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Standard 14
Analyze and interpret data to evaluate adaptations resulting from natural and artificial selection
that may cause changes in populations over time (e.g., antibiotic-resistant bacteria, beak types,
peppered moths, pest-resistant crops).

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Understanding Natural Selection

Demonstration
Bird beak demonstration
Easy but fun way to talk about the importance of bird beak adaptation is through a bird beak
demonstration.
Materials:

Feeding Mechanisms:
o Straw
o Pair of long sticks
o Pencils or chopsticks
o Tweezers
o Clothespin
o Spoon
o Tongs
o Nut cracker
o Small hand held strainer
Food Items:
o Vase with thin neck and water
o Bucket with water and Swedish fish floating in it
o Bird seed
o Nuts
o Plate of gummy worms

Have a student volunteer come to front of class and try to pick up different food items using
various feed mechanisms. I have done with students in an outdoor activity summer camp
program, students loved the simplicity of the activity and got very engaged trying to pick up food
items with different feed mechanisms.

Extra material:
Birds are a great example for artificial selection. At the Anniston Museum of Natural History
they have a bird box that can be checked out of rented by teachers in the state of Alabama. In
this bird box is a variety of bird skulls and bird feet. This box would be a great way to show
students the differences between bird break types and the purposes of the different types.

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Understanding Natural Selection

Lab
Teacher Preparation Notes for Evolution by Natural Selection
This minds-on, hands-on activity guides students in analyzing specific examples and a simulation to
develop their understanding of natural selection. The introductory analysis and discussion section uses an
example of camouflage to introduce students to key concepts and the basic process of natural selection.
The second section includes a simulation activity, data analysis, and interpretation questions to deepen
students' understanding of natural selection. In the third section, students interpret evidence concerning
natural selection in the peppered moth and answer questions designed to consolidate a scientifically
accurate understanding of how the process of natural selection can result in evolutionary change.

Estimate that it will take roughly 150 minutes to complete these three sections with an average class of
high school students or with a relatively advanced class of middle school students. (For students with
poor graphing skills, you will probably need more time.)

This activity counteracts several common misconceptions about evolution:

Individual organisms can evolve during a single lifespan.

Natural selection involves organisms trying to adapt.
The "needs" of organisms account for the changes in populations over time (goal-directed or
teleological interpretation).
The fittest organisms in a population are those that are strongest, fastest, and/or largest.

Equipment and Supplies for Section II. Simulation of Natural Selection

2-3 yards of black cloth for habitat (should be faux fur or some other rough cloth) The size of the
habitat should accommodate foraging by half the students in your class.
2-3 yards of red cloth for habitat (should be furry fleece with a different texture than the black
habitat)
5 or 7 mm black and red pom-poms (250-300 of each color per class) Pom-poms can be
purchased at your local craft store (for example: Michaels, JOANNs, or Wal-Mart) or on the
internet.

The specific colors of the pom-poms and habitats need not be black and red, so long as there is a very
good color match between each habitat and one color of the pom-poms. Both color cloths should be
textured, since even pom-poms of a matching color tend to be readily visible on plain flat cloth. If
possible, the textures should be as deep as or deeper than the diameter of the pom-poms. The textures
should be different to demonstrate that different hunter adaptations may be more successful in
different habitats.

Plastic forks and spoons for hunter implements (1 of each for each student)
Cups for hunter stomachs (1 per student) (To make the hunting task a little more challenging, you
can use small plastic test tubes or the small plastic tubes that florists put on the ends of cut roses.
Alternatively, plastic bottles with narrow necks can be used for hunter stomachs if you have

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trouble preventing your students from cheating, i.e. laying their cups on the habitat and shoveling
multiple pom-poms in with their implement.)
Calculators for calculating percent (page 4 of Student Handout)
Some way to time the feeding times (typically 15 seconds)

Instructional Suggestions for Section I. Mice Living in a Desert

To help students understand that the word "fitness" has a different meaning in common usage vs.
discussions of natural selection, you can use the table on page 1 of the Student Handout to say compare
running speed (which is an indicator of fitness in the common usage sense) vs. # pups produced by each
female (which is a measure of fitness as the term is used in discussing natural selection). A more general
definition for fitness is "the extent to which an individual contributes genes to future generations"
(From Evolutionary Analysis by Freeman and Herron).

Students should also understand that, in discussing natural selection, we use the word "adaptation" to
refer to a heritable trait that increases survival and reproduction. This differs from the common usage of
adapting to the environment which refers to changes in an organism's characteristics during its lifetime.
To help your students understand this distinction, you may want to use the follow-up activity "Evolution
and Adaptations" (http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/bioactivities/evoadapt)

We recommend that you first have your students answer question 5 in the Student Handout individually,
in pairs, or in small groups, and then have a class discussion of their answers. We recommend the same
approach for question 7. In their responses to these questions, students are likely to include some of the
misconceptions listed on page 2 of these Teacher Notes. When these misconceptions come up in the
whole class discussions, thoughtful questions often can elicit more accurate interpretations from your
students. We recommend that you and your students develop and post in your classroom a synthesis
consensus model of natural selection at this point in the activity. This model of natural selection will be
expanded and improved as you proceed, especially in discussion of the last question in the Student
Handout.

When you discuss question 6, you may want to emphasize that organisms are not evolving to some preordained perfection but are evolving to maximum fitness in a given environment.

Instructional Suggestions for Section II. Simulation of Natural Selection

1. Before the class period when you will do the simulation:
a. Count out 2 batches of pom-poms with 45 pom-poms of each color in each batch. (If you
have a particularly large class, you may want to have 60 pom-poms of each color in each
batch.)
b. Scatter one batch of 90 pom-poms in each habitat. (You may want to do this at the last minute
since the simulation works better if students do not have time to overcome the camouflage by
searching for pom-poms ahead of time.)
c. To speed the simulation activity, you may want to sort the remaining pom-poms into groups
of 10 of the same color, ready to count out and scatter for the second round of the simulation.
d. For each class you teach, you will need two copies of the data table on the next page. Record
the number of pom-poms of each color for generation 1.

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2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

7.

Page 5

e. You will probably want to draw on the board or prepare to project for student viewing both
the tables in question 11 of the Student Handout and the graphs in question 12.
For each habitat, choose a student helper who will help to organize the third and fifth steps of the
simulation procedure on page 3 of the Student Handout. The last page of these Teacher Notes
provides Instructions for Student Helpers which we suggest you photocopy and give to your student
helpers to read before the simulation begins.
When you are ready to begin the simulation, split the class in half (with each half becoming the
hunters on one of the habitats). You may want to have your students stand with their backs to the
simulation habitat until you are ready to have them begin feeding; we have found that the simulation
works better if students do not have time to overcome the camouflage by searching for pom-poms
ahead of time. For each habitat, give each student a fork or spoon (one half each). Record the
numbers of hunters with each type of feeding structure for generation 1 in your data tables.
Remind the students of the rules of the game.
a.
Tell them how long they will have to feed. We have found that 15 seconds often works
well, but you may need to adjust the number of seconds, depending on the number of students
you have, cloth size, etc.
b.
During the feeding time the students must try to pick up as many pom-poms as possible
and transfer them to their cups. They must pick up each pom-pom with their implement and
put it in the cup. They must keep their cups upright at all times and are not permitted to tilt
the cups and shovel pom-poms into them.
c.
Competition for resources is fair (and acceptable) but once a pom-pom is on a feeding
structure, it is off limits.
Start the students feeding and call stop after 15 seconds (or whatever time you have chosen).
After feeding, each student helper will lead the students in his or her habitat in:
carrying out the instructions in the third step in the simulation procedure on page 3 of the
Student Handout
Discussing the questions presented near the bottom of page 3 of the Student Handout.
(See the Instructions for Student Helpers shown on the last page of these Teacher Notes.)
Get the number of pom-poms of each color eaten in each habitat from your student helpers and
use the chart below to calculate how many pom-poms of each color survived. Since each surviving
pom-pom is joined by two offspring, the number of pom-poms to add to each cloth/habitat type will
be twice the number of surviving pom-poms for each color. Scatter the appropriate number of
offspring pom-poms of each color on each habitat.
Habitat Type:
Pom-pom Color
# in generation 1
# eaten
# remaining (# generation 1 - # eaten)
# new (2 x # remaining)
# in generation 2 (# remaining + # new)
# eaten
# remaining (# generation 2 - # eaten)
# new (2 x # remaining)

Black

Red

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# in generation 3 (# remaining + # new)

Hunter Type

Spoon

Fork

# in generation 1
# in generation 2
# in generation 3
8. Once the new pom-poms have been scattered on the habitats and everyone has their implements for
the second generation, start the second round.
9.
After the second round is finished, repeat steps 7-8 and complete the table below (make sure to
get hunter numbers for generation 3). The students return to their seats and answer question 10 of the
Student Handout.
Use the information from the data tables for the simulation to fill out the tables on the board and have the
students record the data and calculate the percentages in the tables in question 11 on page 4 of the Student
Handout. Then students complete the graphs in question 12. We recommend that you have your students
make dot and line graphs similar to the graph shown on page 9 of the Student Handout.

Use questions 13-15 of the Student Handout to guide your students in interpreting the results of the
simulation and developing their understanding of natural selection. Questions 16-18 are designed to help
students understand the necessary conditions for natural selection by considering what would happen if
any of these conditions is not met. In the second part of question 16, students are asked whether natural
selection could occur if the black forest habitat became red grassland due to a prolonged drought, but only
black pom-poms had survived in the population. The simple answer is that without any variation there
would be no opportunity for natural selection; however, more sophisticated students may point out that
natural selection could occur if a mutation for red color occurred in the population or if red pom-poms
migrated in from another population.

To conclude this section we recommend a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of this simulation as
a model of natural selection. The strengths of this simulation include that it demonstrates the basic
features of natural selection and helps to correct the following common misconceptions:
Individual organisms can evolve during a single lifespan.
Natural selection involves organisms trying to adapt.
The fittest organisms in a population are those that are strongest, fastest, and/or largest.
One weakness of this simulation is mentioned on the bottom of page 7 of the Student Handout. The
simulation assumes that differences in survival and reproduction are due entirely to predation which can
be reduced by camouflage. In contrast, in real biological populations there would be other factors that
influence mortality and reproductive success independent of the effectiveness of camouflage. This
simulation also assumes that offspring are identical to their parents. In contrast, for sexually reproducing
organisms, recombination and independent assortment are important sources of variation, and random
mutation can introduce additional variation. These differences between this simulation and biological
reality help to explain why this simulation suggests that natural selection occurs much more rapidly than
it actually does in nature. This illustrates a typical weakness of simulations namely that they are
simplified and omit important aspects of the actual biological process.

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Instructions for Student Helpers

1. Have the students in your group count how many pom-poms they have in their cups and line up in
order of how many pom-poms they have (least to greatest).

2. Go down the line and record how many pom-poms of each color were eaten. Record the data in the
following table.

# Eaten

Hunter
9 10

Total
11

12

13

14

15

Black
Red

Give your teacher the total number of red pom-poms eaten and the total number of black pom-poms
eaten. Remind the students in your group that:

They should give you the pom-poms that they have eaten, these pom-poms are dead, so they
should not be put back on the habitat.
The students need to stay in order in line for the next step.

3. The half of the students in your group who ate the fewest pom-poms will die. They will be "reborn" as
the children of the half of the students who ate the most pom-poms who therefore will be able to survive
and reproduce.

Start with the person with the lowest number of pom-poms. Ask him or her to return his or her
feeding structure to indicate that he or she has died. Explain that he or she will be "reborn" as the
child of the person with the highest number of pom-poms; have the "child" move next to his/her
"parent" and give the "child" the same feeding structure as the "parent".
Work your way up the line of students, matching each low person with the next person from the
high end of the line.
If there are an odd number of students in your group, the student in the middle survives, but does
not get to reproduce.

4. Now you have generation 2 of the hunters, and each student should record the number of hunters with
forks and the number of hunters with spoons in the generation 2 line of the table on page 3.
5. Next, your group should discuss the questions on the bottom of page 3.

6. After the second round of simulation, repeat the same procedure, record the data for pom-poms in the
table below. Each student should the data for generation 3 of hunters in the table on page 3 of the Student
Handout, return to his or her seat, and answer question 10 on page 4.

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# Eaten
Black
Red

Page 9

Hunter
8 9 10

Total
11

12

13

14

15

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Understanding Natural Selection

Questions
Evolution by Natural Selection1
I. Mice Living in a Desert
1. What is happening in these figures? Describe how the population of mice is different in figure 3
compared to figure 1. Explain what happened to cause this difference.

An adaptation is any characteristic that increases fitness, which is defined as the ability to survive and
reproduce.
2. For the mice in the figure, what characteristic was an adaptation that increased fitness?

Suppose a population had three female mice with the following characteristics.
Characteristics
White

Gray

Black

Running speed

5 cm/sec.

6 cm/sec.

8 cm/sec.

# offspring produced by each female

19

of each female mouse

Color of Fur

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Age at death

3 months

6 months

3 months

3. According to the definition of fitness given above, which of these mice would be the fittest?
Explain why this mouse would be the fittest.

4. If a mouse's fur color is generally similar to its mothers fur color, which fur color would be the most
common among the offspring? ___ black ___ gray ___ white
A characteristic which is influenced by genes and passed from parents to offspring is called a heritable
trait. Fur color is a heritable trait for mice.
In general, individuals with a heritable trait that increases fitness produce more offspring than individuals
that do not have this trait. Because the trait is heritable, offspring resemble their parents, so more of the
offspring will have this adaptive heritable trait. Therefore, over time, adaptive heritable traits tend to
become more common in a population. This process is called natural selection.
5a. Suppose that one day while the mice were sleeping in their burrows, the gray sand is replaced by
white sand. (Perhaps the owner of the desert has a plan to attract more tourists.) Think about what would
happen to the population of mice on the white sand. After a year, which color fur do you think most of the
mice would have? ___ black ___ gray ___ white
5b. Explain how the change in the color of the sand could eventually result in a change in the most
common fur color in this population of mice.

6. When mice live on gray sand, which color fur is an adaptive heritable trait?
When mice live on white sand, which color fur is an adaptive heritable trait?

Notice that which trait is adaptive differs in different environments.

7. What is natural selection? As part of your answer, explain why an adaptive heritable trait tends to
become more common in a population.

II. Simulation of Natural Selection

Next, you will play a simulation game to demonstrate how natural selection works. A simulation is a
good way to mimic and simplify the process so we can understand how evolution by natural selection
works in real populations. This simulation involves two populations of pom-poms. One population lives

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in a Black Forest habitat and the other population lives in a Red Grassland habitat. The only threat to the
pom-pom creatures is the presence of ravenous hunters (thats you!).
Each pom-pom is either red or black, and each hunter will have either a fork or spoon as his or her
feeding structure. The differences in pom-pom color and hunter feeding structures are heritable. The
offspring of a pom-pom that survives to reproduce has the same color as its parent. Similarly, the
offspring of a hunter that survives to reproduce has the same feeding structure as his or her parent.
8. Your teacher will scatter an equal number of black and red pom-poms on the Black Forest and on the
Red Grassland. Which color pom-pom do you think will be more likely to be captured and eaten in each
habitat?
Black Forest:
Red Grassland:
Explain the reasons for your predictions.

9. Your teacher will distribute feeding structures so that half the hunters in each habitat have forks and
half have spoons. You will also be given a cup which will serve as your stomach. To capture a pompom, you must use only your fork or spoon to lift the pom-pom from the habitat and put it into your cup.
Which feeding structure do you think will allow a hunter to capture more pom-poms in each habitat, or do
you think that forks and spoons will work equally well?
Black Forest (represented by a rough black material such as faux fur):
Red Grassland (represented by a red fleece material):
Explain the reasons for your predictions.
Simulation Procedure
Your class will be split into two groups which will carry out the simulation on the two different
habitats: Black Forest and Red Grassland.
At your teachers signal, start feeding. Dont be shy about competing with your fellow hunters.
However, once a pom-pom is on a fork or spoon it is off limits. When your teacher calls time, STOP
feeding.
Now count how many pom-poms you have eaten and line up with your classmates who were feeding
on the same habitat, from fewest pom-poms eaten to most pom-poms eaten. The hunters with the
fewest pom-poms did not eat enough to survive; if you are in the bottom half of the number of pompoms in your group, return your feeding structure to indicate that you have died. Each hunter who

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died will be reborn as the child of a hunter in the top half of the group who ate enough to survive and
reproduce. Each child will receive the same feeding structure as his/her parent.
Your teacher will record how many pom-poms of each color were eaten, calculate how many pompoms survived, and help the surviving pom-poms reproduce. Only the pom-poms that were not eaten
will reproduce.
While your teacher is busy preparing for the next round of feeding, discuss the following questions
with your group:
Which feeding structure contributed to greater fitness (ability to survive and reproduce)?
What characteristics of forks and spoons increased or decreased fitness in your habitat?
Next, you will run through the simulation one more time.
10. In your habitat were there any changes from generation 1 to generation 3 in the number of hunters
with spoon vs. fork feeding structures? If yes, propose an explanation.

11. Your teacher will display the numbers of pom-poms of each color and hunters with each type of
feeding structure at the beginning of the simulation (generation 1) and at the end of each cycle
(generations 2 and 3). Copy these numbers in the table below. Then, for each generation of pom-poms in
each habitat, calculate the percent that are black or red. Similarly, for each generation of hunters in each
habitat, calculate the percent that have spoons or forks as their feeding structure.
Black Forest
Black

Pom-poms
Red

Total

Spoon

Hunters
Fork

Total

Generation 1
Number
Percent

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Generation 2
Number
Percent
Generation 3
Number
Percent

Red Grassland
Black

Pom-poms
Red

Total

Spoon

Hunters
Fork

Total

Generation 1
Number
Percent
Generation 2

100%

100%

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Number
Percent

100%

100%

100%

100%

Generation 3
Number
Percent

12. Use the data to complete the following graphs. This will help you to see the trends in the percent of
pom-poms of each color and hunters with each type of feeding structure over the three generations in each
habitat.
Pom-poms in the Black Forest
Hunters in the Black Forest
100
Percent of hunters

Percent of pom-poms

100

50

50
Generatio
n
Color of
pom-poms

Red

Blac
k

Fork

Spoo
n

Pom-poms in the Red Grassland

Hunters in the Red Grassland

100

Percent of hunters

Percent of pom-poms

100

50

50
Generatio
n
Color of
pom-poms

Blac
k

Red

Spoo
n

Fork

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13. For each habitat, describe the trends in the hunters' feeding structures. Did one type of feeding
structure become more common while the other type of feeding structure became less common?
Black Forest:

Red Grassland:

Propose explanations for these results, including any differences in trends between the two habitats.
14a. For each habitat, describe whether one color pom-pom become more common while the other color
pom-pom became less common.
Black Forest:

Red Grassland:

14b. In both the Black Forest and the Red Grassland the pom-pom populations were half red and half
black at the beginning of the simulation. Explain why the trends in pom-pom colors differed in these two
different habitats and the two populations of pom-poms were so different by the end of the simulation.

15. Did any individual pom-poms change color or adapt? If not, then why did the colors of the pom-poms
in the final populations differ from the colors of the pom-poms in the original populations?

Notice that natural selection does not refer to individuals changing, only to changes in the frequency of
adaptive heritable traits in a population. Notice also that which trait is adaptive depends on the specific
environment a population is living in.
16a. What do you think would happen to the pom-pom population if the black forest experienced a
prolonged drought so all the trees died and the habitat became red grassland? First, make your prediction
of what would happen if the population of pom-poms in the black forest at the beginning of the drought
included both red and black pom-poms.

16b. Next, think about an alternative scenario. Suppose that natural selection over many generations had
eliminated all the red pom-poms in the black forest habitat so only black pom-poms survived. After that, a

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prolonged drought resulted in this habitat turning into a red grassland. Would natural selection for pompom color occur? Why or why not?

16c. Based on this example, explain why evolution by natural selection can only occur if there is variation
in a trait.

17a. Suppose that your class repeated the simulation, but this time all the hunters were blind-folded so
they could only find pom-poms by touch. For each habitat, predict the proportion of red and black pompoms in the population at the end of the simulation. (Remember that at the beginning of the simulation
half the pom-poms were red and half were black.)
Black Forest:
Red Grassland:
17b. Explain your reasoning.

17c. Based on this example, explain why evolution by natural selection can only occur if the variation in a
trait results in differences in fitness.

18. Next, think about what would happen if your class repeated the simulation with hunters that could see,
but pom-pom color was not heritable. In other words, the color of pom-pom offspring would not be
related to the color of their parents. No matter how many pom-pom parents were red or black, half of the
offspring would be red and half would be black. Based on this example, explain why evolution by natural
selection can only occur if the variation in a trait is heritable.

This simulation provides a useful basis for understanding many aspects of natural selection. However, it is
important to note that, because a simulation necessarily simplifies the process that it mimics, there will be
important differences between the simulation and the actual biological process.
For example, in our simulation visual predation was the only factor that influenced mortality. In contrast,
mortality for real biological organisms is influenced by additional factors (e.g. infection). Also, mortality
risk is not the only factor that influences the reproductive success of real biological organisms. Therefore,
in real biological populations the relative advantage of organisms with good camouflage would be
smaller, so natural selection would be slower.

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III. Natural Selection in Action The Peppered Moth

These photos both show the two major forms of the peppered
moth. Can you find the speckled form of the peppered moth on
the lichen-covered tree trunk shown below? Can you find the
black form of the peppered moth on the tree trunk that has been
darkened by air pollution?

Peppered moths are active at night. During the day peppered moths rest on tree trunks and branches.
Some of these resting moths are eaten by birds. Researchers have found that mortality is higher for the
speckled form of the peppered moth in one type of environment, and mortality is higher for the block
form of the peppered moth in a different type of environment.
19a. Which form of the peppered moth do you think had higher mortality in forests in unpolluted areas
where tree trunks and branches are lighter? ___black ___ speckled
Which form of the peppered moth do you think had higher mortality in forests in areas where air pollution
had resulted in dark tree trunks and branches? ___ black ___ speckled
19b. Explain your reasoning.

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20. The difference between the black and speckled forms of the peppered moth is a heritable trait;
specifically, this difference results from different alleles of a single gene. The allele for the black form (B)
is dominant over the allele for the speckled form (b). In the Punnett squares circle the genotypes of all
parents and offspring that would have a speckled phenotype. Based on these Punnett squares, explain why
peppered moths generally have offspring that look like their parents.
b

bb

bb

bb

bb

BB

BB

BB

BB

BB

Bb

Bb

bb

21. In the first column of this table, state three necessary conditions for evolution by natural selection to
occur. (Hint: See questions 16c, 17c and 18.) In the second column, explain the evidence that each of
these necessary conditions is satisfied by the black vs. speckled forms of the peppered moth.

What is the evidence that the peppered moth example

Natural selection can only occur if:
meets this necessary condition?

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Natural selection has occurred in peppered moth populations. The black form of the peppered moth was
very rare in England before 1850. After that date, industrialization resulted in air pollution which
darkened tree trunks and branches. In industrialized areas with dark tree trunks and branches, the
frequency of black peppered moths increased and speckled peppered moths became rare. The trend in
southeastern Michigan was similar, although industrialization began later; no black peppered moths were
observed before 1929; by the 1950s more than 90% of peppered moths were black.
Beginning in the late
1950s, government
regulation resulted in
decreased air pollution.
Consequently, tree trunks
and branches became
% Dark Peppered Moths
lighter. As would be
expected, there was a
decrease in the percent of
peppered moths that were
black. This decrease is
shown for one area in
England (black dots) and
one area in Michigan
(diamonds for 1959-1962
and 1994-1995).
The open circles in the
graph represent the trend
predicted by a model of
natural selection which

(http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/content/87/5/351)

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incorporated experimental estimates of higher mortality rates for black peppered moths in unpolluted
environments.
22. A student wrote the following explanation of what caused the increase in the black form of the
peppered moth after 1850 and then the decrease in the black form after 1950.
When air pollution resulted in dark tree trunks and branches, the peppered moth needed to be
dark so it would not be seen and eaten by birds. When air pollution was reduced so tree trunks
and branches were lighter, the peppered moth needed to be lighter so it would not be eaten by
birds.
Write a scientifically more accurate explanation of what happened to cause the trends in the proportion of
black peppered moths.

23. Use the example of recent trends in black vs. speckled forms of the peppered moth to illustrate the
following generalization: Natural selection acts on individuals, but only populations evolve.
(Hint: See questions 14-15 for an example of this generalization from our simulation.)
24. Review your answer to question 7. Think about what you have learned from our analyses of the
peppered moth example and the simulation, and use your additional understanding to revise and expand
your description of natural selection. Include definitions of the scientific terms you use.

Adapted from the University of California, Los Angeles, Life Sciences 1 Demonstration Manual by Drs.
Jennifer Doherty and Ingrid Waldron, Dept Biology, University of Pennsylvania. 2015. More information
available at http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/sci_edu/waldron/#evolution.