Fundamentals of Computer Graphics (2nd Edition 2005)

Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
Peter Shirley
School of Computing
University of Utah
with
Michael Ashikhmin
Michael Gleicher
Stephen R. Marschner
Erik Reinhard
Kelvin Sung
William B. Thompson
Peter Willemsen
A K Peters
Wellesley, Massachusetts
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Shirley, P. (Peter), 1963Fundamentals of computer graphics / Peter Shirley; with Michael Ashikhmin ... [et.
al.].--2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56881-269-8
1. Computer graphics. I. Ashikhmin, Michael. II. Title.
T385.S4342005
006.6'96--dc22
2005048904
Printed in India
09 080706
1098765432
Contents
Preface
xi
1 Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
Graphics Areas
Major Applications .
Graphics APIs . . .
3D Geometric Models
Graphics Pipeline .
Numerical Issues . . .
Efficiency.......
Software Engineering.
2 Miscellaneous Math
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Sets and Mappings . . . . . .

Solving Quadratic Equations .
Trigonometry...
Vectors........
20 Implicit Curves . .
20 Parametric Curves
3D Implicit Surfaces .
3D Parametric Curves
2
3
4
4
5
8
8
15
IS
19
20
23
30
36
38
40
v
viii
Contents
13 Data Structures for Graphics

13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
269
Triangle Meshes . . . . . . . .
Winged-Edge Data Structure ..
Scene Graphs
.
Tiling Multidimensional Arrays
.. 269
.270
.. 272
.. 274
14 Sampling
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
279
Integration
.
Continuous Probability .
Monte Carlo Integration
Choosing Random Points ..
15 Curves
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
Curves
.
Curve Properties .
Polynomial Pieces
Putting Pieces Together.
Cubics
.
Approximating Curves
Summary........
301
. 301
. . . . . .
. . . . . . 307
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
. . . . ..
.
318
. . . . . . .
. 321
.327
.344
16 Computer Animation
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
Principles of Animation
. . . . .
Keyframing . . . . . . . . . . .
Deformations . . . . . .
Character Animation . .
Physics-Based Animation
Procedural Techniques
Groups of Objects
Notes
.
17 Using Graphics Hardware

17.1
17.2
17.3
347
.. 348
.352
.360
. 361
.367
.. 370
.373
.376
379
What is Graphics Hardware

.
.379
Describing Geometry for the Hardware . . . . . .
.380
Processing Geometry into Pixels . . . . .
. . . . . . .387
18 Building Interactive Graphics Applications

18.1
18.2
18.3
279
.284
.288
291
401
The Ball Shooting Program

. 402
Programming Models
. . 404
The Modelview-Controller Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
ix
Contents
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
Example Implementations
Applying Our Results
Notes ..
Exercises
.433
.. 443
.. 446
.447
Radiometry
Transport Equation
Photometry
.451
.. 460
.. 462
19 Light
19.1
19.2
19.3
451
20 Color
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
465
Light and Light Detectors
Tristimulus Color Theory .
CIE Tristimulus Values . .
Chromaticity . . . .
Scotopic Luminance . . .
RGB Monitors . . . . .
Approximate Color Manipulation
Opponent Color Spaces. . . . . .
21 Visual Perception
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
Vision Science
Visual Sensitivity . .
Spatial Vision . . .
Objects, Locations, and Events .
Picture Perception
.
22 Tone Reproduction
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5
22.6
22.7
22.8
22.9
22.10
22.11
22.12
Classification..
Dynamic Range. .
Color
.
Image Formation
Frequency-Based Operators
Gradient-Domain Operators
Spatial Operators
Division.......
Sigmoids . . . . .
Other Approaches
Night Tonemapping
Discussion
.
.466
.466
.. 468
.469
.. 472
.472
.473
.474
477
.478
.479
.495
.509
. 517
521
. . . . 524
.525
.527
.529
. . . . . . 529
. . . . .
. . 531
.. 532
.534
.535
.540
.543
.544
Contents
547
23 Global Illumination
23.1
23.2
23.3
Particle Tracing for Lambertian Scenes

Path Tracing
.
Accurate Direct Lighting . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 548
. .. 551
. . . . . . . . . . 553
561
24 Reflection Models
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5
Real-World Materials . . . . . . . . .
Implementing Reflection Models. . . . . .
Specular Reflection Models
. . . . .
. .
Smooth Layered Model. .
Rough Layered Model . .
. . .
. 561
. .563
.
. . . . . . . . . . . 565
.566
. . . . .
. . . 569
. . . . .
25 Image-Based Rendering
25.1
25.2
The Light Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Creating a Novel Image from a Set of Images
26 Visualization
26.1
26.2
2D Scalar Fields
3D Scalar Fields
577
. . . . . . . 578
. . . . 579
583
. 583
.585
References
595
Index
613
Preface
This book is a product of several graphics courses I have taught at Indiana University and the University of Utah. All graphics books must choose between teaching
the low-level details "under the hood" of graphics programs or teaching how to
use modem graphics APls, such as OpenGL, Direct3D, and Java3D. This book
chooses the former approach. I do not have a good justification for this choice
other than that I have taught both styles of courses, and the students in the "Iowlevel" courses seemed to understand the material better than the other students and
even seemed to use the APls more effectively. There are many reasons this might
be true, and the effect may not transfer to other teachers or schools. However, I
believe that teaching the fundamentals is usually the right approach, whether in
graphics, another academic discipline, or a sport.
How to Use this Book

The book begins with nine chapters that roughly correspond to a one-semester
course which takes students through the graphics pipeline and basic ray tracing.
It has students implement everything-i.e., it is not a "learn OpenGL" style text.
However, the pipeline presented is consistent with the one implemented in graphics hardware, and students who have used the book should find OpenGL or other
common APls familiar in many ways.
xi
xii
Preface
The second part of the book is a series of advanced topics that are not highly
ordered. This allows a variety of second-semester courses and a few weeks of
advanced topics in a first semester course.
For the first semester, I would suggest the following as a possible outline of
initial assignments:
1. Math homework at the end of Chapter 2 followed by at least one in-class
exam.
2. Line rasterization.
3. Triangle rasterization with barycentric color interpolation.

4. Orthographic wireframe drawing.
5. Perspective wireframe drawing.
6. BSP-tree with flat-shaded triangles and wireframe edges with only trivial
z-clipping and with mouse-driven viewpoint selection.
7. Finite-precision z-buffer implementation with only trivial z-clipping.

Following these assignments, the instructor could do assignments on ray tracing
or could have the students add shadow-maps, Phong lighting, clipping, and textures to their z-buffers, or they could move the students into programming with a
3D API.
About the Cover

The cover image is from Tiger in the Water by J. W. Baker (brushed and airbrushed acrylic on canvas, 16" by 20", www.jwbart.com).
The subject of a tiger is a reference to a wonderful talk given by Alain Fournier
(1943-2000) at the Cornell Workshop in 1998. His talk was an evocative verbal
description of the movements of a tiger. He summarized his point:
Even though modelling and rendering in computer graphics have
been improved tremendously in the past 35 years, we are still not
at the point where we can model automatically a tiger swimming in
the river in all its glorious details. By automatically I mean in a way
that does not need careful manual tweaking by an artist/expert.
The bad news is that we have still a long way to go.
The good news is that we have still a long way to go.
Preface
xiii
Online Resources
The web site for this book is http://www.cs.utah.edu/.... shirley/fcg2/. I will maintain an errata list there as well as links to people using the book in classes. Although I do not provide slides for the course, Rich Riesenfeld has graciously
agreed to make his excellent slides available, and a pointer to those slides will be
available at the book's web site. Most of the figures in this book are in Abobe Illustrator format. I would be happy to convert specific figures into portable formats
on request. Please feel free to contact me at shirley@cs.utah.edu.
Changes in this Edition

There are many small changes in the material from the first edition of this book,
but the two large changes are the addition of a bibliography and the addition of
new chapters written by colleagues. These colleagues are people I think are clear
thinkers and communicators, and I invited them each to write a chapter with armtwisting designed to get certain key topics covered. Most of them have used the
book in a class and were thus familiar with its approach. The bibliography is not
meant to be extensive, but is instead a place for readers to get started. I am sure
there are omissions there, and I would like to hear about any crucial references
we have missed. The new chapters are:
Signal Processing by Stephen Marschner, Cornell University (Chapter 4).

Curves by Michael Gleicher, University of Wisconsin (Chapter 15).
Computer Animation by Michael Ashikhmin, SUNY at Stony Brook
(Chapter 16).
Using Graphics Hardware by Peter Willemsen, University of Minnesota
Duluth (Chapter 17).
Building Interactive Graphics Applications by Kelvin Sing, University
of Washington Bothell (Chapter 18)
Visual Perception by William B. Thompson, University of Utah
(Chapter 21).
Tone Reproduction by Erik Reinhard, University of Central Florida
(Chapter 22).
xiv
Preface
Acknowledgements
The following people have provided helpful comments about the book: Josh Andersen, Zeferino Andrade, Michael Ashikhman, Adam Berger, Adeel Bhutta,
Solomon Boulos, Stephen Chenney, Michael Coblenz, Greg Coombe, Frederic
Cremer, Brian Curtin, Dave Edwards, Jonathon Evans, Karen Feinauer, Amy
Gooch, Eungyoung Han, Chuck Hansen, Andy Hanson, Dave Hart, John Hart,
Helen Hu, Vicki Interrante, Henrik Wann Jensen, Shi Jin, Mark Johnson, Ray
Jones, Kristin Kerr, Dylan Lacewell, Mathias Lang, Philippe Laval, Marc Levoy,
Howard Lo, Ron Metoyer, Keith Morley, Eric Mortensen, Tamara Munzner, Koji
Nakamaru, Micah Neilson, Blake Nelson, Michael Nikelsky, James O'Brien,
Steve Parker, Sumanta Pattanaik, Matt Pharr, Peter Poulos, Shaun Ramsey, Rich
Riesenfeld, Nate Robins, Nan Schaller, Chris Schryvers, Tom Sederberg, Richard
Sharp, Sarah Shirley, Peter-Pike Sloan, Tony Tahbaz, Jan-Phillip Tiesel, Bruce
Walter, Alex Williams, Amy Williams, Chris Wyman, and Kate Zebrose.
Ching-Kuang Shene and David Solomon allowed me to borrow examples
from their works. Henrik Jensen, Eric Levin, Matt Pharr, and Jason Waltman
generously provided images. Brandon Mansfield was very helpful in improving
the content of the discussion of hierarchical bounding volumes for ray tracing.
Carrie Ashust, Jean Buckley, Molly Lind, Pat Moulis, and Bob Shirley, provided
valuable logistical support. Miranda Shirley provided valuable distractions.
I am extremely thankful to J. W. Baker helping me to get the cover I envisioned. In addition to being a talented artist, he was a great pleasure to work with
personally.
Many works were helpful in preparing this book, and most of them appear
in the notes for the appropriate chapters. However, a few pieces that influenced
the content and presentation do not, and I list them here. I thank the authors for
their help. These include the two classic computer graphics texts I first learned
the basics from as a student: Computer Graphics: Principles & Practice (Foley,
Van Dam, Feiner, & Hughes, 1990), and Computer Graphics (Hearn & Baker,
1986). Other texts include both of Alan Watt's classic books (Watt, 1993, 1991),
Hill's Computer Graphics Using OpenGL (Francis S. Hill, 2000), Angel's Interactive Computer Graphics: A Top-Down Approach With OpenGL (Angel, 2002),
Hughes Hoppe's University of Washington dissertation (Hoppe, 1994), and
Rogers' two classic graphics texts (D. F. Rogers, 1985, 1989).
This book was written using the lbTEX document preparation software on an
Apple Powerbook. The figures were made by the author using the Adobe Illustrator package. I would like to thank the creators of those wonderful programs.
I'd like to thank the University of Utah for allowing me to work on this book
during sabbatical.
Preface
xv
I would like to especially thank Alice and Klaus Peters for encouraging me to
write the first edition of this book, for their great skill in bringing a book to fruition
and for their dedication to making their books the best they can be. In addition
to finding many errors in formulas and language in the second edition, they put
in many weeks of extremely long hours in the home stretch of the process, and I
have no doubt this book would not have been finished without their extraordinary
efforts.
Salt Lake City

April 2005
Peter Shirley
Introduction
The t~nn Computer Graphics describes any use of computers to create or manipulate images. This book takes a slightly more specific view and deals mainly
with algorithms for image generation. Doing computer graphics inevitably requires some knowledge of specific hardware, file formats, and usually an API 1 or
two. The specifics of that knowledge are a moving target due to the rapid evolution of the field, and therefore such details will be avoided in this text. Readers
are encouraged to supplement the text with relevant documentation for their softwarelhardware environment. Fortunately the culture of computer graphics has
enough standard terminology and concepts that the discussion in this book should
map nicely to most environments. This chapter defines some basic tenninology,
and provides some historical background as well as infonnation sources related
to computer graphics.
1.1
Graphics Areas
It is always dangerous to try to categorize endeavors in any field, but most graphics practitioners would agree on the following major areas and that they are part
of the field of computer graphics:
I An application program illlerj'ace (API) is a software interface for basic operations such as line
drawing. Current popular APls include OpenGL, Direct3D, and Java3D.
Miscellaneous Math
Much of graphics is just translating math directly into code. The cleaner the math,
the cleaner the resulting code. Thus, much of this book concentrates on using just
the right math for the job. This chapter reviews various tools from high school
and college mathematics, and is designed to be used more as a reference than as
a tutorial. It may appear to be a hodge-podge of topics, and indeed it is; each
topic is chosen because it is a bit unusual in "standard" math curricula, because it
is of central importance in graphics, or because it is not typically treated from a
geometric standpoint. In addition to establishing a review with the notation used
in the book, the chapter also emphasizes a few points that are sometimes skipped
in the standard undergraduate curricula, such as barycentric coordinates on triangles. This chapter is not intended to be a rigorous treatment of the material;
instead intuition and geometric interpretation are emphasized. A discussion of
linear algebra is deferred until Chapter 5 just before transformation matrices are
discussed. Readers are encouraged to skim this chapter to familiarize themselves
with the topics covered and to refer back to it as needed. The exercises at the end
of the chapter may be useful in determining which topics need a refresher.
2.1
Sets and Mappings
Mappings, also calledfunctions, are basic to mathematics and programming. Like

a function in a program, a mapping in math takes an argument of one type and
maps it to (returns) an object of a particular type. In a program we say "type;" in
15
Raster Algorithms
Most computer graphics images are presented to the user on a raster display. Such
systems show images as rectangular arrays of pixels, which is short for "picture
elements." These pixels are set using RGB (red-green-blue) color. In this chapter,
we discuss the basics of raster displays, emphasizing the RGB color system and
the non-linearities of standard image display.
3.1
Raster Displays
There are a variety 9f display technologies for desktop and projected display.
These displays vary in resolution (the number of pixels) and physical size. Programmers can usually assume that the pixels are laid out in a rectangular array,
also called a raster.
3.1.1
Pixels
Each displayable element in a raster display is called a pixel. Displays usually

index pixels by an ordered pair (i, j) indicating the row and column of the pixel.
If a display has n x columns and n y rows of pixels, the bottom-left element is pixel
(0,0) and the top-right is pixel (n x - 1, n y - 1). J
I In many APIs the rows of an image will be addressed in the less intuitive manner from the top-tobottom. so the top-left pixel has coordinates (0,0). This convention is common for historical reasons;
it is the order that rows come in a standard television transmission.
51
Stephen R. Marschner
Signal Processing
In graphics, we often deal with functions of a continuous variable: an image is

the first example you have seen, but you will encounter many more as you continue your exploration of graphics. By their nature continuous functions can't be
directly represented in a computer; we have to somehow represent them using
a finite number of bits. One of the most useful approaches to representing continuous functions is to use samples of the function: just store the values of the
function at many different points and reconstruct the values in between when and
if they are needed.
You are by now familiar with the idea of representing an image using a twodimensional grid of pixels-so you have already seen a sampled representation!
Think of an image captured by a digital camera: the actual image of the scene that
was formed by the camera's lens is a continuous function of the position on the
image plane, and the camera converted that function into a two-dimensional grid
of samples. Mathematically, the camera converted a function of type ]R2 ---. C
(where C is the set of colors) to a two-dimensional array of color samples, or a
function of type Z2 ---. C.
Another example of a sampled representation is a 2D digitizing tablet such
as the screen of a tablet computer or PDA. In this case the original function is
the motion of the stylus, which is a time-varying 2D position, or a function of
type]R ---. ]R2. The digitizer measures the position of the stylus at many points in
time, resulting in a sequence of 2D coordinates, or a function of type Z ---. ]R2. A
71
Linear Algebra
Perhaps the most universal tools of graphics programs are the matrices that
change or transform points and vectors. In the next chapter, we will see
how a vector can be represented as a matrix with a single column, and how
the vector can be represented in a different basis via multiplication with a
square matrix. We will also describe how we can use such multiplications to accomplish changes in the vector such as scaling, rotation, and translation.
In this chapter, we review basic linear algebra from a geometric perspective.
This chapter can be skipped by readers comfortable with linear algebra.
However, there may be some enlightening tidbits even for such readers, such as
the development of determinants and the discussion of singular and eigenvalue
decomposition.
5.1
Figure 5.1.
The signed
area of the parallelogram is
labl, and in this case the
area is positive.
Determinants
We usually think of determinants as arising in the solution of linear equations.

However, for our purposes, we will think of determinants as another way to multiply vectors. For 20 vectors a and b, the determinant labl is the area of the
parallelogram formed by a and b (Figure 5.1). This is a signed area, and the
sign is positive if a and b are right-handed and negative if they are left-handed.
This means labl = -Ibal. In 20 we can interpret "right-handed" as meaning we
would rotate the first vector counterclockwise to close the smallest angle to the
second vector. In 3D the determinant must be taken with three vectors at a time.
For three 3D vectors, a, band e, the determinant label is the signed volume of
the parallelepiped (3D parallelogram; a sheared 3D box) formed by the three vec119
Figure 5.2.
The
signed volume of the parallelepiped shown is denoted
by the determinant label,
and in this case the volume
is positive because the vectors form a right-handed basis.
Transformation Matrices
In this chapter, we describe how we can use matrix multiplications to accomplish

changes in a vector such as scaling, rotation, and translation. We also discuss how
these transforms operate differently on locations (points), displacement vectors,
and surface normal vectors.
We will show how a set of points transforms if the points are represented as
offset vectors from the origin. So think of the image we shall use (a clock) as a
bunch of points that are the ends of vectors whose tails are at the origin.
6.1
Basic 20 Transforms
We can use matrices to change the components of a 2D vector. For example:
Such a transformation can change vectors in a variety of ways that are useful.
In particular, it can be used to scale, rotate, and shear. We will introduce more
general transformations later, but the basics of transformation are embodied in
the simple formula above. For our purposes, consider moving along the x-axis a
horizontal move, and along the y-axis, a vertical move.
135
Viewing
The transfonn tools developed in the last chapter will make it straightforward for
us to create images of 3D line segments. In this chapter, we develop the methods
to produce 3D orthographic and perspective views of line segments in space with
no "hidden-line" removal (Figure 7.1). Note that in the orthographic projection,
the parallel lines in 3D are parallel in the image, while in the perspective projection they may not be parallel in the image. For the entire chapter, we assume
that 3D line segments are specified by two end points, each of the fonn (x, y, z).
In the next chapter we use BSP trees and z-buffers to allow opaque objects with
hidden-line and hidden-surface removal, and we will use triangle faces rather than
triangle edges.
Figure 7.1. Left: orthographic projection. Middle: perspective projection. Right: perspective
projection with hidden lines removed.
159
Hidden Surface Elimination
While we know how to get a single triangle onto the screen by projecting its
vertices from 3D to the canonical view volume, we will achieve more realism if
we also do hidden suiface elimination, where only the closest surface is visible
to the viewer. This can be achieved through numerous methods; we only cover
the two most commonly used ones here: BSP trees (Fuchs, Kedem, & Naylor,
1980) and z-buffering (Catmull, 1975). Ray tracing can also be thought of as a
hidden surface algorithm, but it will be discussed in its own chapter since it does
not integrate well into the standard project-and-rasterize process. There are many
other hidden surface algorithms (Sutherland, Sproull, & Schumacker. 1974), but
few besides those three are used in practice.
8.1
SSP Tree
If we are making many images of the same geometry from different viewpoints,
as is often the case for applications such as games, we can use a binary space
partitioning (BSP) tree algorithm to order the surfaces from front to back. The
key aspect of the BSP tree is that it uses a preprocess to create a data structure that
is useful for any viewpoint. So, as the viewpoint changes, the same data structure
is used without change.
177
Surface Shading
To make objects appear to have more volume, it can help to use shading, i.e., the
surface is "painted" with light. This chapter presents the most common heuristic
shading methods. The first two, diffuse and Phong shading, were developed in the
1970s and are available in most graphics libraries. The last, artistic shading, uses
artistic conventions to assign color to objects. This creates images reminiscent of
technical drawings, which is desirable in many applications.
9.1
Diffuse Shading
Many objects in the world have a surface appearance loosely described as "matte,"
indicating that the object is not at all shiny. Examples include paper, unfinished
wood, and dry unpolished stones. To a large degree, such objects do not have a
color change with a change in viewpoint. For example, if you stare at a particular point on a piece of paper and move while keeping your gaze fixed on that
point, the color at that point will stay relatively constant. Such matte objects can
be considered as behaving as Lambertian objects. This section discusses how to
implement the shading of such objects. A key point is that all formulas in this
chapter should be evaluated in world coordinates and not in the warped coordinates after the perspective transform is applied. Otherwise, the angles between
normals are changed and the shading will be inaccurate.
191
Ray Tracing
Ray tracing is a method to produce realistic images; it determines visible surfaces in an image at the pixel level (Appel, 1968; Kay & Greenberg, 1979; Whitted, 1980). Unlike the z-buffer and BSP tree, ray tracing operates pixel-by-pixel
rather than primitive-by-primitive. This tends to make ray tracing relatively slow
for scenes with large objects in screen space. However, it has a variety of nice
features which often make it the right choice for batch rendering and even for
some interactive applications.
Ray tracing's primary benefit is that it is relatively straightforward to compute shadows and reflections. In addition, ray tracing is well suited to "walkthroughs" of extremely large models due to advanced ray tracing's low asymptotic
time complexity which makes up for the required preprocessing of the model
(Snyder & Barr, 1987; Muuss, 1995; Parker, Martin, et aI., 1999; Wald, Slusallek,
Benthin, & Wagner, 200 I).
In an interactive 3D program implemented in a conventional z-buffer environment, it is often useful to be able to select an object using a mouse. The mouse is
clicked in pixel (i, j) and the "picked" object is whatever object is "seen" through
that pixel. If the rasterization process includes an object identification buffer, this
is just a matter of looking up the value in pixel (i, j) of that buffer. However,
if that buffer is not available, we can solve the problem of which object is visible via brute force geometrical computation using a "ray intersection test." In
this way, ray tracing is useful also to programmers who use only standard
graphics APls.
201
Texture Mapping
The shading models presented in Chapter 9 assume that a diffuse surface has uniform reflectance Cr' This is fine for surfaces such as blank paper or painted walls,
but it is inefficient for objects such as a printed sheet of paper. Such objects have
an appearance whose complexity arises from variation in reflectance properties.
While we could use such small triangles that the variation is captured by varying
the reflectance properties of the triangles, this would be inefficient.
The common technique to handle variations of reflectance is to store the reflectance as a function or a a pixel-based image and "map" it onto a surface (Catmull, 1975). The function or image is called a texture map, and the process of
controlling reflectance properties is called texture mapping. This is not hard to
implement once you understand the coordinate systems involved. Texture mapping can be classified by several different properties:
I. the dimensionality of the texture function,
2. the correspondences defined between points on the surface and points in the
texture function, and
3. whether the texture function is primarily procedural or primarily a table
look-up.
These items are usually closely related, so we will somewhat arbitrarily classify
textures by their dimension. We first cover 3D textures, often called solid textures or volume textures. We will then cover 20 textures, sometimes called image
239
A Full Graphics Pipeline
So far we have covered how to rasterize triangles and how to use transformation
matrices and z-bufferslBSP trees to create perspective views of 3D triangles. Although this is the core of most modem graphics systems, there are a number of
details that must be addressed before our system is complete. We have not yet
addressed the case where some or all of a triangle is outside the view volume;
this is handled by a process called "clipping;" parts of triangles outside the viewvolume are cut away or "clipped" (Sutherland et aI., 1974; Cyrus & Beck, 1978;
J. Blinn & Newell, 1978; Liang & Barsky, 1984). The other important details
in this chapter are related to improving efficiency and appearance in a graphics
pipeline.
12.1
clipping
, ,plane
,,
,
,,
Clipping
A common operation in graphics is clipping, where one geometric entity "cuts"

another. For example, if you clip a triangle against the plane x = 0, the plane
cuts the triangle. In most applications of clipping, the portion of the triangle on
the "wrong" side of the plane is discarded. Here the wrong side is whichever side
is specified by the details of the application. This operation for a single plane is
shown in Figure 12. I.
This section discusses the basic implementation of a clipping module. Those
interested in implementing an industrial-speed clipper should see the book by
Blinn mentioned in the notes at the end of this chapter.
259
v)
,,
}'
,
',..
I
I
I
I
,,
Figure 12.1.
A polygon
is clipped against a clipping
plane. The portion "inside"
the plane is retained.
Data Structures for Graphics
There are a variety of data structures that seem to pop up repeatedly in graphics
applications. This chapter talks about three basic and unrelated data structures
that are among the most common and useful. There are many variants of these
data structures, but the basic ideas behind them can be conveyed using an example
of each.
First the winged-edge data structure for storing tessellated geometric models is discussed (Baumgart, 1974). The winged-edge data structure is useful for
managing models where the tessellation changes, such as in subdivision or simplification routines.
Next, the scene-graph data structure is presented. These are rapidly becoming
well supported features of all new graphics APIs because they are so useful in
managing objects and transformations.
Finally, the tiled multidimensional array is presented. Originally developed to
help paging performance, such structures are now crucial for memory locality on
machines regardless of whether the array fits in main memory.
13.1
Triangle Meshes
One of the most common model representations is a polygonal mesh as discussed

in Section 11.3. When such meshes are unchanging in the program, the simple
structure described in that section is usually sufficient. However, when the meshes
are to be modified, more complicated data representations are needed to efficiently
answer queries such as:
269
Sampling
Many applications in graphics require "fair" sampling of unusual spaces, such as

the space of all possible lines. For example, we might need to generate random
edges within a pixel, or random sample points on a pixel that vary in density
according to some density function. This chapter provides the machinery for such
probability operations. These techniques will also prove useful for numerically
evaluating complicated integrals using Monte Carlo integration, also covered in
this chapter.
14.1
Integration
Although the words "integral" and "measure" often seem intimidating, they relate
to some of the most intuitive concepts found in mathematics, and they should not
be feared. For our very non-rigorous purposes, a measure is just a function that
maps subsets to jR+ in a manner consistent with our intuitive notions of length,
area, and volume. For example, on the 20 real plane jR2, we have the area measure
A which assigns a value to a set of points in the plane. Note that A is just a
function that takes pieces of the plane and returns area. This means the domain of
A is all possible subsets of jR2, which we denote as the power set p(jR2). Thus,
we can characterize A in arrow notation:
279
Michael Gleicher
Curves
15.1
Curves
Intuitively, think of a curve as something you can draw with a pen. The curve is
the set of points that the pen traces over an interval of time. While we usually
think of a pen writing on paper (e.g., a curve that is in a 2D space), the pen could
move in 3D to generate a space curve, or you could imagine the pen moving in
some other kind of space.
Mathematically, definitions of curve can be seen in at least two ways:
I. The continuous image of some interval in an n-dimensional space.
2. A continuous map from a one-dimensional space
to an n-dimensional space.
Both of these definitions start with the idea of an interval range (the time over
which the pen traces the curve). However, there is a significant difference: in
the first definition, the curve is the set of points the pen traces (the image), while
in the second definition, the curve is the mapping between time and that set of
points. For this chapter, we use the first definition.
A curve is an infinitely large set of points. The points in a curve have the
property that any point has two neighbors, except for a small number of points
that have one neighbor (these are the endpoints). Some curves have no endpoints,
either because they are infinite (like a line) or they are closed (loop around and
connect to themselves).
301
Micnael Ashikhmin
Computer Animation
Animation is derived from the Latin anima and means the act, process, or result
of imparting life, interest, spirit, motion, or activity. Motion is a defining property
of life and much of the true art of animation is about how to tell a story, show
emotion, or even express subtle details of human character through motion. A
computer is a secondary tool for achieving these goals-it is a tool which a skillful
animator can use to help get the result he wants faster and without concentrating
on technicalities in which he is not interested. Animation without computers,
which is now often called "traditional" animation, has a long and rich history of
its own which is continuously being written by hundreds of people still active in
this art. As in any established field, some time-tested rules have been crystallized
which give general high-level guidance to how certain things should be done and
what should be avoided. These principles of traditional animation apply equally
to computer animation, and we will discuss some of them below.
The computer, however, is more than just a tool. In addition to making the
animator's main task less tedious, computers also add some truly unique abilities that were simply not available or were extremely difficult to obtain before. Modem modeling tools allow the relatively easy creation of detailed threedimensional models, rendering algorithms can produce an impressive range of
appearances, from fully photorealistic to highly stylized, powerful numerical simulation algorithms can help to produce desired physics-based motion for particularly hard to animate objects, and motion capture systems give the ability to
record and use real-life motion. These developments led to an exploding use
of computer animation techniques in motion pictures and commercials, automo-
347
Peter Willemsen
Using Graphics Hardware
Throughout most of this book, the focus has been on the fundamentals underlying
computer graphics rather than on implementation details. This chapter takes a
slightly different route and blends the details of using graphics hardware with the
practical issues associated with programming that hardware.
This chapter, however, is not written to teach you OpenGL,TM other graphics
APIs, or even the nitty gritty specifics of graphics hardware programming. The
purpose of this chapter is to introduce the basic concepts and thought processes
that are necessary when writing programs that use graphics hardware.
17.1
What is Graphics Hardware
Graphics hardware describes the hardware components necessary to quickly render 3D objects as pixels on your computer's screen using specialized rasterizationbased hardware architectures. The use of this term is meant to elicit a sense of
the physical components necessary for performing these computations. In other
words, we're talking about the chipsets, transistors, buses, and processors found
on many current video cards. As we will see in this chapter, current graphics
hardware is very good at processing descriptions of 3D objects and transforming
them into the colored pixels that fill your monitor.
One thing has been certain with graphics hardware: it changes very quickly
with new extensions and features being added continually! One explanation for
the fast pace is the video game industry and its economic momentum. Essentially
379
Kelvin Sung
Building Interactive Graphics

Applications
While most of the other chapters in this book discuss the fundamental algorithms
in the field of computer graphics, this chapter treats the integration of these algorithms into applications. This is an important topic since the knowledge of
fundamental graphics algorithms does not always easily lead to an understanding
of the best practices in implementing these algorithms in real applications.
We start with a simple example: a program that allows the user to simulate the
shooting of a ball (under the influence of gravity). The user can specify initial velocity, create balls of different sizes, shoot the ball, and examine the parabolic free
fall of the ball. Some fundamental concepts we will need include mesh structure
for the representation of the ball (sphere); texture mapping, lighting, and shading
for the aesthetic appearance of the ball; transformations for the trajectories of the
ball; and rasterization techniques for the generation of the images of the balls.
To implement the simple ball shooting program, one also needs knowledge of
Graphical user interface (GU!) systems for efficient and effective user interaction;
Software architecture and design patterns for crafting an implementation
framework that is easy to maintain and expand;
Application program interfaces (APIs) for choosing the appropriate support
and avoiding a massive amount of unnecessary coding.
401
Light
In this chapter, we discuss the practical issues of measuring light, usually called
radiometry. The terms that arise in radiometry may at first seem strange and have
terminology and notation that may be hard to keep straight. However, because
radiometry is so fundamental to computer graphics, it is worth studying radiometry until it sinks in. This chapter also covers photometry, which takes radiometric
quantities and scales them to estimate how much "useful" light is present. For
example, a green light may seem twice as bright as a blue light of the same power
because the eye is more sensitive to green light. Photometry attempts to quantify
such distinctions.
19.1
Radiometry
Although we can define radiometric units in many systems, we use Sf (International System of Units) units. Familiar SI units include the metric units of meter
(m) and gram (g). Light is fundamentally a propagating form of energy, so it is
useful to define the SI unit of energy, which is the joule (1).
19.1.1
Photons
To aid our intuition, we will describe radiometry in terms of collections of large

numbers of photons, and this section establishes what is meant by a photon in this
451
Color
As discussed in Chapter 21, humans have three types of sensors (cones) active
at high levels of illumination. The signals to these three sensor types determine
the color response of an observer. For this reason, color is naturally a threedimensional phenomenon. To quantitatively describe color we need to use a
well-defined coordinate system on that three-dimensional space. In graphics we
usually use "red-green-blue" (RGB) colors to provide such a coordinate system.
However, there are infinitely many such coordinate systems we could apply to
the space, and none of them is intrinsically superior to any other system. For
specific circumstances, some color systems are better than others. This is analogous to having coordinate systems in a city that align with the streets rather than
precise north/south/eastlwest directions. Thus, when we deal with colors, there
are a plethora of acronyms such as CMY, XYZ, HSY, and LUY that stand for
coordinate systems with three named axes. These are hard to keep straight.
In addition, color is an area that involves the physics of light entering the eye,
as well as the psychology of what happens to that light. The distinction between
what is physics, what is physiology, and what is cognition also tends to be confusing. Making matters even more complicated is that some color spaces are oriented
toward display or print technologies, such as CMYK for ink-based printers with
three colored inks plus a black (K) ink. To clarify things as much as possible, this
chapter develops color perception from first principles. The discussion may seem
a bit too detailed for the humble RGB color spaces that result, but the subject of
color is intrinsically complex, and simplification is dangerous for such a central
topic in graphics.
465
William B. Thompson
Visual Perception
The ultimate purpose of computer graphics is to produce images for viewing by

people. Thus, the success of a computer graphics system depends on how well it
conveys relevant information to a human observer. The intrinsic complexity of the
physical world and the limitations of display devices make it impossible to present
a viewer with the identical patterns of light that would occur when looking at a
natural environment. When the goal of a computer graphics system is physical
realism, the best we can hope for is that the system be perceptually effective:
displayed images should "look" as intended. For applications such as technical
illustration, it is often desirable to visually highlight relevant information and
perceptual effectiveness becomes an explicit requirement.
Artists and illustrators have developed empirically a broad range of tools and
techniques for effectively conveying visual information. One approach to improving the perceptual effectiveness of computer graphics is to utilize these methods
in our automated systems. A second approach builds directly on knowledge of
the human vision system by using perceptual effectiveness as an optimization criteria in the design of computer graphics systems. These two approaches are not
completely dis~inct. Indeed, one of the first systematic examinations of visual
perception is found in the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci.
The remainder of this chapter provides a partial overview of what is known
about visual perception in people. The emphasis is on aspects of human vision
that are most relevant to computer graphics. The human visual system is extremely complex in both its operation and its architecture. A chapter such as this
477
Tone Reproduction
As discussed in Chapter 21, the human visual system adapts to a wide range of
viewing conditions. Under normal viewing, we may discern a range of around 4
to 5 log units of illumination, i.e., the ratio between brightest and darkest areas
where we can see detail may be as large as 100, 000 : 1. Through adaptation
processes, we may adapt to an even larger range of illumination. We call images
that are matched to the capabilities of the human visual system high dynamic
range.
Visual simulations routinely produce images with a high dynamic range
(Ward Larson & Shakespeare, 1998). Recent developments in image-capturing
techniques allow multiple exposures to be aligned and recombined into a single
high dynamic range image (Debevec & Malik, 1997). Multiple exposure techniques are also available for video. In addition, we expect future hardware to be
able to photograph or film high dynamic range scenes directly. In general, we
may think of each pixel as a triplet of three floating point numbers.
As it is becoming easier to create high dynamic range imagery, the need to
display such data is rapidly increasing. Unfortunately, most current display devices, monitors and printers, are only capable of displaying around 2 log units
of dynamic range. We consider such devices to be of low dynamic range. Most
images in existence today are represented with a byte-per-pixel-per-color channel, which is matched to current display devices, rather than to the scenes they
represent.
Typically, low dynamic range images are not able to represent scenes without loss of information. A common example is an indoor room with an out521
Global Illumination
Many surfaces in the real world receive most or all of their incident light from
other reflective surfaces. This is often called indirect lighting or mutual illumination. For example, the ceilings of most rooms receive little or no illumination
directly from luminaires (light emitting objects). The direct and indirect components of illumination are shown in Figure 23.1.
Although accounting for the interreflection of light between surfaces is
straightforward, it is potentially costly because all surfaces may reflect any given
surface, resulting in as many as O(N 2 ) interactions for N surfaces. Because the
entire global database of objects may illuminate any given object, accounting for
indirect illumination is often called the global illumination problem.
There is a rich and complex literature on solving the global illumination problem (e.g., (Appel, 1968; Goral, Torrance, Greenberg, & Battaile, 1984; Cook et
Figure 23.1.
In the left and middle images, the indirect and direct lighting, respectively,
are separated out. On the right, the sum of both components is shown. Global illumination
algorithms account for both the direct and the indirect lighting.
547
Reflection Models
As we discussed in Chapter 19, the reflective properties of a surface can be summarized using the BRDF (Nicodemus, Richmond, Hsia, Ginsberg, & Limperis,
1977; Cook & Torrance, 1982). In this chapter, we discuss some of the most
visually important aspects of material properties and a few fairly simple models
that are useful in capturing these properties. There are many BRDF models in
use in graphics, and the models presented here are meant to give just an idea of
non-diffuse BRDFs.
24.1
Real-World Materials
Many real materials have a visible structure at normal viewing distances. For example, most carpets have easily visible pile that contributes to appearance. For
our purposes, such structure is not part of the material property but is, instead, part
of the geometric model. Structure whose details are invisible at normal viewing
distances, but which do determine macroscopic material appearance, are part of
the material property. For example, the fibers in paper have a complex appearance
under magnification, but they are blurred together into an homogeneous appearance when viewed at arm's length. This distinction between microstructure that
is folded into BRDF is somewhat arbitrary and depends on what one defines as
"normal" viewing distance and visual acuity, but the distinction has proven quite
useful in practice.
In this section we define some categories of materials. Later in the chapter,
we present reflection models that target each type of material. In the notes at the
561
Image-Based Rendering
A classic conflict in computer graphics is that between visual realism and the ability to interact. One attempt to deal with this problem is to use a set of captured or
precomputed realistic images and to attempt to interpolate new images for novel
viewpoints (Chen & Williams, 1993). This approach is called image-based rendering, abbreviated fBR.
The basic idea of IBR idea is illustrated in 2D for a database of two images
in Figure 25.1. Given two images, we approximate an image as seen from a
Figure 25.1. Given two images as seen from e, and e2. image-based rendering can be
used to make an approximation to the image that would be seen from a new viewpoint e.
577
Visualization
One of the main application areas of computer graphics is visualization, where

images are used to aid a user in understanding data (Hansen & Johnson, 2005).
Sometimes this data has a natural geometric component, such as the elevation data
for a region of the Earth. Other data has no obvious geometric meaning, such as
trends in the stock market. This non-geometric data might nonetheless benefit
from a visual representation, because the human visual system is so good at extracting information from images. The crucial part of visualizing non-geometric
data is how the data is mapped to a spatial form. The general area of visualizing non-geometric data is called information visualization. This chapter will restrict itself to the more well-understood problems of visualizing 2D and 3D scalar
fields, where a scalar data value is defined over a continuous region of space.
26.1
2D Scalar Fields
For simplicity, assume that our 2D scalar data is defined as

if x 2
+ y2 <
otherwise,
1,
Figure 26.1.
A contour
plot for four levels of the
function 1 - x2
-I.
(26.1)
over the square (x, y) E [-1, 1j2. In practice, we often have a sampled representation on a rectilinear grid that we interpolate to get a continuous field. We will
ignore that issue in 2D for simplicity.
583
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Index
AJD converter, 73
adjoint matrix, 127
aerial perspective, 509
aliasing, 67, 72, 74, 75, 98, 99,
112-114,117
ambient shading, 193
amodal completion, 508
analog-to-digital converter, 73
angle, 20
cosine, 21
sine, 21
animation, 2
anti-umbra, 231
anti aliasing, 67, 98, 99
aperture problem, 493
API, 1,3
apparent motion, 493
application program interface, 3
arc length, 305
arc-length parameterized curve, 37
array
padded, 274
tiling, 274
artistic shading, 197
assertO, II
associativity, 80, 83
attribute variables, 391
average, 281
B-spline
control points, 335
curve, 334, 335
filter, 90, 99
function
Fourier transform, I 10
interpolation, 342
non-uniform, 340
NURBS,344
repeated knots, 342
uniform cubic, 339
uniform quadratic, 337
Bezier curves, 327
backface elimination, 265
barycentric coordinates, 43, 44, 63, 300
basic execution model, 390
basis, 24
function, 310
matrix, 313
vectors, 24
Bernstein basis polynomials, 329
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sets and Mappings . . . . . .

13 Data Structures for Graphics

17 Using Graphics Hardware

What is Graphics Hardware

18 Building Interactive Graphics Applications

The Ball Shooting Program

Particle Tracing for Lambertian Scenes

The Light Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How to Use this Book

3. Triangle rasterization with barycentric color interpolation.

7. Finite-precision z-buffer implementation with only trivial z-clipping.

About the Cover

Changes in this Edition

Signal Processing by Stephen Marschner, Cornell University (Chapter 4).

Salt Lake City

Sets and Mappings

Mappings, also calledfunctions, are basic to mathematics and programming. Like

Each displayable element in a raster display is called a pixel. Displays usually

In graphics, we often deal with functions of a continuous variable: an image is

We usually think of determinants as arising in the solution of linear equations.

In this chapter, we describe how we can use matrix multiplications to accomplish

We can use matrices to change the components of a 2D vector. For example:

Hidden Surface Elimination

A Full Graphics Pipeline

A common operation in graphics is clipping, where one geometric entity "cuts"

Data Structures for Graphics

One of the most common model representations is a polygonal mesh as discussed

Many applications in graphics require "fair" sampling of unusual spaces, such as

Using Graphics Hardware

What is Graphics Hardware

Building Interactive Graphics

To aid our intuition, we will describe radiometry in terms of collections of large

The ultimate purpose of computer graphics is to produce images for viewing by

One of the main application areas of computer graphics is visualization, where

For simplicity, assume that our 2D scalar data is defined as

Adelson, E. H. (1999). Lightness Perception and Lightness Illusions. In M. S.

Ashikhmin, M., Premoze, S., & Shirley, P. (2000). A Microfacet-Based BRDF

Graphics and Interactive Techniques (pp. 279-288). New York: ACM

Fujimoto, A., Tanaka, T., & Iwata, K. (1986). ARTSccelerated Ray-Tracing

Hammersley, J., & Handscomb, D. (1964). Monte-Carlo Methods. London:

IEEE Standards Association. (1985). IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point

Kindlmann, G., Reinhard, E., & Creem, S. (2002). Face-Based Luminance

Meyer, G. W., & Greenberg, D. P. (1988). Color-Defective Vision and Computer

ings of the 24th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive

Pitteway, M. L. V. (1967). Algorithm for Drawing Ellipses or Hyperbolae with a

bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Sbert, M. (1997). The Use of Global Random Directions to Compute Radiosity.

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