Running Head: INFANCY, TODDLERHOOD, AND CEREBRAL PALSY

Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Cerebral Palsy

Asha Monique Creary
Professor Weston
EDSC 5311.N1

Developmental Stages of Infancy and Toddlerhood

Infancy occurs from the period in which a child is born lasting until about two and a half
years old. When a child is first born he or she is termed a neonate. The neonate period lasts until
the age of one month old. During the neonate period the infant is learning to adjust to being
outside of the mothers womb, does not know the difference between day and night, and spend
majority of the time sleeping. A child is officially termed an infant when they reach four weeks
until about twelve months old. During this period infants begin to sleep during the night, develop
fine and gross motor skills, and tremendously increase in size. During this period the infant
begins to discover their own hands, feet, and fingers. Toddlerhood is the period from twelve
months to about thirty months. During toddlerhood the child should be walking, talking, and
making decisions. The main changes that occur within this period are motor skills, word

Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Cerebral Palsy 2

formation, and physical growth. There are many issues that face infancy and toddlerhood. The
major issue of focus will be on cerebral palsy.
Definition of Cerebral Palsy
Cerebral palsies are a heterogeneous collection of motor disabilities that interferes with
normal child development. Cerebral palsy is non-progressive but is constantly changing
symptoms that occur from lesions and anomalies that are formed within or on the brain (Blair,
1997). Cerebral palsy is considered non-curable. Diagnosis of cerebral palsy can be done through
the use of the CT scans, MRIs, and cranial ultrasounds (Blair, 1997). The Western Australian
Cerebral Palsy Register Form is consisted of two registers that records and monitor
developmental anomalies, such as CP. Cerebral palsy cases have been linked to sensory defects,
behavioral disorders, cognitive disabilities, and epilepsy (Blair, 1997).
Etiologies of Cerebral Palsy
Cerebral palsy can be caused by a variety of factors. These factors include genetic,
pregnancy, intrapartum, and post neonatal. Genetic factors include chromosomal defects and a
recessive gene for type I glutaric aciduria (Blair, 1997). Type I glutaric aciduria is an inherited
disorder that prevents the body from processing certain proteins (Blair, 1997). Pregnancy factors
range from low birth weight, multiple births (twins), antenatal disturbances, and intrauterine viral
infections. Intrapartum issues stem from hypoxia and trauma during and before labor. Postnatal
cerebral palsy can occur from birth until five years old (Blair, 1997).
Prevalence
Prevalence is expected to be higher in instances where there is low-income. For children
weighing less than 1500 g at birth, 40% to 50% of CP occurred as an isolated disability (Winter,
2002). Spastic quadriplegia was the predominant type of CP overall in the majority of birth
weight categories. Quality of life has been reported to be significantly lower in mothers of
children with CP than in mothers of other children (Olawale, Deih, & Yaadar, 2013). Prenatal,
hereditary factors and labor complications are linked to the number of cases of CP.
Types of Cerebral Palsy

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The two types that refer to motor function are spastic and non spastic cerebral palsy.
Spastic cerebral palsy is characterized by increased muscle tone and non spastic cerebral palsy is
a decrease in muscle tone. There is a wide spectrum used when looking at the topographical
distribution of cerebral palsy. The two main focuses are on paresis (weakened) and plegia
(paralyzed) limbs (Stern Law Group, 2013).
Dyskinetic cerebral palsy is broken into another two subcategories. Anthenoid is when
involuntary movement occurs. Cerebral Palsy can also be classified by specific movement
dysfunction. Athenosis is slow repetitive, sinuous, and rhythmic writhing movements. Irregular
non-repetitive and non-rhythmic movements that tend to be more shaky or spastic are considered
Chorea (Stern Law Group, 2013). Choreoathetoid is a blend of chorea and athenosis.
Choreoathetoid movements are characterized as irregular and will curl and twist. Dysthonia is
where trunk muscles results in a fixed twisted motion. Dysthonia consists of involuntary
movements with a sustained posture. Ataxia cerebral palsy affects the coordinated movements.
Ataxia does not affect movement only coordination and balance (Stern Law Group, 2013).
Cerebral palsy can fall in one of the five levels of severity. These levels can be placed on
a scale based on the Gross Motor Classification System. In level I is a person can walk without
limitations while level II has small limitations, such as shortened walking distances (Stern Law
Group, 2013). Level III requires adaptive equipment and can include a cane. Level IV lacks selfmobility and requires power mobile assistance such as a powered wheelchair (Stern Law Group,
2013). Level V has severe head and trunk limitations and requires extensive use of assisted
technology and physical assistance (Stern Law Group, 2013).
Psychological Effects
The families affected by CP take the biggest toll of the psychological effects of cerebral
palsy. Only a few parents receive negative feedback and are told they should have terminated the
pregnancy and that it was their fault (Olawale, Deih, & Yaadar, 2013). Personal problems

Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Cerebral Palsy 4

associated with CP consist of many parents have losing their jobs due to the inability to focus on
the job. Many families learn to cope with these issues through spiritual aspects and extended
familial support (Olawale, Deih, & Yaadar, 2013). Most of the parents have a positive and loving
outlook towards their child with CP, which is very important with a growing infant/toddler.
Treatment
There are various methods of the treatment of cerebral palsy. Cerebral palsy can be treated
through the use of botulinum toxin. Botulinim toxin reduces spasticity and increases range of
motions and improve function (Lazi, olovi, Marinkovi, Spalevi, Stankovi, & Zlatanovi,
2011). This medication is administered through the lower extremities and in the abductors and
muscles of the thigh. It is used for children between the ages of 2 and six and dosage is
determined by the weight of the child. It is safe and rarely has side effects (Lazi, olovi,
Marinkovi, Spalevi, Stankovi, & Zlatanovi, 2011).
Physical therapy can have a positive outcome as well. There is no cure for cerebral palsy
but with the help of both physical and administered medication it is very helpful. Dorsal
rhizotomy decreases the muscle tone in the lower extremities (Aker & Anderson). In this
procedure a nerve or nerves in an effected limb is cut. Orthopedic surgery is helpful for the
chronic effects of increased muscles and bones of the extremities and spine (Aker & Anderson,
2007).
Conclusion
Cerebral palsy is a disability that affects the major factors of development in infants and
toddlers. Cerebral palsy has effects on the nervous system, musculoskeletal system, and
development of motor skills. During early child development children should be walking,
picking up things, throwing things, rolling, crawling, and running. Toddlers should be able to
control their own movements. Children with cerebral palsy may have lessened or no control over

Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Cerebral Palsy 5

motor movements. Cerebral palsy is a major issue in children with low birth rate and those that
lack proper nutrition throughout pregnancy. Cerebral palsy can be cause by a factor of things
such as pregnancy issues, trauma, malnutrition, and premature birth. Cerebral palsy is a variety
of symptoms that stem from cerebral lesions or anomalies.
There are many categories and classification schemas. Cerebral palsy can be treated
through the use of surgery, medication, and orthopedic therapies. This developmental disability
can occur during pregnancy and after pregnancy all the way up until the age of five. Many
families have a positive outlook on living with children with CP and endure small psychological
issues due to others opinions.

References
Aker, J., & Anderson, D. J. (2007). Perioperative care of patients with cerebral palsy. AANA
Journal, 75(1), 65-73.
Blair, E. E., & Stanley, F. J. (1997). Issues in the classification and epidemiology of cerebral
palsy. Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 3(2), 184-193
Hopkins, B. B., Barr, R. G., Michael, G. F., & Rochat, P. (2005). The Cambridge Encyclopedia
of Child Development.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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Lazi, L., olovi, H., Marinkovi, O., Spalevi, M., Stankovi, A., & Zlatanovi, D. (2011).
USE OF BOTULINUM TOXIN TYPE A IN THE TREATMENT OF SPASTICITY IN
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Doi:10.5633/amm.2011.0212
Olawale, O. A., Deih, A. N., & Yaadar, R. K. (2013). Psychological impact of cerebral palsy on
families: The African perspective. Journal Of Neurosciences In Rural Practice, 4(2), 159-163.
Doi:10.4103/0976-3147.112752
Stern Law Group, PLLC (2013). Types of Cerebral Palsy Forms of Cerebral Palsy|
Cerebralpalsy.org.

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from

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Winter, S., Autry, A., Boyle, C., & Yeargin-Allsopp, M. (2002). Trends in the Prevalence of
Cerebral Palsy in a Population-Based Study. Pediatrics, 110(6), 1220.