Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Table of Contents
General Metal Work...........................................................................................................................................1
GENERAL SURVEY...............................................................................................................................1
1. METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES.................................................................................................5
1.1 Classification of Metals..............................................................................................................5
1.2 Identification of Metals (Examples)............................................................................................5
1.3 Properties of Metals...................................................................................................................7
1.4 Shapes and Sizes of Metal......................................................................................................11
2. TECHNICAL DRAWING...................................................................................................................12
2.1 Introduction into Technical Drawing.........................................................................................12
2.2 Types of Lines..........................................................................................................................13
2.3 Drawing Paper with title block..................................................................................................14
2.4 Basic Rules..............................................................................................................................16
2.5 Drawing in three Elevations.....................................................................................................19
3. METROLOGY...................................................................................................................................20
3.1 Metric System..........................................................................................................................20
3.2 Inch System.............................................................................................................................22
3.3 Metrology Introduction..............................................................................................................22
3.4 Common Measuring Tasks......................................................................................................22
3.5 Measuring Equipment..............................................................................................................23
4. FITS AND ISO TOLERANCES.........................................................................................................33
5. LAYING OUT....................................................................................................................................36
5.1 Layout Tools and Accessories.................................................................................................36
5.2 Layout Procedure.....................................................................................................................37
6. BENCH WORK TOOLS....................................................................................................................39
6.1 Work Bench..............................................................................................................................40
6.2 Bench Vise...............................................................................................................................40
6.3 Hand Hacksaw.........................................................................................................................41
6.4 Chisel Tools.............................................................................................................................42
6.5 Files..........................................................................................................................................43
6.6 Hammer...................................................................................................................................46
Bench Work Exercise.....................................................................................................................47
Bench Work Exercise New..........................................................................................................53
7. PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL METAL CUTTING........................................................................60
7.1 Classification of Metal Cutting Processes................................................................................60
7.2 Angles of tools..........................................................................................................................60
7.3 Cutting Tool Guideline..............................................................................................................62
8. DRILLING.........................................................................................................................................62
8.1 Drill Press.................................................................................................................................62
8.2 Twist drill..................................................................................................................................64
8.3 Different Drill Press Operations................................................................................................68
8.4 Facts and Problems.................................................................................................................69
8.5 Drill Press Safety......................................................................................................................70
9. CUTTING THREADS WITH TAP & DIES.........................................................................................71
9.1 Main Parts of a Screw Thread..................................................................................................71
9.2 Hand Tapping...........................................................................................................................71
9.3 Threading Dies.........................................................................................................................74
10. SHARPENING TOOLS...................................................................................................................76
10.1 Bench Grinder or Pedestal Grinder........................................................................................76
10.2 Sharpening Tools...................................................................................................................77
10.3 Safety Precautions:................................................................................................................78
LIST OF NEEDED RESSOURCES FOR GENERAL METAL COURSE...........................................78
11. APPENDIX......................................................................................................................................79
APPENDIX NO. 1...........................................................................................................................79
APPENDIX NO. 2...........................................................................................................................80
GENERAL METAL WORK FINAL TEST...........................................................................................81
ii
August 2000
Dear Reader,
I would like to comment this handout, because otherwise you might get a little confused while studying it.
The most important thing to know is, that this handout is developed for a nonformal Training Center. The
participating government officials and the involved companies were not interested in longterm courses. So, I
had to respect the wish of my project partners for a course with this length and was limited on the most
important subjects.
One or two of the modules are still under construction. Sorry for this.
DED Development Worker
GENERAL SURVEY
TARGET PARTICIPANTS
min 18 years old, High school graduates, no experience needed
LENGTH OF COURSE
120 hours / 15 days
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the course, the participants should be able to:
Distinguish different metals and their properties and know the most common shapes of
metals
Read and draft simple blue prints in order to fabricate workpieces to the required
specification
Know how to measure, use the most important measuring tools and prevent the most
common mistakes while measuring
Understand the importance of limits and fits in fabrication and know how to use them
Lay out some workpieces with the necessary tools
Understand the basics of angles of cutting tools
Properly use hand hacksaw, file, chisel, hammer and other hand tools
Know the process of drilling with a drill press and the needed tools and equipment
Know how to sharpen tools using the bench grinder
Cut internal and external threads with taps and dies and know how to prepare the workpiece
METHOD
Lectures/Discussion
Practical Sessions
Case studies
Teaching Videos
Theory
? Methodology
Resources
Needed
Hours
HandsOn
Training
(Practical
Sessions)
Hours
Total
Hours
Orientation
Training Overview
?
Lecture/Discussion
Manuals
General, Policy and
Procedure
1.0 Familiarization
tour to the
workplace
1.0
2.0
(2.0)
Work Attitude
?
Lecture/Discussion
2.0
0.0
2.0
(4.0)
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
Assorted
Samples of metals
2.0
0.0
2.0
(6.0)
4.0
8.0
Metals and
Property definition
their Properties Ferrous metals
Nonferrous metals
and nonferrous
alloys
Identification of
metals
Shapes and sizes
of metals
Technical
Drawing
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
Samples of blue
prints
Self practice
exercises in
reading and
drafting blue
prints and
preparing
different
workpieces
Measurement
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
Samples of
Measuring tools
6.0
10.0
(28.0)
Interchangeability,
types of fits, limits of
tolerance on
technical drawings
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Training Handout
2.0
0.0
2.0
(30.0)
Laying Out
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
Samples of
Laying tools
3.0
5.0
(35.0)
Bench Work
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
Samples of
handtools
20.0
21.0
(56.0)
Principles of
Metal Cutting
Machineability of
metals
Cutting tool design
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
3.0
0.0
3.0
(59.0)
Drill Press,
drilling tools,
drilling
operation
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
Assorted
Samples of drill bits
5.0
8.0
(67.0)
12.0
(18.0)
feeds)
Machine vise, drill
press operation,
Cutting fluid,
countersinking,
counterboring
Threading
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
3.0
4.0
(71.0)
Resharpening
tools
Explain bench
grinder
Sharpen tools like
chisel, center punch,
scriber, drill bit
Safety, care and
maintenance of
bench grinder
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
3.0
4.0
(75.0)
Cutting with
Power Tools
Explain power
hacksaw and chop
saw
Process on cutting
with power hacksaw
and chop saw
Safety, care and
maintenance of
power hacksaw and
chop saw
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
3.0
4.0
(79.0)
SMAW Welding
Fundamentals
and its
Processes
Definition of the
various types of the
most common
welding technologies
Power Sources
SMAW Processes
Tools and
equipment
?
Lecture/Discussion
Training Handout
Teaching Video
2.0
0.0
2.0
(81.0)
SMAW Welding
Electrodes
Types of electrodes
(mild steel, low
hydrogen electrode)
?
Lecture/Discussion
Training Handout
Teaching Video
2.0
0.0
2.0
(83.0)
Welding
Processes in
Various
Positions
? Demonstration
?
Lecture/Discussion
Training Handout
Teaching Video
22.0
25.0
(108.0)
Manipulation of
electrode
standardized
workpieces
?
Lecture/Discussion
Training Handout
Sample of
workpiece
3.0
4.0
(112.0)
OxyAcetylene
Cutting
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
1.0 Cutting
Exercises
3.0
4.0
(116.0)
?
Lecture/Discussion
? Demonstration
Training Handout
4.0
0.0
4.0
(120.0)
40
80
120
Safety
Safety in the
(included in the workshop
previous
topics)
Total
Steels are the most important ferrous metals used in machine shop work. They are generally classified by
their carbon content. It can be custommade to fit a wide range of requirements. By using various chemical
and alloying elements, steels with many different properties can be produced.
Carbon
Content %
2.5 to 3.5
Appearance
Grey, rough sandy surface
Uses
Parts of machines, such as lathe
beds, water pump pitcher type, etc.
Machine Steel
(M.S.)
0.10 to 0.30
Cold Rolled
(C.R.S.)
0.10 to 0.30
0.60 to 1.5
Black, glossy
High Speed
Steel (H.S.S.)
Alloy Steel
Black, glossy
Brass
Copper
Nonferrous Metal
NonMetals
Natural Material
Artificial
Material
Wood
Aluminum
Leather
Glass
Copper
Mild Steel
Cast Iron
Rubber
Ore
Brass
Ceramics
Tool Steel
Bronze
Lead
PVC
Teflon
Tin
Stainless Steel
Melting Point:
The melting point is the temperature at which a material starts to melt.
Ferrous
Copper
Lead
Aluminum
Tin
Tungsten
Electrical Conductivity:
The electrical conductivity describes the ability of a material to conduct electricity.
Copper
100%
Silver
106%
Lead
8%
Aluminum
62%
Ferrous
17%
Zinc
29%
Density:
The density (kg/dm3) of a material gives the quotient of mass and volume of a body.
Water
1.00
Copper
8.90
Lead
11.30
Aluminum
2.70
Steel
7.85
Tungsten
19.27
Elasticity:
Is the ability of a metal to return to its original shape after being
distorted. Properly heattreated springs are good examples of
elastic materials.
Ductility:
Is the ability of a metal to be permanently deformed without
breaking. Metals such as copper and machine steel, which may be
drawn into wire, are ductile materials
Tensile Strength:
The ability of material to resist fracture under tensile load.
Compressive Strength:
The ability of a material to withstand heavy compressive load.
Brittleness:
Is the property of a metal that allows no permanent distortion
before breaking. Cast iron is a brittle metal; it will break rather than
bend under shock or impact.
Toughness:
Is the ability of metals to withstand shock or impact. Toughness is
the opposite of brittleness.
Shear Strength:
The ability of a material to resist fracture under shear load.
Flexural Strength:
The ability of a metal to resist under flexural force.
Torsional Strength:
The ability of a metal to resist torsional force.
Collapsing Stress:
The ability of a metal with a slim form to resist axial directed force.
Hardness:
The ability of metal to withstand abrasion or penetration.
Weldability:
Means the ability to weld two metals together. The grade of
weldability depends on the content of carbon. Steels with a content
of max. 0.22% are more or less good weldable.
Machinability:
Indicates how easy or difficult materials can be machined.
Malleability:
Is the property of metals that allows it to be hammered or rolled into
other sides and shapes.
Castability:
Is the property of metals that allows it to be molten and after it to be
casted without any pores.
Hardenability:
Is the property of iron metals that allows it to increase the
hardening through structural transformations.
10
Corrosion Resistance:
Is the ability of a material to resist the attack of water, gases, acids or
other chemicals.
11
Flatbar:
Roundbar:
Diameter Length
Squarebar:
Width Length
Anglebar:
Hexagonbar:
Pipe:
Squaretubing:
ChannelBar:
IBeam:
ZBar:
Width Length
TBar:
Width Length
Metal Sheet:
2. TECHNICAL DRAWING
A technical drawing, sometimes referred to us as a drawing or print, is the language used for technical
communication. It depends on the job how exactly the drawing should be made. Sometimes it is enough to
sketch with freehand lines, but when it comes to more important parts the draft should be made very exactly.
A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
Scale Size
12
Scale is used to indicate the ratio of the drawing size to the actual size of the part. Scaling is often necessary
to enlarge small parts for clarity and to have room for dimensions and other details. Large objects are often
drawn at a reduced scale in order to get the necessary information to fit a convenient size sheet of paper. The
scale is generally found in the title block of a drawing.
The dimensions shown on the drawing give the correct size of the part required. The actual drawing should
never be measured to determine that size to be machined.
Description
Use
Freehand
line
0,25 to
0,35
Object line
0,5 to 0,7
Indicate the
visible form
or edges of
an object
Thin unbroken
line
0,25 to
0,35
Shading
line, Thread
line,
Diagonal
line
Hidden line
Mediumweight
black lines (dash:
approx. 4 mm,
gap: 1 mm)
0,35 to 0,5
Indicate
hidden
contours of
an object
Center line
0,5 to 0,7
Indicate
centers of
holes,
cylindrical
objects, and
other
sections
0,25 to
0,35
Indicate
dimensions
of an object
13
Thickness
mm
Sketches;
break line
Cuttingplane
line
0,5 to 0,7
Show
imagined
section
Crosssection
line
Fine evenly
spaced parallel
lines at 45. Line
spacing is in
proportion to the
part size
0,25 to
0,35
Show
surfaces
exposed
when a
section is
cut
Exercise Sheet
Fill up the boxes with the given line type
14
Exercise Sheet
1. Draw and dimension the object below using the given measurements. Use a piece of paper with a
title block.
2. Draw and dimension the object below using the given measurements. Use a piece of paper with a
title block.
15
16
Dash lines start and end with a dash at the object edges.
17
The smaller the section area the closer the shading lines.
The shading lines are thin unbroken lines, which are angled
at 45 degree to the center line or angled to the base edge.
18
19
3. METROLOGY
Over 90% of all countries in the world are presently using the Metric System. But there are still some
countries using the Inch System (e.g. United States, Canada, and England). With the reality of global
manufacturing continually expanding, the need for metal workers in both systems of measurement will
continue to grow.
20
All multiplies and subdivisions of the meter are directly related to the meter by a factor of ten. This makes it
easy to use the decimal system for calculations involving metric units.
Kilometer
= km
1 km
1,000 m
Meter
= m
1m
10 dm =
Decimeter
= dm
1 dm
10 cm =
Centimeter
= cm
1 cm
10 mm
Millimeter
= mm
1 mm
1,000 mm
Micrometer
= mm
100 cm =
100 mm
2.5 m
10 dm
100 cm
1,000
mm
dm
cm
mm
0.9 m
dm
cm
mm
1.2 m
dm
cm
mm
0.1 m
dm
cm
mm
10 cm =
1 dm =
0.1 m
25 mm
cm =
dm =
120 mm
cm =
dm =
19 mm
cm =
dm =
386 mm
cm =
dm =
Summing Up
20 cm +
10 dm +
30 mm +
25 cm =
1,48
10 cm +
5 dm +
28 mm +
30.5 cm =
mm
38 mm +
42 cm +
0.6 dm +
0.9 m =
cm
5.5 dm +
122 mm +
44 cm +
1.2 m =
dm
2.2 m +
86 cm +
77 cm +
333 mm =
0.1 mm +
1.2 cm +
9.86 cm +
55.6 mm =
mm
Mixed Operations
1m +
37 mm
5 dm +
40 cm =
937 cm
1.47 m
37 mm
1.8 dm +
36.5 cm =
cm
96 mm
3.8 cm +
1.36 m +
98 dm =
dm
0.4 cm
12 mm +
1.55 m
8.4 dm =
11 cm +
11 mm +
1.1 dm +
1.11 m =
21
1,000 mm
19.4 dm
87.5 cm +
1.36 m
94 mm =
dm
0.0394 inch
1 inch
25.4
millimeters
1 centimeter
0.3937 inch
1 inch
2.54
centimeters
1 meter
39.37 inches
1 foot
0.3048
meter
Inside Outside
Height Depth
Diameter
22
Distance
Angle
Taper
Gear
Surface
23
Proper care of measuring tools and instruments is very important to maintain the accuracy and quality of
these tools. Precision measuring tools and instruments are expensive and should be treated with care,
otherwise their accuracy can be destroyed.
Never drop a measuring tool.
Keep measuring tools away from chips, welding and grinding sparks.
Never place measuring tools on oily or dirty surfaces.
Store measuring tools in separate boxes to avoid scratches, nicks, or dents.
Clean the tools and apply a light film of oil on the handling surfaces before putting them
away.
24
Thread Gauge
Inside and Outside Calipers are comparison tools used to make approximate measurements of the outside
diameter of round workpieces. The caliper cannot be read directly and its setting must be checked with a rule
or a vernier caliper.
25
With a simple Protractor the measuring arm can be set against a circular degree scale from 0 degree to 180
degree. The measuring error is around 1 degree.
With a more precise Universal Bevel Protractor angular measurements can be carried out with an accuracy of
5 minutes.
Simple Protractor
26
Dial Caliper
Digital Caliper
Digital Micrometer
27
Dial Gauge
Steel Rules
Steel rules are the most common linear measuring tools and are available in the metric or inch system. Metric
rules are graduated in both millimeters and halfmillimeters. Some rules are available with both inch and
millimeter graduation.
28
29
1. The last numbered division on the bar to the left of the zero on the vernier scale
represents the number of millimeters. In the example above the #2 (20 mm) is the last
number left of the zero on the vernier scale.
2. Count the graduations between the last number (#2) and the zero on the vernier scale. In
the example above there are 8 (8 mm) graduations between the #2 and the zero on the
vernier scale.
3. Locate the line on the vernier scale that aligns with a bar line. Divide the number below
the line by 10. In the example above it is the line with #7 (7/10=0.7 mm).
4. The measurement in the example above is 20 mm + 8 mm + 0.7 mm = 28.7 mm
30
Vernier Caliper
10
10
11
11
12
12
31
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
Vernier Caliper
10
10
11
11
32
Upper Limit
UL
Lower Limit
LL
Upper Tolerance
UT
Lower Tolerance
LT
Tolerance
T
Shaft with a
nominal
dimension
of 20 mm
33
Shaft with
toleranced
dimension,
2 mm plus
and 2 mm
minus is
allowed.
UL = N +
UT
LL = N LT
T = LT + UT
Upper
Limit
(max. )
Lower
Limit
(min. )
Upper
Tolerance
Lower
Tolerance
Tolerance
20.00 mm
20.00 mm
20.00 mm
0.00 mm
0.00 mm
0.00 mm
20.00 mm
20.50 mm
20.00 mm
0.50 mm
0.00 mm
0.50 mm
20.00 mm
20.25 mm
19.75 mm
0.25 mm
0.25 mm
0.50 mm
20.00 mm
20.00 mm
19.80 mm
0.00 mm
0.20 mm
0.20 mm
20.00 mm
20.15 mm
19.95 mm
0.15 mm
0.05 mm
0.20 mm
20.00 mm
20.00 mm
19.95 mm
0.00 mm
0.05 mm
0.05 mm
20.00 mm
20.02 mm
19.99 mm
0.02 mm
0.01 mm
0.03 mm
20.00 mm
20.01 mm
19.99 mm
0.01 mm
0.01 mm
0.02 mm
34
20.00 mm
20.035
mm
20.00 mm
0.035 mm
0.00 mm
0.035 mm
20.00 mm
20.055
mm
20.045
mm
0.055 mm
0.045 mm
0.010 mm
Classes of Fits
Transition Fit
35
5. LAYING OUT
Laying out is the operation of scribing center locations, straight lines, arcs, circles, or contour lines on the
surface of a piece of metal to show the machinist the finished size and shape of the part to be manufactured.
The information regarding the size and shape of part is taken from a technical drawing. The care and
accuracy of the layout plays an important role in determining the accuracy of finished parts, since the
machinist uses these layout lines as a guide for machining.
Details
Surface Plate or
Marking Table
Steel Rule
Steel rules are the most common linear measuring tools and are available in the
metric or inch system. Metric rules are graduated in both millimeters and
halfmillimeters. Some rules are available with both inch and millimeter graduation.
Scriber
A scriber is a layout tool used for drawing layout lines on a workpiece. They are
made of tool steel with hardened and tempered points. It is important that the point of
the scriber be as sharp as possible to produce clear, thin, layout lines.
Center Punch
Normally ground to an angle of 90 degree. Before drilling a hole the center must be
punched. To make a line more visible for cutting or oxyacetylene cutting it is helpful
to punch the line.
Solid Square or
TrySquare
Is used for laying out workpiece in combination with steel rule and scriber. It is also
used to check the angles and the surfaces for flatness.
Divider
The divider is used to transfer length or circles to the workpiece. Dividers are
available with and without fixing devices.
Protractor
A simple protractor has a measuring range from 0 to 180 degree. The measuring
error is around 1 degree.
Surface Gauge or
Vernier Height
Gauge
Is normally used in combination with a surface plate and an angle plate to mark
parallel lines. Using the simple type, the height can be adjusted with a steel rule.
36
Angle Plate
An angle plate is a precision Lshaped tool usually made of hardened steel. All its
surfaces are ground to an accurate 90degree angle and are square and parallel. It
is used to support workpieces on a 90degree angle during the layout process.
VBlocks or Prism
37
38
1. Make sure that the point of the punch is sharp before starting.
2. Hold the punch at a 45 degree angle and place the point carefully on the layout line.
3. Tilt the punch to a vertical position and strike it gently with a light hammer.
4. If the punch mark is not in the proper position, correct it as necessary.
39
This chapter will provide the trainee with the necessary knowledge about bench work. This includes the basic
tools as well as their proper use.
40
By moving the saw in the direction of cut (cutting motion) with simultaneous pressure on the saw (cutting
pressure), the teeth penetrate into the material and remove chips.
There are different hacksaw blades, depending on the metal to be cut, available:
Coarse:
In order to achieve a perfect cut, file with a triangular file a small notch beside the marking line to get a good
start, then place the saw with an angle of tilt (as shown in the picture below) and start with sawing.
41
Forward stroke with pressure. Return stroke without pressure. Use the full length of the saw blade.
Saw in a straight line along the marking line.
Work safety:
When sawing through reduce pressure on hand hacksaw just before the workpiece separate.
Flat Chisel
Wedge angle for soft materials 30 to 50 degree; for mild steel 60 to 70 degree; for alloyed steels 70 to 80
degree
Work Process:
The workpiece must be properly clamped when chiseling.
The chisel must be struck on the center of the head, in the direction of the axis of the chisel.
The correct wedge angle must be maintained when grinding the chisel (measure with an
angle gauge). The tool must be cooled frequently when sharpening, so that it does not lose its
temper.
42
6.5 Files
The file is a cutting tool to work materials. It has many cutting edges which are like small chisels (file teeth)
and are harder than the material being worked upon. For cutting metals normally CrossCut files are used.
These files have an overcut, and an upcut. When using a file, several cutting wedges always act at the same
time.
To file different materials there are various coarses available, such as smoothcut,
secondcut, and bastard cut.
43
The length of the file body normally used is between 100 mm and 350 mm.
The file handle is either from wood or from plastic.
Types of Files
2. Flat File
4. Triangle File
5. Round File
44
6. HalfRound File
7. Knife File
8. FlatTriangle File
45
File Handling
Clamp the workpiece as close as possible to the jaws of the vise. Use protective jaws
(Aluminum) to protect the workpiece.
Start with a rough file for removing more material then take a smooth file to reach a good
surface.
Forward stroke with pressure; Return stroke without pressure.
Move with the file crosswise to control the area of filing.
Clean the file from time to time (especially smooth files) with a wire brush to prevent messy
finishes.
Never work with a file without a file grip.
Make sure that the file grip is properly attached, that it has the right dimension and that it is
not splitted.
6.6 Hammer
A hammer is used nearly in every operation related to metal works.
They are made of cast steel or carbon steel.
It mainly consists of a face, peen and body. The face and the peen are hardened and
tempered but the rest of the body is kept soft. A wooden handle is fitted in the eyehole of the
hammer with the help of a wedge. The wedge spreads the handle and fixes it inside the hole.
Hammers are made in the size range of 25 Gram to 10 Kg.
There are different types of hammer available:
Fitters hammer, Ball pane hammer, Rubber mallet, Plastic hammer, Wood
hammer, Sledge hammer, Claw hammer, Aluminum hammer, copper etc.,
46
Safety:
The handle of a hammer should be dry and not greasy
The surface of a handle should be smooth
The face of a hammer should not be spotted, if it so then make it smooth by grinding
Hold the hammer handle always nearer to its tail end.
47
try square
combination square
vernier caliber 250 mm
depth vernier caliber
hand hacksaw
flat file 250 mm rough and bastard
triangular file 250 mm rough and bastard
different twist drills
different screw taps
different countersink
letter stamps
chisel
Metal Plate Working Step No. 1
1. Take a piece of flat bar with a measurement of 200 mm lengths and 105 mm width and 10
mm thickness.
2. Take the letter A stamp and stamp it as shown in the above drawing.
3. File surface of edge A even and remove all rust and forging scale. First use a rough file,
then for finishing the surface a bastard file. Control the evenness with the try square.
4. Layout lines from the left side as well as on the right side. Use edge A as a reference to put
the try square and scribe the lines.
5. Center punch the lines with at least 5 mm distance between the marking points.
6. Cut on the outer part of the lines using the hand hacksaw and leave at least 1mm
allowance for filing.
7. File the surfaces of edges B and D in a right angle to surface A. File the 1mm excess to
the size required.
8. File surface of edge C even and parallel to edge A to the size required. First use a rough
file, then for finishing the surface a bastard file.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 2
48
1. Take a combination square and set 135 degrees angle using a protractor.
2. Put the combination square at edge A.
3. Scribe a line with the scriber.
4. Center punch the line with at least 5 mm distance between the marking points.
5. Cut on the outer part of the line using the hand hacksaw and leave at least 1mm allowance
for filing.
6. File the surface of edge B in an angle of 135 to surface A. File the 1mm excess to the
size required.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 3
1. Take divider and steel rule for laying out the central point of radius = 40 mm.
49
1. Lay out using surface A and B as a basis, scribe and punch following the illustration
given below on the right lower corner of the work piece.
2. Cut on the outer part of the layout line leaving 1 mm allowance for filing.
3. File the work piece and check if it is in the right measurement.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 5
50
1. Lay out the two squares which are 30 mm 30 mm and 20 mm 20 mm as shown in the
drawing above using surface A and B as a basis.
2. Mark the squares exactly as shown in the drawing above.
3. Centerpunch the lines as shown in the drawing above.
4. Drill the punch mark of the inner square with a 8.5 mm twist drill.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 6
1. Cut the bridge between the wholes using chisel and hammer.
2. File the outer square 30 mm 30 mm using the necessary files.
3. Check if the filed square is parallel to surfaces A, B, C and D.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 7
51
1. Mark a border line for the height of the letters and vertical line for each letter. For the width
let approximately 1 mm clearance both sides.
2. Adjust the letter stamp on the surface of the work piece.
3. Strike the letter stamp using a 200 g hammer.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 8
1. Lay out the lines for drilling using the measurement given.
2. Punch all the mark for drilling.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 9
52
53
54
1. Take a piece of flat bar with a measurement of 100 mm lengths and 100 mm width and 10
mm thickness.
2. The fianl dimension of the workpiece should be 95 mm 90 mm 10 mm with a
tolerance of plus 0.2 mm and minus 0.2 mm.
3. Take the letter A stamp and stamp it as shown in the above drawing.
4. File surface of side A even and remove all rust and forging scale. First use a rough file,
then for finishing the surface a smooth file. Control the evenness with the try square.
5. Layout lines from the left side as well as on the right side. Use side A as a reference to put
the try square and scribe the lines.
6. Center punch the lines with at least 5 mm distance between the marking points.
7. Cut on the outer part of the lines using the hand hacksaw and leave at least 1mm
allowance for filing.
8. File the surfaces of sides B and D in a 90 degree angle to surface A. File the 1mm excess
to the size required.
9. File surface of edge C even and parallel to side A to the size required. First use a rough
file, then for finishing the surface a smooth file.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 2
55
1. Take a combination square and set 135 degrees angle using a protractor.
2. Put the combination square at side A.
3. Scribe a line with the scriber.
4. Center punch the line with at least 5 mm distance between the marking points.
5. Cut on the outer part of the line using the hand hacksaw and leave at least 1mm allowance
for filing.
6. File the surface in an angle of 135 to surface A. File the 1mm excess to the size
required.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 3
56
1. Take divider and steel rule for laying out the central point of radius = 40 mm.
2. To layout, use surfaces A and D as basis.
3. Set the divider on 40 mm radius.
4. Scribe a circle on the left lower corner of the work piece.
5. Center punch with at least 5 mm distance between the markingpoints along the line.
6. Cut on the outer part of the layout line leaving 2 mm allowance for filing.
7. File the surface exactly following the marks.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 4
1. Lay out the two squares which are 30 mm 30 mm and 20 mm 20 mm as shown in the
drawing above using surface A and B as your basis.
2. Mark the squares exactly as shown in the drawing above.
3. Centerpunch the lines as shown in the drawing above.
4. Drill the punch mark of the inner square with 8.5 mm twist drill.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 5
57
1. Cut the bridge between the wholes using chisel and hammer.
2. File the outer square 30 mm 30 mm using the necessary files.
3. Check if the filed square is parallel to surfaces A, B, C and D.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 6
1. Mark two lines for the height of the letters and vertical lines for each letter. For the width let
approximately 1 mm clearance both sides.
2. Adjust the letter stamp on the surface of the work piece.
3. Strike the letter stamp using a 200 g hammer.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 7
58
1. Lay out the lines for drilling using the measurement given.
2. Punch all the marks for drilling.
Metal Plate Working Step No. 9
59
Filing
Chiseling
Hand Hacksawing
Shearing
Hand Tapping
DieTapping
Hand Reaming
Drilling
Hacksawing
Turning
Milling
Grinding
Shaping
Machine Threading
Machine Reaming
Chiseling
Sawing
Turning
Grinding
60
For different cutting operations there is a need for different tool angles.
Cutting tools with small wedge angles penetrate the material more easily but also tend to
break off more easily if the material is hard
61
8. DRILLING
8.1 Drill Press
A drill press is a machine used for drilling operations available in a wide variety of types and sizes to suit
different types and sizes of workpieces. The most common machine type found in a metal shop is the
floortype drill press.
Although drill presses are manufactured in a wide variety of sizes, all drilling machines contain certain basic
parts.
Base:
The base, usually made of cast iron, provides stability for the machine and rigid mounting for the column. The
base is usually provided with holes so that it may be bolted to a table or bench to keep it rigid. The slots or
ribs in the base allow the workholding device for the workpiece to be clamped to the base.
Column:
The column is an accurate, vertical, cylindrical post that fits into the base. The table, which is fitted on the
column, may be adjusted to any point between the base and head. The head of the drill press is mounted
near the top of the column.
Table:
The table, either round or rectangular in shape, is used to support the workpiece to be machined. The table,
whose surface is at 90 degree to the column, may be raised, lowered, and swiveled around the column. On
some models it is possible to tilt and lock the table in either direction for drilling holes on an angle. Slots are
provided in most tables to allow jigs, fixtures, or large workpieces to be clamped directly to the table.
Drilling Head:
The head, mounted close to the top of the column, contains the mechanism to revolve the cutting tool and
advance into the workpiece. The spindle, which is a round shaft that holds and drives the cutting tool, is
housed in the spindle sleeve. The spindle sleeve does not resolve, but is moved up and down by the hand
feed lever that is connected to the pinion on the rack of the spindle sleeve. The end of the spindle may have a
tapered hole to hold taper shank tools, or it may be threaded or tapered for attaching a drill chuck.
The hand feed lever is used to control the vertical movement of the spindle sleeve and the cutting tool. A
depth stop, attached to the spindle sleeve, can be set to control the depth that a cutting tool enters the
workpiece.
62
Drill Chuck:
Drill chucks are the most common devices used on a drill press for holding straightshank cutting tools. Most
drill chucks contain three jaws that move all at the time when the outer collar is turned. The three jaws hold
the straight shank of a cutting tool securely and cause it to run accurately.
The size of the tapered hole in the drill press spindle is generally in proportion to the size of the machine: The
larger the machine, the larger the spindle hole. A drill sleeve is used to adapt the cutting tool shank to the
machine spindle if the taper on the cutting tool is smaller than the tapered hole in the spindle.
Before a taper shank tool is mounted in a drill press spindle, be sure that the external taper of the tool shank
and the internal taper of the spindle are thoroughly cleaned. Align the tang of the tool with the slot in the
spindle hole and, with a sharp upward snap, force the tool into the spindle.
63
64
The shank is the part of the drill that fits into a holding device. It may be either straight
or tapered.
Body:
The body contains the flutes, margin, and body clearance of the drill.
Point:
Shape and condition of the point are very important to the cutting action of the drill.
65
Metric drills:
Metric drills are available in various set ranges.
Miniature set:
Straight shank:
Taper shank:
Inch drills:
The most common system for inch drills is the fractional system.
Drills are available in sizes from 1/64 to 3 in. in diameter, varying in steps of 1/64 in. from one size to the
next. Drills larger than 3 in. in diameter must be ordered specially from the manufacturer.
66
To find the right number of revolutions per minute at which a drill press spindle will be set, the following
information must be known:
The recommended cutting speed (CS) of the material to be drilled
The type of drill bit, most likely HSS
The diameter of the drill
Other important factors might affect the setting of the spindle speed:
The type and the condition of the machine
The accuracy and finish of the hole required
The rigidity of work setup
The use of cutting fluid
Calculating the spindle speed for Metric drills:
CS
= 3.1416
Example:
Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill 12 mm hole in a piece of mild steel.
r/min = (CS 1000) / (3,1416 12)
r/min = 30000 / 37.69
r/min = 796
Cutting speed for highspeed steel (HSS) drills
Material
Stainless Steel
Tool Steel
Cast Steel
Mild Steel
10 M/Min
15 M/Min
20 M/Min
30 M/Min
60 M/Min
Drill bit in mm
67
1592
2387
3183
4775
9549
1061
1592
2122
3183
6366
796
1194
1592
2387
4775
637
955
1273
1910
3820
531
796
1061
1592
3183
455
682
909
1364
2728
398
597
796
1194
2387
354
531
707
1061
2122
10
318
477
637
955
1910
11
289
434
579
868
1736
12
265
398
531
796
1592
13
245
367
490
735
1469
14
227
341
455
682
1364
15
212
318
424
637
1273
20
159
239
318
477
955
25
127
191
255
382
764
= 3.1416
Exercise 1:
Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill a 10 mm hole in a piece of aluminum.
Exercise 2:
Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill a 22.5 mm hole in a piece of mild steel.
Exercise 3:
Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill a 5.8 mm hole in a piece of mild steel.
68
Countersink Tool
Counterbore Tool
69
70
When drilling sheet metal, it is necessary to clamp the sheet on a piece of wood.
Reduce drilling pressure as the drill breaks through the workpiece.
Always remove the burrs from a hole that has been drilled.
1 ring on
shank
2 rings on
shank
without ring
The most common taps have two or three flutes in order to form the cutting edges, transport the chips out of
the hole and give way for the lubricant. The end of the tap is square so that a tap wrench can be used to turn
it into a hole.
71
If there is no tap drill size chart available, the tap drill size can be easily found by applying simple formulas:
Inch Threads
T.D.S. = D in inch 1/N
Metric Threads
T.D.S. = D in mm P
72
Pitch mm
Drill mm
UNC
TPI
Drill mm
UNF
TPI
Drill mm
M3
0.50
2.5
1/4
20
5.1
1/4
28
5.5
M4
0.70
3.3
5/16
18
6.6
5/16
24
6.9
M5
0.80
4.2
3/8
16
8.0
3/8
24
8.5
M6
1.00
5.0
7/16
14
9.4
7/16
20
9.9
M8
1.25
6.8
1/2
13
10.8
1/2
20
11.5
M 10
1.50
8.5
9/16
12
12.2
9/16
18
12.9
M 12
1.75
10.2
5/8
11
13.5
5/8
18
14.5
M 16
2.00
14.0
3/4
10
16.5
3/4
16
17.5
M 20
2.50
17.5
7/8
19.5
7/8
14
20.4
M 24
3.00
21.0
22.25
12
23.25
Select the correct size and type of tap for the job (blind hole or through hole).
2.
Step:
Select the correct tap wrench for the size being used.
3.
Step:
Use a suitable cutting fluid (No cutting fluid for brass or cast iron).
4.
Step:
5.
Step:
Apply equal downpressure on both handles, and turn the tap clockwise (for righthand thread) for
about two turns.
6.
Step:
Remove the tap wrench and check the tap for squareness. Check at two positions 90 degree to
each other.
7.
Step:
If the tap has not entered squarely, remove it from the hole and restart it by applying slight
pressure in the direction from which the tap leans. Be careful not to exert too much pressure in
the straightening process, otherwise the tap may be broken.
8.
Step:
Turn the tap clockwise onehalf turn and then turn it backward about onequarter of a turn to break
the chip. This must be done with a steady motion to avoid breaking the tap.
73
Adjustable Die
74
Die Stock
Solid Die
Chamfer the end of the workpiece with a file or on the grinder. Consider that a 3/4 thread
requires a bolt with an outside diameter of 3/4.
2. Step:
Fasten the workpiece securely in a vise. Hold small diameter work short to prevent it from
bending.
3. Step:
4. Step:
Lubricate the tapered end of the die with a suitable cutting lubricant.
5. Step:
6. Step:
Apply downpressure on both diestock handles and turn clockwise several turns.
7. Step:
Check the die to see if it has started squarely with the work.
8. Step:
If it is not square, remove the die from the workpiece and restart it squarely, applying slight
pressure while the die is being turned.
9. Step:
75
Turn the die forward one turn, and then reverse it approximately onehalf of a turn to break the
chip.
10.
Step:
76
Sharpening Chisel
Chisels should be ground in the position as shown below.
Use the tool rest to rest your hands while bringing the tool in the right position.
Use the whole grinding wheel while grinding. Move with the tool regularly from the left to the
right side and back.
Cool the tool down from time to time.
Do not overheat the metal.
Grind the chiselpoint parallel and straight. See also the pictures below.
77
Checked Unit
Qty for 1
Trainee
Qty for 4
Trainees
Unit Qty
Unit
Price
Amount
Teaching Aids
Forms
78
Consumables and
Parts for Exercises
11. APPENDIX
APPENDIX NO. 1
Common Sizes for ordering Materials Conversion Inch to Millimeter
1 millimeter
79
0.0394 inch
1 inch
25,4
millimeters
1 centimeter
0.3937 inch
1 inch
2.54
centimeters
1 meter
39.37 inches
1 foot
0.3048
meter
Inch
Millimeter
1/16
1.6
1/8
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
10
7/16
11
1/2
12
9/16
14
5/8
16
11/16
18
3/4
20
7/8
22
25
1 1/8
28
1 1/4
30
1 5/16
32
1 3/8
35
1 1/2
40
1 3/4
45
50
APPENDIX NO. 2
Sheet Metal Work
Materials used for sheet metal work
Material
Use
Technical Aspects
Appearance
Black Iron
Galvanized
Iron
resistant to corrosion
Tin Plate
food containers
expensive
can be cut bent
80
Stainless
Steel
kitchen equipment
sink
chemical industry
resistant to corrosion
resistant to many chemical
products
easy to clean
available with polished
surface
silver chrome
Aluminum
cooking utensils
window & door frames
airplane
whitish shiny
Copper
gutter,
kettle
kitchen utensils
reddish
Equivalent in mm
Gauge No.
Equivalent in mm
32
0.25
20
0.91
31
0.27
19
1.06
30
0.30
18
1.21
29
0.34
17
1.37
28
0.38
16
1.52
27
0.42
15
1.71
26
0.45
14
1.90
25
0.53
13
2.28
24
0.61
12
2.66
23
0.68
11
3.04
22
0.76
10
3.42
21
0.84
Batch Nr. ..
Date:
1 point
2.
81
1 point
a) By their appearance
b) By their temperature
c) By their elasticity
d) By their costs
3.
1 point
a) Drill bits
b) Exhaust of a car
c) Roof of a house
d) Body or base of machines
4.
1 point
a) Drill bits
b) Body of bench vise
c) Bolts, nuts or rivets
d) hacksaw blade
5.
Name two (2) physical properties and two (2) mechanicaltechnological properties of
metals
4
points
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
6.
3
points
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
7.
How do you order Angle bars at a hardware store? By the measurement of:
1 point
8.
How do you order Flat bar at a hardware store? By the measurement of:
1 point
82
9.
1 point
a) If it is made of wood
b) If the shape is round
c) If the workpiece is to small to show the details
d) If the workpiece is to big to fit on the paper
4
points
a.
______
b.
______
c.
______
d.
______
1 point
20+0.05 mm?
1 point
a) 19.50 mm
b) 19.95 mm
c) 20.00 mm
d) 20.05 mm
83
200.25 mm?
1 point
d) 0.50 mm
3
points
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
1 point
a) The harder the material, the smaller the wedge angle of a cutting tool
b) The softer the material, the bigger the wedge angle of a cutting tool
c) The softer the material, the smaller the wedge angle of a cutting tool
3
points
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
3
points
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
1 point
a) Watt
b) Voltage
c) Amperage
19. What is the common type of electrode used for arc welding?
1 point
a) Flux coated
b) Bare electrode
c) Square electrode
20. What is the common type of electrode used in welding mild steel using arc welding
technology?
1 point
84
a) 4711
b) 6013
c) 4080
21. Name three (4) common personal safety equipment used during welding operations
4
points
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
1 point
a) The A drill point angle with 118 degree is good for general purpose
b) A drill point angle with 118 degree is good for soft metals
c) A drill point angle with 118 degree is good for hard metals
1 point
24. What is the recommended distance between tool rest and grinding wheel at a
benchgrinder?
1 point
a) 10 to 15 mm
b) 2 to 3 mm
c) 0.5 to 0.75 mm
85
2
points
Total score:
46 points
= 100%
Actual score:
= ..%
86