Running head: BRINGHURST VOICE PROJECT

Voice Project: Native American Students

David Bringhurst
SAA 7610

BRINGHURST VOICE PROJECT

Week 1
I've selected Native American students for my voice project. This may unintentionally
end up being a bit of a cheat as I am aware that I have Native American ancestry. Though I've
never identified as Native American, I have empathized with and done some informal study of
the Native American experience; that is one of the reasons for my interest in this project.
As a first step in the project, I visited our Asian/Hispanic/Native American Center
(AHNA) on Tuesday, September 10, 2013. I spoke to Mia Honaker and the center's Director,
Mai Nguyen while there. Mai was particularly helpful and generous with her time. She suggested
a number of students I might talk to as well as some members of the community who advocate
for the Native American experience. In fact, one student she mentioned, Daniel Noll, happened
to be in the center, and I spoke with him briefly and agreed to arrange a further meeting. I also
learned about the Association of Native American Students (ANAS). I plan to attend one of their
several meetings this semester.
Mai informed me that we have about 60 students on campus that identify as Native
American, but a look at the 2012 Student Fact Book reveals a total of 39 "American
Indian/Alaskan Native" students. I'm not confident that we've nearly doubled our AI/AN
population in one year, but we'll have to wait for the 2013 Student Fact Book to be sure.
What was interesting about what Mai told me is that the students she's come in contact
with are visually Caucasian. Most are fifth and sixth generation (1/16 or 1/32 Indian blood)
Native American. They've lost touch with their ancestry and are trying to re-connect with it or
just learn something about what their heritage might be. In most families, it is not something that
is talked about, not necessarily as a matter of shame, but from a lack of much information about
their ancestors. This is interesting, but might prevent me from being able to speak with a Wright
State student who is having what you might call a direct experience of being Native American on

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our campus. I think I can mitigate this somewhat with other research sources, including some
background on the more general Native experience in the country as well as higher education
more specifically.
AHNA offers a number of resources that might be of some help, including videos and
journals. I will make use of these in addition to first person interviews. Elsewhere in this entry
are some photos taken at AHNA that show some of the resources available as well as artifacts
that have been placed at various locations in the center.

Figure 1. A sampling of books, including Peter Matthiessen's classic, In the Spirit of Crazy Horse.

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Figure 2. The encyclopedia

to the left doesn't appeal to
me much, but the Tribal
College Journal (shown at
right) is an intriguing
resource that I'll be eagerly
looking into.

Figure 3. Some decorative "artifacts" lend an air of authenticity.

Figure 4. I found these quotes to be interesting, particularly the one entitled "Understanding" which provides
an insight into at least some Native Americans' view of "white man's" education. It says, in part,
"Understanding is not knowing the kind of facts your book and teachers talk about.

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Resources and Activities

Possible interview subjects include Guy Jones and Brian Walter. Brian is a WSU grad
(1984) who is a member of The Miami Valley Council for Native Americans. He has invited
some of our students who he met at this year's 25th annual Keeping The Traditions Pow-Wow at
Sunwatch. Those students, Corinne and Elizabeth Richardson (twin sisters) were recommended
to me by Mai. I intend to interview them along with another talk with Daniel Noll. I may invite
myself to the Miami Valley Council for Native Americans meeting on September 15th at
Community of Christ Church, 860 Grange Hall Rd., Beavercreek. I also plan to attend a meeting
of ANAS (Sept. 18, Oct. 16, and Nov. 20) from 2:30 p.m. 3:30 p.m. in the Multicultural
Lounge in Millett Hall.
Those significant first person sources will be augmented with a video or two (Mai
recommended a couple to me) along with a gander at the Tribal College Journal and whatever
articles and other sources I can scare up. My excitement for this is building.

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Week 2
Today I went to a meeting for the Association of Native American Students (ANAS). I'll
have to take a picture of the t-shirt I got from it. Several things were interesting about the
experience.
Corinne Richardson is the President -- I guess that is her title -- of the organization. Her
twin sister, Beth is also a member. The other people in attendance, aside from me, were leaders
of the Asian and Hispanic / Latino student organizations who said they were there in solidarity.
Corinne and a young man named Alex (more on this in a minute), who leads the Hispanic
student organization both reported that the folks who had been part of the organization before
them had all graduated. It seems they did no succession planning or there was insufficient
interest in maintaining the organization. In any case, both Corinne and Alex are basically starting
from scratch with their organizations.
Corinne is an interesting person. She has been to numerous pow-wows and seems both
motivated to participate in and knowledgeable about various native cultures. Her story is
fascinating, in part because her journey to learn more about her heritage has an additional hitch
to it: her mother was adopted. It was only relatively recently that her mother learned who her
birth parents were.
Corinne mentioned that her family was very quiet about identifying as Native American.
When I asked her if that was due to shame or a lack of identification with it, she confirmed that
there was some concern about racism and the reactions they might get from their largely white
communities. I found this to be interesting. I don't identify as Native American nor do I speak
much of my own ancestry, but that has far more to do with a lack of knowledge and identifying
strongly as white (strongly not in terms of pride, but rather in the sense of never questioning that

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I was white.) Nevertheless, when I do refer to my ancestry, I do so without shame or fear, and
with some amount of pride.
When she spoke about her experiences with native culture, however, Corinne freely used
the terms "us" and "we" with no hint of affectation or fear. It was clear from what she told me
about her experiences that she had learned quite a bit about different native cultures. She spoke
with some authority about differences between various tribal traditions. Both she and her sister
were well-aware of various tribal issues occurring right now in the U.S. They spoke of the
Iroquois nation's problems with federal passport laws that affect them greatly since their
reservation straddles the U.S. / Canadian border. They also spoke about various tribal responses
to identity, how some tribes were open to the "one drop" definition of native identity and allowed
anyone with even minimal native ancestry to become part of the tribal nation. Others tribes,
however, are far more stringent about who they allow to be part of the tribe, so much so that in
one case -- I want to say among the Sioux -- a man who belongs to a tribe is fighting for
recognition of tribal rights for his daughters who live and have been raised on the reservation,
but because of his wife's non-native ancestry, don't have the required amount of racial purity.
This issue of identity resonated with me personally. Beth asked me if I was a student. I
hesitated before confirming that I was. I was intrigued by my hesitation and began to think about
how I identify myself. I have been a staff member for 9 years and have used the term "student" in
what I now realize is a rather "other-oriented" way. In case that isn't clear, I mean seeing students
as "others." This was of particular interest because I have already come to the conclusion that if
my continuing education produces no other result, it will have been worth it for the experience of
being a student again in the 21st century and getting to experience first-hand what it is to be a
"non-traditional" student.

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This interaction led to an interesting side conversation with Alex, who had first
introduced himself as Michaelangelo. Corinne had gently and humorously admonished him when
he did so. I was intrigued by the interaction when it happened, and as I began to reflect on my
own sense of the array of my identities, I mentioned to Alex that I had noted that he had done
this. We talked about a student I know who has also chosen to go by a different name and how it
is actually a bit surprising in some ways that more of us don't choose our own names. But then it
occurred to me how closely our names are tied to our identities. I have long thought about this
identification and what it must mean for a woman to change her name when she marries. I
contemplated what that would be like, and I couldn't bring myself to change my last name like
that. I told Alex I wouldn't want to insist that a woman take my name when we married.
Alex said that he would want his wife to take his name, but he noted that that was
probably a cultural preference. He then gave me his full Hispanic name which I didn't really
catch (sadly) -- there were five or six names in there, though -- and he noted that each had a
family connection. So, for him, his wife taking his name was part of her accepting his family and
his family accepting her. This was interesting on its own and showed, I thought, great awareness
on his part. He's very young, but clearly smart -- bright is the perfect word because he is not only
smart, but has a quick, active mind. What really interested me though, and I could be misreading
what happened, was that he seemed to exude pride as he rattled off his name. This pride was in
contrast to the almost shy, quiet approach he had taken to the meeting until we began to discuss
these ideas. I'm fascinated that he introduced himself as Michaelangelo, then as "merely" Alex
(as he later characterized it, on the heels of revealing his full name), and then finally revealed his
full name. (Side note: the subject of names is of great importance in Native American cultures as
well).

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Corinne has great plans for her organization, and she clearly has support and solidarity
among her fellow leaders, but of the 40 people she e-mailed about this meeting (33 of whom
have identified themselves as Native American in our Banner system), I was the only one to send
her a reply. Of the people in the meeting, all were leaders or members of other organizations or
literally pulled into the meeting (Alex grabbed one of his friends, Becca I think, to join us). I
hope Corinne is able to generate some enthusiasm because she has big plans to bring a pow-wow
to campus as well as Olympic Medalist, Billy Mills.

Week 3
http://espn.go.com/nfl/story/_/id/9689220/redskins-name-change-not-easy-sounds

This week I read the article linked to above. I hesitated to use this for my entry this week
because, on the surface, it has nothing to do with Native American student identity on our or any
other campus. On second reading, though, I think the article offers some clearly compelling and
relevant viewpoints. There are two observations that I think are most relevant to our work in
higher education and that provide some insight into identity and identity development.
The first observation might initially appear obvious. It is this: all people are different.
Reilly's father-in-law and the administrators and students at the largely Native American high
schools mentioned in the article all are either unconcerned with the issue of Native American
mascots and their iconography being used or are supportive of it at their schools. However, other
Native Americans represented in the article oppose such uses. This dynamic of difference is
hardly uncommon, yet that doesn't keep us from often thinking of race monolithically.
I have had any number of experiences where a single African American is asked to speak
for the entire African American experience. For a long time -- and I'm not alone in this by a long
shot -- I was frustrated about what language to use in describing African Americans. African

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American? Black? Person of Color? It seemed there was no right answer. And then a very wise
friend of mine -- who is black -- confirmed my frustration. "I'm not surprised," he said. "We can't
agree on it either. You'll never get this one right, so don't worry about it. Just do your best to be
aware and avoid the terminology you know will get you in trouble." Ah.
Racial identity is complex. It is complex on an individual level -- am I black enough?
Native enough? -- and a societal level. We cannot afford to generalize in these instances and, as
tempting and well-intentioned as it is, we cannot expect to please everyone.
The second observation that pops out at me regards Reilly's argument. I understand his
reaction to white guilt in this situation. I think he makes some valid points about it. But he misses
a significant detail in his argument: the Native American students and administrators at the high
schools are proud of their mascot and names because it represents them. They literally own those
identities. For a Native American to proudly identify with the term "Redskin" or "Chief" is a
recognition of their own heritage. I wonder how they feel about the use of those terms and icons
by non-Native people. Reilly may be playing fast and loose here for argument's sake because his
own father-in-law is very clear that the headdresses worn by some fans are offensive to him
because they have not earned that right. The same logic applies to the nicknames, mascots, and
iconography more broadly.
The same identification occurs in the African American community when some members
throw around the "N" word. They can say it, but I can't. A woman can re-empower the word
"bitch." A homosexual might apply pride to the word "gay." Said by other people or in other
contexts, these might still be offensive. Point being, I'm not sure Reilly's use of Native
Americans using Native American iconography really speaks to the potential for offense when
those things are used by people who are not Native American.

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A similar thought came to me when I spoke with Corinne last week. She mentioned
making dream catchers. You can go into shops in Yellow Springs and elsewhere and pick one of
these up for your car or home. But I wondered how kosher that really is. [And am I allowed to
use the word "kosher?" I think Im being facetious here, but who knows.] First, a number of
tribes make or use dream catchers and the elements of them might mean different things to those
peoples. But when I purchase one, I have no clue what they all mean, and I couldn't tell the
difference between a Navajo dream catcher and a Sioux dream catcher. I don't even know if
those tribes have dream catchers. I would be purchasing it for some superficial identification
with Native Americans. Is this wrong? I really don't know, but it became clear to me that I might
be inappropriately dealing with "medicine" that I had no real clue about, and I could see how that
might be viewed as offensive or at least disrespectful and ignorant.

Week 4
Buckmiller, T. (2010). Contradictions and conflicts: understanding the lived experiences of
Native American adult learners in a predominantly white American university. Widening
Participation and Lifelong Learning, 12, 6-18.

This article was a real eye-opener and might be the most important experience of this
voice project. Given the paucity of Native American students on our campus -- and given that
those who do identify are not steeped in the traditions and culture, but are rather seeking a
connection with their Native ancestry -- there is really little in the way of a "true" Native
experience on our campus.
In this article, the difficulties of being both Native and an adult student are highlighted,
but the prime emphasis in on the issues of Native Americans at a white university. I should note

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that the three case studies given in this article are all men. I wonder how or if any of the
conclusions drawn would be different if Native women were involved.
I may come back to this later, either for this reflection or by spending more time on this
in my final reflection. I'm overwhelmed at the moment with what I've read. I think the elements
of the disconnect are these:
Racism
Certainly the men quoted in this article encounter racism both in overt and embedded
ways. But almost more compelling than the racism of the majority white campus population is
the racism from Native Americans toward the whites. This is what I refer to as earned racism. It
isn't the baseless racism of the majority for the minority; it is the earned mistrust and skepticism
and the knowledge of serious and lasting harm -- I don't think it is too strong to label that harm
as genocide, even if it didn't result in the complete annihilation of those peoples and cultures.
Given the history involved, one can easily see how Native people would be more than suspicious
of the motives of the Euro-Anglo education system, especially since it was basically used as a
cultural weapon against them in the past (and in some ways, I think some Native people still see
it that way).
Ways of Knowing
I like this phrasing. The issue is really one of culture, but it inflects in the education
environment as a serious disconnect in how our different cultures think about things, value things
(by which I mean actual things, people, knowledge -- pretty much everything. Sorry, thing is
such an interesting word, both useful and useless depending on the situation. I'm feeling pretty
useless about it right now.) Anyway, reading this article I can begin to see how the skepticism
founded in the racism interacts with the different ways of knowing to create a real barrier. Native
knowledge is not valued in the white educational world. The worldviews are almost antithetical

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to one another. It's why many native people never understood what all the buying and selling
were about. They just have a completely different way of addressing the world around them. One
of the Native Americans basically admitted that the real value of the education to him was
learning how white people think so he wouldn't be taken in by them. Wait, let me find that. I'm
being lazy. Stew said: "I really cant stand [the content of the classes] a lot of the times. I guess
school has helped me understand that its not maybe understanding for myself the knowledge
that I feel I need, but rather ... the understanding of where the Western world is coming from."
(15)
So, I added the "so he wouldn't be taken in by them," but read the article and you can
certainly understand why that might well be the case.
Teachers
The problem from a student affairs perspective, at least as presented in this article, and I
think they are right, is that the primary place to close the disconnect is in the classroom. It will
take commitment from the teachers to reach out and include these students and integrate their
ways of knowing and allow for their skepticism in the classroom. This is something that, as a
student affairs professional, I feel I have limited leverage to affect.
This is a great article, or at least it provides great insight into the actual experience of
these Native men. It leaves me feeling frustrated, though, because there is such a rich exchange
that could occur and it remains frustratingly far out of reach. I think I'll be reading this article
again before my final reflection. These are powerful stories.

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Week 5
I find myself a week behind on my project, so week 5 is actually happening during week
6. Therefore, I'm double-dipping on my reflections this week. For this reflection I have read
"Where we have been: A history of Native American higher education" by George S. McClellan,
Mary Jo Tippeconnic Fox (Comanche), and Shelly C. Lowe (Navajo).
This chapter of New Directions for Student Services, 109, Spring 2005 gives some
background on the history of Native American higher education. There are a number of thoughtprovoking facts presented.
It wasn't surprising to learn the not only are Native Americans the smallest ethnic
minority in the U.S. (and presumably this even takes into account that statistics group them with
Alaska natives and native Hawaiians), they are also the most underrepresented group in higher
education. It was interesting, however, to have it pointed out that, according to P.G. Horse
(2001), "tribal affiliation is far more powerful for many Native Americans than is identification
with the broader pan-Native construct" (McClellan, Fox, and Lowe 2005). This is something that
I would have guessed but hadn't really thought about, and it is something that, in part, explains
why Native Americans rarely travel far for college and even when they do leave the reservation,
they often return. It also helps explain why tribal colleges would be so important to Native
American higher education because the specific cultural context would be so important. Finally,
it indicates the difficulty of providing appropriate support for those Native students who do leave
home for school.
The history of higher education for and of Native Americans is a complex one as well.
Native skepticism of majority motives is well-earned. Unlike the situation for other minorities
such as African Americans for whom education was often denied or inhibited but was ultimately
provided with relative benign intent, education (including higher ed) for Native Americans was

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often part of an overt plan to wipe out their culture. It was essentially the educational front in the
overall offensive against Native People, pursued with as much aggression, if not actual violence,
as the military conquests that preceded or were contemporary with those efforts. No wonder,
then, that Native Americans would not be keen, even if and when the economic means is
available, to make use of the "white man's" higher education offerings. The article also points out
that many efforts to incorporate Native Americans into the educational plan of certain
institutions was fueled by the fundraising boost it could provide and little attention was paid to
the actual enrollment or education of Natives. This ploy seems to transcend the historical
periods.
Even when intentions are more pure and real efforts are made by white institutions to
provide quality education, cultural value systems differ. Native Americans, as was apparent in
earlier readings, often find limited value and are in fact "offended" (which may not be quite the
right word for it) by the Euro-American sensibility and value system. Similarly, bringing white
values and systems back to the reservation is often viewed skeptically and can become a political
problem. From what I've seen on the websites of a number of Native American institutions of
higher education, there is far more sensitivity to native culture, and even the governing structures
are set up to walk the line between native leadership while mitigating interference from tribal
political systems. Faculty at these schools, though, continue to be predominantly non-native.
Given that many native institutions offer limited degree fields -- even more limited fields in
master's level programs, and virtually no PhD. programs -- it looks like it will be a slow process
to replace these faculty with Native faculty especially since the bodies accrediting these schools
are the same bodies that accredit majority institutions. Native values have not yet found a place

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in accrediting bodies. Even if those bodies do demonstrate some sensitivity to native concerns,
they still favor the majority view of what comprises a quality education.
There is one final bit from the article and one thought to leave with. The article sites C.M.
Carney (1999) to point out that 85 non-native schools have a native population over five percent,
though only seven schools have a population of over 500 students. This seems to me to be a
"good news, bad news" situation. While more Native Americans are finding their way into
higher education, their numbers are still relatively low overall. This could mean that less money
is required to provide services tuned to them, but it also means it is much harder to establish the
critical mass needed for these students to find safe spaces and support in their institutions.
A question I have, not necessarily brought about by the article itself but rather broader
thinking on the subject, is whether and how Native Americans are helped by the popularization
of their culture. As they seek to share their culture, these cultural totems seem to get reduced to
simplicities that wash out the true tribal identities. The reality of Native life as it is today is
replaced by a hazy fantasy of -- to use a pejorative term from the past -- "the noble savage." It
just makes me wonder if too much emphasis is placed on showing the native culture and not
enough emphasis is placed on presenting other realities of native life. This is not to say that
Native Americans should abandon their culture. Quite the opposite. As a student quoted in a
previous article pointed out, learning our ways had more value to him for understanding the
broader context in which his people lived and not in convincing him that it was a better way to
be (that's a rough paraphrase). I guess my point is that by "pimping out" their culture they
perhaps simultaneously diminish it and fail to make the case for their way of life. I don't know
how to articulate this. Perhaps I'm simply wrong that there is a problem, but I wonder if this isn't
a question that is considered by tribal councils as they struggle with how to preserve their culture

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in the midst of a dominant culture that values it only superficially. I find myself strangely upset
by my own question. I have no resolution for it.

Week 6
Still a week behind because of a Writing Center conference on diversity that we hosted
last Friday, but this week we catch up! This week I read a section of the following monograph:

Brayboy, B.M.J., Fann, A.J., Castagno, A.E., & Solyom, J.A. (2012). Postsecondary education
for American Indian and Alaska Natives: higher education for nation building and selfdetermination. San Francisco, CA: Wiley Subscription Services.

The monograph is some 137 pages, so I excerpted a section (pp. 32-47) on factors that
contribute to lower enrollment rates among Native students. The section discusses a number of
unsurprising factors that contribute to lower academic achievement, high school completion, and,
thus, lower enrollment rates in higher education. Low income, stereotypes, and lack of access to
sufficient preparatory programs are among the reasons Native students tend not to excel. These
factors are similar for other minority populations in our K-12 system and are, on the whole, not
new or surprising revelations.
Of some interest is the lack of access on reservations to what has become basic Internet
access. I'll quote at length from the article since it makes the case as well as I could:
[A]ccess to a computer at home and Internet connectivity are unavailable to some Native
students living on remote reservations or federal trust lands. In general, Indian country
tends to have the areas least served by telecommunications and broadband in the United
States. The national U.S. phone coverage is 98 percent, but it is only 69 percent on tribal
lands, and as low as 40 percent on many reservations (Government Accountability Office

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[GAO], 2006). It is estimated nationwide that less than 10 percent of the Native population
has high-speed broadband access. (National Congress of American Indians Policy Research
Center, 2007)
It occurred to me, and the article points out, that with so many colleges and universities
moving to online platforms for applications, information sharing (both about the school, but also
in terms of its support systems, including basic services like the library), and even education
delivery, it is no wonder that Native students quickly find themselves at a deep disadvantage.
Add to that the fact that access to FAFSA forms require Internet access and you can see the steep
hill Native students have to climb even if they have been academically prepared.
Two other thoughts percolated through my brain while reading this section of the
monograph. First, the article discusses the correlation between being a first generation college
student and low retention and graduation rates. The monograph suggests that students who don't
have parents who have gone to college must rely on counselors and school staff for information
(43). This is true enough, but it made me think of my own experience because my father did a
significant amount of research on my behalf when I went to school, so he knew the kinds of
questions I should ask and who the likely people were I should talk to. My first thought was to
consider the great favor he had done me by doing this and to wonder if we should expect more of
an investment of time and energy from parents to help their kids be ready for college. And then I
recalled that while my father never graduated from college, he did attend one semester at LSU
before financial difficulties made it impossible for him to continue. It occurs to me that even
brief exposures with higher education, as much as they might seem like "failures" of retention
and graduation for our purposes, may set the stage for future success for someone.

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Finally, this section of the monograph talks about how higher education does not
necessarily carry as much perceived value to Native students both because of the lack of Native
cultural context present in most higher education institutions and because it does not necessarily
prepare Native students to contribute to reservation life or convey status there. That makes me
wonder if we are addressing the wrong problem or addressing the problem in the wrong way or
if, in fact, there isn't a problem. If Native peoples don't value "our" institutions and what we have
to teach, should we be concerned? I don't mean this in a dismissive or defensive way. I think it's
a completely valid choice to say, "Your institutions do not serve my needs; they do not value the
things I value; and they do not create value for me in the life I want to lead." I think, however,
that if Native students do come to our campuses, we are obligated to provide them with the best
education that we can and that we should be aware of the cultural disconnect and other barriers
that might impede their success. We should be aware of those issues for and respectful of all of
our students in that way. Perhaps, though, on a societal level we shouldn't be concerned at the
disparity in educational attainment.
That feels like a harsh assessment to me, but it comes from the unique context in which
Native peoples most often find themselves in our country. Unlike other minorities who have
been affected adversely by majority culture in this country, the Native peoples have ostensibly
been given their own nations and governments. The key word there is "ostensibly" because in
reality, their political autonomy has a very limited reach and effect. So while other minorities are
acknowledged citizens in our country, Native people are both a part of and apart from our nation.
And that twilight existence complicates matters greatly. In many ways we have a huge debt and
obligation to Native peoples, but our efforts to pay that debt and fulfill that obligation are often

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unwelcome and at odds with what Native peoples want and value for themselves. It presents us
with an incredibly complex dynamic that eludes easy answers.

Week 7
Assuming I get back to this project this week, I am now caught up.
Larimore, J.A., & McClellan, G.S. (2005). Native American student retention in U.S.
postesecondary education. New Directions for Student Services (109), 17-32.

This week I read the literature survey noted above. I'm doing more reading than I
intended. I had hoped to talk to people or participate in more events, but my schedule hasn't
really allowed for it, so reading it is.
This literature survey provides a good look at the relatively sparse research about Native
students and does summarize some of the key issues facing Native students. (I will also point out
that reading this survey provides me with a secondary benefit as it serves as an example of the
type of paper I have to write from my Intro class. So that's a nice bonus.)
Much that I've learned from previous readings is confirmed here. Clearly, Native students
face a number of unique factors when it comes to higher education even as they share things in
common with other demographics. Like other groups of students, the preparation they get for
college while in high school is a key factor. Native students have the lowest high school
graduation rates which clearly impacts their ability to move on to higher education. Poverty is an
issue for most Native students, as it is for other minority populations.
Most striking, though, are the unique features of Native life that impact education. The
reservation system is a very different environment that is shaped by Native culture. And "Native
culture" is not a homogenous thing. There are Native cultures and they can be very dependent on
tribal and local variables. This not only can pose unique challenges for Native students, it poses

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challenges for researchers who want to understand Native needs. It's clear to me that any college
or university that hopes to attract and retain a significant Native population must pay detailed
attention to the local and tribal cultural factors at play. There are no "cookie cutter" responses to
a Native student body. Helping these students to be successful in our higher education
institutions requires a very different mindset from us. While I've previously asked if perhaps we
shouldn't worry about offering something to people who don't want it, once we accept Native
students into our institutions, we have clear obligation to understand them and meet them
halfway, so to speak. The more I read, the more convinced I am that the best solution so far to
the problem of educating Native students is the creation of tribal institutions of higher education.
By their very nature they have the local and cultural context necessary. Even here, though, the
lack of qualified Native faculty is a barrier. In order for these institutions to be accredited and
offer the doctoral degrees necessary to change this situation, they will necessarily have to rely on
non-Native faculty for a period of time. And recruiting the kind of talented and dedicated faculty
necessary is very difficult when reservation life offers little in the way of enticements. The
crushing poverty and lack of salary incentive means that those who do come to these campuses
are either deeply committed to the mission of educating Native students, or perhaps lack the
talent and dedication to succeed elsewhere. It's clear when looking into this issue just how hard it
is to "bootstrap" oneself out of this kind of crushing poverty. Throw in Native suspicion of white
education and you have a really, really steep hill to climb.
One specific example illustrates the uniqueness of the situation. The research is clear in
our profession that campus involvement is critical to retention and success for students. This is
true for Native students as well, but it is less true for them. Even when Native students do make
social connections to campus, cultural factors can arise that disconnect them. It never occurred to

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me, for example, that Native students might leave school for a time to attend tribal ceremonies
and that those ceremonies might be far less "optional" than someone grounded in a non-Native
culture might believe (p. 20).
This passage made me think of Cross's theory of nigrescence:
Huffman . . . suggests that Native American students who are able to draw strength
from their cultural identity while adapting to the demands of campus life are more
likely to succeed in their academic pursuits than are either culturally assimilated
students or those unable to establish a level of comfort within their campus
environment. (p. 21)
The state of balance implied by that passage suggests Cross's fourth level of nigrescence:
Internalization. Obviously we need a word other than nigrescence to capture the Native
experience, but the stage, if you will, is really the same. It is the ability to embrace one's Native
identity while still operating in the White/Euro system that is the key to success. Schools, then,
must be willing to invest in the kinds of support that can help Native students reach this level of
internalization. Partnering with the tribes from which these students come might be critical to
this process. It is likely to be a huge challenge to gain access to the inside of the reservation, so
to speak, because of the deeply rooted suspicions most tribal governments have of outsiders. The
offer would have to be delicately made and the educational institution would have to have a deep
commitment to the idea because it would be unlikely to happen swiftly. Multiple overtures
would have to be made and significant time would have to be committed to establish trust. My
nave side wants to think that offering such a partnership would be a significant statement of
understanding of the Native context and that it would appeal to tribal elders. However, so many
overtures of a "peaceful" nature have been historically made and accepted and the resulting

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agreements broken by white governments or agencies, that I think a high level of suspicion
would prevail.
A depressing thought occurs to me. A deep economic cynicism tells me that it might well
be impossible to turn this tide because neither side seems to have much to gain by it. Certainly,
Native people would want to find their way out of crushing poverty, but not perhaps at the cost
of their identity. If they don't see the value of the education, there is little to incentivize them. On
the other hand, whites have already taken everything of value from the Native people. Unless
Native people can create their own new economic value or something of value to the white
world, why would "we" take the time and effort to correct this imbalance? This might be a
situation that proves the value of shear guilt. It's hard to see another striking motivation since I
don't think the white world has a very clear vision of the value it is missing by effectively
excluding Native peoples from its world.
The racial identity theory connection shows up in this bit of research as well. "Belgarde
(1992) found that perceptions of hostility or racism were significantly higher for students with a
stronger sense of Native American cultural identity" (p. 21). Again, echoes of Cross's theory
come to mind. This sounds very much like the Immersion-Emersion stage of Cross's theory.
When one has a pro-identity, anti-other frame one is more likely to perceive slights or hatred in
return.
I feel incapable of providing a sufficient conclusion to this entry. I'm, frankly, daunted by
the difficulties surrounding the task of providing a university education to Native students.

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Week 8
Baines, T. (2000). Improving cultural competence face to face. Tribal College Journal,
12(1), 21.
I'm slightly convicted by the content of this article. I've fallen into the pattern of strictly
reading about the Native American experience in higher education -- in part because of the
dearth of opportunities to speak with actual Native students -- yet this article challenges us to get
a face to face experience and to listen and observe so as to better communicate in ways that are
more likely to speak to Native people.
Baines tells the story of a presentation he helped prepare for the W.K. Kellogg
Foundation that was given to a group of Native peoples the foundation was helping. He describes
how the presentation went over like the proverbially lead balloon. The audience listened politely
and then one of the tribal leaders made a rather cryptic comment. Baines, who had thought
himself culturally competent, was nonplussed. What had happened? He spent the rest of the
conference attending events with the Native peoples and listening and observing carefully.
Slowly, he began to realize that the effusive and linear style of delivery -- the foundation was
very happy to be helping these people -- didn't communicate as they had intended. Instead, it
created suspicion and confusion. Over time, Baines became aware that he and other future
presenters would need to meet the cultural expectations of his listeners more closely. Approaches
like beginning by thanking the elders and asking for their guidance and talking in a more circular
fashion would go far to establishing credibility with his audience.
These are the types of things we see in the Writing Center on a daily basis. We work with
a lot of international students. Cultural expectations often influence how things play out. Chinese
students come from a cultural context that values teachers, so getting them to ask questions is
difficult because, to them, asking a question implies criticism of the teacher for not being clear.

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They assume the responsibility and see their lack of understanding as their failure. We have to
account for this because our method is to ask questions and lead students to answers. They don't
know how to respond because we're supposed to provide the information. Then when we ask if
they understand, they nod compliantly. We have to then ask questions to test their understanding
. . . which they hesitate to answer because we should know
We've also discovered that other cultures give information in different ways. Japanese
culture, for example, tends to value writing that is circular in nature, much like Native
storytelling. Our linear, get to the point approach is antithetical to their learned mode. Russian
writers (if I recall this correctly) often present information in sort of a zig zag pattern. To them
this is an appropriate way to organize information. For an American academic audience, it would
appear disjointed.
Baines's story and these other examples underscore the difficulties demonstrated in my
other readings, especially for Native students at PWIs. Without a critical mass of Native students
from which to draw examples, how could a largely non-Native faculty and staff gather enough
face to face experience to know what cultural cues and expectations might facilitate interactions
with Native students? In that kind of vacuum, they would be understandably at a loss, leaving
Native students at a disadvantage. This is true even in the face of the argument that Native
students are there to learn "our" way. True as that might be, without knowledge of the base from
which they are engaging in that learning, attempts to "translate" their experiences into the mode
we want them to learn are almost doomed to fail.

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Week 9
This week produced multiple solutions to my reading rut. On Monday, AHNA sponsored
a storytelling session with Lloyd Arneach, a Cherokee storyteller from North Carolina. Lloyd
spends much of his time now telling stories, but he was also a computer programmer for a long
time. As he joked, he does not live in a tipi, but rather a house with two computers and a satellite
dish.
During his time with us, Lloyd told traditional stories like the one about how the deer got
his antlers, but he also told stories of a more contemporary nature, including some from his time
on the set of the movie, Dances With Wolves. One was particularly touching. During the filming
of the movie, they shot a number of scenes involving a herd of buffalo. A number of native riders
had the dangerous task of riding alongside the buffalo in a simulated hunt. One tribal elder that
was present began to cry during one of the breaks in shooting. When asked why, he responded,
"My grandfather often talked of the buffalo hunt -- how our people rode with the buffalo. Both
the buffalo and my people are now gone from the plains. I had never thought I'd see again a
scene such as my grandfather spoke of, but today I have. My people once again ride with the
buffalo."
I had hoped to speak to Lloyd about his experiences in college and talk to him about the
storytelling tradition among his people. I did get to speak with him briefly about how he became
a storyteller, but a woman stayed behind as well and she rather dominated the conversation with
him. I left without being able to ask him a number of questions I had.
All was made right on Tuesday, though. Mai Nguyen invited me to a breakfast with Dr.
Lori Alvord. Dr. Alvord is Navajo and a surgeon. She currently serves as the Associate Dean for
Student Affairs and Admissions at the University of Arizona. I was able to ask her about her
journey in higher education and she graciously gave a very thorough answer. Her story had all

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the markers of the native experience. She was poor; she didn't have the typical preparation; her
culture dictated that she be quiet and reserved. But along the way she found helping hands,
mentors who believed in her. And, she got opportunities to discover what she enjoyed doing. She
was able to overcome her own self-perception as not academically good enough, especially in
math. Later experiences contradicted earlier experiences and taught her that she could learn and
grow. When challenged by others and told certain interests were not a good fit, she persevered.
By putting herself on the path she wanted, doors began to open, opportunities presented
themselves. She worked hard and was able to take advantage of them.
We talked at length about different ways of knowing, how the western sense of science
with its methodologies and need for "objective" confirmation and data often yielded the same
results as those of the wisdom tradition of her people. We talked about how there is more to our
lives than that which we can see or hear or touch. It was a tour de force conversation that I can't
begin to duplicate here. She commented on how rare it was to be able to get to that level of
conversation with a group of people, even in a higher education environment. I think she enjoyed
it; I know it was a special couple of hours for me.
One of the other things she mentioned was how lacking was any kind of preparation for
the doctors who were sent to serve the native peoples. Very little to no effort is made to help
them understand the people they are to serve or their culture. I can't help but think this is the case
with education as well. Dr. Alvord's experiences seem to confirm this, as does the literature that
I've read so far. It is so clear that, in many ways, the modes of teaching and learning and
knowing are so different in native traditions in comparison to western ones. We seem so certain
of our way, yet time and again Dr. Alvords was able to provide examples that the ways of her
people were at least as effective and accurate. It's clear to me that we need to be more open to the

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possibility that there is more under the sun than we can imagine and that our methods have
yielded but a tiny fraction of what is to be known.
I think Dr. Alvords provided an excellent template for how we might proceed. She has
combined an awareness of native ways into her practice of western medicine. Something as
simple as suggesting to someone who is about to undergo surgery that they perform a traditional
ceremony first, one that is in accord with their cultural and faith tradition, is such a powerful
example of how cultures can be validated and merged. I think of how we might improve
education for native peoples by understanding the power and effectiveness of stories as a mode
of teaching. How we might embrace these other ways of knowing and perceiving to
communicate what we think we know. The opportunity for shared learning between teacher and
student is huge and exciting.

Week 10
Tomorrow I get to see Dr. Eva Marie Garroutte talk about "The Meanings of 'Indian
Blood'".
On Tuesday, November 19, Dr. Eva Marie Garroutte spoke in the Millett Hall Atrium.
The title of her talk was The meanings of Indian Blood: Perspectives on race and identity.
Her talk had little connection to Native Americans in higher education, but it was interesting
nonetheless. She spoke about the blood quantum -- the legal requirement to qualify as Indian.
Meeting this criteria for Indian blood carries with it both legal benefits and responsibilities. This
was particularly interesting in light of her explanation that due to tribes' legal status as "domestic
dependent nations," the hierarchy of law as it applies to Indians is 1. Federal 2. Tribal 3. State.
This means that Indians are not subject to state law in certain criminal cases, but rather Tribal
law which is based on the same standards of evidence as Federal law. So where the state standard
for guilt is "beyond a reasonable doubt," Federal and Tribal standards are based on the

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preponderance of evidence (i.e., if even 51% of the facts in the case point to guilt, a jury or judge
can convict).
Again, none of that bears on higher education, but it was interesting. The more interesting
point she made was about who sets the standards for identity and why. She compared the blood
quantum standard with the "one drop" rule that was long applied to blacks in this country -- and,
shockingly still is, as evidence by the story she told of Susie Guillory Phipps. (Her story is
reasonably complex and can be read in summary, here:
http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20083727,00.html)
The one drop rule says, in essence, if you have even one drop of black blood, you are
black. That's a pretty low standard for determining your race. In contrast, the blood quantum rule
can lead to exceedingly complex calculations for someone to "qualify" as Indian. In other words,
you have to really want it; you have to have significant amounts of Indian blood to be an Indian.
So why the difference? Garroutte explains that it is about labor and land and who sets the
standard. Whites set the standard for the "one drop rule" because setting a low bar increased the
availability of slave labor, a particularly important and appealing effect once the importation of
slaves was made illegal. Indians set the standard for the blood quantum, and that standard is
more restrictive because being Indian means having access to the rather lean resources, including
land, that is available to Indians. As usual, it's all about politics and power.
The far more germane portion of the day was lunch where we were joined by Guy Jones,
a Hunkpapa Lakota who is a full-blood member of the Standing Rock Sioux tribe. I can't even
begin to tell you . . . I can't even finish that. Guy is absolutely fascinating to talk to. I can't begin
to capture all of the things we talked about. He talked about his former hatred of whites, of his
self-hatred. He's an amazingly complex man who lives amidst a complex set of influences and

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interests. Our discussion both confirmed and seriously challenged what I have been reading
about Native Americans in higher education.
Guy confirmed that a major problem with reservation education systems is the low
standard set for Indian children. They are not properly prepared, academically, to enter higher
education outside the reservation. He is not unaware of the financial and technological
challenges to Indian children on reservations. That's about where his agreement with my
readings ended. According to Guy, "Nobody tells tribal kids they can go to college. Not just
tribal college, but college, like Dartmouth and Stanford." He says that lack of knowledge about
options and fear of failure because they know that they aren't prepared are what keep reservation
kids from going to college. I asked him about the information that I had that says that native
students are culturally bound to the reservation. He pointed out that Native Americans serve in
the military at a rate higher than any other race/ethnicity. Clearly, he says, Indians will leave the
reservation. I asked him what accounted for the difference between what I had read and his own
perception. Specifically, I asked him if it was the result of non-Indians misunderstanding the
situation. He agreed that it was and said, "Who paints the picture, and why can't we paint our
own picture?"
Certainly some of the research on Native Americans in higher education has been
conducted by Native American scholars, but the scholarship is very narrow because the
populations studied are small, there are relatively few Native American researchers, and there are
a variety of Native American sub-cultures and tribal differences to account for.
One of the truly fascinating, perplexing, and moving things Guy talked about is how the
genocide of Indians continues. I didn't really get a chance to delve into that claim nor to ask him
about the apparent contradiction between that statement and his outright endorsement of white

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man's higher education. Perhaps his answer to that unspoken question is found in another
statement he made about the difficult and complex position Indians find themselves in. He said
they need to find a way to be both Indian and to acculturate to the dominant society. It was clear
as he talked that he takes great pride in the wisdom, knowledge, and history of his people and,
indeed, of all Indian peoples. He talked about how an aunt (if I recall correctly) once told him
that the answers were in a story about the cricket and the frog. He said he couldn't remember the
story and so has been without an answer all these years. But she also told him "think like a
Lakota." And this advice has served him well, especially when it comes to his place in the world
and being able to see beyond the white version of history, science, education, society, what-haveyou.
I found my time with Guy to be incredibly moving. I'm not sure if part of it is because, in
some way, he reminds me of my father. As I think I confessed earlier, I actually do feel like I
have a connection to this "voice" because I know I have some native ancestry. It's weird to
actually recognize parts of myself and my family in someone else that way. I'm not even sure I
can put my finger on what it is; I know I can't explain it. I am sure, however, that much of the
response was to Guy's passion for what he does. He's very active locally for native causes. I used
the word activism -- mostly because I couldn't think of a better word -- and I knew before he said
anything that he wouldn't see what he does as activism. And that is exactly what he said, "What I
do isn't activism. It's my life." And it was obvious from how he said it, so matter of fact, yet there
were clearly layers of meaning to what he said. It's his life: it's what he does; it's how he lives;
it's who he is, both in terms of his actual individual life and in terms of his very direct and living
connection to his ancestors and his people. And then, at the same time that he is able to convey
all of that without effort, he's just a guy (no pun intended). He's just this really smart guy who

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has had wide-ranging experiences. He has a keen mind and a great sense of humor and he's just
Guy. He's clearly proud of his heritage, and though he also obviously enjoys talking about his
life and the issues Indians face and gets joy when people respond to him and his message, there
is little or no affectation. He is not playing a role. He is no totem Indian. He's the real deal, and
it's that power that emanates from him very subtly, yet very tangibly as well. Talking to him was
a great way to wind up this project.
Addendum: Two bits that I had forgotten. The first is small, but amazing. Turns out Guy
is the grandson (I believe that is the proper relationship) of Chief Gall. I'm thunderstruck by this.
I read about Chief Gall, I think in Black Elk Speaks, and here I was talking to one of Gall's
grandsons. Wow.
The second bit was very interesting. Guy talked about going to pow wows and
encountering members of other tribes -- Cherokee, Delaware, what-have-you -- and watching in
amazement as they conducted Lakota dances, ceremonies, and/or rituals. He used this to point
out how many tribes are losing their heritage and identity, not just because of the white man, but
to the Native American mono-myth that is emerging from the media's focus on the Lakota as sort
of the prototypical Indian. He did not use any of this phrasing; these are my words to describe
what he said very simply. That fascinates me because I had asked in a previous entry whether or
not the popularization of the Indian image was maybe having a negative effect and, boom, there
it is.

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Concluding Reflection
In some ways it is almost impossible for me to complete this reflection. This project has
had a profound effect on me and has challenged my abilities to synthesize these experiences. Ive
been shocked at how emotional this project has been at times. Ive cried on at least three
occasions, including once just before typing this as I thought about my talk with Guy Jones
(which also produced the second onset of tears as he talked about his experiences. Fortunately, I
was at the far end of the table and was able to keep it hidden I wouldnt have wanted to explain
it, because I couldnt have). I will come back to some of the more personal, human responses to
this project, but Ill start with the more intellectual responses to it.
Ill start with one of the more obvious observations: the barriers to Native Americans,
especially Indians, receiving a quality higher education are staggering. Like many minorities,
poverty is a crushing and severe barrier. The impact starts at home where the effects eat away at
the support system. Here Im talking about the extremely high incidence of alcoholism, the lack
of educated parents, the need to help provide for the family the list is seemingly endless. The
effect extends to the schools themselves. Resources are sparse at best, and it is incredibly
difficult to attract talented and committed educators at all levels of the tribal educational system.
Poverty inflects in the lack of what have become basic Internet services. One of the most
surprising, if not shocking, realizations Ive had from this project is an awareness of the effects
of poverty. Im reasonably well-read and aware, or so I thought. I cringe every time I hear one of
these conservative culture warriors talk about bootstrapping oneself. Just work harder. I did
it. Maybe. But as aware as I thought I was, this project provided a deeper level of understanding
about the meaning of poverty. It isnt just about money; its about an even deeper lack of

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resources and how each lack works to create each other lack, or at least put intense pressure on
every other part of our support system. It is truly overwhelming to think about.
An implication of that last paragraph is who will teach these kids? If the reservation
system inhibits Indians ability to create their own source of teachers, then they must rely on
teachers from outside the system and outside the culture. Indians have a very different way of
knowing, and those ways vary by tribe. How then can non-Native teachers reach Native children
(and adults for that matter)? As Lori Alvords story shows, even when Native students do find
willing mentors who see their talent and encourage them, that encouragement can come with
inaccurate assumptions about what that student really wants. Dr. Alvords did not want to go back
to the reservation. She did not want limits put on her options. Fortunately, she was strong
enough, eventually, to insist on her own path, but that was a long process longer than it needed
to be, and longer than it would have been if she had had someone advising her who understood
her cultural context.
Finally, the Native peoples own skepticism and cynicism about the majority society
inhibits their acceptance of the limited help that is available. This skepticism and cynicism is
well-earned. So often when the white man has offered his open hand in the metaphorical gesture
of peace that says I carry no weapon, that hand has been a literal symbol of what he offers:
nothing. Instead, the open hand has been there to receive what the Indian has to offer or take
what the white man wanted. Why, then, would any Indian not question any help offered today?
And how difficult does this history make it to want to try to acculturate? Why would you want to
learn how to live in a world that has, in so many ways, been antithetical to your own? I sure as
hell wouldnt. I would engage with that world with great caution and only when I had to.

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A much happier outcome of this project was learning about the different ways of
knowing among Native people. This wasnt completely new information, and I didnt get a
chance to discuss this or read about it in too much detail, but my talk with Dr. Alvords was very
interesting on this topic. My conversation with Guy Jones confirmed the value of Indian
knowledge and wisdom traditions. I think the first-hand conversation not just reading about
these things made an even more powerful impact. Im eager to go experience it for myself. Im
considering a path that might take me to Indian country. I think we could learn a lot about
education from Native peoples. Storytelling is a power teaching and learning tool. Even in the
area of assessment, we must contextualize data (which is often heard to mean numbers) with
stories (which are often pejoratively termed anecdotal evidence). Yes, stories are anecdotal,
and they have great value because they are what turns a number back into a person. Thinking
about how we know underscores the importance of the issue of who provides our education. As
Guy says, Who paints the picture? And why cant we paint our own picture? To me, this is the
essential question of identity. Who gets to decide who I am? And the answer had better be Me!
Again, this is an important connection back to every single one of the identity theories we have
studied and the fact that this stream of thought came from the idea of ways of knowing
demonstrates the strong connection between identity development and learning theory /
intellectual development. Our intellect helps us make sense of the world around and within us.
As that tool develops, so does our ability to make sense of who we are. The more complex our
intellect becomes, the more sophisticated our understanding of ourselves can become. The two
things are inextricably linked throughout our lives.
I want to end on a seemingly less educationally focused observation that gave me great
joy throughout this project. One of my favorite authors, Joseph Campbell, talks about invisible

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means of support how when you follow your bliss, you find that you put yourself on a path that
has been there for you all along. In higher education, we talk about challenge and support. I
have been so supported in this project, but means both invisible and very visible and tangible. I
am struck by the synchronicity I have encountered along the way. The project began with a
discussion with Corinne where we discussed the blood quantum and the issue Native Americans
have with citizenship. It ended with the same topic being discussed in Dr. Garrouttes
presentation. The circle is a strong symbol in Native iconography. I have the strongest feeling
that circularity in my project was no accident. In any case, it certainly is fitting. Likewise, almost
immediately upon acknowledging that I was too steeped in reading and not enough in firsthand
experiences, what should happen but I get an invitation to have lunch with Dr. Garroutte and
Guy Jones? When I was frustrated that I couldnt speak to Lloyd Arneach at length, the next day
I got to have a two-hour breakfast conversation with Dr. Alvords.
The person providing much of the very real, tangible support was Mai Nguyen from
AHNA. She has been so supportive. She connected me with these wonderful people and
provided great encouragement with the project. Without knowing much about it at all, she
consistently sang my praises and talked about how it was sure to be great work. I have no idea
what I did to deserve such effusive praise and support, but I am so grateful to her for all of her
support. Ive certainly learned what a great resource AHNA is to our university and what great
people work there.
I still feel like much of my experience with this project is sitting in pockets in my mind. It
has been and continues to be very difficult for me to bring it all together. Im not sure if that is
because Im trying to do something that cant or doesnt need to be done, or if it is just that it is
such a complex set of problems and issues that it resists my efforts. Perhaps it is a bit of both. In

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any case, I can say with all honesty, this has been the best project we have been given. I have
learned more from this experience than any other aspect of my first two classes in the program.
And that is not a criticism of those other experiences; it is a testament to the importance of this
assignment. I hope we can find even more ways to integrate this with the rest of the class content
in the future.
One final comment: my apologies for overusing the phrase, a steep hill to climb. As I
re-read my entries to prepare for this final reflection, I noticed I had used that phrase at least half
a dozen times. It got so bad, it began to make me laugh and then to cringe a little at my lack of
creativity. I thought about titling the project A Steep Hill to Climb: Native Americans in Higher
Education but I thought that would just be too much. Just know that I made a real effort not to
use that phrase in this final reflection.