Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 STRESS METER

Stress is the very common condition of every human being. Stress is nothing more than a
socially acceptable form of mental illness. This Stress meter allows to assess the emotional
pain. If the stress is very high, it gives visual indication on a LED display along with a beep.
This stress monitor lets you assess your emotional pain. If the stress is very high, it gives
visual indication through a light-emitting diode (LED) display along with warning beep. The
gadget is small enough to be worn around the wrist. The LM3915 is a monolithic integrated
circuit that senses analog voltage levels and drives ten LEDs, LCDs or vacuum fluorescent
displays, providing a logarithmic 3dB/step analog display.
The gadget is based on the principle that the resistance of the skin varies in accordance with
your emotional states. If the stress level is high the skin offers less resistance, and if the body
is relaxed the skin resistance is high. The low resistance of the skin
During high stress is due to an increase in the blood supply to the skin. This increases the
permeability of the skin and hence the conductivity for electric current. This property of the
skin is used
Here to measure the stress level, the touch pads of the stress meter sense the voltage
variations across the touch pads and convey the same to the circuit. The circuit is very
sensitive and detects even a minute voltage variation across the touch pads.

1.2 EVOLUTION
In an article Stress and Mind Control, 21/03/2008, Roberto Bonomi stated that When we
speak of the fabulous relaxation capacity that mind control gives us, the first thing that comes
to our mind, is that we will be able to take off, the excesses of nervous tension, the stress; and

this is a great benefit. Because suppose that you could measure stress in inches, and that you
have stress zero when the meter is located in zero.

Neuroscientists have begun to learn that even acute, everyday stress can turn off the brains
command-and-control center, the prefrontal cortex. Without our mental executive, we feel
helpless and out of control.The more we learn about stress, the more we realize that
monitoring stress and taking steps to keep it under control is an important preventive health
measure.

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT

The purpose of stress meter is to assess the emotional pain of human being. The stress can
cause hair to fall, acne to break out and many other problems. These manifestations of stress
can cause even more anxiety. Stress causes cortical levels to increase within the body, which
increases oil production, which causes acne breakouts.
So this stress meter is to solve all the problems caused due to stress by checking the stress of
an individual and taking care before any serious problem occurs.

Chapter 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND PROJECT OVERVIEW

2.1 PRINCIPLE OF STRESS METER:

The stress meter is based on the principle that the variations in the resistance of the skin due
to blood pressure of ones body can be directly converted and transmitted into analog voltage
levels to give the visual indication of human stress using a proper circuitry.

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

INPUT (FROM
FINGERS)

TRANSISTOR

TOUCH PADS

(BC548)

LEDS
(OUTPUT)

IC LM3915

Fig: 2.1 Block diagram of stress meter

2.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION:

Figure above shows a block diagram of the Stress Indicator device. The touch pads of the
stress meter sense the voltage variations across the touch pads and convey it to the signal
amplifier, followed by LED display for visual indication and a warning beep. The circuit is
very sensitive and detects even a minute voltage variation across the touch pads.

Touch pad- detects the changes on the skin resistance.

Transistor BC548- amplify the signal produced at skin surface obtain from the touch

pad.
IC LM3915- is use to sense the analogue voltage level at pin 5 obtain from the

transistor.
LED- indicates the level of pain produce from the galvanic skin response.

2.3 APPLICATION:
Each LED in stress meter operates with a 3dB difference from the previous one, and a jumper
is provided to allow dot or bar mode. This project is an essential part of the expandable
analyzer and one meter circuit is used for each frequency band. There are many other uses for
a simple LED meter. They are ideal as power meters on amplifiers, can be used with mixers
(including the high quality mixer), preamps and any other application where it is important to
know the signal level.
LM3915's 3 dB/step display is suited for signals with wide dynamic range, such as audio
level, power, light intensity or vibration. Audio applications include average or peak level
indicators, power meters and RF signal strength meters. Replacing conventional meters with
an LED bar graph results in a faster responding, more rugged display with high visibility that
retains the ease of interpretation of an analog display.

Chapter 3

COMPONENTS OVERVIEW
The components required for stress meter are as follows:
1. IC LM3915 (1 nos.)
2. Touch Pads
3. 9V Battery (1 nos.)
4. LEDs (5 red)
5. Transistor BC548 (1 nos.)
6. Zener Diode 5.1V, 0.5W (1 nos.)
7. Switch (1 nos.)
8. Piezo Buzzer (1 nos.)
9. Diode 1N4148 (1 nos.)
10. Variable Resistor (1M, 47K)
11. Resistors (47K,1.2K,560,1K,470,470)
12. Capacitor 100uF, 16v (2 nos.)
13. Capacitor 10uF,16v (1 nos.)
14. Zero PCB

3.1 IC LM3915:
The LM3915 is a monolithic integrated circuit that senses analog voltage levels and drives
ten LEDs, LCDs or vacuum fluorescent displays, providing a logarithmic 3 dB/step analog
display. One pin changes the display from a bar graph to a moving dot display. LED current
drive is regulated and programmable, eliminating the need for current limiting resistors. The
whole display system can operate from a single supply as low as 3V or as high as 25V.
Features

3 dB/step, 30 dB Range

Drives LEDs, LCDs, or Vacuum Fluorescents

Bar or Dot Display Mode Externally Selectable by

Expandable to Displays of 90 Db

Internal Voltage Reference from 1.2V to 12V

3.2 TOUCH PADS:

User

FIG 3.1 IC LM3915

The touch pads are the two copper strips tied on two
fingers of the left hand. This provides the input in terms
of skin resistance. Skin resistance is primarily affected
by sweat, as salty water is an excellent conductor. So
essentially the machine is measuring how sweaty your
palms are.

FIG 3.4 Touch Pads

3.3 BATTERY:
It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges
and a polarized snap connector at the top. The battery
has both terminals in a snap connector on one end.
The smaller circular (male) terminal is positive, and
the larger hexagonal or octagonal (female) terminal is
the negative contact. The connectors on the battery are
the same as on the connector itself; the smaller one
connects to the larger one and vice versa.
FIG 3.3 9v battery

3.4 LED (light emitting diode):

A light emitting diode (LED) is a PN junction
semiconductor diode that emits photons when
electrical current passes through the junction
in the forward direction, the electrical carriers
give up energy proportional to the forward
voltage drop across the diode junction, this
energy is emitted in the form of light.
Fig 3.4 Light Emitting

LEDs are used in numerical displays such as those on electronic digital watches and pocket
Diode

calculators. By definition, it is a solid-state device that controls current without heated

filaments and is therefore very reliable. LEDs are highly monochromatic, emitting a pure
6

color in a narrow frequency range. The color

emitted

from an LED is identified by peak wavelength and

measured in nanometers. LEDs are made from
gallium-based crystals that contain one or more
additional materials
such as phosphorous to produce a distinct color.
LED light output varies with the type of chip,
encapsulation,
efficiency

of

LED Color

Potential
Difference
Fig 3.5 inside a Light

individual wafer lots

Several

LED

and

other

Emitting Diode

variables.

manufacturers use terms

Infrared

1.6V

red

1.8 to 2.1V

orange

2.2V

yellow

2.4V

Because LEDs are

green

2.6V

solid-state devices they

are not subject to

blue

3.0V to 3.5V

catastrophic failure when

operated

white

3.0V to 3.5V

design parameters. LEDs

ultraviolet

3.5V

such
to

as

"super-

describe

are
driven.

LED

within

current-driven
Although

bright," and "ultra-bright"

intensity.

devices,

not

voltage

drive current and light

output are directly related, exceeding the maximum current rating will produce excessive heat
within the LED chip due to excessive power dissipation. The color of an LED is determined
by the semiconductor material, not by the coloring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs
are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, and blue and white colors.

LEDs are specially constructed to release a large number of photons outward. Additionally,
they are housed in a plastic bulb that concentrates the light in a particular direction.

Table 3.1: LED color vs. potential

difference Diode

3.5 TRANSISTOR (BC548):

BC548 is general purpose silicon, NPN, bipolar junction transistor. It is used for
amplification and switching purposes. The current gain may vary between 110 and 800. The
maximum DC current gain is 800.
7

Its equivalent transistors are 2N3904 and

2SC1815.

These

equivalent

transistors

however have different lead assignments.

The variants of BC548 are 548A, 548B and
548C which vary in range of current gain and
other characteristics.
The transistor terminals require a fixed DC
Fig 3.6 Pins showing the

voltage to
operate

in

the

desired

region

of

terminals

its

characteristic curves. This is known as the

biasing. For amplification applications, the
transistor is biased such that it is partly on for
all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified

and

at the emitter. BC548 is used in common emitter

amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly
switching applications, transistor is biased so that

used

taken

configuration

for

biasing

For

mode.

it remains fully on if there is a

signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.
Fig 3.7 Actual view of
BC548 Diode

3.6 ZENER DIODE :

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode

consisting of a silicon PN

junction. When biased in the forward direction it behaves

just like a normal signal

diode passing the rated current, but as soon as a reverse

voltage applied across

the Zener Diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the

diodes

breakdown voltage is reached at which point a process

called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion

layer and

a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.

Fig 3.8 Zener Diode

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum
circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved this reverse
saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. The voltage
point at which the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the zener voltage
for zener diodes this voltage can range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be
very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes
semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, ( Vz ) for
example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical
straight line.

3.8 SWITCH:

fig 3.9 VI characteristics of zener diode

The switch used is a single pole double throw type switch. It performs the ON/OFF
operation.

fig 3.10 SPDT switch

9

3.9 PIEZO-BUZZER:
Piezo buzzer is an electronic device commonly used to produce sound. Light weight, simple
construction

and

low

price make it usable in

various applications like

car/truck

indicator, computers, call

bells etc. Piezo buzzer

is based on the inverse

principle

electricity discovered in

1880 by Jacques and

Pierre Curie. It is the

phenomena

generating

when

electricity

reversing
of

piezo
of

mechanical

pressure is applied to

certain materials and

the vice versa is also true.

Such

called

materials.

piezo

electric

materials

are
Piezo

electric materials are either naturally available or manmade. Piezoceramic is class of

manmade material, which poses piezo electric effect and is widely used to make disc, the
heart of piezo buzzer. When subjected to an alternating electric field they stretch or compress,
in accordance with the frequency of the signal thereby producing sound.

3.10 DIODE 1N4148:

fig 3.11Piezobuzzer

10

Switching diodes are a single p-n diode in a discrete package. A switching diode provides the
same functionality as a switch. It has high resistance below the specified applied voltage
similar to an open switch, whereas above that voltage it changes in a sudden way to the low
resistance of a closed switch. Switching diodes are used in

devices such as ring

modulation.

The 1N4148 is a standard silicon switching diode. It is one of the most popular and longfig 3.12 Diode 1N4148
lived switching diodes because of its dependable specifications
and low cost. Its name

follows the JEDEC nomenclature.

The 1N4148 is useful in switching applications up to about 100 MHz with a reverse-recovery
time of no more than 4 ns. The 1N4148 comes in a DO-35 glass package for throughhole mounting. This is useful for bread boarding of circuits.
SPECIFICATIONS:

VRRM = 75-100 V maximum repetitive reverse voltage

IO = 75-200 mA average rectified forward current

IF = 300 mA maximum direct forward current

VF = 1.0 V at 10 mA.

IFSM = 1.0 A (pulse width = 1 s), 4.0 A (pulse width = 1 s) non-repetitive peak
forward surge current

PD = 500 mW power dissipation

TRR < 4 ns reverse-recovery time

11

3.11 VARIABLE RESISTOR (1M, 47K):

A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a threeterminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact
that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two
terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as
a variable resistor or rheostat.
fig 3.14 Potentiometer

The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used for
measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same
principle, hence its name.
Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on
audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as
position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly
control significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer
would be comparable to the power in the controlled load.

3.12 RESISTORS (47K, 1.2K, 560, 1K, 470, 470):

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. Resistors
act to reduce current flow, and, at the
fig 3.15 47K RESISTOR

same time, act to lower voltage levels

within circuits. In electronic circuits,
resistors are used to limit current flow, to
adjust signal levels, bias active elements,

fig 3.16 1.2K RESISTOR

and terminate transmission lines among

other uses. High-power resistors,
12

that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used
as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems,
or as test loads for generators.

fig 3.17 560 RESISTOR

Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating
voltage.

fig 3.18 1K RESISTOR

Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements

(such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity,
fig 3.19 470 RESISTOR
force, or chemical
activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated
circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal
value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.

3.13 CAPACITOR 100uF, 10uf:

13

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store

electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical
conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e.
an insulator that can store energy by becoming

polarized).

The conductors can be thin films, foils or

sintered beads

of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc.

The non conducting dielectric acts to increase the

capacitor's charge
fig 3.20 100uF Capacitor

capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer
etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing
positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge Q to collect on the other
plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current
can flow through the capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads
of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is
defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (1012 F) to
about 1 mF (103 F).
The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap between
them, the greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a
small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as
the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output
14

ofpower supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric
power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.

3.14 PERFORATED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB):

A circuit in zero PCB (Printed Circuit Board) is one that uses individual components on a
breadboard or circuit board rather than a PCB to design an electronic circuit. This method is
cheaper compared to the use of PCB. The procedure used is:
* Place the components on the circuit board
* Plan the boards wiring using the Perfboard layout planning sheet.
* Use the Kynar wire to connect the components.
Simplified procedure
1) Component list: Kynar wire, wire cutter, wire stripper, Rosin core solder, tweezers and
reading glasses or manual dexterity.

2) Place the components on the circuit board: Place the components to minimize the lengths
of wires required to reduce stray capacitance. Bend the pins to hold all the components place.
3) Make the wiring plan : Use a fine pencil in the holes for a socket pin and components
wires. Check the placement of the wires to ensure they are correctly placed. Always use the
circuit schematic.
4) Use the Kynar wire to connect the components: This procedure is repeated several times
until all the wires are connected. Sequentially, circuit board is placed to the helping hands
tool ready for soldering.
5) Measure and cut: Every wire is cut after referring to the planning sheet the loops are made
around the ends of wires. It is crucial to strip the insulation by 2mm from its end before
cutting a wire.
6) Crimps all the loops over pins and solder them : Crimping is done by tweezers and the
connection should last until the solder is applied.
7) Test the circuit board
15

Fig 3.21 perforated circuit board

Chapter 4
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND OPERATION

4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 4.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF STRESS METER

16

4.2 CIRCUIT OPERATION:

This stress monitor lets you assess your emotional pain. If the stress is very high, it gives
visual indication through a light-emitting diode (LED) display along with a warning beep.
The gadget is small enough to be worn on the fingers.
The gadget is based on the principle that the resistance of the skin varies in accordance with
your emotional states. If the stress level is high the skin offers less resistance, and if the body
is relaxed the skin resistance is high. The low resistance of the skin during high stress is due
to an increase in the blood supply to the skin.
This increases the permeability of the skin and hence the conductivity for electric current.
This property of the skin is used here to measure the stress level. The touch pads of the stress
meter sense he voltage variations across the touch pads and convey the same to the circuit.
The circuit is very sensitive and detects even a minute voltage variation across the
touchpads.

17

Fig 4.2 Display panel

The circuit comprises signal amplifier and analogue

display sections. Voltage variations from the sensing
pads are amplified by transistor BC548 (T1), which is
configured as a common-emitter amplifier. The base of
T1 is connected to one of the touch pads through
resistor R1 and to the ground rail through potentiometer
VR1.
By varying VR1, the sensitivity of T1 can be adjusted
to the desired level. Diode D1 maintains proper biasing of T1 and capacitor C1 keeps the
voltage

from

the

emitter

ofT1

steady.

The amplified signal from transistor T1 is given to the input of IC LM3915 (IC1) through
VR2. IC LM3915 is a monolithic integrated circuit that senses analogue voltage levels at its
pin 5 and displays them through LEDs providing a logarithmic analogue display. It can drive
up to ten LEDs one by one in the dot/bar mode for each increment of 125 mV in the
input. Here, weve used only five LEDs connected at pins 14 through 18 of IC1. LED1 glows
when input pin 5 of IC1 receives 150 mV. LED5 glows when the voltage rises to 650 mV and
LED5 flashes and piezobuzzer PZ1 beeps when the stress level is high.
Resistors R4 and R5 and capacitor C2 form the flashing elements. Resistor R3 maintains the
LED current at around 20 mA. Capacitor C3 should be placed close to pin 3 for proper
functioning of the IC. Zener diode ZD1 in series with resistor R6 provides regulated 5V to
the circuit.
The circuit can be assembled on a small piece of perforated board. Use transparent 3mm
LEDs and a small piezobuzzer for audio-visual indications. Enclose the circuit in a small
plastic case with touch pads on the back side. Two self-locking straps can be used to tie the
unit around your wrist.
After wearing touch pads on fingers (with touch pads in contact with the skin), slowly vary
VR1 until LED1 glows (assuming that you are in relaxed state). Adjust VR2 if the sensitivity
of IC1 is very high. The gadget is now ready for use.
18

Chapter 5
IMPLEMENTATION OF CIRCUIT
The circuit can be implemented in 2 ways:
1. Breadboard
2. PCB

19

5.1 BREADBOARD:

Fig 5.1 Breadboard

A breadboard is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. Originally it was literally

a bread board, a polished piece of wood used for slicing bread. In the 1970s the solderless
breadboard available and nowadays the term "breadboard" is commonly used to refer to
these. "Breadboard" is also a synonym for "prototype".
Because the solderless breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it
easy to use for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit design. For this
reason, solderless breadboards are also extremely popular with students and in technological
education. Older breadboard types did not have this property. A stripboard (veroboard) and
similar prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to build semi-permanent soldered
prototypes or one-offs, cannot easily be reused. A variety of electronic systems may be
prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog and digital circuits to complete central
processing units (CPUs).
Typical specifications
A modern solder less breadboard consists of a perforated block of plastic with numerous tin
plated phosphor bronze or nickel silver alloy spring clips under the perforations. The clips are
often called tie points or contact points. The number of tie points is often given in the
specification of the breadboard.
The spacing between the clips (lead pitch) is typically 0.1 in (2.54 mm). Integrated
circuits (ICs) in dual in-line packages (DIPs) can be inserted to straddle the centerline of the
20

block. Interconnecting wires and the leads of discrete components (such

as capacitors, resistors, and inductors) can be inserted into the remaining free holes to
complete the circuit. Where ICs are not used, discrete components and connecting wires may
use any of the holes. Typically the spring clips are rated for 1 ampere at 5 volts and 0.333
amperes at 15 volts (5 watts).
Bus and terminal strips
Solderless breadboards are available from several
different manufacturers, but most share a similar
layout. The layout of a typical solderless breadboard is
made up from two types of areas, called strips. Strips
consist of interconnected electrical terminals.

Fig 5.2 Terminal and bus strips

Terminal strips
The main areas, to hold most of the electronic components.
In the middle of a terminal strip of a breadboard, one typically finds a notch running in
parallel to the long side. The notch is to mark the centerline of the terminal strip and provides
limited airflow (cooling) to DIP ICs straddling the centerline[citation needed]. The clips on the right
and left of the notch are each connected in a radial way; typically five clips (i.e., beneath five
holes) in a row on each side of the notch are electrically connected. The five clip columns on
the left of the notch are often marked as A, B, C, D, and E, while the ones on the right are
marked F, G, H, I and J. When a "skinny" dual in-line pin package (DIP) integrated circuit
(such as a typical DIP-14 or DIP-16, which have a 0.3-inch (7.6 mm) separation between the
pin rows) is plugged into a breadboard, the pins of one side of the chip are supposed to go
into column E while the pins of the other side go into column F on the other side of the notch.

Bus strips
To provide power to the electronic components.
A bus strip usually contains two columns: one for ground and one for a supply voltage.
However, some breadboards only provide a single-column power distributions bus strip on
each long side. Typically the column intended for a supply voltage is marked in red, while the
column for ground is marked in blue or black. Some manufacturers connect all terminals in a
column. Others just connect groups of, for example, 25 consecutive terminals in a column.
21

The latter design provides a circuit designer with some more control
over crosstalk (inductively coupled noise) on the power supply bus. Often the groups in a bus
strip are indicated by gaps in the color marking.
Bus strips typically run down one or both sides of a terminal strip or between terminal strips.
On large breadboards additional bus strips can often be found on the top and bottom of
terminal strips.
A "full size" terminal breadboard strip typically consists of around 56 to 65 rows of
connectors, each row containing the above-mentioned two sets of connected clips (A to E and
F to J). Together with bus strips on each side this makes up a typical 784 to 910 tie point
solderless breadboard. "Small size" strips typically come with around 30 rows. Miniature
solderless breadboards as small as 17 rows (no bus strips, 170 tie points) can be found, but
these are only suitable for small and simple designs.

Jump wires
Jump wires (also called jumper wires) for solderless
breadboarding can be obtained in ready-to-use jump
wire sets or can be manually manufactured. The latter
can become tedious work for larger circuits. Ready-touse jump wires come in different qualities, some even
with tiny plugs attached to the wire ends. Jump wire

Fig 5.3 Jump wires

material for ready-made or homemade wires should usually be 22 AWG (0.33 mm2) solid
copper, tin-plated wire - assuming no tiny plugs are to be attached to the wire ends. The wire
ends should be stripped 316 to 516 in (4.8 to 7.9 mm). Shorter stripped wires might result in
bad contact with the board's spring clips (insulation being caught in the springs). Longer
stripped wires increase the likelihood of short-circuits on the board. Needle-nose
pliers and tweezers are helpful when inserting or removing wires, particularly on crowded
boards.
Differently colored wires and color-coding discipline are often adhered to for consistency.
However, the number of available colors is typically far fewer than the number of signal
types or paths. Typically, a few wire colors are reserved for the supply voltages and ground
22

(e.g., red,
blue, black),
some are
reserved for
main
signals, and
the rest are
simply used
where
convenient. Some ready-to-use jump wire sets use the color to indicate the length of the
wires, but these sets do not allow a meaningful color-coding schema.

5.2 PERFORATED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB):

Perfboard is a material for prototyping electronic
circuits (also called DOT PCB). It is a thin, rigid sheet
with holes pre-drilled at standard intervals across a
grid, usually a square grid of 2.54 mm (0.1 in)
spacing. These holes are ringed by round or square
copper pads. Inexpensive perfboard may have pads on
only one side of the board, while better quality
perfboard can have pads on both sides
(plate-through
Fig 5.4
Stress meter on breadboard
Fig 5.5 PCB

holes).

Since each pad is electrically isolated, the builder makes all connections with either wire
wrap or miniature point to point wiring techniques. Discrete components are soldered to the
prototype board such as resistors, capacitors, and integrated circuits. The substrate is typically
23

made of paper laminated with phenolic resin (such as FR-2) or a fiberglass-reinforced epoxy
laminate (FR-4).
The 0.1 in grid system accommodates integrated circuits in DIP packages and many other
types of through-hole components. Perfboard is not designed for prototyping surface mount
devices.
Before building a circuit on perfboard, the locations of the components and connections are
typically planned in detail on paper or with software tools. Small scale prototypes, however,
are often built ad hoc, using an oversized perfboard.
Software for PCB layout can often be used to generate perfboard layouts as well. In this case,
the designer positions the components so all leads fall on intersections of a 0.1 in grid. When
routing the connections more than 2 copper layers can be used, as multiple overlaps are not a
problem for insulated wires.
Once the layout is finalized, the components are soldered in their designated locations,
paying attention to orientation of polarized parts such as electrolytic capacitors, diodes, and
integrated circuits. Next, electrical connections are made as called for in the layout.
One school of thought is to make as many connections as possible without adding extra wire.
This is done by bending the existing leads on resistors, capacitors, etc. into position, trimming
off extra length, and soldering the lead to make the required electrical connection. Another
school of thought refuses to bend the excessive leads of components and use them for wiring,
on the ground that this makes removing a component later hard or impossible, e.g. when a
repair is needed.
If extra wires need to be used, or are used for principle reasons, they are typically routed
entirely on the copper side of perfboards. Because, as opposite to strip boards, nearby holes
aren't connected, and the only hole in a pad is already occupied by a component's lead. Wires
used range from isolated wires, including verowire (enameled copper wire with a
polyurethane insulation supposed to melt when soldered), to bare copper wire, depending on
individual preference, and often also on what is currently at hand in the workshop.
For insulated wires thin solid core wire with temperature-resistant insulation such as Kynar or
Tefzel is preferred. The wire gauge is typically 24 - 30 AWG. A special stripping tool can be
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used, incorporating a thin steel blade with a slit that the wire is simply inserted into and then
pulled loose, leaving a clean stripped end. This wire was developed initially for circuit
assembly by the wire wrap technique but also serves well for miniature point-to-point wiring
on perfboard. Bare copper wire is useful when merging a number of connections to form
an electrical bus such as the circuit's ground, and when there is enough space to properly
route connections, instead of wiring them rats-nest style.
Intentional solder bridges can be used to connect adjacent pads when necessary. Careful
handeye coordination is needed to avoid causing inadvertent short circuits.
Circuits assembled on perfboard are not necessarily fragile but may be less impact-resistant
than printed circuit boards.
Perfboard differs from stripboard in that each pad on perfboard is isolated. Stripboard is made
with rows of copper conductors that form default connections, which are broken into isolated
segments as required by scraping through the copper. This is similar to the pattern of default
connections on a solderless breadboard. However, the absence of default connectivity on
perfboard gives the designer more freedom in positioning components and lends itself more
readily to software-aided design than stripboard or breadboard.

5.3 SOLDERING PROCESS:

Soldering - a must skill for all electrical and electronic works. Soldering is defined as the
process of joining two pieces of metals using a filler metal, known as solder, having a low
melting point below the melting point of the work piece. It is often confused with welding but
the difference between them is, in soldering the work piece is not melted, they are joined
using a filler metal, but in welding work piece is joined by melting.

History

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Soldering was practiced as far back as 5000 years ago in Egypt. Soldering was widely
performed around 4000 years ago when tin was discovered as soldering metal. The process of
soldering was introduced in Mediterranean region, and was followed in the Roman Empire,
Swiss and Hungaria. Soldering has improved a lot from culture to culture and generation to
generation and in todays scenario it is the best method for fabrication and assembly of
microelectronics.

Types of Soldering
Soldering is classified as shown in the image below:

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Fig 5.8 SOLDERING ON PCB

5.4 FINAL DESIGN OF STRESS METER ON PCB:

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Fig 5.9 STRESS METER ON PCB (FINAL DESIGN)

Chapter 6

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CONCLUSIONS
6.1 RESULT:
The stress meter thus detects the resistance of skin which is according to ones mental stress
and gives a visual indication on a LED display. The LEDs on the stress meter can be
observed as stress level indicators from zero to 5 stress levels on a scale of FIVE. The high
stress of a person is indicated through a warning beep.

6.2 ANALYSIS:
Resistance varies inverse proportional to the stress. If the stress level is high the skin offers
less resistance, and if relaxed resistance is high. The low resistance of the skin during high
stress is due to an increase in the blood supply to the skin. This increases the permeability of
the skin and hence the conductivity for electric current.
The LED 1 glows by default when the circuit is on. When a person touches the touch pad of
the stress meter with his finger, it senses the skin resistance and hence the stress. On a scale
of ten, stress levels from 0 to 5 can be observed, where the LED 5 when on gives a warning
beep for high stress indication.

6.3 APPLICATIONS:
Persons muscle tension changes can be seen (with their stress level applied by the

Muscle).
The mental state of a person can be known (based upon the changes in skin

(Resistance).
It can be used as a lie detector.
It can be used in physical fitness programs. The circuit is absolutely free from

ambient light.
It is economical and a low budget project.
Not a complex circuit.
The components are easily available in the market and replaceable.
Noise pulse do not have any effect on the circuit.
LEDs can withstand the voltage even if no resistors are connected across.
Can be used easily to regularly check ones stress level.

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6.4 ADVANTAGES:
1. Simple circuitry.
2. Easy to use.
3. Easy to transport.
4. Less power consumption.
5. Desired output.

6.5 DISADVANTAGES
1. Output is not measurable.
2. Output depends upon the
grip of the person.

6.6 FUTURE SCOPE

Stress meter can be further developed to design equipment like lie detectors; skin response
meters; skin resistance meters; fitness meters; grip scopes etc. therefore this model, if further
developed can be used in medical field, forensic department and it even helps in improving
the body fitness.

APPENDIX

PIN DIAGRAM OF LM3915:

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DEFINITION OF TERMS:
Absolute Accuracy: The difference between the observed threshold voltage and the ideal
threshold voltage for each comparator. Specified and tested with 10V across the internal
voltage divider so that resistor ratio matching error predominates over comparator offset
voltage.
Adjust Pin Current: Current flowing out of the reference adjust pin when the reference
amplifier is in the linear region.
Comparator Gain: The ratio of the change in output current (ILED) to the change in input
voltage (VIN) required to produce it for a comparator in the linear region.
Dropout Voltage: The voltage measured at the current source outputs required to make the
output current fall by 10%.

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Input Bias Current: Current flowing out of the signal input when the input buffer is in the
linear region.
LED Current Regulation: The change in output current over the specified range of LED
supply voltage (VLED) as measured at the current source outputs. As the forward voltage of
an LED does not change significantly with a small change in forward current, this is
equivalent to changing the voltage at the LED anodes by the same amount.
Line Regulation: The average change in reference output voltage (VREF) over the specified
range of supply voltage (V+).
Load Regulation: The change in reference output voltage over the specified range of load
current (IL (REF)).
Offset Voltage: The differential input voltage which must be applied to each comparator to
bias the output in the linear region. Most significant error when the voltage across the internal
voltage divider is small. Specified and tested with pin 6 voltage (VRHI) equal to pin 4
voltage (VRLO).
Relative Accuracy: The difference between any two adjacent threshold points. Specified and
tested with 10V across the internal voltage divider so that resistor ratio matching error
predominates over comparator offset voltage.

LM3915 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

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REFERENCES

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Journals:
Roberto Bonomi, Stress and Mind Control, dated 21/03/2008
Reference Books:
1. Joseph Edminster and Mahmood Nahvi, Electric circuits, Schaums Outline, 2003
2. Stanley G Burns and Paul R Bond, Principles of Electronic Circuits, International
Thomson publishing, 1997
3. Richard C Jaegar and Travis N Blalock, Micro electronic circuit design, Third
Errata, 2008

Edition

Web:
1.
2.
3.
4.

http://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/soldering-tutorial-tips-types-processes
https://prezi.com/hnw7yesfjspu/stress-meter/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadboard
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor

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