Boiler Tube Failures

Mentor:

Pradip Patel
Submitted by:
Vishnu Parvanda
Saiyam Goyal

MAJOR IMPURITIES OF WATER

Cationic Anionic
Nonionic and undissolved Gases
Calcium
Bicarbonate Turbidity, silt, mud
CO2
Magnesium Carbonate
H2S
Hydroxide
NH3
Sodium
Color, Plankton
CH4
Potassium Sulfate
Organic matter,
O2
Ammonium Chloride
Colloidal silica,
Iron
Nitrate
Microorganisms,
Manganese Phosphate
Bacteria

Waterwalls
Furnace wall that is comprised of refractory and tubes in a
water tube boiler. Tubes are evenly spaced and generally
connect to headers which in turn are connected back to drum
of boiler.
Absorb 50% of heat released by combustion of fuel in furnace.
Mixture of steam and water discharged from top of these
tubes into upper wall header and ten passes through riser
tubes to steam drum.
Types:
Tangent tube construction
Membrane wall construction

Superheater and Reheater

Superheaters are a series of tubes placed within the FG
path of the boiler, whose purpose is to heat boiler steam
beyond saturated conditions.
Classification according to types of heat transfer processes:
Convection type
Radiant type
Even though surfaces get heated by both convection and
radiation, ration between them varies according to location
and flue gas at that temperature.
RH and SH placed above furnace are called Radiant type.
They hang as a pendant section within the boiler.

 Convection type SH sit further back in gas

passage and are shielded from radiant heat.
Present in the horizontal region of flue gas duct.
SH and RH typically split into two sections
Primary and Finishing.
Primary SH is first in the network, and finishing
SH completes the heat transfer processes
bringing steam to temperature required by
turbine

 Because of their high operating temperatures,

superheaters and reheaters are common failure
sites.
The spalling of indigenous oxide on SH, RH
tubes and steam piping is referred to as
Exfoliation. Tube wastage is inside out and
damaged components may carryover with steam
to the turbine and cause erosion of turbine
blades.

Exfoliation
Stresses imposed on SH and RH tubes will
eventually cause cracks in the magnetite layer that
forms on internal wall surfaces..
Pieces of iron oxide will break off and will be carried
by steam to turbine. Pieces that are small enough to
pass through turbine screens impinge upon the
turbine blades and cause physical damage.
This problem is more acute in cycling units because
frequent startups, shutdowns or load changes

Reasons for tube failure

50% of forced power plant shutdowns can be attributed to
impurities and other cycle chemistry problems.
Main reasons for boiler tube failures are:
Deposition
Corrosion:
Acidic
Oxygen Pitting
CausticEmbrittlement
Gouging
SCC
FAC
Erosion

Deposition
Deposits refers to materials that originate elsewhere
and are conveyed to a deposition site.
Boiler deposits come from four sources: water borne
minerals, treatment chemicals, corrosion products
( preboiler and boiler), and contaminants.
Deposits from these sources may interact to increase
deposition rates, to produce a more tenacious layer,
and to serve as nucleation sites for deposit formation.
Such species include metal oxides, copper,
phosphates, carbonates, silicates, sulfates, and
contaminants, as well as a variety of organic and
inorganic compounds.

Mechanism
One deposition process involves the
concentration of soluble and insoluble species in
a thin film bordering the metal surface during
steam-bubble formation. Material segregates at
the steam/water interface, moves along the
interface, and is deposited at the bubble base as
the bubble grows.

Critical Factors
The tendency to form deposits is related to localized heat
input, water turbulence, and water composition at
or near the tube wall.
When a steam bubble becomes dislodged from a tube wall,
the deposits are washed with water. The rate at which the
deposit builds depends on the rate of bubble formation and
the effective solubility of the deposit.
In cases of high heat input, a stable steam blanket can form
and cause concentration of water soluble material.
The rate at which deposits form on heat-transfer surfaces is
controlled mainly by the solubility and physical
tenacity of the deposit and the amount of water washing
that occurs on deposition site.

 Salts having inverse-temperature solubility

deposit readily on heat transfer surfaces.
Eventually steam blanketing occurs and
evaporation to dryness causes concentration of
species having normal-temperature solubility.
Frequently, the deposits of the most insoluble
materials are found in water-cooled tubes having
the highest heat transfer, such as screen tubes.
When evaporation to dryness occurs, both soluble
and insoluble deposits are usually found together

 Even a relatively small amount of deposit can cause wall

temperatures to rise considerably. As wall temperature rises, the
tendency to steam-blanket increases.
Blanketing decreases heat flow, potentially causing overheating and
rupture.
Fewer contaminants can be tolerated at high boiler pressures. The
insulating effects of deposits become less tolerable as pressures rise,
because overheating is more likely.
A rule of thumb concerning tube cleanliness suggests that highpressure boilers (pressures greater than 1800 psi or 12.4 MPa) are
considered relatively clean if less than 15 mg/cm2 of deposits are
present on water-cooled tubes.
Moderately dirty boiler tubes contain 15 to 40 mg/cm2 of
deposits.

Iron oxides
A smooth, black, tenacious, dense magnetite layer naturally grows on
steel under reducing conditions found on boiler water-side surfaces.
Magnetite forms by direct reaction of water with the tube metal. In
higher pressure boilers, the magnetite contains two layers.
Particulate iron oxide can deposit on top of the smooth, thermally
formed magnetite layer if settling rates are high and/or if steaming is
appreciable. Usually, coarse, particulate magnetite will not
tenaciously adhere to surfaces unless intermixed with other deposits.
Hematite formation, is favored at lower temperatures and higher
oxygen concentrations. Hematite is a binder species that tends to
accumulate and hold other materials in the deposit. Hematite can be
red if formed where oxygen concentrations are high.

Salts
The least soluble compounds deposit first when boiling occurs.
Calcium carbonate deposits quickly, forming a white, friable
deposit.
Calcium sulfate requires a higher degree of concentration to
deposit than carbonate.
Magnesium phosphate is a binder that can produce very hard,
adherent deposits. Most magnesium phosphate deposits are colorless
but become red, brown, or black when contaminated with iron oxides.
Insoluble silicates are present in many boilers. Many silicates are
very hard and are almost insoluble in acids except for hydrofluoric.
Complex silicates such as analcite (Na2O Al2O3 4SiO2 2H2O),
acmite (Na2O Fe2O3 4SiO2), or sodalite [Na2O 3Al2O3 SiO2
2NaCl] can be evidence for steam blanketing,.

Chlorides will concentrate in porous deposits and hydrolyze to

form hydrochloric acid.

Corrosion
Corrosion is one of the main causes of reduced
reliability in steam generating systems.
Many corrosion problems occur in the hottest areas
of the boiler-the water wall, screen, and superheater
tubes. Other common problem areas include
deaerators, feedwater heaters, and economizers.
The most common causes of corrosion are
dissolved gases, under-deposit attack, low
pH, and attack of areas weakened by mechanical
stress, leading to stress and fatigue cracking.

Acidic Corrosion
Due to presence of CO in condensate water.
Feed water can also become acidic from contamination of
the system (process contamination of condensate or cooling
water contamination from condensers).
Acidic corrosion can also be caused by chemical cleaning
operations (overheating of the cleaning solution, excessive
exposure of metal to cleaning agent, high cleaning agent
concentration).
In the boiler and feed water system, acidic attack can take the
form of general thinning, or it can be localized at areas of
high stress.

 Carbon dioxide exists in aqueous solutions as free carbon dioxide

and the combine forms of carbonate and bicarbonate ions.
Formed due to thermal decomposition of carbonates and
bicarbonates:
2CO3-- +HEAT2CO2+O2
HCO3-+HEATCO2+OH CO2 carries over with steam and redissolves in condensate return
line.
CO2+H2O
H2CO3
This decreases pH and the acid solution attacks pipe walls:
Fe+2H2CO3Fe(HCO3)2+H2.
In boiler systems, corrosion resulting from carbon dioxide is most
often encountered in the condensate system.

O Pitting
Oxygen in water produces pitting that is very severe
because of its localized nature.
Water containing ammonia, particularly in the presence of
oxygen, readily attacks copper and copper bearing alloys.
Oxygen corrosion may be highly localized or may cover
an extensive area.
Most common attack site is in the super heater tubes.
Moisture condensing on the walls of an idle super heater
tube will dissolve atmospheric oxygen.
Oxygen pits can act as stress-concentration sites,
thereby fostering the development of corrosion-fatigue
cracks, caustic cracks, and other stress-related failures.

 Critical factors governing the onset and progress of oxygen

corrosion include the presence of moisture or water, the presence
of dissolved oxygen, and an unprotected metal surface.
In case of Mild Steel, O converts FeO to Fe2O3 (Rust).
2FeO+1/2(O)3FeO
O2 converts Cuprous oxide to Cupric oxide.
CuO+1/2(O)CuO
The corrosiveness of water increases as temperature and
dissolved solids increase, and as pH decreases. Aggressiveness
generally increases with an increase in oxygen.
Causes of excessive levels of dissolved oxygen are:
Malfunctioning of deaerator.
Improper feed of oxygen scavenging chemicals.
Air leakage in Turbine, Condenser, Condensate Pump
suction, Feed water Heater etc.

Caustic Corrosion
Caustic corrosion is confined to
(1) water-cooled tubes in regions of high heat flux,
(2) slanted or horizontal tubes,
(3) locations beneath heavy deposits, and
(4) heat-transfer regions at or adjacent either to backing
rings at welds or to other devices that disrupt flow.
()Corrosive interaction of sufficiently concentrated
sodium hydroxide with a metal to produce distinct
depressions
()At times, a crust of hard deposits and corrosion
products containing magnetite crystals will surround
and/or overlie the attacked region.

 Oxides of iron are corroded by both low-pH and highpH environments. High-pH substances, such as
sodium hydroxide, will dissolve magnetite:
4NaOH + FeO 2NaFeO + NaFeO + 2HO
With the protective covering destroyed, water is then
able to react directly with iron to evolve atomic
hydrogen:
3Fe + 4HO FeO + 8H
When magnetite is removed, the sodium hydroxide
may react directly with the iron:
Fe + 2NaOH NaFeO + H

Critical factors
Two contribute to caustic corrosion. The first is
the availability of sodium hydroxide or of
alkaline-producing salts.
The second contributing factor is the mechanism
of concentration.
Three basic concentration mechanisms exist:
1. Departure from nucleate boiling (DNB).
2. Deposition
3. Evaporation at a waterline

 Prevent DNB. This usually requires the elimination of hot spots,

achieved by controlling the boiler's operating parameters. Hot spots are
caused by excessive overfiring or underfiring, misadjusted burners,
change of fuel, excessive blowdown, etc.
Prevent excessive water-side deposition. Tube sampling on a
periodic basis (usually annually) may be performed to measure the
relative thickness and amount of deposit buildup on tubes..
Prevent the creation of waterlines in tubes. Slanted and
horizontal tubes are especially susceptible to the formation of waterlines.
Boiler operation at low water levels, or excessive blowdown rates, may
create waterlines. Waterlines may also be created by excessive load
reduction when pressure remains constant. If velocity become low
enough, steam/water stratification occurs, creating stable or metastable
waterlines.

Caustic corrosion is of two types:

1.Caustic Embrittlement Intergranular attack along grain boundaries leading

to sudden failure.
It is relatively uncommon and occurs in stressed and
restricted areas where boiler water containing sodium
hydroxide reaches high concentration levels.
Commonly found in tubes of boiler drum when steam
leakage is present.

2.Caustic Gouging General eating away of protective magnetite film until

tube wall is thinned to failure.
Tube fails when it becomes so thin it cannot withstand
internal pressure.
It is more common in comparison of embrittlement.

Prevention
The following remedies may eliminate corrosion that
depends on the availability of sodium hydroxide or
alkaline-producing salts:
Reduce the amount of available free sodium
hydroxide.
Prevent inadvertent release of caustic regeneration
chemicals from makeupwater demineralizers
Prevent in-leakage of alkaline-producing salts into
condensers

Hydrogen corrosion
Result of electrochemical corrosion reactions in which hydrogen in
the atomic form is liberated.
Two critical factors govern susceptibility to hydrogen damage. These
are the availability of high- or low-pH substances, and a mechanism
of concentration. Both must be present simultaneously for hydrogen
damage to occur.
Ex. Concentrated sodium hydroxide dissolves the magnetic iron
oxide according to the following reaction:
4NaOH + FeO -2NaFeO + NaFeO + 2HO
With the protective covering destroyed, water is then able to react
directly with iron to evolve atomic hydrogen:
3Fe + 4HO FeO + 8H
The sodium hydroxide itself may also react with the iron to produce
hydrogen:
Fe + 2NaOH NaFeO + 2H

 If atomic hydrogen is liberated, it is capable of diffusing

into the steel.
Some of this diffused atomic hydrogen will combine at
grain boundaries or inclusions in the metal to produce
molecular hydrogen, or will react with ron carbides in
the metal to produce methane.
FeC + 4H CH + 3Fe
Since neither molecular hydrogen nor methane is
capable of diffusing through the steel, these gases
accumulate, primarily at grain boundaries. Eventually,
gas pressures will cause separation of the metal at its
grain boundaries, producing discontinuous
intergranular microcracks.

 As microcracks accumulate, tube strength

diminishes until stresses imposed by boiler
pressure exceed the tensile strength of the
remaining, intact metal.
.

 At this point Depending on the extent of hydrogen

damage, a large, rectangular section of the wall
frequently will be blown out, producing a gaping hole.

Stress Corrosion Cracking

It refers to metal failure resulting from a synergistic interaction
of a tensile stress and a specific corrodent to which the metal is
sensitive. The tensile stresses may be either applied, such as
those caused by internal pressure, or residual, such as those
induced by welding.
In boiler systems, carbon steel is specifically sensitive to
concentrated sodium hydroxide, while stainless steel is
specifically sensitive both to concentrated sodium hydroxide
and to chlorides.
The combination of concentrated sodium hydroxide, some
soluble silica, and tensile stresses will cause continuous
intergranular cracks to form in carbon steel.
As the cracks progress, the strength of the remaining intact
metal is exceeded, and a brittle, thick-walled fracture will occur.

 Unless failure has occurred, stress-corrosion

cracking may be difficult to see with the unaided
eye, since the cracks tend to be very fine and
tight.

 There are two principal factors that govern stress-corrosion

cracking.
First, the metal in the affected region must be stressed in
tension to a sufficiently high level. The stresses may be applied
and/or residual.
Second, concentration of a specific corrodent at the stressed
metal site must occur.
Tensile stresses can be either applied or residual.
Applied stresses are service-generated stresses including hoop
stresses caused by internal pressure and bending stresses from
constrained thermal expansion and contraction.
The term residual stress refers to stresses that are inherent in
the metal itself. They are the result of manufacturing or
construction processes such as welding or tube bending. These
stresses can be relieved by proper annealing techniques.

 Avoiding concentrated corrodents is generally the most successful

means of eliminating stress-corrosion cracking.
Avoiding departure from nucleate boiling (DNB), keeping internal
surfaces sufficiently free of deposits, and avoiding formation of
steamlines and waterlines in components receiving high heat flux.
Other steps may include preventing in-leakage of alkalineproducing salts through condensers, heat exchangers, process
streams, and caustically regenerated demineralizer systems;
preventing contamination of desuperheating or attemperator water
by alkaline materials or chlorides; and preventing boiler-water
carryover.
The use of inhibitors, such as sodium nitrate or a combination of
sodium nitrate and one of many selected organics, has been
successful in reducing caustic stress-corrosion cracking. A
coordinated phosphate program, which is designed to eliminate
the formation of free sodium hydroxide, may also be valuable.

Longitudinal crack along the side of a 90 bend in

an economizer tube.

FLOW ACCELERATED CORROSION

It develops when DO is completely removed by means of

scavengers. This inhibits formation of protective magnetite

layer on pipe surface. In high turbulence zones, flow gradually
corrodes base metal until wall becomes too thin to stand fluid
pressure.
Produced by combination of chemical and mechanical factors,
occurs in regions of high turbulence in strongly reducing
environment.
One way to prevent this is by reducing oxygen scavenger feed so
that, 1 to 2 ppb, a residual oxygen remains in feed water. This
preserves magnetite layer.
FAC rates rapidly decrease with increasing water pH.
FAC has to be distinguished from erosion control because the
fundamental mechanisms for the two corrosion modes are different.
FAC does not involve impingement of particles, bubbles, or cavitation

Erosion
Erosion is metal loss caused by impact of solids or liquids.
Attack is promoted by turbulent, high-velocity fluid flow. Rapid
pressure changes promote water jetting and turbulence. Abrupt
changes in flow direction and the entrainment of hard
particulate matter in fluids also contribute to wastage.
Feedwater-pump components, including impellers, fittings,
valves, and housings are often eroded. Less commonly, transfer
lines, pipe elbows, and blowdown components are attacked.
Afterboiler erosion is confined primarily to turbines. Because of
high velocities inherent in turbine operation, turbine
components frequently suffer erosion. Turbine blades are
wasted both by hard particles and by water-droplet
impingement.

Critical Factors
Factors controlling the rate of metal loss are related to
the quantity, impact angle, speed, and density of the
erodent. Metal loss is a strong function of erodent
kinetic energy.
Erosion damage maybe roughly considered inversely
proportional to alloy hardness. Usually, in the absence
of significant corrosion, the harder the alloy, the more
resistant it will be to attack.
Erodent velocity has a very important effect on metal
loss. Doubling velocity may increase metal loss by a
factor of 4 or more.

 Turbines are subject to erosion caused by impingement of

solid particles and condensed water droplets. Solidparticle erosion is caused by exfoliated oxides, primarily
from superheaters, reheaters, and main steam piping,
impacting turbine component.
Magnetite exfoliation in superheaters, reheaters, and steamtransfer lines is the major cause of solid-particle erosion in
turbines. The exfoliation process is lessened when thermal
stresses and tube temperatures are reduced.
Corrosion accelerates erosive metal loss. All erosion in
boiler systems containing water or steam is an erosioncorrosion process.

Factors influencing Tube failures

- Not following operation maintenance or
engineering practices
- Lack of proper boiler tube failure root cause
analysis
- Wrong choice of corrective/preventive action
- Lack of definitive boiler tube failure reporting and
monitoring

Boiler Tube Sampling

- Visual inspection
- Determination of chemical composition and morphology
of deposits
- Deposit Weight Density (DWD) determination
- Scale thickness measurement
- Wall loss determination
- Metallurgical analysis - material composition and
microstructure
- Determination of failure mechanism
- Root cause analysis
- Recommend corrective actions
- Determination of time for tube replacement

Steam and Water Analysis System(SWAS)

To prevent damage of steam turbine, steam boiler and
other apparatus due to scaling and corrosion, on line
steam and water analysis of critical parameters such as
pH, Conductivity, Dissolved Oxygen, Silica, Sodium,
Phosphate etc. is a must.
Steam and water analysis system helps power plants to
function efficiently and keeps them in continuous
operation for optimal performance .
To protect these equipments SWAS works in to stages:1. Sample Conditioning
2. Sample Analysis

 Sample Conditioning:
The Sample is First cooled in Sample Coolers,
depressurized in pressure regulators and
then fed to various analyzers while keeping the
flow characteristics constant by means of a
Back Pressure Regulating Device.

A pressure Regulator and Back Pressure

Regulator combination provides very stable
pressure & flow conditions, thereby ensuring
reliable, efficient and accurate analysis.

Sample Filter
Any particle of size up to 40 microns size
can be filtered out

Pressure Relief Valve

Pressure relief Valve comes fitted
with Sample Cooler.
Pressure Relief Valve is important as
it protects the Sample Cooler in case
the coil fails

Resin Column
The cation conductivity
measurements are considered to be
more reliable than ordinary
conductivity measurements, as this
method ensures elimination of
masking effects of desired chemicals
used in treating the water.
This provides a more realistic
picture of dissolved impurities in the
sample.

pH Analyzer
The pH value of the feed water gives direct indication
of alkalinity or acidity of this water.
In steam circuit it is normal practice to keep the pH
value of feed water at slightly alkaline levels. This
helps in preventing the corrosion of pipe work and
other equipment.
Typically dedicated pH Analyzers are recommended at
following locations in Steam circuit: High pressure
heaters, DM Make-up Water, Condensate Extraction
Pump Discharge

Conductivity
Conductivity is an important parameter for detecting
any contamination of steam in the boiler circuit.
Conductivity of pure water is almost zero (1-2 S). Even
addition of 1 ppm of salt may increase conductivity >
100 S. Thus conductivity is an important parameter
for the detection of leakages.
Typical points in the steam circuit where conductivity
should be monitored are . Superheated steam, Drum
water, High pressure heaters, Low pressure heaters,
Condenser, Plant effluent, D.M. plant, Make-up water
to D.M. plant

Silica(SiO)
The solubility of silica in stream
increases with pressure.
The presence of silica in the steam
can lead to deposition in
superheated tubes and on the
turbine blades which may lead to
loss of efficiency and turbine blade
failure.
For proper working of turbines,
continuous monitoring of silica is
highly recommended.

DO

To minimize corrosion under alkaline operating conditions,

mechanical deaeration and chemicals scavenger additives are
used to remove the dissolved oxygen. An analytical check of
process efficiency, is essential.
The typical points in steam circuit where dissolved oxygen
monitoring is required are Deaerator Inlet and outlet

Hydrazine(NH)
Hydrazine is used as oxygen scavenger and
for maintaining feed water alkalinity to
prevent acidic corrosion.
The nominal dosage rate for hydrazine in
feed water is about three times its oxygen
level. Under dosing of hydrazine leads to
increased corrosion; overdosing represents
a costly waste. Therefore hydrazine
monitoring is extremely important.
The typical points in steam circuit where
hydrazine monitoring is required are. Reheaters, Economizer inlet and L.P. heaters.

Water Treatment in Thermal Power Plants

Pre Treatment- For make up to feed water
cycle.

Post Treatment- For removing feed water

contaminations.

PRE TREATMENT OF WATER

Screening
Pre Chlorination
Aeration
Softening
Coagulation
Flocculation
Clarification
Membrane separation
Filtration

Post Treatment consists of the following processes:

Condensate Polishing Unit

Low Pressure Dozing[AVT]
Deaeration
High Pressure Dozing[PT]

Chemical treatment of Boiler Feed Water

Thank You!!!