o

welding

e
I

the Worldflx

( J Pergamon
rg

Pnntcd

Monde Vol 15 No 6 pp 17B.-1lj() 199S

Copyright o It IIW/IIS

Soudagc dan, Ie

Great Bntam All

nghl 1(-er.edl1mpnme en Grdnde Bretagne

El%c ier S,
Elxwer
Smemc
ienle Lld
Lid
(1(141-==lihWS S9 51) . 0 (I(1

W43-22U(95)OOM-8

TMCP steels and their welding

by

B) S

Yunoka(Japan)>

1. Introduction

contmuous hot

was successfully employed m the UK

ongma) technique of on-fine accelerated coohng
(AcC) immediately followmg hot rolhng

[2)

TMCP (Thermo-Mechamcal Control Process), whtch is a process

of controlled hot rolling followed by on-hne accelerated cooltng,
was first employed to produce steel plates m 1980 Smce then.
many types of steels, mcludmg a sheet steel, a shape steel and a
stainless steel, have been manufactured by TMCP The accelerated cooling strengthens steels and can reduce the use of hardenable alloying elements. resultmg in hardenability reduction and
thereby the improvement of weldablhty However. TMCP steels
somewhat differ from conventional steels 10 chemical compostuon and they are sensitive to some types of heat treatments
Vanous new features have ansen in the weldmg of TMCP steels
They include HAZ hardness. HAZ softemng, cold crackmg. HAZ
toughness, post weld heat treatment, weld metal toughness, and
solidification cracktng All of these items are more or less related
to HAZ hardenabtltty Therefore, this review discusses the items
focussmg on HAZ hardenability The objective of this review is to
a<d weldmg
md
m adequately selecting
stee) types and
setectrng steel
welding engmeers tn

2. TMCP steels

? I &dquo;
u of T41CP
f

was

stnp mill

the

TMCP (the rmo- mechanical control process) is a combined technology of CR and AcC This technology was first mtroduced on
an mdustna) scale to manufacture steel plates m 1980 m Japan
TMCP makes it possible to concurrently control not only the
coohng rate but also the start and halt temperatures of water cool109 It thus can control the compostnonal ratto of the transfonnation products such as femte, pearhte, baintte and martensite at a
desired level and produce steel plates with the preferable balance
of strength and toughness Because of its capabihty of producmg
steels with a flexible selecuon of steel mechamcal properties,
TMCP has been able to manufacture steel sheets, shape steels and
statnless steels other than the plates
2 2 Plate

_,
,. 490 ..,
..byy
Plates of
MPa tensile. strength (TS) grades are produced
TMCP of an AAcC
<- type, white some of TS590 MPa plates are produced by this process TS490 MPa grade plates metallurgically
consist of femte-bamrte or femte-pearlite which are strengthened by the lower temperature transformation and higher contents
matnx due to
of
carbon in a
cooling
can
be reduced in TMCP steels by an
elements
Therefore. Y

alloy
amount correspondmg to the strength mcrement due to TMCP As
shown 10 Fig 2, the carbon equivalent can be reduced in TMCP
.
fromthat
that of
of normalized
nonnahzedsteels
steels 10
steels by 0 04 to 00
08% from
in the
the same
same

solute

.(
femte

p #
the accelerated

t)&dquo; 1/jfflifl)$)?

I sows h t the
h e cdasstficauon
I a1 Ii IcatIon of
hot rolling
Figure)shows
Figure
of hot
rolhng processes for steelI
in
term-,
terms
of
of
the
thermal
CR
(controlled
plates in
thermal history
hi<tory CR (controlled
rolhng)
rolling) was
used m the 1970s mamly to manufacture plates for line pipes inn
the CR process, hot rolhng
is performed exclusively
rolling is
exclusively atat the austenite non-recrystalltzatton temperatures immediately above the

Z?
th bygrade
0 4 rade t[3]o [3]
strength

transformation temperature (Ar) The concentrated rolling m this

temperature temperature
(Ar,) The than that for the rolhng of
conventional steels, facilitates the refinement of the microstructures of hot rolled plates Such mtcro-alloymg elements as molybdenum, mobium, vanadmm, and titanium expand the temperature
range for austenue non-recrystalhzation Therefore, these elements are indispensable in the CR process and among them, mo-

temperature steels, which is the refinement of the rolling of

is

This

3(

conditionsinin steel
steel construction
welding condinons
weldmg
construcuon

bium

mostly used

It has been well known that the coohng rate dunng transformation
governs the metallurgical microstructures of the transformed
steels This concept was first realtzed m a RQ (reheat quenching)
process m 1935 [I]J Then, RQT (reheat quenchmg and tempenng)
was tntroduced, enabhng us to manufacture highly tough highstrength steels In 1962, accelerated coohng on run-on tables m a

The metallurgtcal
metallurgical structures of TMCP steels are hIghly
highly refined as
wnh e
those of convent.onat
conventional steets.
m F.g
steels as shown .n
Fig 3
P &dquo;&dquo;
compared
This results ina significant improvement in the base metal toughness For example, a Charpy fracture appearance transition temto -100C 10 TS490 MPa TMCP teels
offshore structures This is an improvement of 60 C in
vT&dquo; from normalized steels of the same strength level Steels for
low temperature use such as LPG storage tanks need an arrest
capability to prevent bnttle fracture from propaganng into a base
steel As shown m the ESSO tests results of JIS SLA360 (RQT)
and niobium beanng TMCP (CR-AcC) steels for LPG storage
tanks in Fig4 [4], TMCP steels dtsplay considerable improvements in fracture arrest capability This presumabiy results from
the refined grams transfonned from elongated
in
hot rolhng m the austemte non-recrystathzatton temperatures

Perature (VT,,) goes down

for

use in

IlSf[IW- 1251-94 (ex doc IX-1739-94) recommended for publication by

f[W Commission IX &dquo;Behaviour of metals subjected to weldmg&dquo; as the
authors own work

Line-pIpe steels definitely demand reduction in their carbon content mainly for the avoidance of stress corrosion cracking at the
HAZ dunng operation In this respect, the use of TMCP is essenual for the production of hne-pipe steels. Moreover, HIC (hydro-

N Yunoka is with the

gen induced

Weldmg and Jointing Research Centre m Japan

375

crackmg)

other than the HAZ

stress corrosion

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

376

RO

[A
A&dquo;B&dquo; A&dquo;B3(
i

O
m

:;

<.J j1)

Arl
A

CR AcC

8.E

A9./3 ::

(D
1B1

1 3 r,

Ar-;s:
Ar
AI

Arl
Ar

------- Ac,

Arl

RC)-T

(Normalmed)

Ar3

1
Reheat
Quenched
Temper
/ed

CR-DLO

CR-DO

Al Art T T
Ar5 3

r3,;
,

----

Aci

Ar,&#xb7;

.-:
DLO-T

DO-T

CR CR-AcC

, - Tempered
QuenchedI
Controled
Cooled
Rolled (CR-Accelerated/Direct

I Thermal histonesof plate hot

Fig

to

100mm

TS

550 -

TMCP

500 -

N( Norm )

450 TMCP

YS

400 -400

35 350

are

on-line accelerated cooled This

case is

direct

quenchmg (DQ) Compared with the conventional reheat quenchIng (RQ), the mechanical properties of CR-DQ steels are
improved even though the cooling rate m quenchmg is the same

600 f

(Lameller ,
Quenched

rolling processes

elements
Plate Thick 50

A j

____Ac
Aci
----

Arl-LlfB

:.

,
CR

Ac,

AR

1B1

Arl

CR

2u,

Ar3

(As Rolled)

CL

--- -- AC3
AC3

-Ac3
AC3

Ar r 3

-.-

Ar3
-

m both processes This improvement anses from the refinement

of martensite lath structures after transformation by DQ [6]
Furthermore. precipitation hardening by copper, molybdenum
niobium and vanadmm can be effectively undertaken m DQ-T In
DQ, steels are retained at higher temperatures than In RQ, leading
to the enhancement of solid solution of these alloy elements
Then. the solute elements pr:clpltate to strengthen steels dunng
tempenng (T) after DQ

N(
N(Norm
N(Norm)
Norm )

.. a aZ 300 -

TMCP makes

it possible to produce steels with low YR (yeld

yeld strength [YSI/tensile strength [TS]) The low YR steel
metallurgically consists of a ferrite phase and a bainite phase
formed by DQ from the femte-and-austenite dual phase zone
rauo

!
>

250 -

.32

36

I
40

I,

I.
44

CE=C+Mn/6+(Cr+Mo+V)/5+(NI +Cu)/15
c
n equivalent
an
between carbon
equ<va eni and
&dquo;
and
conventional steels [81

Fig 2 Relation

stee strength
steel
strengt oof TMCP

steels carrying wet HS nch gas or

enhance entry of hydrogen into
steels, initiating HIC around steel inclusions The HIC tends to
propagate along segregation bands such as pearhte bands As
shown m the metallurgical structures of Fig 3, TMCP steels are
metallurgically charactenzed by a small populauon of pearle
bands This is because carbon itself is reduced and because the
accelerated cooling does not give carbon sufficient time to diffuse
to form pearlite Therefore, the HIC resistance property is slgOlficantly Improved in TMCP steels

cracking

occurs In

oil The

wet

H2S

Microstructures

line-pipe

environments

consist

martensite mixed

of a

phase

martensite single phase or a bainitewhen steels with abundant hardenable

(between Ar, and Ar, transformation temperature) This type of

DQ is called DLQ In DLQ steels, soft femte phases first yield in
tensile testing while lowenng the yeld strength, and then hard
bainite

resist ductile fracture, elevating the tensile

Thus,
low
yeld ratio (YR) results The low YR steelss
strength
are used in structural members of high-rise bmldmgs in earthquake prone countnes In order that earthquake energies may be
absorbed by plastic deformation of steel members with low yield

phases

strength [6]

t
;
.

normalizing (N) process is being replaced by TMCP (DQT) in

producmg heat resistant pressure vessel steels of 2 25CR-1Mo
and 3CR- I Mo types The satisfactory sohd solution of niobium is
achieved by high temperature heating Then, the solute niobium
precipitates and finely disperses dttnng the temper treatment followmg DQ The niobium precipitated DQT steels possess
improved properties of the creep fracture strength [7]. Also, an
attempt has been made to employ TMCP to manufacture 9CrA

IMo steels, one of the important femuc heat resistant steels

[8]

,
-

378

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

2 l Sramless steel
Cr+Mo+V

Mn

CE
CE

AUlemtlc stainless steel,, are subjected to the carbides solid olution heat treatment for improvement of their corroson resistance

However, soltd soluuon

treatment reduces

steel

strength

=C+=C+
6

500 -

Ni+Cu

+
+----

+ 15

_
-

and
-

stainless steels are, thus, not appropnate for use as

structural members TMCP techniques have been employed to
strengthen stainless steels without reducing the corrosion teststance propentes Since austenitic stainless steels do not transform
dunng hot rolhng, strengthemng by low temperature transformaaustenitic

uon

products

is not

expected

However, controlled

rolhng

at

o 400

25

Shape

steel

steels

including wide flange beams and ruls are formed 10

not simple section shapes, and thus a uniform thermal control m
hot rolltng and accelerated coohng is difficult However. TMCP
been introduced to manufacture shape steels [ l4] For
the employment of TMCP is desired to improve the
toughness of a wide flange beam core where a flange and a web
intersect In convenaona( hot rolhng, crystalhne grains coarsen
because of the high hot rolhng fimshmg temperature due to the
heavy secuon at the core. resulung in significant deterioration of
toughness at the core portton

Shape

CE

0
-

as
mstance,

0 38

C)

CE = 0 33 0

sb
*
CE=036

t
&dquo;
&hor64
bar;&horbar;
.*&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;-**
CE=0.37
*8
C E= 13

E300300-B
o
0

stainless steels 131

- - -43--e_
-S&horbar;o**- 8 - - _- CE=0
-B

the

non-recrystalhzlOg temperatures facilitates grain refinement causing steel strengthening Moreover, accelerated coohng retards
CI
carbide precipitation so that a soltd soluuon treatment can be
omitted for TMCP au stem tic

CE
_

cW

30

__ ***%*
CE = 0.28

200 -

,
_
-

I,

10 I 30 I 50 I I

100

130

I!

Bead Length
Length (mm)
(mm)
Fig6 Relation between bead length and EtAZ maximum hardness 171

:
,

i
.

Rails,

of pearhte microstructures with a eutectoid carbon content of 0 8% Pearlite is charactenzed by the htgh
abrasion resistance needed on the heads of rails Controlled cooltng is required after hot rolhng 10 order to obtain the full pearhttc
structures with fine lamellar spaces In fact. rapid coohng results
in martensite formation and. conversety. slow coohng forms
coarsened pearhnc structures On-hne controlled coohng which
utlhzes the latent heat of hot rolling has been developed for rail
production [15] High temperatures from the latent heat can be
obtained before coohng unltke reheat-and-coohng m conventional hot rolltng The employment of on-lme cooling results 10 rail
heads with deeply hardened portions So far, the improvement of
the resistance agamst abrasion and fatigue has been a pnmary
concern for rail manufacturers But toughness improvement has
been attempted, especially for rails for cold countnes. through
controlled rolltng in the lower limit temperatures of an austenne
10

general,

consist

region [16]
3. HAZ

building However, those shorter than 50 mm but longer than 10

mm became perrrussible provided fabncators use TMCP steels of
TS490 MPa grades wtth CE&dquo;w, (IIW carbon equivalent) not higher
than 0 36% The hardness

was

Hv400 (Vickers hardness) and

when ustng TMCP steels

still hmned to be not more than

stnkes were not allowed even

arc

For the avoidance of cold cracking, the HAZ hardness is often

limited to Hv300 or Hv350 in the welding fabncanon of offshore
structures and ice breakers The maximum permissible HAZ
hardness is 22 In the Rockwell C scale (Rc22), which is equtvalent to Hv248. for steel Plpehne weld HAZs to be subjected to
moist H,S envtronments Nevertheless. HAZ is Itkely to harden
when weldtng offshore structures and pipelmes, because low
weld heat inputs have sometimes to be inevitably employed
Normahzed steels have difficulty sausfymg the HAZ hardness
limttatton, and consequently TMCP steels are exclusively used
for offshore structures and line-pipes
une-pipes

,I

j
I
,

hardenability and hydrogen cracking of TMCP steels

3I2 HAZ hardenabtliiy and hardness estimation

1. tZ
3 ).
HAZ hardenublrr_v
hardenabiliv

3.1 1Limitation

of HAZ hardness

For two years after 1983, the Japan Shipbuilding Research

Committee (SR193) investigated the performance of TMCP steel
welds, focusing on whether or not TMCP steel plates of TS490
MPa grades could be used for shipbuilding [17] As to HAZ hardness, the SR193 committee examined the relationship between
the maximum HAZ hardnesses and the bead length. Figure 6
shows the expenmental results indicating that the cooling rate
increases and thereby HAZ hardnesses increase with a decrease
in the weld bead length The HAZ hardness tends to rise more
rapidly m the lower carbon equivalent steels but their hardnesses
remain at a lower level than those of the higher carbon equivalent
steels.
Weld beads not

longer than

50

mm were not

permitted

in

ship-

A HAZ hardens most at a region close to the fusion hne where

the coarsening of austemte grams occurs and hardenability resultantly elevates Figure 7 shows the dependence of HAZ maximum hardness on the weldmg cooling rate or the weldmg coohng
time between 800 and 500*C, r,s HAZ hardnesses decrease fairly
smoothly with increasing t, in all the femtic steels including
TMCP steels as shown m Fig 7 A HAZ becomes full martenstnc
and its hardness levels off at the highest value in the cooling
times of tL,5 shorter than the tm (point M) in Fig 7
The hardenability does not necessanly descnbe the absolute level
of hardness of quenched steels but it represents their Lkelthood to
be martensittc or the facility of martensite acquisition. Therefore,
the HAZ hardenabthty may be denoted by tM, the longest coohng
time by which full martensite is acquired In other words, the
longer tM is, the tugher HAZ hardenabtlity results tit! is given for
hypoeutectoid steels (18]

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

379

&dquo;
1 S0 Mn
i
014C-045m150Mn

Nb f V
ree
Lab -melt Steel

.no
600
-

0 -

HM)

- M( tM HM)
&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;-.
0
0

W.=--....
Hv=HB2 HM 2 20 HBerctanxl
2

log 2
HV=---8rctBnIX)
X-4

I =Q4, c-

500 -

7
x>

HB)
We)

-09-

B.

10 -

-t0-

12 .

5 10o

1,

Ot1

022

-6

-68
u

0
I

I
oa4

033

Area Occuped by Inclusiors

-6
77

100 &dquo;, i

10 o
o

06 ,..-O6-

-9
-

04 -

.=

!BB(ts
8(tB

Measured
Measure
A516 Gr 70 olate
te

II

::
10

D-

11

L.
BB
- 06- !
-

tM - 2

tAA
oo tB - oe tM

400
4UU -300 300

t. , -

B9
-02-{B
- -i

2-

05

(%)

50

too

Fig

50o

8 Effect of steel cleanliness

on

HAZ hardenability [24]

Coolnp Time Between 800 and 500t to (s)

Fig

7 HAZ hardness

change

with respect

log t, =4 60 CEI
Si

CEI = CP +-

Mn
+

24

Cu
+

to

weldmg coohng ume [) 8)1

- 2 08

Cr(1 -0 16ICr)

Ni
+

155

(1)

of carbon diffusion and femte transformauon around the inclusion

This is a presumed reason why steels with more sulphur harden
less in their HAZ Whereas, niobium tends to co-segregate with

manganese and retains m a manganese depleted zone, cancelhng

the effect of manganese depletton It follows that femte nucleauon
is not facihtated by inclusions In niobium beanng steels [25] The
effect of tnclustons of HAZ hardenabthty is complex

-+ +
+

122

depleuon occurs around the inclusion, resulung in the enhancement

Mo
-

+AH

(2)

cp=

C (C

0 3),

Cp

C6

0 25 (C

>

0 3%)

Equation (2) is the carbon equivalent descnbmg the HAZ hardenabihty. where 0I! is the hardenablhty increment due to boron and
steel cleanliness Boron significantly influences AH at a very low
content It is reported that the boron effect is more significant m
lower nitrogen steels [ 19] TMCP steels include, in general,
reduced nitrogen for their HAZ toughness improvements There
are some high strength steels which effectively uttlize boron to
increase their strength together with the HAZ toughness improvement

Hardenable elements

fore the HAZ

cancelled

hardenability

are

reduced

mcrement

in

by

these steels, and thereboron is designed to be

i
TMCP steels are improved in their base metal properties as well
as in their weldability This improvement is attnbuted to the
development of not only the process technology to control hot
rolling and cooltng but also the steel making technology controlhng micro-alloy elements precisely Therefore, TMCP steels are
generally very pure and clean It was reported that clean steels
and especially low sulphur steels harden in their HAZs more than
conventional steels [20-23] This is based not on expenments but
on expenence Recently, the effect of steel cleanlmess on HAZ
hardnesses was tnvesttgated using laboratory-melt steels with
varying sulphur and oxygen contents [24]. Figure 8 shows the
experimental results indicating that the effect of steel cleanlmess
is obviously recogmzed in steels without niobium and vanadium
but not in niobium beanng steels at a steel cleanlmess of 0 lo. It
should be noted that 0.19o steel cleanhness means intolerably
duty for structural use The effect of steel cleanliness on the HAZ
hardenabihty (Afr7 is considered neglIgIbly small for the normal
structural steels, as long as oxygen is less than 50 ppm, and sulphur is less than 0 02%
Some inclusions act as femte nucleation sites dunng coohng after
welding and reduce HAZ hardenability. Specifically, a MnS
inclusion plays an important role in the femte nucleatton, MnS
tends to precipitate on an existing inclusion and manganese

A prease formula to estimate HAZ maximum hardnesses is needed when determining the weldmg conditions to sausfy hardness
hrmtauon requirements or when designing the cherrncal compostnons of a steel to be welded under the hardness hmitation. Many
formulas have been proposed [26-31 ] The author considers that
a formula [ 18] denved under the detailed investigation of HAZ
hardenability is the most reltable for a wide vanety of femuc
steels Furthermore, this formula can be extended to estimate
HAZ hardness after PWHT [32, 33] and weld metal HAZ hardness

[34]

3 13 Hardness

of resistance spot rselds

Resistance spot

weldmg is usually employed m automobile sheet

quality assurance test for spot welds. a tensile shear
test and/or a cruciform tensile test are performed TSS (tensile
shear strength) and CTS (cross tension strength) are given as a

welding

As

function of i (sheet thickness).

tensile strength) as follows

TSS

= A d&dquo;

CTS
where A and B

When

d (nugget size)

t6

[35]

t d. [36]

and a (base metal

(3)
(4)

are constants

nugget of the appropnate size with respect to sheet thickformed, rupture m tensile shear tests always occurs outside the nugget and TSS predicted from Eq (3) is constantly
achieved. This rupture mode is called &dquo;plug failure&dquo; In the cruofonn tensile testing. CTS predicted from Eq. (4) is also obtained
when plug failure takes place However, rupture often occurs
inside a nugget. CTS is, m this case, much lower than that prea

ness is

dicted from Eq (4) and concurrently, considerably scatters in its

value It ts known that many factors including the welding condilion and the steel propentes (strength and compostuon) affect the
scattenng of CTS values [35, 36, 37]
The

following empmcat equation of a carbon equivalent type

gives the transition from the plug rupture to the in-nugget rupture
[37-40].

380

TNCP STEELS AD THEIR %%ELDING

Si

Mn

C+ - + -+?P+.lS?0_r
30

(5)1

20

500 -

A copper electrode function% as a heat sink m resistance spot

weldmg Thus. spot welds cool rapidly, r&dquo; is reponed as short as
01 10 the weldmg ofI mm thick steel sheets [41] Thts rapid

HAZ around the nugget fully martenstuc. whose hardness is determmed by the carbon content alone
However. Eq (5) includes elements other than carbon This
implies that the transition of nugget rupture mode is mfluenced m
a complex manner not
only by the weld hardness but also by the
HAZ width (determined by HAZ hardenability) and hardness distnbution [42, 43] Figure 9 shows the hardness distnbution of
spot welds of vanous types of steels [42. 43]

c-rQ

II

Low C-Cu

(873Kxx 60s)

1
,

200 -

A-.-A- *1 -&horbar;r-i-)N*D<..
XL

Low C-Cu

(873Kx 60s)

Or-t

0*0&horbar;0
100 -

_ developed
ply

one

B1i
I

:
I

:!

Medium C-Mn

1)
(

300 -

III

developed by

<

Mold steel!
T

This

steel has been

/
B_ r
1r _Medmm C-Mn
&dquo;*

400 -

An austenrte highly retaining steel is produced by TMCP

steel has been developed for the high strength members of automobiles Normally, this type of steel must contam high carbon for
austenite stabilization However, m-nuggt rupture with low CTS
is more Itkely m spot welds of higher carbon steels The reduction
in carbon is imperative for spot weldabihty Recently, an austemte
retaining steel with reduced carbon as low as 0 20% has been
[ 12] Post spot heating, that is additional current supafter spot welding, is an effective method to temper a hardened weld so that CTS propentes can be improved

precIpitated

3&

coohng makes a nugget and

A copper

13,

Nugget +
I

044

022

Base Metal
Base

HAZ

Nugget

..

II

044

02

066

088

10

12

Distance from Fusion Line (mm)

type of

TMCP alsoprecipitated steel hasstrengthmembers Thissteelcon-

,
Fig 9 Hardness astnbunon In resistance spot welds [42..w1

very low carbon and is superb m spot weldability This copper beanng steel is strengthened after press forming and weldmg
by means of a copper precipitation hardenmg heat treatment of
600C x 60 s or thereabouts Mamly because of the umfonn hardness dtstnbuuon of a weld of this steel as shown m Fig 9 [44],
tams

CTS

is

TMCP (z5mm thick)

substantially improved

t39kj/mm

200 -

32 HAZ softening

Heat Irput

CEnw= 033
o

180 -

>

<

<

:I:

The

high heat mput encountered m submerged arc welding. electro-slag weldmg and flush-butt weldmg may soften HAZs of
TMCP steels which are strengthened by accelerated coolmg, as
shown in Fig 10 [45] Flush-butt weldmg is employed to shop
weld rails In a recently developed high strength rail whose head
is strengthened by controlled cooling. HAZ softening takes place
by flush-butt welding This softening can be recovered to some
extent by air forced cooltng immediately after welding Flushbutt welding and DC (direct current) contact weldmg are also employed to produce wheel nms for automobtles The butt-weldedd
wheel nms are cold-formed, the cold fonnablhty is affected by
the weld hardness distnbution, especially by the width of softened HAZ [46] High strength hot rolled steel sheets of a dual
phase type are also manufactured by one type of TMCP for use m
automobile strength members This steel softens m its HAZ even
m spot weldmg featured by rapid cooltng and the weld joint

strength sometimes becomes

strength [46]

much lower than the base metal

The SR 193 research group of the

investigated the effect of HAZ

Shipbuilding Research Insntute

softening on tensile strength,
fangue strength, bending resistance strength, and buckhng
strength of the welded joints of TS490 MPa grades TMCP steels
for shipbuilding [45]. It was clanfied that the weld joint tensile
strength m small test pieces was 90% of the base metal strength

t6o -

<!.

140 -

CD

.<a&
&y&horbar;<y

120 - :7al -+
Metal

HAZ

P
y
-!t HAZ --:t:1
OD <

Weld Metal

20

10

10

,I
10

Base
Metal

10

20

Distance from Fusion LIne (mm)

Fig

10 Hardness distribution of

high

heat mput weld of TMCP steels

1451
The SR research group conducted tensile tests on mde plates
with softened HAZs as wide as the plate thickness The results
revealed that the reduction of the tensile strength due to HAZ
softemng is not recognized because of a mde plate constraint
effect The mde plate tests more successively represent fracture
in the actual steel construction than small size tensile tests It
was thus concluded that HAZ softening is not detnmental m the
welded structures of TMCP steels [45]

Concern has arisen over the occurrence of fracture of welded .

structures at a low level of overall strains because of the strain
concentration at softened HAZs Some researchers, from thts concern, advocated an overmatching joint in which the weld metal

and the softened HAZ width was not more than the plate thickness under the weld heat inputs from 14 kJ/mm (submerged arc
welding with three electrodes in tandem) to 61 kJ/tnm (electro-

strength is higher than that of a base metal [47]. In order to mvesugate the effect of weld overmatching, a fimte element analysis

slag welding).

was

conducted

to

clanfy the behavtour of CTOD (crack np open-

---

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

381J

disptjcement) at the surface notches on T-joints and butt

joints subjected to high strain of 0 40rlr .i8 CTOD In this analysis is not a crmcj! CTOD value representing the metallurgical
toughness but a mechdnlcal value such as elongation
mg

500 -

(0

-- Test to:>

M-3Smmth!et

H I a 17kJ/mm25 - 38mm thl&dquo;&dquo;

H)I i)7kJ/m

- 20

T5 !IOOMPo Gr-

50

In the case of butt joints CTOD was 0 3 mm under the undermatch joints with a degree of overmatching (yeld strength of
weld metal/that of base metal ) of 0 90, white CTOD was 0 15
mm under the overmatch joints with a degree of overmatching of
I 2 This means that overmatching is preferable However. the
analysis of T-omts with higher inherent restraint than butt Jomts
revealed that CTOD is 0 3 mm irrespective of the degree of overmatchmg Furthermore it is reponed that CTOD is not affectedd
by the degree of overmatching at all but governed by HAZ toughness m the case of bnttle fracture without any plastic deformation
1491 Although the effect of the degree of overmatchmg seems to
be not significant some degree of overmatchmg is desmed especially In butt joints

high input
high
Ftgure.-....
shows resutts ofsoftening
)nput weids TMCP
tmplyng
fangue
so hardly .-,

)) shows the results of

I1
heat
welds of TMCP
that HAZ
ar y a
affects
Th<s is presumabtybecause
because fatigue ts governed mostiyy
strength This
by a stress concentration factor at a Jomt, Ie, the shape of a weld
reinforcement It was further revealed that HAZ softening has
has no
substanttal effect on the bendtng resistance strengths and thee
buckhng strengths [45] In order to take measures for HAZ soft,
..
the
steel composition. ntobium addmon is effecuve
aemng from
because of its precipitation hardening dunng cooling after high
heat input weiding
As a matter
matter of
of fact,
Hv mcreases
increases by
fact. Hv
welding As
by)IS5 at the
softened HAZ by the addition of 0 017r/c niobium under welding
wtth a 23 kJ/mm
with
kJ/mm heat
heat input [50]
50 ]

Ftgure

stee
steels,

presumably

strength

fatigue is governed mostly

remforcement It was further reveated that HAZ softening

.......r
because of oe prectpUauon hardentng dunng coolmg after htgh

suscepnbrlrn of TMCP steels

The

susceptibility to cold crackmg, one type of hydrogen crackmg, was investigated using B-groove self restraint cracking tests
for the TMCP steels and the normalized steels of TS490 MPa
grades This testing provides the critical preheat temperature, that
is the minimum preheat temperature necessary to prevent cold
cracking, as a parameter of cold cracking susceptibility of a steel
The critical preheat temperatures found m the tests are plotted
agamst CE,j, (an IIW type of carbon equivalent) in Fig 12 [51]
The result reveals that the necessary preheat temperature for
TMCP steels is lower by approximately 100C than that for nor-

Symbol
SYmbol
Cornent

TMCP
500 -

2 400 --

B
BXQ

: 400 -

,i3000 --

Weld
Weid
Plste
Plate
Jomt Thick(mm)

Butt

25

Butt

20

Fillet

z5

I!200200 --

I.

I...Ii

IDs
o

-o

....

30

, .

35

I..,.I

..

..

45

cE ac+,i6+(cr+eno+v)i5+(N+Cu)/15

Relation between critical

Fig 12

ing and carbon

preheat temperature against

cold crack-

equnalent [51]

of the carbon
on
r
of the reduction
r
.....
malmed
steels enttrely because
In the
the TMCP
steelsThe
TheSR)93
TMCP
steets
SR193 researchgroup
group examequ)va)entm
equivalent

f....

,ned
of weld
......
the effect,.
,, metal..rf.
dtffustble hydrogen and plate thickcold cracking in one-passhonzontal fillet welds Thee
FIg 13 [17] Cold cracks
one-pass fillet
results are shown in Fig 13 [17] Cold cracks m one-pass fillet
e
the condition
w,eldmg were not initiated
ness on
results

are

hydrogen
hydrogen

shown

under

of diffusible

mt/tOOg
high
htgh as
as 2525mU100
g (bygtycennedtsptaceglycenne dtsplacement method), provided
ent
provtded CE&dquo;W
CE.w and
and the
the p)ate
plate thickness
thickness are not
higher
0 36% and
this
and 25 mm,
mm, respectively
higher than 036%
respecttvely OnOnthethebasis ofbasis ofthis
,.the use ofr......
a high hydrogen electrode was approved
j providj
result,
ed thee CEil&dquo; of a stee
e
osteel IS not higher than 0 36k ThIs high hydro.
rate
electrode
features
a
and
gen
high deposition
provides prefercontents as
as

...

fillet welds without undercut imperfections

However, this type of electrode is not permitted to be employed
for overhead fillet welding and mufti-pass weldmg, because the
former is manoeuwed always with low heat inputs and the latter
is liable to weld metal crackmg
concave

30 30

0
0

S* 0

ng :Ao

6
25
r
.

,-.

&dquo;

0
20 ~CD 20

0
O Cf
0

g 15 - 36 <CECrack
<

o
0

C#

/A
O

e O

or
8

43

Crack

CE 36

10 io

CES 0 36 0
0

00
oo

<

t...
I

10
to,

i....ii

5 -

36<CE
I

I...
I,

I 1 Results of tugh heat mput welds of TMCP steels

43
I

10

A
A

20

Ftg13 Dependence of fillet weld cracking

hydrogen and plate thickness [ 17]

metal

to

Creck
Crxk l/l/7T/tj/77p
0 . cA
No

&horbar;

CE S 38
36

10
to

F8t.- LIfe. NF (Hz)

Fig

&horbar;&horbar;**&horbar;r-***
.

B,c 0v - - --r
to._-

i
10 o
10

25

.&dquo;,

:i

- 100

260 -

W
:f

01

100

300=
<)
-

o
&dquo;

ozo c 50

No

BM<<

.
-

co

150

No

Jg,,
. &dquo;O &dq0
uo;

...-

*
0
*O

cR

TMep(cx-M:)-

c
r:

Norm
f--Norm

5_10
TMCP Strb

r*

ja 350 -

able

3 33 Cold
3
Cold crocA:Mg
crackrng
3 3.1 Cold cracking

450... i 400- -

.
0

30
on

carbon

40

equivalent.

weld

182

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

125

3 3

_ CoIJ c rucl.rng vusc eptibilir%

rnder

,i

H&dquo;w = 5ml/100gDM

HI) =17kJ/
H
-) 7kJ/mm

Smce Dearden and ONeil 1521 published the concept of carbon

equmalent in 1940, many mdices evaluating the cold cracking
susceptibility ot steels have been reported av shown m Table 1
They are roughly divided into three groups, the first is of a CEI,
type which ongmated from Deardens carbon equivalent the second is of a Pcm type which regards carbon as more important
than the first group and the third is CEN carbon eqmvalent in
which the significance of alloy elements vanes depending on a
carbon content CEnw has been long used m steel specifications as
a weldability yardstick CE&dquo;w well assesses cold cracking susceptibility of carbon steels and carbon-manganese steels, while Pcm
better evaluates that of low-carbon, low-alloy steels CEN has
been proposed to assess cold cracking susceptlblhty of both carbon steels and low-carbon, low-alloy steels It should be noted
that a CE,tw type of carbon equivalent also descnbes HAZ hardenabtltty because it is similar to Eq (2)

,I

ys(WM)=400MPa
-

100-

E
1
m

vi

=f-

B B

yg-B B

BB

1B1

a
25 -

75

B
150ot 0

IOO,G
1oo*c

50D
5C 25
t

BB B
50 _

75C

125C

B
B

B
B

<

B.
-

- **-***

&horbar;**- ,

0
033

04

066

05

Carbon Equivalent. (CEN)

Many methods have been proposed to determine the necessary

preheat temperature in steel weldmg [58-63] However, many
a problems remain 10 their appltcanon to actual welding practice
For tnstance, the same preheat for TS490 MPa steels and TS785
MPa steels is given in the methods based on the Pw-t, [58], Ctt,m [61], and AWS D1-90 Appendix IX [64] cntena if their relevant carbon equivalents are the same The preheat given from
the above cntena is too conservative for TS490 MPa grades and
may be, contranly, insufficient or nsky for TS785 MPa grade
steels BSS13S [65] is very convenient because necessary preheat
temperatures are given in figures and tables However, this
method is based on CEllw, and thus it is considered inappLcable
for low-carbon. low-alloy steels As a matter of fact. BSS 13S is
based on the premise of carbon steels and carbon-manganese
steels but not low-alloy steels Recently. a chart method [66] has
been proposed which is based on the CEN carbon equivalent
This method considers the effects of steel composition, weld
metal hydrogen, welding heat input plate thickness, weld metal
strength and joint restramts Figure 14 is one example of the necessary preheat predicted by this method
3 33

8
-

Mull/-pass

15 demonstrates schemallcally how hydrogen diffuses

from a weld metal to the HAZ dunng welding [67] This is the
case for conventtonal steels because carbon content is generally
lower in weld metal than m steel and weld metal transforms mto
femte before the steel HAZ does, resulung in the enhancement of
0

11 bl It.&dquo;
Table
Various types off carbon

Group

,.....ity
.. , of,steet
, weidability
equivalent

Formula

There have been

some methods reported to detennme the necessary preheat temperature for avoiding multi-pass weld metal
cracks [69-71] The following is one of these [71]

Tp (C)

0 524 oB

277

log Hoc - 482

(6)

where 6B is the weld metal tensile strength (MPa) and Hoc is weld
metal diffusible hydrogen by gas chromatography (ml/100 g)>
This procedure does not consider the effect of weld metal height
(the total weld metal thickness) and this effect should be taken
into account as mentioned in the report [69]]

TMCP greatly improves steel weldability, while wetdabihty of a

weld metal remains unimproved because its strength and toughness have to be provided not through a thermo-mechamcal control but under an as-welded (as-solidtfied) condition The necessary preheat, therefore, should be determined based on the carbon
equivalent of a weld metal rather than that of a steel, especially
for high strength steel weldmg As estimated from Eq (6), weld
steets
metal cracking
crackjng hardly occurs in weldmg
we)d)ng of TS490 MPa steels

Ref

//

15

BB

Weld

abtltty, i e , their HAZ may transform from austenite to femte

earlter than weld metal This situation is opposite to the case
shown m Fig 1 S, and diffusion from a weld metal to HAZ thus
dtrrumshes [68] Therefore, weld metal cracking night be more
ltkely m TMCP steel weldmg than expected

14
CE<))w)-e-t--.C&dquo;K. c<-v 5
B
15
CE(WES)C+++N-+5r+M-+
Metsl
MeIel
166
cE(ston o)=c+L&dquo;e^-++i io o
H+ H+ .
pcw - C + hg..- + ;-u + L. + .r + hLo +-v59
PC
5e
17
g
&dquo;&horbar;c
H
18j
16
60
23
7
9
CE(Gr8YIII.)-c+Mn_+k+M2+Nb+Y
8
a
H A
Z
19
C 1* &dquo; C +k 25+V TO&dquo;IT+#++b+ic
W 20 40 6
15
Q

hydrogen diffusion from a femte weld metal with lower hydrogen

solubtltty to an austenite HAZ with higher solubtlrty On the other
hand, TMCP steels are produced generally with low HAZ harden-

weld metal cracking

Figure

Frg 14 An example of predicted necessary preheat temperature [661

040 20 to 10

H H

TB/
B.

.
%

%
H
+
H
+
H
+
yB
y

H+ H+

).

CE (Stout 1) 1000-C-(-Ma+Cr 6 10 +Mo +A.-+gu) 20 40

CEHC+A,(C)I+e^+5+p+Cr+tdo+ND+V+581

16

CE (Scam 1 ) 1000C I d + ip + + ) 1g
C

Where A(C)

Base Metal

Il

076+0.25 ,eml20(C-0I2)1

FigtEsumatJon of hydrogen diffusion m welds dunng weldmg [67]

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

383

When welding TMCP steel,, with low hydrogen welding

matrnal, preheat is thu,, unnerese.trvw in TS.190 MPa Lride weld109 eXlept in the case of uhra-heavy thick plate welding

4. HAZ

w.-

-.

1:;

-,Ok

UB _
1

46

..

GBF
4

lOne-pans

Figure 17 shows typical examples of microstructures at coarse

gram HAZs in high heat input weldmg [73] Gram boundary ferrite (GBF) precipitates mainly along the pnor-austemte grain
boundanes and FSP and BL grow towards inner grams from
GBF Sometimes. femte is nucleated inside grams and it is called
intragranular femte There are two types of intragranular fernte,
one is polygonal ferrite (IPF) and the other is acicular fernte
(IAF) When welding of high strength steel of a TS785 MPa
grade, BL is nucleated because of their high hardenability
However, when the welding heat input employed exceeds a certaIn level. then HAZ microstructures become upper-balmuc (BL,)
and severe degradauon of toughness results The limitation of a
weld heat input (4 IJ/mm or thereabouts) must be stnctly maintained in welding of TS785 MPa steels
In one-pasn welding, i T&dquo; of a HAZ increases t e HAZ toughness
decrease,, as weldmg heat input increases as shown in Fig 16
Howeker the absolute leBel of toughness is always higher in the
lower-carbon lower-carbon equivalent steels Figure 18 shows
the relauowhtp between the HAZ toughness In terms of the cntical CTOD and CE,,, for TS490 MPa steels This relation also
implies that low carbon steels provide higher HAZ toughness
although the excessive reduction of carbon results in the severe
degradauon of HAZ toughness [74] Figures 17 and 18 show that
the reduction of carbon and/or carbon equivalent is beneficial in
the improvement of HAZ toughness and it is, thus, essential to
employ TMCP which can reduce carbon equivalent or hardenability without the reduction of the steel strength

12C- 3OS,-I.38Mn- ozrro- 36CEiiw

&dquo;

350 -

0
A

>

08C- 25s,-I.39Mn- 32CEllw

(t:>

06C- 28S,-125Mn- 15Cu- 2ON,-

29CEIIW

so

300-

I-

-o

r - ----&eth;
I

2M -

-_.--o

v-

co

smwa.a HAZ
- Temp
1623K(I350t:>

co

! 200 -

-60
-50

-iI

1.. 1.1

-Oar

eld HAZ

The microstructure of a HAZ vane-, depending on the steel chemical composition and the weld heat input and HAZ fracture
toughness chinges corresponding to the microstructural change
Figure 16 shows the dependence of Charpy fracture appearance
transition temperature (I T,,) on the weld cooling time for the
coarsened gram HAZs of one-pass welds in HAZ thermal simulation tests [72) In the small heat input welding and thereby the
short cooling time weldmg, the microstructures are of lower
bainitic (BL) and its toughness is sausfactonly high. Ie, IT&dquo; Is
very low HAZ toughness most degrades in the weld cooling
times (r,) between 10 and 30 s in the case of TS490 MPa grade
steels The microstructures consist of upper-bainite (B.) and
femte side plates (FSP) in these weldmg cooling times

. - B..

toughness of TNICP steels

1
;,
y

10

.
I&dquo;

..

I. IIII

so

Weld Cooling Time bet- 800 .e

soo

100

soo>r

te -5 (4)

Fig 16 Dependence of Charpy ftacture appearance transition temperature

on welding cooling time (74)

SP

V.
-

:.

GN

!.

-! .

=,
a

. ,11e

..

&dquo;

IPf
-

I
IPF

FIg 17 Designation of HAZ microstructures [73]

Figure 19 shows a dependence of the HAZ toughness (VT&dquo;) on the

effective grain diameter of a HAZ mIcrostructure 10 HAZ thermal
history simulation tests of TS490 MPa steels [75] The effective
gram sme, which is shown as d in Fig 19, is called the fracture
facet unit, Ie, a unit step of brittle fracture propagation The
toughness degradation caused by the generation of Bu and FSP
microstructures is partly due to the coarsened size of the fracture
facet unit Since the carbon solubility is lower in femte than in
austenite, carbon is expelled from transformed fernte dunng
transformation The thus expelled carbon tends to segregate at the
boundanes between laths of Bu or FSP, and the austemte-to-fernte transfotirtatton retards at the boundanes This results in the
formation of the nuxed microstructure composed of non-transformed austemte and transformed martensitc This nucrostructure
is called MA (martens ite-austenite constituent) MA is much_
harder than the surrounding matnx and, therefore, it facilitates the
initiation of bnttle fracture and lowers HAZ toughness
Reduction In carbon is the most effective way to dinunish MA In

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

3h4

350

(C)

Q - 50

325 -

B,

300
300
U

0-

275

25
25
25

B0

EE

..

0
Q

0
j>
B.../

-00o

Q
0

E
---

250 8

- - 25

QQ

VI

Fig

0
0

225 -

- -50

200 -

..

Fig
and

CE

25

30

35

40

-75

C + M n/6 + ( Cu + N ) / 15 +( Cr + Mo +

18 Relation between critical CTOD

transition

/5

temperature of HAZ

20

Intragranular femte plate nucleated at Ti-oxide [75]

growmg IAF nucleated at Ti-oxides [81] Oxides among the IAF

nucleating inclusions are thermally stable and maintain their
capability of fernte nucleation at HAZ close to the fusion hne
over 1450*C dunng weldmg On the other hand, fernte nucleation
sues other than oxides melt near the fusion line Therefore, a
newly developed Ti-oxide dispersed steel is appropnate for high
heat input weld 109 as shown In the expenmental results of Fig 211

I
.

(75)]

welding cooling time [74JJ

It

reponed that inclusions facilitating femte nucleation also

effectively prevent austerute grams at the HAZ from coarsening
Effective
&dquo; Gram
&dquo; Size.
d

500 400 300

I

Y 320 -

.= >

2cr-

100

Ct)
40
40
-

!: :. . T T I I - - N 8 ( 10 p m

-B

is the so-called pinning effect The refinement of

grains leads to the refinement of FSP and B, growing
from austenite grain boundanes and thereby to the improvement
of HAZ toughness

HAZ
Muln-pass weld HAl
MlI.ltl-pass

42

The microstructures of

0 Ti -N( 40 ppm S )
IAF

d
d

1400

zso - _

multi-pass

weld

180 I
160 -

-/
...&dquo;

160 -

140140 -=I

20
FSP
FSP
- - -20

14 50(*C)
I

180 -

-00

- GBF

coarsened HAZ of

1350
_

280 28

- 20

W 260 -

,,;>=--

....,-- -

.I

It

()
(*C)

- 40
-

<

,...

240 240

00
0

300 -

. > 300 -

-40
- 40

CN

(;8B
1
t
e
1
-60
00411141-60
-

LL

S)

(toD m

austenite

Ti -B

300 -

E CL
9

150

Q -O t

[80. 82] This

< <tm>

TI

200

is

130
5 130S
tg -

220 -

o 04

0 06

0 08

010

>

1! E

Ti-O

!:::. Ti-B
A
TI-8

...

jib- 20
20

0 Ti -N

0260 -

60

12
012
12

I-

19 Relation between Charpy transition temperature and fracture

facet umt
unit al
at fracture Imllallon
initiation site [75]
(75)

Fig

,&dquo;&dquo;
,

,,

280 -

260.
-

-20
,

&dquo;

- -40

other words, it is also essential to employ TMCP from the

point of HAZ toughness improvement.

,,

240
m240 -

vlew-

Intragranular acicular fernte (IAF) is featured by its refined

grams and its fracture facet unit is always small Therefore, IAF
retains improved fracture toughness Some types of inclusions are
considered to act as IAF nucleation sites, they may be REM oxysulphide + BN [76], MnS + TIN [77-79], calcium oxysulphide
[80J. and Ti-oxide [75, 81Figure 20 is a microphotograph of

m0 g 220 -

ti
LL

200

A-

--60
I

1673

1623

1723
1723

1673

1623

Peak Temperature (K)

g
ture

21. Effect of peak temperature

and hardness [75]

at

HAZ on

Charpy transition tempera,

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

385

change from location to location depending on the extent of the

mu)t)-therma!htston. Figure 22 schemaocatty shows the change
in HAZ microstruLtures in a muttt-pass weld of a TS490 MPa
steel I 1831 The HAZ whose microstructure I, coarsened by the
first thermal history (the first weld) change, into different structures corresponding to the thermal histories of the subsequent
weld passes When the peak temperature of the second pass is
immediately above the Ac, transformation temperature. the
microstructure is refined because of the so-called normalizing
effect (Fig 22B) However when the second heat peak temperature is less than Ac,. the coarsened HAZ is only tempered In the
case of a reheating peak temperature between Ac, and Ac,
(austenite-femte dual phase region). the diffusible carbon generated by dissolved carbides concentrates in the austemte at around
the peak temperatures and hardenability nses in the austenite
Some high carbon austenite is transformed into martensite dunng
cooling and MA is formed dispersively or in an island-like manner along the pnor austemte gram boundanes (Fig 22C)>
23 shows the relation of cnnca) CTODs to the reheating
temperature in thermal history simulation tests [841 As descnbed
above, the cntical CTOD is the worst due to the generation of
MA (island-like martensite) when reheated to the dual phase
region around 800Cm the case of TS490 MPa steels The region
reheated to the dual phase also exists approximately 3 mm apart
from the first pass fusion hne (Fig 22E) This region is another
locally embnttled zone due to MA other than the embnttled zones
along a coarsened HAZ The HAZ microstnictures of a TS785
MPa steel with high hardenability are generally of lower bainite
(BL) at rather low heat input welding However, once HAZ is
reheated immediately above Ac,, the microstructure changes from
B, to B, because of low
resulting from fine gram
size of the onginal BL structure [85]

(*Cat

bead3

hardenbiltyD

4
12 [ MA (%)j - 14

(7)

hardenabt!ny

600

50
_*&dquo;

800

&m

&dquo;Ic
-

Peak Temp
10

HT490

HT785

(1400t:)

r:1

0 5 -

8*T A

Q B

SJ

t
01

BA
B

fB

re
7;

1 st Cycle 1673K

at

tBA
A
B*9&dquo;B
B
f
fA

B
B&horbar;

0:

o0 05

0
0

1f
1 st Cycle

1000

1200

1400

1600

Peak Temp at 2nd Cycle

23 Relation between
cal CTOD of HAZ [841

Fig

peak temperature

(K)

of second weld pass

on cnti-

coarse-grain HAZ
I
(CGHAZ)
tJ
j

,J g y

,,.l

1400 (*C)

1200

1000

!!!I

0 01

,,,

phase reheated zone

id (mm)1-&dquo;-

The allo,. elements such as carbon boron and molybdenum raise

HAZ
and facilitate MA formation Therefore. it is
desired to reduce these elements for HAZ toughness 1871 MA
decomposes to some extent dunng reheating under Ac, by subsequent weld passes because of their tempering effect Silicon

Figure

The HAZ embnttlement is governed by not only the effective

gram diameter (d) but also the total volume of island martensite
(MA) The following relation represents the HAZ toughness (%,T,)
as a function of the MA volume and the fracture facet unit,
Imply 109 that the effect of MA is more dominant [86]

dual

Fir* -grain HAZ

(FGHAZ)

bead
2

BBBy
BB
iS?
B

bead

intercritically reheat-

ed

IRCG)

BBBBBMS<

coarse grain zone

reheated
&dquo;-&dquo; &dquo;
subcritically
D
grain
t<v
I

<.-BBB

,<

?-vBY &dquo;

.v-.r.BB

Fig 22 Microstructures of mulu-pass weld HAZ [83]

coarse

<:Rrr
B.br<u

zone

TMCP STEELS ANL) I HtIR H TLDIN(,

396

,:
.

retards MA decomposition because it stabihzes MA [87 981

Therefore the reduction ot ,ilicon result- m the improvement of
toughness of mulllpJ&dquo; H .1&dquo;Z, 1801

20 (*C)
II

0
-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20
I I I I I I

,.,

;
If)

CR-AcC

-
Due to their fine size acicular femte (AF) can disperse carbon
concentrated zones dunng reheating to the dual phase region and
then the MA formation is diminished 187) The steels effectively
utilizing mclusions such as Ti-oxides provide satisfactorily
toughness with their mulu-pass welds because their HAZs mostly
consist of fine IAF

>

340 _

CR

AR

high

MA forms locally embnttled zones and they are the main cause
of the occasional occurrence of very low values dunng a number
of CTOD tests It was once indicated that the TMCP steels may
be susceptible to local embnttlement an their HAZs This controversy emerged presumably because TMCP was developed just
when CTOD testing, whtch facilitates the detection of local
embnttlement, was prevailing and CTOD tests were thus performed predommantly on TMCP steels In fact, TMCP can prectsely control the hardenability enhancing elements and the
decomposmon retardtng elements at a desired level, concurrently
considering the steel strength and toughness It is certam that the
of TMCP manufactures steels whose HAZ is
improved with respect to not only Charpy charactenstics but also critical
cnuca) CTODs

g
&oelig;

320 -

300 -

K
+40K

{! .

280 -

260 -

.II

JI 220 - /

-0
-

i -1
1: 1

-20

-40

- -

-60
60

./

523K x 3600s

180 -

-80

(250C x 1hr)
- -100
-

1B
A

markedly

- 20
20

/ t
0/ A ./

employment

/O

/ O
O

240 -

ti

*I

III

// - 60
// 40

(40C) , /1 00 0
(40*C

Ea

MA200

5.

(t)

))))))I

t t t t

260

280

300

Fracture Apperance Trans Temp . vTrs (K)

Reheating characteristics of TMCP steels

Ftg 24 Change

base metal

toughness under stram agmg (3]1

5.1Stram aging
g
5 3 PWHT characteristics

Steels are often subjected to reheattng mcludtng flame heattng

after bemg cold formed to several per cent m fabncanon At this
ttme, base steels degrade m their toughness due to strain agmg
Figure 24 shows changes in Charpy fracture appearance transition
temperatures when subjected to 250C x 3600 s agmg treatments
after 5% cold formmg [3] The degree of degradation due to
stram agmg is 20*C or thereabouts and it does not differ between
convenuonal steels and TMCP steels Therefore, the absolute
level of toughness after stram agmg is higher in TMCP steels
than

convennonal steels because of the

toughness in TMCP steels
m

5 2 Flame

improved

base metal

healing characteristics

Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) including normaltztng (N),

normalizing and tempenng (NT) and quenchmg-and-tempenng
tQT) are not permitted for TMCP steels. which are strengthened
by accelerated cooling Hot formtng is also not allowed but warm
forming may be performed with the necessary cauuons being
taken Stress rehevmg PWHT is appitcabie to TMCP steels JIS
(japan Industrial Standard) pressure vessel steels whose thickness
is 38 mm and over have to be subjected to stress rehef PWHT m
order to reduce welding residual stresses and to improve matenal
propemes This is ruled on the premtse of the use of normalized
steels and as-rolled steels For TMCP steels wth improved base
metal toughness. PWHT may be performed only for residual
stress

In steel fabncatton,
fabrication, steels are formed to a desired shape by the
use of local plastic deformation or thermal contraction caused by
hne or spot flame heating Microstructures at the locally heated
regions change dependtng on the heaung they are subjected to,
and thus their toughness and strength also vary The Japan
Shipbuilding Qualtty Standard stipulates 600C as the maximum
allowable heaung temperature for flame heating followed by
water coohng However, heaung up to 900*C may be permitted if
the heated portton is air cooled to 500*C and then water cooled

The mechanical properties were examined for normalized steels,

controlled rolled steels and TMCP steels when they are subjected to
local heaung with varymg maximum heaung temperature and water
coohng start temperature [89] All the steels were strengthened to
some extent and their toughness was reduced while the degree of
toughness degradation did not differ from steel to steel All the
steels were most degraded when heated to the dual phase temperature (between 600 and 700*C) and then air cooled, because of the
resultant coarsened nucrostructures mixed with femte, bairate and
island martensite Water quenching from these temperatures must be
avoided and the rule of air coohng to 500*C should be kept- TMCP
steels are also supenor to conventional steels 10 flame heaung charactensucs because of their improved base metal toughness

rehevmg
relieving

shows the expenmental results of the effect of PWHT

TMCP steels [90. 91]is seen that the welding residual
stresses are satisfactorily removed by PWHT of 550*C without
significant reducuon of their strengths, mstead of PWHT of
600*C This result suggests that the PWHT condition may be
relaxed from 600C to 550C for TMCP steels The addition of
small contents of ntobtum is very effective through precipitation
hardenmg agamst the strength reduction dunng PWHT But care
must be taken to prevent precipitanon embntthng of the steels
caused by excessive addition of niobium [92]

Ftgure 26

on

6. Weld metal
6.1.

properties in TMCP steel welding

Toughness of weld metal

matenal of a Ti-B system is extensively used for

heat
high
input weldmg Hardenabihty of this welding matenal is
controlled W1thm the appropnate range depending on welding
heat mputs to be employed, so that its rrucrostructure mostly consists of fine acicular femte (IAF) nucleated from Ti-oxtdes while
impeding the precipitation of grain boundary femte (GBF) and
upper baitute (Bu) to a minimum The appropnate amount of free

The

welding

197

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

2h

2h

- J As Welded
tl 5501rx I
.

600t1Ix 2h (C)
-0

it&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;K

1
250

.t.}
--40

___Sll._____________1
_ -60
lr----<>---------FL -80

:
-

O---lL

200
> 200 -

+2mm

--100
-100
-

6f 6000 ---

a>

220

165

550

B.

(566)
(5054)

200
-

r-&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;&horbar;

MM -!! M

873 K

823K x 7200s

TS

04

06

08

7200s
m

properties

* A***

YS

S-Mn-Mo-T-A8
S,-Mn-T,-B E

0 Q

100 -

100 -

0 0

<:x

-S
i

0 0

::

0
00

00 bOO

__

Cb
C

25

10

* &dquo;

50 -

012

017

027

032

021

transition

temperature of Ti-B weld

30

35

.40

45

CE = C+St/24+Mn/6+Mo/4

Fig 26 Dependence of toughness and

carbon equivalent [93]

strength of Ti-B

B weld metals, thus. cannot be matntatned

poor weld metal toughness results

at a

destred level and

26 shows the dependence of the strength and toughness of

the Ti-B weld metals on thetr carbon equivalent [93] At a low
level of carbon equivalent, the microstructure consists mostly of
GBF due to lack of hardenabtltty, while it consists of upper baintte (BL) m the high carbon equivalent Toughness m both regions
is low In the intermediate region, desired hardenability is
acquired, resulting in ACF microstructures with high toughness
Lack of hardenability In the Ti-B weld metals may be caused by
base metal dilution when welding of TMCP steels whose carbon
equivalent (CE&dquo;&dquo;,) is not higher than 0309 In this case. welding
materials whose hardenability is prepared to a somewhat high
level must be used

,,,,,,,

007

In Steel Plate (%)

Figure

A ABo.-rPS-SD&horbar;

&dquo;

Al Content m Weld Metal (96)

200 -

27 Relation between Charpy

metal and alunumum content (94]

800 -

Ii) 400 -

--too

02

003

Fig

Fig 25 Companson of TMCP steel and convenuonaf steel

after PWHT (90, 91 )]

,S 600 -

&dquo;

Y&horbar;&horbar;=<

.1C)

As We!ded

--60

(588) (598)
i

AI Content

v
B

N( Norm )

120mm

P
0 TMCP

500 ..

_-40

t80 -

LL
-

ma
0)

TS(MPa) /m

() T S (M Pa)

0
i550)
O

_
-o&horbar;&horbar;_

44 6 6kJ/mm
kJ

5)
(545)

240240
-

9
<11
#
co

-<r&horbar;&horbar;-

637)637)--20
-20

300 ppm Oxygen

S
c

_
-

(t)

l4Mn- i6Mo-Ti-B
14Mn-16Mo-T!-8

20

O---

260 -

weld metal

on its

boron is necessary to prevent the nucleation of GBF The amount

of necessary free boron vanes depending on the amounts of oxygen, mtrogen, aluffunium and tttantum Also, the amount of Tioxides necessary for the nucleation of IAF is determined by a
sensitive balance of utantum, oxygen, alumimum, silicon, and
manganese Furthermore, the base metal dilution into weld metal
becomes tttunense m high heat mput wetdmg. 1D which the dllution rate may be as high as 50% The cherrucal composition of Ti-

Many elements in a base metal affect, through dtlutton the

strength and toughness of the Ti-B weld metals m high heat input
welding In parttcular, aluminium in a base metal has a substantial
effect, as shown in Fig 27 [94] Al-oxides are not capable of
nucleating destrable IAF. unhke Tt-oxtdes The de-oxtdanon
reaction m a molten weld metal proceeds m order of affintty to
oxygen,Ie, aluminium is first de-oxidized followed by tttamum,
stltcon and then manganese Therefore, the remamng oxygen
after the oxtdauon of aluminium should be retained to a suitable
level depending on base metal aluminium content in order to
form effective Ti-oxtdes In the excessive aluminium region, all
the oxides are AI-oxtdes and no Ti-oxides are formed As a result,
the weld metal toughness significantly degrades Conversely, an
excessively low alununium content results in the fonnatlon of not
only Ti-oxtdes but also undesirable Si-oxides and Mn-oxides, and
the weld metal toughness also worsens
6 2.

Solidification cracking of weld metal

A root weld
ably diluted

pipeline gtrth welding with V-grooves is considerby base metal because of the strong arc penetration
of root welding even though weld heat mput is low Since the
HAZ hardness lirrutauon is stnngent m the pipe girth weldmg, as
already descnbed, a carbon content is usually reduced m hne-pipe
steels through TMCP It is known that high carbon weld metals
m

TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

388

generally ,u,,ceptible to ohdlflcallon cracking However

weld metals woh e1(ce&dquo;lvely reduced carbon are also vulnerable
10 ,ohdlficallon cracking 1951[

2 A J De Xrdo Proc Int Ssmp on Awelerored Cnnlme of

Rolled Steel (Edued b G E Ruddle). CIM. winnipeg Canada
1988

Solidification

3 Monkawa. B10nyama ltoh J

pp 83-90. 1986 (in Japanese)

are

increase,

cracking

Therefore,

is more

a root

likely

weld

as

the

weldmg velocity

pipe girth h weldmg is very

because root welds are made

in

susceptible to solidificauon cracking

in a vertical-down manner at very high speed Figure 28 is one
example of a solidification crack in the low carbon region In
weldmg of the ultra-low carbon TMCP steels for line-pipe use
This type of solidification crackmg occurs in V-groove cellulose
electrode weldmg when the weld metal carbon is less than 005%
[96] The reduction of carbon content in a steel to a level less than
0 02% leads to unexpected coarsening of austenite grains in
HAZs Therefore, high grade line-pipe steels contam carbon at
0 05% or thereabouts for concurrent consideration of the avoidance of solidification cracking and the HAZ hardness hmltallon

Jpn Weld Soc.

Japan Iron & Steel Institute Properties

Preuure Vessels, 1986 (in Japanese)
4

Vol 55 No 2

of TMCP Steelf for

5 Terashima. Furuklml J Jpn Weld Soc

pp 411-418. 1986 (in Japanese)>

Vol 55 No 7

6 Ohashi, Mochituki. Yamaguchi Settetsu Kenkw, Vol 334,

pp 17-28, 1989 (in Japanese)
7 Tsuchida. Yamaba,

Yamaguchi

CAMP. Vol 2. pp 1724-1727,

1989 fin Japanese)

1. ;

8 Matuszaki. Saito,

..

j/

(in Japanese)

9 Takechi

Shiga CAMP,

Vol 2, pp 1728-1731. 1989

Tetsu-to-Hagane, Vol 68,

No 9, pp 1244-1255 1982

(in Japanese)

10 Ikenaga. Taklta,
Japanese)

Mizui CAMP, Vol 2. p 759, 1989 (in

11 V F Zackay. E R Parker, D Fahr, R Bush Trans Am Soc

Met , Vol 60. pp 252-259, 1967

12

Tsukaya. Kamel,

Sakai CAMP, Vol 1, No 3. p 945, 1988

2mm
Fig

28 Solidification crack

In

pipe

girth

root

weld of very low carbon

13 Yamamoto.
p 1732, 1989 (in

Kobayashi,
Japanese)

Hondda CAMP. Vol 2. No 5.

steel 1961
14 Ida, Takeshima

1988 (in

It has been possible to manufacture high quality of steels by a

precise control of chemical composiuons together with employment of TMCP TMCP steels are not permitted to be subjected to
heat treatments in which the temperature employed exceeds the
steel transformation temperature TMCP steels are supenor to
conventional steels with respect to strain aging embnttlement,
flame heating embnulement, toughness after PWHT, HAZ hardening, cold cracking susceptibility, and HAZ toughness

However, there
weld metal

Vol I No 5, p 1509

15 Kageyama, Sugmo, Fukuda Seitetsu Kenfsu, Vol 329

pp 2-14. 1988 Un Japanese)

7. Conclusion

Fujimoto CAMP,

Japanese)

concerning HAZ softening,

and solidification cracking when welding

are some

toughness

problems

of TMCP steels

Wada, Fukuda Tetsu-to-Hagane, Vol

1989 On Japanese>
1162-1169,
pp
16

73. No

9.

17 Japan Shipbuilding Research Association Report No 100.

Research on HT50 High Strength Steels by New Process, 1985

(in Japanese)
18 N Yunoka, M Okumura, T
No 4, pp 217R-223R, 1987
19 N Yunoka Advances

In

Kasuya

Metal Const, Vol 19,

Welding MetallurgB, pp 51-64,

AWS-JWS-JWES, 1990

Acknowledgements
20 N Smith, B I
pp 17-23, 1969

Bagnall Metal Const ,

Vol

I, No 2,

The author is grateful for Dr S Aihara, Dr Y Hagtwara, Dr H

Tamehiro, Mr T Saito, Mr Y Hom and Dr M Okumura of the
Steel Research Laboratones of Nippon Steel for their expert
advice and assistance He is also thankful to Prof De Meester of
Universitd Cathohque de Louvain and Dr C Shiga of Kawasala
Steel for their advice on the revision of this manuscnpt.

22 D McKeown, P Judson, R
No II, pp 667-673, 1983

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TMCP STEELS AND THEIR WELDING

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81 Y Terada. R Chtjnwa. H Tamehiro 2nd Intl Conf

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