Grammar reference Comparative and superlative structures (Unit 5) Conditionals (Unit 4) Countable/uncountable nouns (Unit 10) Direct and reported speech (Unit 8) Emphasis (Units 9, 11) Hypothetical meaning (Unit 6) Intensifiers/modifiers (Unit 5) 9 It as preparatory subject/object (Unit 10) 10. Modal verbs (Units 3, 11) 11 Participle clauses (Unit 13) 12. Passives (Units 12, 13) 13. Relative clauses (Unit 2) 14 Substitution and ellipsis (Unit 6) 15. Verb patterns (Units 3, 7, 8) 16 Verb tenses (Units 1, 7, 9, 12) 1 Articles 1.1 Indefinite article alan ‘We use the indefinite article a/an for singular countable nouns! + when we mention something for the fist time The concept of a brand is difficult to define. * when it doesn’t matter which particular person or thing we are referring to, ‘bought this F-shit in a supermarket. 1.2 Definite article the We use the definite article the for singular and plural countable nouns, and with uncountable nouns: ‘+ when something has already been mentioned, so we already know which person or object is being referred to ‘My parents lived in a small house. The house was old. ‘+ when there is only one thing or person The actor who played James Bond in ‘Or No’ was Sean Connery. * when there is one thing, person, ete. that is especially important to the speaker I've got an appointment at the hospital. * in generalisations with singular countable nouns The panda is threatened with extinction, Articles (Unit 2) + for nationalities ‘Many of the English prefer coffee to tea, ‘+ with adjectives used as nouns ‘She goes to 2 special schoo! for the blind. + for regions, mountain ranges, oceans, seas and countries (when these refer to a collection of states or areas) England is part of the British Isles. + for hotels, restaurants, theatres and cinernas We can't possibly afford to stay at the Ritz! 1.3 Zero article We use no article (the zero article) * in generalisations with plural and uncountable nouns when we mean ‘al’ ike music ‘+ when we are reterring to the general use of an institution rather than a particular place He goes to school in Scotiand. He been taken to hospital. ‘+ for continents, countries and cities Perth is in Australia. ‘+ for mountains and lakes aie Wusiva in peiniareniy fhveers * for most streets (except The High Street) live on North Avenue. 2 Comparative and superlative structures 2.1 Basic forms 1 We use more or most before nouns, adverbs, ‘twosyflable adjectives ending in -ful,-less and -ing, two-syllable adjectives where the second sylable stressed, and longer adjectives, J earn more money than she does ‘She works more effectively than anyone | know ‘She is the most useful member of the tear Fe is one of the most misunderstood artists of the twentieth century 2 We add -er and -est to one-syllable adjectives and two-syllable adjectives where the second syllable is unstressed, It's hotter than it used to be. She's a lot funnier than her brother 3 To compare two things we can also use the structure as + adjective/adverb + as. J don’t go out as often as I'd like toGrammar reference 2.2 Intensifying comparative forms To intensify comparative forms we can use the following expressions: learn considerably/a great deal/much/a lot more now than I did ten years ago. | see loads/tons more people than | used to. (informal) | think the questions are getting more and more difficult The Plaza Hotel is slightly/a bit/rather more expensive, but it's worth it There haven't been half as many/nothing like as many complaints since Glyn became boss. 3 Conditionals 3.1 Basic forms 1 We use (iftwhen/unless + present simple/will + present simple to express general truths. When you heat water to 100°C it boits/will boil. 2 We use if whentunless + present simple) + imperative to give a command, Stay here unless | tell you to leave, 3. We use (ifiwhen/unless + present simple) + willmightimayipresent continuous to express a condition referring to a possible present or future event. Unless | hear from you, Fil go on my own. He might be prepared to do the job when he’s finished his other work 4 We use (ifiuniess + past simple/past continuous) + wouldicouldimightiought to to express a hypothetical condition referring to the present or future, If Anna went to college, she could study languages, I wouldn’t take my laptop unless ! was planning to do ‘some work. 5 We use (iflunless + past perfect) + wouldicouldimight/ought to have to talk about a hypothetical condition in the past. Even if 'd got the job, | probably wouldn't have enjoyed it much 3.2 Formal style {In more formal style, if can be omitted and the auxiliary verb placed before the subject, If had been warned — Had ! been warned about the situation, | would have made other arrangements. If they had not been ordered to + Had they not been ordered to, they would never have entered the building. 3.3 if + should/happen to Wee use if + should/happen to to suggest that something is rather unlikely to happen, or may just happen by chance. ‘Should and happen can be used together. Hf you (should) happen to pass 2 pharmacy, could you get me some aspirin? 3.4 supposing/imagine We use supposing and imagine in place of if. The meaning is similar ‘Supposing/Imagine you won the lottery — what would you do with the money? 3.5 if + wasiwere to We use if + was/were to to make an event seem more hypothetical This structure is not used with state verbs, e.. believe. If they were to find a way of wiping out malaria, millions Of fives would be saved. 3.6 if + will/would We use if + williwould to make requests more polite. In this case the auxiliary will/would means ‘be willing to’ 1F you will just bear with us for a few moments, the Minister will answer your questions, If you would be kind enough to send your account details, we will settle this matter immediately. 4 Countable/uncountable nouns 1 Some words are always uncountable, They cannot be Used with the indefinite article (a/an) and they do not have a plural form. I need some advice about which course to choose There's a lot of information available on the internet She's doing research into language learning There isn’t any news about the elections yet. 2. Some words may be countable or uncountable, depending on their precise meaning. There's a space between the cupboard and the wall (countable) The astronauts will travel through space. (uncountable) 5 Direct and reported speech 1. When the sequence of events is clear it is nat necessary to backshift past tenses to past perfect. | really enjoyed the party last Saturday. We heard you really enjoyed the party last Saturday. 2 When the reporting verb is in the present, future or present perfect, and the situation is stil true, the tenses don’t usually change. Hove children He says he loves children. 1'm a vegetarian. ‘She'll probably tell you she's a vegetarian. I'm terrified of heights. She has often said that she's terrified of heights.3. When the reporting verbs are in a past tense the modal verbs would, should, could, might, ought to and must do not usually change their form, You should visit the castle during your stay. He recommended that | should visit the castle during my stay. 4. Reporting verbs that emphasise the importance of an action are often followed by should in British English, and by the subjunctive in American English. They recommended that we should stay overnight in Mactri. | insisted that he accept payment for the work he had done. 6 Emphasis 6.1 Cleft sentences with what Important information can be emphasised by putting it at the end of a sentence. We put the less important information into a clause beginning with what, and open the sentence with this clause. We can then finish with the important information. The two parts of the sentence are joined with is or was, since we treat the what clause as singular ike Sam's sense of humour most ofall. What I ike most of all about Sam is his sense of humour The lies she told realy upset me. wnat reauy upset me was tne ies she told 6.2 Emphasis with inversion We can put certain restrictive words or phrases at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis. When we do this, there is inversion of the subject and auxiliary verb. Under no circumstances should you let her go. At no time would she consider any other possibilty. Not until the end did I realise the danger I'd been in, Hardly had 1 put the phone down when it rang again, ‘No sooner had I put the phone down than it rang again Seldom have fread such an excellent piece of work Rarely will you see such a gifted performer Little did 1 know that he planned to resign that day. Never before has the city looked so magnificent. Only then did I realise how unhappy she had been, Not only have you missed a week's classes, but you have aso failed to hand in any work. 7 Hypothe' 7.1 wish + past simple ‘al meaning We use wish + past simple (or ifonly + past simple) to ‘express @ wish about the present or the future LwishAf only I had my own computer I wishif only I was going on the trip tomorrove 7.2 would rather + past simple We use would rather + past simple to express a preference about the present or future. Vd rather you called back late, if you don’t mind. Would you rather I went to tovn tomorrow? 7.3 wish + past perfect We use wish + past perfect to refer to things that we wish had been different in the past. I wish I'd never met you! 7.4\ wish | could We use wish could to talk about an ability we'd lke to have, of @ habit we'd like to be able to give up. I wish I could drive I wish I could give up smoking 7.5 wish + would ‘We use wish + would to talk about a habit we'd like someone else to give up. I wish my grandfather would give up smoking. 7.6 It’s (high) time We use It’s time or It's high time + past simple to describe something we think should be done in the present or future. Its high time the government did something about the traffic in our cities. 7.7 suppose We use suppose to describe something that may happen in, the future or may have happened in the past. It means the same as What if..? Suppose you don’t get a job - what will you do then? Suppose he hadn't had a map — he'd never have found his way home. 8 Intensifiers/modifiers 1 The meaning of many adjectives can be intensified with adverbs such as rather, very or exceedingly It was rather hot in the room. | only had a very short time to prepare for the test. twas exceedingly difficult to cross the road. 2. Some adjectives already have an ‘extreme’ meaning ‘These adjectives can only be further intensified with adverbs such as absolutely, completely or utterly The plot of that film was completely impossible She was utterly miserable when the holiday ended.9 It as preparatory subject/object 9.1 It as preparatory subject It can be used as the subject of a sentence referring forwards to a word or phrase occurring later. This isa ‘common structure in spoken English. Its often used: * to precede an infinitive clause It was really lovely to see Philip again Ite makes me sad to see her so frail and thin. + to precede a we clause (with thaviwholwheat, etc.) {t's unlikely that he'll arrive on time. It's tere how many people are unemployed. + to give additional emphasis to the fist piece of information in a sentence Ie was Sally who gave me the present, not Ann. 9.2 It as preparatory object {can also be used as the object of a sentence, referring forwards to a word or phrase occurring later, inthis patter: subject + verb + it + complement + infnitivewh-clause. They thought it undesirable to give him the prize. | found it puzzing that she'd not said goodbye. 10 Modal verbs ‘Modal verbs can be used to express the following: + possibilty That could/might/may be the answer The thief could/might/may have had a knife. J can't have been more than two at the time, + logical deduction That must be Tom on the phone It can't be Susie's dress - she never wears pink The applicant must have performed very well at the interview to get the job. + obligationfnecessty You must leave the building immediately. ve got to finish this report today. They had to record everything they did. * lack of obligation/necessity You don't have to get a visa. We didn’t need to pay to go in We needn't have bothered to book seats ‘+ prohibition You mustn't leave your mobile phone switched on during lessons. ‘+ advice (weak obligation) You should try to bring as little luggage as possible. You ought not to be playing music so late at night. They should have/ought to have taken out insurance. permission Gan | borrow your dictionary? May | open the window? | asked if | could take some time off work. ability They ean all speak several languages. | was afraid of the water because | couldn't swim. 11 Participle clauses 1 A partciole clause can be used after a noun instead of a relative clause ‘+ An-ing participle replaces an active verb. Students hoping to go on the trip should register nove + An -ed participle replaces a passive verb, Everyone selected for the team must see the coach today. 2A participle clause can be used to replace words like because, since, so, as a result, wien Tired after the long journey, they went to bed early Having read the book, | found the film easy to follow. Having finally finished our shopping, we went and had a coffee. 12 Passives 1 We use the passive when the active form would require the use of an indefinite or vague pronoun or noun, ‘Someone will process your application soon Your aoolication will be processed soon. 2 We often use the passive to make a statement sound less personal, or to avoid mentioning the agent. Offenders will be prosecuted. 3 We often use the passive with verbs such as think, believe, know and say to suggest that itis a general opinion, She is sald to be our greatest living writer. 4 We sometimes use the passive to avoid an awkward change of subject in the middle of a sentence. She first saw the film when she was fifteen, and some of the scenes have haunted her ever since. She frst saw the film when she was fifteen, and has been haunted ever since by some of the scenes, 5 Ifthe subject is not the agent, we can use a passive infinitive There's nothing else to be said about it. 13 Relative clauses 13.1 Defining relative clauses Defining relative clauses say which person or thing (or kind of person or thing) we are talking about. [I'd prefer to go to the session whichythat starts at 7.15. The matter of which | am speaking now is strictly confidential. The man she asked couldn't tell her anything The apartment where I lived was very cheap,13.2 Non-defining relative clauses \Non-defining relative clauses tell us more about a person or thing that we have already identified, On the 3rd of March, which is a Saturday, we're having 2 party. The President, for whom a press conference had been ‘organised, fhad to leave suddenly The treaty, under the terms of which all prisoners are to be released, vas signed yesterday 14 Substitut n and ellipsis ‘We avoid repetition of words or expressions that have already been used by means of substitution and ellipsis 14.1 Substitution Substitution involves using ather words such as it, ane, do, there, that, so, neither and not. I've been to Thailand several times but Alan has never been there. Bill doesn't really lke formal occasions and neither do 1 She picked up a packet of biscuits and opened tt. ‘A: Would you lke @ cup of tea? 8: fd love one. ‘A: Are you going skiing this winter? 8: We might do. ‘A: Can you come to a concert with Susie and me tonight? B: That sounds great. A: She won't go if Tom's there. B: | expect not, 14.2 Ellipsis Ellipsis involves leaving out words to avoid repetition. We do this * after and, but or or when the subject i the same ‘She felt anxious and confused about the situation, He was excited but a litle apprehensive about the job. 11 probably take them some flowers or maybe some chocolates. atthe end of a verb phrase ‘She wanted to visit her aunt in hospital but she couldn't ‘She promised to do her homework, and she has. + with to {didn’t want to go there, but my mother said | had to He doesn't play much tennis now, though he used to, 15 Verb patterns Verbs may be followed by 2 number of different structures: * verb + “ing He knew that he risked being found out and sent to prison, + verb + to infinitive He attempted to change his way of life + verb + object + to infinitive . My sister always encouraged me to take chances. Grammar reference verb 4 object + bare infinitive (without to) My grandfather let me drive the tractor verb + -ing or to infinitive — litle change in meaning I began to learn French when I vias six. I began learning French when | was si: verb + -ing or bare infinitive ~ litle change in meaning I saw him get on the bus. I saw him getting on the bus. verb + -ing oF ta infinitive ~ change in meaning I tried to work more quick, but | coukin’t tried working more quickly, but | made lots of mistakes Sremembered telling her about the party ~ she'd been very interested. Iremembered to tell her about the party, but she said she couldn't come. verb + that + clause He explained that the train had been delayed, She confirmed that | had passed the exam, verb + object + that + clause The guide told us that it was a very old building. The weather forecaster warned everyone that 3 ‘storm was building up. verb + preposition + -ing He didn't admit to stealing the necklace verb + object + preposition + -ing She congratulated me on doing so well. 16 Verb tenses 16.1 Talking about the past ‘The past simple is used to describe a state or event at @ time in the past which is specified or understood, {started school in 1994 After that, I never saw Sally again. The present perfect simple is used to describe a state beginning in the past and leading up to the present I've been interested in astronomy ever since my uncle gave mea telescope. to describe an event or events at an unspectied time in the past I've seen @ jot of famous artists perform on stage. ‘The past perfect simple is used to rake it clear that something happened before a given time or event in the past td noticed him several times before we were actually introduced,Grammar reference 16.2 Continuous verb forms In general, continuous verb forms may be used: + to describe a repeated event She's alviays trying to help. He was tapping his fingers on the table. + to describe a ternporary situation I'm working as a receptionist at present. He had been staying at the Central Hotel for a few days. Il be going to London next Tuesday. ‘+ to stress the duration of a state or event By next May, she'll have been living in that house for ten years. rd been sitting waiting for almost an hour by the time Josh arrived, + to describe an incomplete action or event Iwas talking to the manager on the phone, but I got cut off He had been studying in Rome for two years when his father phoned to say he was needed at home. *# to describe an activity where the results are apparent later on She'd been reading all day, and her head ached, Ive been going to the gym regularly and I'm feeling a lot better. 16.3 Talking about the future 1. The present continuous is used to describe arrangements or plans that have already been made. (he future time reference is stated or known from the context) Fm going on holiday next week 2 The present simple is used to describe the future seen as fact, €.g. in timetables and formal arrangements. The exhibition opens next Tuesday 3. going to is used: ‘+ to make predictions based on present evidence J think it's going to be a lovely day. + to express intentions 1'm going to do the best can. 4 The future simple is used + to make a general prediction They do not think the President will be there. + to express a decision made at the moment of speaking OK then = Fl come with you. 5. The future continuous is used: + to describe a definite plan Il be leaving at six o’clock * to describe an event in progress around a time in the future This time tomorrow I'l be lying on the beach 6 The future perfect simple is used to describe something that will or should be completed by a specified time in the future. They will have arrived in Moscow soon They should have finished shooting the film by the end of next year 7. Other expressions used to refer to the future: ‘+ to be in for something: to suggest that something (often negative) will definitely happen I'm aftaid he's in for a disappointment. ‘to be due to: to indicate an event in the future that has already been scheduled The plane is due to arrive at 5.30 a.m., but it might be late ‘+ amiislare to: used in formal contexts to indicate an event that has been officially scheduled and that is expected to take place You are to report to the managing director at 9.00 tomorrow morning. Pastcipants are to assemble in the hall at 10.00 a.m. + to be on the point offto be about to: used to describe an event expected to happen very soon Ten years ago, doctors thought they were on the point of wiping out TB. I'm about to hand in my resignation. 16.4 Future in the past 1 The past continuous is used to talk about plans made at a specific time in the past. J was getting the eight o'clock train, so I had to hurry. 2. was going to is used to talk about intentions made in the past that were not fulfilled ‘Steve was going to pick up the dry-cleaning, but he forgot, 3 was thinking of is used for uncertain plans that may or may not be fulfiled. We were thinking of going to Morocco next week, but it depends if we can get a flight.