Standard 12

Develop and use a model to analyze the structure of chromosomes and how new genetic
combinations occur through the process of meiosis.
a. Analyze data to draw conclusions about genetic disorders caused by errors in meiosis (e.g.,
Down syndrome, Turner syndrome).

Understanding meiosis
Demonstration
Pool noodles to learn mitosis and meiosis
In this activity students become a chromosome/chromatid to participate in the exercise.
Materials:

8 pool noodles
8 student volunteers

The use of pool noodles to represent chromosomes/chromatids during mitosis and meiosis offers
an active, exciting demonstration that will engage students and allow them to identify and correct
previous misunderstandings and appreciate the more subtle concepts of mitosis and meiosis.
Pool noodles are 4- to 6-ft-long, 4- to 6-in.-diameter, flexible, foam rods that can be found in
most retail stores that sell beach or pool toys or equipment. A typical classroom demonstration or
chromosome dance requires eight students holding pool noodles to represent eight chromatids
or two pairs of replicated homologous chromosomes, forming a hypothetical diploid cell with
2n = 4.
Use noodles of identical size to show homologous chromosomes, different colors to differentiate
homologs, and identically colored noodles to represent sister chromatids (Figure 1). The two
pairs of homologs consist of a long pair (pink maternal and green paternal) and a short pair
(purple maternal and blue paternal). The location of the centromere (where the students grip their
pool noodles) can also differ between the chromosomes to demonstrate telo-, acro-, and
metacentric positions and thus further differentiate the chromosomes.

Figure 1.
Pool noodles represent chromatids in the classroom. (a) Noodles representing a pair of synapsed,
homologous, metacentric chromosomes, each with two chromatids. The hands of the four
students represent the two centromeres.
Start the exercise at the G1 phase of the cell cycle, where each of four chromosomes is
represented by a single noodle held by one person.

Describe the maternal and paternal contributions to the diploid cell by reminding the students of
the origin of a diploid cell and the process of syngamy that follows fertilization. To further
reinforce the concept of homologs, maternal chromosomes are held by female students, paternal
chromosomes by male students.
The diploid G1 cell then goes through S phase and each chromosome is replicated by adding four
additional students; now each chromosome has two sister chromatids and is represented by two
identically colored noodles held together at the centromere by a pair of students. Thus, it takes a
group of four students (two male, two female) to act as a pair of homologous chromosomes
during mitosis and meiosis, one student for each of the four chromatids. This reinforces the
origin, structure, and function of sister chromatids.
For mitosis, the students will have to organize their noodles on a single metaphase plate, which
you can organize for them by positioning imaginary spindle poles at opposing sides of the
classroom. The students will spontaneously create a metaphase plate where the pairs of noodles
line up. Then as metaphase proceeds into anaphase the noodles will segregate, with one noodle
and student going to each pole, into the two genetically identical daughter cells.
For meiosis, after chromosome replication, the cell (a meiocyte) will enter prophase I and the
homologous chromosomes (pairs of noodles) will synapse. This can be demonstrated by the
pairing up of noodles of the same size (homologs), bringing the four sets of hands (centromeres)
together. Remember to discuss or show crossing over.
At metaphase I the two homologs (four students with synapsed noodles) on the metaphase plate
show segregation of chromosomes in anaphase I (reduction divisionMendel's first law). By
altering the orientation of the two synapsed chromosomes, the independent assortment of two
pairs of homologous chromosomes can be easily demonstrated as well (Mendel's second law). In
meiosis II, the segregation of individual noodles/students as sister chromatids (equational
division) can be shown. The process can be rewound to compare reduction vs. equational
divisions and to compare the different orientations of independent assortment. The different
allele combinations can be followed with the use of paternal and maternal alleles. The process
can proceed slowly so that comments can be made or questions asked.
Student errors can be examined and corrected. For example, nondisjunction at either stage leads
to aneuploidy. You can reinforce the concept that these same mistakes sometimes occur in nature.

Understanding meiosis
Lab
Cell Reproduction- Meiosis
Purpose to develop an understanding of meiosis and its role in genetic variation
Introduction
All new cells come from previously existing cells. New cells are formed by the
process of cell division which involves both replication of the cell's genetic material
and division of the cytoplasm to form daughter cells. There are two types of nuclear
division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis typically results in new body (somatic) cells.
Formation of an adult organism from a fertilized egg, asexual reproduction,
regeneration, and maintenance and repair of body parts is accomplished through
mitotic cell division.
Meiosis, on the other hand, results in the formation of either gametes (in animals) or
spores (in plants). These cells have half the chromosome number of the parent cell.
Meiotic Cell Division A Simulation
Objective
Meiosis involves two successive nuclear divisions that produce four haploid cells.
The first division (meiosis l) is the reduction division while the second division
(meiosis ll) separates the chromatids. Meiosis increases genetic variation in a given
population. Each diploid cell undergoing meiosis can produce 2n different
chromosomal combinations, where n is the haploid number. In humans the number
is 223 which is more than 8 million combinations. The goal of this activity is to
become familiar with the meiotic process.
Materials

2
2
2
2
4
1
1

strands of RED yarn

strands of Black yarn
strands of Green yearn
strands of purple yarn
paper clips
piece of plain paper
felt marker pen

1. The sheet of paper will represent the cell. All other cell parts will be ignored
except for those involved in meiosis. Draw a line from the top of the piece of paper
to the bottom dividing the sheet in half. Make a dot half way down each edge of the
sheet. These will represent the poles and the line will represent the equator.
2. Make sure the red and pink strands are roughly the same length and the brown
and yellow are of the same length. The red/pink will represent one homologous pair

and the yellow/brown will represent a second homologous pair meaning the cell has
two types of chromosomes.
Q1 - Define the term homologous pair. Where did each member of the pair originally
come from? Just prior to the beginning of meiosis each chromosome in the nucleus
forms a replica during interphase. To simulate this replication, use a paper clip to
attach pairs of strands of identical colors at the center of the strands. This will give
you four "double" chromosomes which are simply called chromosomes. Place each
of the four chromosomes in any position on the sheet of paper. This will represent
PROPHASE I of meiosis.
Q2 - What are the strands of each double chromosome known as?
Q3 - Define the term diploid. What is the diploid number of this cell?
Q4 - Define the term haploid. What is the haploid number of the cell you are
working with?
Q5 - Why is this stage called Prophase I instead of just prophase?
3. Pair up the homologous chromosomes (red with pink, brown with yellow) by
overlapping the paper clips to form "tetrads". Move the tetrads to line up at the
equator of the cell to simulate METAPHASE
l. The paper clips (centromeres) should be on the equatorial line.
Q6 - What special activity often goes on during the tetrad phase that is responsible
for mixing the genetic material?
4. To simulate ANAPHASE l, hold the paper clips of each tetrad and pull the double
chromosomes apart until they are half way to the poles of the cell.
5. ln TELOPHASE I the chromosomes are moved to the opposite poles of the cell. To
simulate the division of the cytoplasm forming two new cells, use a felt marker to
darken the equatorial plate line.
Q7 - How many chromosomes are in the daughter cells? How does this compare
with the mother cell?
QB - Are the new cells haploid or diploid?
6. Draw a pencil line joining the two poles of the original cell. This line will be at
right angles to your first line. This line will represent a new equatorial plate in each
of the daughter cells. Mark new poles at the top and bottom of each new cell.
Randomly spread the double chromosomes in the central region of each daughter
cell.
This will represent PROPHASE ll.
Q9 - What does not occur in Prophase ll that occurred in Prophase l?
7. Simulate METAPHASE ll by moving the chromosomes to the equatorial plate,
placing the centromeres on the lines.

8. Unclip each strand of the double chromosome and separate them to half way
from the poles.
This will represent ANAPHASE ll.
Q10 - How does the process of separation in Anaphase I differ {rom that of
Anaphase ll?
9. To simulate TELOPHASE ll, move the chromosomes to the poles of each new
daughter cell. Use the marker to darken the equatorial plate, representing the
division of the two cells.
Q1 1 - How many chromosomes are in each new daughter cell? ls this diploid or
haploid?
Q12 - What is the total number of cells produced in meiotic cell division?
Q12 - An organism has 20 types of chromosomes. How many chromosomes would
be found in a body cell of that organism? ln a sex cell? Explain.
Q13 - Using the original chromosome number of your yarn cell, determine the
number of possible combinations (2n) or red, pink, brown and yellow that may have
occurred in the final cell ?
Q14 - ln the chart found below, compare the processes of mitosis and meiosis by
using the provided headings.
Table 1- mitosis and meiosis comparison
Mitosis
Number of cell divisions
Number of cells produced
Do homologous
chromosomes pair-up?
(Yes/No)
Number of chromosomes
in mother cell
Number of chromosomes
in daughter cell
Body cell produced?
(Yes/No)

Meiosis

Understanding meiosis
Questions:
Draw the phases of meiosis.
What is the difference between anaphase I and anaphase II?
Do homologous chromosomes have the same number of genes?
What are the two key features of meiosis that contribute to genetic variations?
How is crossing over different from independent assortment?
What are homologous chromosomes?
Compare the key similarities and differences between spermatogenesis and Oogenesis.