) at the boundary with
the core.[34] Although the higher temperatures far exceed the melting points of the mantle rocks at the surface
(about 1200 C for representative peridotite), the mantle
is almost exclusively solid.[34] The enormous lithostatic
pressure exerted on the mantle prevents melting, because
the temperature at which melting begins (the solidus) increases with pressure.

1.4 Movement
Main article: Mantle convection
Because of the temperature dierence between the
Earths surface and outer core and the ability of the crystalline rocks at high pressure and temperature to undergo slow, creeping, viscous-like deformation over millions of years, there is a convective material circulation
in the mantle.[23] Hot material upwells, while cooler (and

1.5

Exploration

3
of mechanisms have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, including dehydration, thermal runaway, and
phase change. The geothermal gradient can be lowered
where cool material from the surface sinks downward, increasing the strength of the surrounding mantle, and allowing earthquakes to occur down to a depth of 400 km
(250 mi) and 670 km (420 mi).

This gure is a snapshot of one time-step in a model of mantle

convection. Colors closer to red are hot areas and colors closer
to blue are cold areas. In this gure, heat received at the core
mantle boundary results in thermal expansion of the material at
the bottom of the model, reducing its density and causing it to send
plumes of hot material upwards. Likewise, cooling of material
at the surface results in its sinking.

The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ~136 GPa (1.4

million atm).[25] Pressure increases as depth increases,
since the material beneath has to support the weight of
all the material above it. The entire mantle, however, is
thought to deform like a uid on long timescales, with
permanent plastic deformation accommodated by the
movement of point, line, and/or planar defects through
the solid crystals comprising the mantle. Estimates for
the viscosity of the upper mantle range between 1019 and
1024 Pas, depending on depth,[36] temperature, composition, state of stress, and numerous other factors. Thus, the
upper mantle can only ow very slowly. However, when
large forces are applied to the uppermost mantle it can become weaker, and this eect is thought to be important
in allowing the formation of tectonic plate boundaries.

heavier) material sinks downward. Downward motion

of material occurs at convergent plate boundaries called
subduction zones. Locations on the surface that lie over
plumes are predicted to have high elevation (because of
the buoyancy of the hotter, less-dense plume beneath) and
to exhibit hot spot volcanism. The volcanism often attributed to deep mantle plumes is alternatively explained
by passive extension of the crust, permitting magma to
leak to the surface (the Plate hypothesis).[35]
1.5
The convection of the Earths mantle is a chaotic process (in the sense of uid dynamics), which is thought
to be an integral part of the motion of plates. Plate motion should not be confused with continental drift which
applies purely to the movement of the crustal components of the continents. The movements of the lithosphere and the underlying mantle are coupled since descending lithosphere is an essential component of convection in the mantle. The observed continental drift
is a complicated relationship between the forces causing oceanic lithosphere to sink and the movements within
Earths mantle.
Although there is a tendency to larger viscosity at greater
depth, this relation is far from linear and shows layers
with dramatically decreased viscosity, in particular in
the upper mantle and at the boundary with the core.[36]
The mantle within about 200 km (120 mi) above the
coremantle boundary appears to have distinctly dierent seismic properties than the mantle at slightly shallower depths; this unusual mantle region just above the
core is called D (D double-prime), a nomenclature
introduced over 50 years ago by the geophysicist Keith
Bullen.[37] D may consist of material from subducted
slabs that descended and came to rest at the coremantle
boundary and/or from a new mineral polymorph discovered in perovskite called post-perovskite.
Earthquakes at shallow depths are a result of stick-slip
faulting; however, below about 50 km (31 mi) the hot,
high pressure conditions ought to inhibit further seismicity. The mantle is considered to be viscous and incapable
of brittle faulting. However, in subduction zones, earthquakes are observed down to 670 km (420 mi). A number

Exploration

Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the

seabed rather than on land because of the relative thinness of the oceanic crust as compared to the signicantly
thicker continental crust.
The rst attempt at mantle exploration, known as Project
Mohole, was abandoned in 1966 after repeated failures
and cost over-runs. The deepest penetration was approximately 180 m (590 ft). In 2005 an oceanic borehole
reached 1,416 metres (4,646 ft) below the sea oor from
the ocean drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution.
On 5 March 2007, a team of scientists on board the
RRS James Cook embarked on a voyage to an area of
the Atlantic seaoor where the mantle lies exposed without any crust covering, mid-way between the Cape Verde
Islands and the Caribbean Sea. The exposed site lies
approximately three kilometres beneath the ocean surface and covers thousands of square kilometres.[38][39] A
relatively dicult attempt to retrieve samples from the
Earths mantle was scheduled for later in 2007.[40] The
Chikyu Hakken mission attempted to use the Japanese
vessel Chiky to drill up to 7,000 m (23,000 ft) below the
seabed. This is nearly three times as deep as preceding
oceanic drillings.
A novel method of exploring the uppermost few hundred
kilometres of the Earth was recently proposed, consisting
of a small, dense, heat-generating probe which melts its
way down through the crust and mantle while its position
and progress are tracked by acoustic signals generated in
the rocks.[41] The probe consists of an outer sphere of
tungsten about one metre in diameter with a cobalt-60
interior acting as a radioactive heat source. It was calcu-

REFERENCES

lated that such a probe will reach the oceanic Moho in less [9] Ganymede: In Depth. NASA. Retrieved 16 October
2015.
than 6 months and attain minimum depths of well over
100 km (62 mi) in a few decades beneath both oceanic
[10] Callisto: In Depth. NASA. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
and continental lithosphere.[42]
Exploration can also be aided through computer sim- [11] Layers of Titan. NASA. 23 February 2012. Retrieved
7 October 2015.
ulations of the evolution of the mantle. In 2009, a
supercomputer application provided new insight into the [12] Triton: In Depth. NASA. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
distribution of mineral deposits, especially isotopes of
iron, from when the mantle developed 4.5 billion years [13] Sorokhtin, O.G.; Chilingarian, G.V.; Sorokhtin, N.O.
(2011). Evolution of Earth and its climate birth, life and
ago.[43]
death of Earth. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Ltd. p.
137. ISBN 9780444537584. Retrieved 29 May 2015.

See also
Coremantle boundary
Lehmann discontinuity
Mantle xenoliths
Mantle convection
Mesosphere (mantle)
Mohorovii discontinuity
Post-perovskite phase transition
Primitive mantle
Earths internal heat budget

References

[1] Earth Structure. Trinity University, Texas. Retrieved

16 October 2015.
[2] Zharkov, V. N. and Zasurskii, I. Ia. (1981). Distribution
of the shearing stresses in the silicate mantle of Venus.
Astronomicheskii Vestnik 15: 1116.
[3] Longhi, John; et al. (1992). The bulk composition,
mineralogy and internal structure of Mars. Mars (A9327852 09-91). University of Arizona Press, Tucson. pp.
184208. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
[4] MESSENGER Provides New Look at Mercurys surprising core and landscape curiosities. NASA. 21 March
2012. Retrieved 16 October 2015.

[14] Robertson, Eugene (2007). The interior of the earth.

USGS. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
[15] The structure of the Earth. Moorland School. 2005.
Retrieved 2007-12-26.
[16] Thompson, Graham R.; Turk, Jonathan (2007). Earth science and the environment (4th ed., International student
edition. ed.). Australia: Thomson Brooks/Cole. pp. 133
134. ISBN 9780495112877. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
[17] Lithosphere: Schlumberger Oileld Glossary.
sary.oileld.slb.com. Retrieved on 2013-05-11.

Glos-

[18] Crust:
Schlumberger Oileld Glossary.
sary.oileld.slb.com. Retrieved on 2013-05-11.

Glos-

[19] Rare Diamond conrms that Earths mantle holds an

oceans worth of water. Scientic American. March 12,
2014. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
[20] Schmandt, Brandon; Jacobsen, Steven D.; Becker,
Thorsten W.; Liu, Zhenxian; Dueker, Kenneth G.
(13 June 2014). Dehydration melting at the top of
the lower mantle. Science 344 (6189): 12651268.
doi:10.1126/science.1253358. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
[21] Mission to Study Earths Gaping 'Open Wound'. LiveScience. Retrieved on 2013-05-11.
[22] The location of the base of the crust varies from approximately 10 to 70 kilometers. Oceanic crust is generally less
than 10 kilometers thick. Standard continental crust is
around 35 kilometers thick, and the large crustal root under the Tibetan Plateau is approximately 70 kilometers
thick.
[23] Alden, Andrew (2007). Todays Mantle: a guided tour.
About.com. Retrieved 2007-12-25.

[5] Moon ABCs Fact Sheet (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 16

October 2015.

[24] The Mantle. mediatheek.thinkquest.nl (2000)

[6] NASA (6 October 2000). Scientists Show Jovian Moon

Ios Mantle is Similar to Earth. NASA. Retrieved 7 October 2015.

[25] Burns, Roger George (1993). Mineralogical Applications

of Crystal Field Theory. Cambridge University Press. p.
354. ISBN 0-521-43077-1. Retrieved 2007-12-26.

[7] Frequently Asked Questions about Europa. NASA. Retrieved 16 October 2015.

[26] Istria on the Internet Prominent Istrians Andrija Mohorovicic. 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-25.

[8] Neumann, W.; et al. (2014). Dierentiation of

Vesta: Implications for a shallow magma ocean.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 395: 267280.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.03.033.

[27] Carlowicz, Michael (2005). Inge Lehmann biography. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.
Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved
2007-12-25.

[28] Rudoph, Maxwell (11 December 2015). Viscosity jump

in Earths mid-mantle. Science. Retrieved 16 January
2016.
[29] Sumner, Thomas (10 December 2015). Gooey rock in
mantle thickens 1,000 kilometers down. Science News.
Retrieved 16 January 2016.
[30] Anderson, Don L. (2007) New Theory of the Earth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84959-3, ISBN
0-521-84959-4
[31] Alden, Andrew. The Big Squeeze: Into the Mantle.
About.com. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
[32] mantle@Everything2.com. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
[33] Jackson, Ian (1998). The Earths Mantle - Composition,
Structure, and Evolution. Cambridge University Press. pp.
311378. ISBN 0-521-78566-9.
[34] Louie, J. (1996). Earths Interior. University of Nevada,
Reno. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
[35] Foulger, G.R. (2010). Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological
Controversy. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-61480.
[36] Walzer, Uwe; Hendel, Roland and Baumgardner, John.
Mantle Viscosity and the Thickness of the Convective
Downwellings. igw.uni-jena.de
[37] Alden, Andrew. The End of D-Double-Prime Time?".
About.com. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
[38] Than, Ker (2007-03-01). Scientists to study gash on Atlantic seaoor. Msnbc.com. Retrieved 2008-03-16. A
team of scientists will embark on a voyage next week to
study an open wound on the Atlantic seaoor where the
Earths deep interior lies exposed without any crust covering.
[39] Earths Crust Missing In Mid-Atlantic. Science Daily.
2007-03-02. Retrieved 2008-03-16. Cardi University
scientists will shortly set sail (March 5) to investigate a
startling discovery in the depths of the Atlantic.
[40] Japan hopes to predict 'Big One' with journey to center
of Earth. PhysOrg.com. 2005-12-15. Archived from the
original on 2005-12-19. Retrieved 2008-03-16. An ambitious Japanese-led project to dig deeper into the Earths
surface than ever before will be a breakthrough in detecting earthquakes including Tokyos dreaded Big One, ofcials said Thursday.
[41] Ojovan M.I., Gibb F.G.F., Poluektov P.P., Emets E.P.
2005. Probing of the interior layers of the Earth with selfsinking capsules. Atomic Energy, 99, 556562
[42] Ojovan M.I., Gibb F.G.F. Exploring the Earths Crust
and Mantle Using Self-Descending, Radiation-Heated,
Probes and Acoustic Emission Monitoring. Chapter 7.
In: Nuclear Waste Research: Siting, Technology and Treatment, ISBN 978-1-60456-184-5, Editor: Arnold P. Lattefer, Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2008
[43] University of California Davis (2009-06-15). Supercomputer Provides First Glimpse Of Earths Early Magma
Interior. ScienceDaily. Retrieved on 2009-06-16.

4 Further reading
Don L. Anderson, Theory of the Earth, Blackwell
(1989), is a textbook dealing with the Earths interior and is now available on the web. Retrieved
2007-12-23.
Jeanloz, Raymond (2000). Mantle of the Earth.
In Haraldur Sigurdsson, Bruce Houghton, Hazel
Rymer, John Stix, Steve McNutt. Encyclopedia of
Volcanoes. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 4154.
ISBN 978-0-12-643140-7. Retrieved 2010-05-17.
Nixon, Peter H. (1987). Mantle xenoliths: J. Wiley
& Sons, 844p., (ISBN 0-471-91209-3).

5 External links
The Biggest Dig: Japan builds a ship to drill to
the earths mantle Scientic American Magazine
(September 2005)
Information on the Mohole Project

6 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.1

Text

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Daonguyen95, Josve05a, Ydoucare3, H3llBot, Tolly4bolly, Rcsprinter123, L Kensington, Morgankevinj, 50imp, RockMagnetist, Nickhhh, Oksam1997, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, Michaelsalamon, Nathantullos, Satellizer, Foulger, Rezabot, Vibhijain,
Theopolisme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Moray An Par, DBigXray, Poptropa, Lowercase sigmabot, Fernandez4682, Cncmaster, Hostager, Abootmoose, Epictuber600, BattyBot, Lukas, Pratyya Ghosh, ChrisGualtieri, EuroCarGT, Ducknish, Soni, Joshbackhousejb, Buspirtraz, Lugia2453, Tigeralec, Meowmix9226, DavidLeighEllis, Gheman222, Ginsuloft, Marikanessa, Bkilli1, Karla20022, Rz2750, Mrupp3997,
Coby193, EagleGames, TCHDeath, Boygogu, KasparBot, Anonymous50321 and Anonymous: 699

6.2

Images

File:Convection-snapshot.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Convection-snapshot.png License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Harroschmeling at German
Wikipedia
File:Earth_poster.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Earth_poster.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong
File:Earthquake_wave_paths.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Earthquake_wave_paths.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/interior/fig2.gif ; original upload in english wikipedia, 15 April 2005 by SEWilco
Original artist: SEWilco
File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

6.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0