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Abstract
Introduction
Radiation
Radiations
,Alpha
particles
Beta particles
Gamma rays
Experimental procedure
Result
Discussion
Types and Applications
Particle Detection
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Geiger
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ABSTRACT
the
emission
or
transmission
respectively.
Other
sources
include
X-rays
from
and
other
particles
that
constitute the secondary cosmic rays that are produced after primary
cosmic rays interact with Earth's atmosphere.
Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range
of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The lower-energy, longer-wavelength part of the spectrum
including visible light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves is nonionizing; its main effect when interacting with tissue is heating. This type
of radiation only damages cells if the intensity is high enough to cause
excessive heating. Ultraviolet radiation has some features of both ionizing
and non-ionizing radiation. While the part of the ultraviolet spectrum that
penetrates the Earth's atmosphere is non-ionizing, this radiation does far
more damage to many molecules in biological systems than can be
accounted for by heating effects, sunburn being a well-known example.
These properties derive from ultraviolet's power to alter chemical bonds,
even without having quite enough energy to ionize atoms.
The word radiation arises from the phenomenon of
waves radiating (i.e., traveling outward in all directions) from a source.
This aspect leads to a system of measurements and physical units that
are applicable to all types of radiation. Because such radiation expands
as it passes through space, and as its energy is conserved (in vacuum),
the intensity of all types of radiation from a point source follows
an inverse-square law in relation to the distance from its source.
, Radiations:
Alpha particles:
Beta particles:
Beta particles are emitted by neutron rich unstable nuclei.
Beta particles are high energy electrons. These electrons are not
electrons from the electron shells around the nucleus, but are generated
when a neutron in the nucleus splits to form a proton and an
accompanying electron. Beta particles are negatively charged.
Gamma rays:
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves of very short
wavelength and high frequency. Gamma rays are emitted by most
radioactive sources along with alpha or beta particles. After alpha or beta
emission the remaining nucleus may still be in an excited energy state. By
PRINCIPLE:
A Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller tube) is a device used for
the detection and measurement of all types of radiation: alpha, beta and
gamma radiation. Basically it consists of a pair of electrodes surrounded
by a gas. The electrodes have a high voltage across them. The gas used
is usually Helium or Argon. When radiation enters the tube it can ionize
the gas. The ions (and electrons) are attracted to the electrodes and an
electric current is produced. A scalar counts the current pulses, and one
obtains a count whenever radiation ionizes the gas. The apparatus
consists of two parts, the tube and the (counter + power supply). The
Geiger-Mueller tube is usually cylindrical, with a wire down the center.
The (counter + power supply) have voltage controls and timer options. A
high voltage is established across the cylinder and the wire as shown in
the gure. When ionizing radiation such as an alpha, beta or gamma
particle enters the tube, it can ionize some of the gas molecules in the
tube. From these ionized atoms, an electron is knocked out of the atom,
and the remaining atom is positively charged. The high voltage in the tube
produces an electric eld inside the tube. The electrons that were
knocked out of the atom are attracted to the positive electrode, and the
positively charged ions are attracted to the negative electrode. This
produces a pulse of current in the wires connecting the electrodes, and
this pulse is counted. After the pulse is counted, the charged ions become
neutralized, and the Geiger counter is ready to record another pulse. In
order for the Geiger counter tube to restore itself quickly to its original
state after radiation has entered, a gas is added to the tube. For proper
use of the Geiger counter, one must have the appropriate voltage across
the electrodes. If the voltage is too low, the electric eld in the tube is too
weak to cause a current pulse. If the voltage is too high, the tube will
undergo continuous discharge, and the tube can be damaged. Usually
the manufacture recommends the correct voltage to use for the tube.
Larger tubes require larger voltages to produce the necessary electric
tube
10
11
This reduces the electric field intensity due to anode potential and thus
affects gas multiplication factor. This in turn affects the pulse heights.
In high count rates, it is more worse that there is formation
of dense positive cloud which makes the electric field intensity in the
vicinity of anode wire reduce by great margin thus multiplication goes
down by big margin. During this phase of detector, any new ionizing event
caused by incoming particle cannot be recorded. Thus the time interval
during which any event caused by newly incoming particle would not get
counted
and
called
as
dead
time
of
the
country.
RECOVERY TIME: After certain time, all the positive ions tend to reach
cathode wall and thus the electric field begins to restore to actual value.
When the electric field goes beyond a critical value there is again
formation for pulses. But the process requires some time to give
maximum pulse heights. Hence the total time required for GM tube to give
maximum pulse height pulses is Recovery time.
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13
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Radiation source (
Teaser
Stopwatch
Thick sheet to place the source (Aluminum, Lead)
, ,
IV.
V.
VI.
R R
100
slope= 2 1
1
R1
V 2 V 1
[ ][ ]
15
RESULT:
After calculating the values we obtain the following result for Sr90
Voltage
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
440
460
480
500
16
Counts without
source
0
0
27
31
39
42
47
49
55
58
63
Net counts
3
5
18192
26856
28159
28179
28220
28354
28374
28812
30244
3
5
18165
26825
28120
28137
28173
28305
28319
28760
30181
320
340
360
380
400
420
440
Voltage
From the graph we calculate the values of R1, R2, V1 & V2.
The calculated values are as follow:
V1 = 360v
V2 = 500v
R1= 26825 counts/min
R2 = 30181 counts/min
As,
slope=
Slope=
[ ][ ]
R2R1 100
R 1 V 2 V 1
][
3018126825
100
26825
500360
Slope=(0.1252)(0.7142)
Slope=0.08942
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460
480
500
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C
RO T r Tl
= =
R C Tr
T
This means that lthe fraction of the counts that we record is
the ratio of the live time to the real time. This ratio is the fraction of the
time that the detector is able to record counts. The key relationship we
need is between the real time, live time, and dead time. To a good
approximation, the live time is equal to the real time minus C times the
dead time TR:
T =T CT
Thisl is rtrue since CT
R
Tl
CTR
=1
=1n T R
T
T
r
r
From the rst equation, we see that the left side is equal to R
/R:
Ro
=1RO T R
R
Solving for N, we obtain the equation:
RO
1RO T R
the equation
R=
This is
we need to determine the true
counting rate from the measured one. Notice that R is always larger than
RO. Also note that the product ROTR is the key parameter in determining
by how much the true counting rate increases from the measured
counting rate. For small values of the R OTR, the product ROTR (unit less) is
the fractional increase that R is of RO. For values of ROTR < 0.01 dead
time is not important, and are less than a 1% eect. Dead time changes
the measured value for the counting rate by 5% when R OTR = 0.05. The
product ROTR is small when either the counting rate RO is small, or the
deat time TR is small.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Place the source S1 (SR90) 5cm from the window and make a 1min count. Record the number of counts. Define this count to be
R1.
Place the source S2 (CO60) 5cm from the window and make a 1min count. Record the number of counts. Define this count to be
R2.
Place both sources S1 and S2 simultaneously at the same distance
and observe the counts for 1-min. define this quantity to be RT.
Calculate the resolving time, TR, of the G.M. Tube with the
following formula:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
(2)
R +R R
T R= 1 2 T min /count
2 R1 R 2
The true counting rate then can be determined for an observed counting
rate RO from the following formula,
(3)
R=
Ro
counts/min
1R o T R
Note: Dead time correction should be used to correct any counting rate
that is above 5000 counts/min.
RESULTS
From experiment 1, we find the operating voltage = 430v
So, We perform our next experiment on this operating voltage.
Source
Sr90
Co60
Sr90+Co60
Here,
20
Counts without
source
48
60
61
R1 = 27623
R2 = 20
RT = 27497
Counts with
source
27671
80
27558
Net counts
27623
20
27497
As,
So,
R1 +R2R T
min /count
2 R1 R 2
( 27623+20 )27497
T R=
2(27623)(20)
146
T R=
1104920
T = 1.32 10-4
T R=
Ro counts
1R o T R min
c = 27623+20
RO=
Tr
45
27643
R O=
=614.28
45
R=
Here we have,
So,
And,
614.28
=666.97
10.079
DISCUSSION
TYPES AND APPLICATIONS:
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PARTICLE DETECTION
The first historical uses of the Geiger principle were for the detection of
alpha and beta particles, and the instrument is still used for this purpose
today. For alpha particles and low energy beta particles the "end window"
type of GM tube is used as these particles have a limited range even in
free air and are easily stopped by a solid material.
The end window is designed to be thin enough to allow these particles
through with minimal attenuation, and normally has a density of about 1.5
- 2.0 mg/cm2. For efficient detection of alpha particles, the GM tube
window should ideally be within 10mm of the radiation source due to the
particle attenuation in free air. However, the G-M tube produces a pulse
output which is the same magnitude for all detected radiation, so a Geiger
counter with an end window tube cannot distinguish between alpha and
beta particles.
High energy beta particles can also be detected by a thin walled
"windowless" tube; which has no dedicated end window. Although the
tube walls have a greater stopping power than an end window, they still
allow these more energetic particles to reach the fill gas.
However, for discrimination between alpha and beta particles or provision
of particle energy information, proportional counters must be used. These
instrument types can also have much larger detector areas, which means
that checking of surfaces for contamination is much quicker.
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GAMMA
MEASUREMENTPERSONNEL
PROTECTION AND PROCESS CONTROL:
The term "Geiger counter" is commonly used to mean a hand-held survey
type meter, however the Geiger principle is in wide use in installed "area
gamma" alarms for personnel protection, and in process measurement
and interlock applications. A Geiger tube is still the sensing device, but
the processing electronics will have a higher degree of sophistication and
reliability than that used in a hand held survey meter.
LIMITATIONS
There are two main limitations of the Geiger counter. Because the
output pulse from a Geiger-Muller tube is always the same
magnitude regardless of the energy of the incident radiation, the
tube cannot differentiate between radiation types.
A further limitation is the inability to measure high radiation rates
due to the "dead time" of the tube. This is an insensitive period after
each ionization of the gas during which any further incident
radiation will not result in a count.
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CONCLUSION
0.08942
the important terms, named as Dead time, Recovery time, Plateau
666.97
There are some advantages as well as disadvantages of Geiger
Muller Counter which are as follow.
ADVANTAGES
1. They are relatively inexpensive
2. They are durable and easily portable
3. They can detect all types of radiation
DISADVANTAGES:
Some of the disadvantages of using a Geiger counter are:
1. They cannot dierentiate which type of radiation is being
detected.
2. They cannot be used to determine the exact energy of the
detected radiation
3. They have a very low eciency
These values are not completely correct as here is some sort of
error which inflect our result. Some types of errors are as follow.
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SOURCES OF ERROR
Some possible errors may be:
Instrument resolution
Failure to calibrate or check zero of instrument
Failure to account for a factor
Instrument drift
Environmental Factors
PRECAUTIONS:
REFERENCE
Internet
https://www.cpp.edu/~pbsiegel/phy432/labman/geiger.pdf
Course Manual
Wikipedia
APPENDIX
Cosmic rays:
Cosmic rays are immensely high-energy radiation, mainly
originating outside the System. They may produce showers of
secondary particles that penetrate and impact the Earth's
atmosphere and sometimes even reach the surface. Composed
primarily of high-energy protons and atomic nuclei, they are of
mysterious origin.
Penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma rays:
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The penetrating power of alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays
varies greatly. Alpha particles can be blocked by a few pieces of
paper. Beta particles pass through paper but are stopped by
aluminum foil. Gamma rays are the most difficult to stop and
require concrete, lead, or other heavy shielding to block them.
Electron avalanche:
An electron avalanche is a process in which a number of free
electrons in a transmission medium are subjected to strong
acceleration by an electric field and subsequently collide with other
atoms of the medium, thereby ionizing them (impact ionization).
This releases additional electrons which accelerate and collide with
further atoms, releasing more electronsa chain reaction.
End Window:
Here with the side window GM, the cathode is a stainless steel
cylinder. The anode is supported at one end and extends only part
way along the tube axis. The tip of the anode is typically covered
with a small glass bead. The window, covering one end of the tube,
is usually made of mica and typically has a density thickness of 1.5
to 2.0 mg/cm2.
Concentration on Quenching and Principal Gas:
In the Geiger Muller tube the Principal gas (Ne or Ar) is 90% and
quenching gas (N2) is 10% added.
X___________________________________________________
M. Usman Mustafa
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Group 5 (Leader)