Joy Li

Biology 473 Section 2

Morgan Ferrell and Arimani Caprio
TA: Javier Solivan and Mary Chen
Cardiac Activity
Results
Table 1 summarizes the chronotropic and inotropic effects of drugs applied to the surface of the heart,
showing the specific effects of epinephrine, calcium, and potassium on heart rate and force of contraction.
The baseline heart rate was measured to be 18.366 beats per minute, and force of contraction was
measured to be 0.015 N. For epinephrine, the measured chronotropic effect was an increase of 80.246%
from the baseline to 33.104 BPM (+), and the inotropic effect was an increase of 6.667% from the
baseline to 0.016 N (+). The chronotropic effect was determined to be significant, with percent change
greater than 10% as calculated by % change=100% *(drug-baseline)/baseline. For calcium, the measured
chronotropic effect was a decrease of 1.748% from the baseline to 18.045 BPM (-), and the inotropic
effect was an increase of 6.667% from the baseline to 0.016 N (+). For potassium, the chronotropic effect
was a decrease of 1.503% from the baseline to 18.090 BPM (-), and the inotropic effect was a decrease of
33.333% from the baseline to 0.010 N (-). The inotropic effect was determined to be significant.
Table 1: Chronotropic and Inotropic Effects of Epinephrine, Calcium, and Potassium on the Heart

Drug

Epinephrine
Calcium
Potassium

Chronotropic Effects
Change in Time
Change vs.
(beats per minute) Baseline (+/-)
33.104
+
18.045
18.090
-

Percent
Change (%)
80.246*
1.748
1.503

Change in
Amplitude (N)
0.016
0.016
0.010

Inotropic Effects
Change vs.
Baseline (+/-)
+
+
-

Percent
Change (%)
6.667
6.667
33.333*

A frog heart was removed and heart rate and force of contractions were recorded as a result of application of various
drugs to the surface of the heart. Baseline values were recorded to be 18.366 BPM and 0.016 N. n=1.
*significant values with percent changes greater than +/- 10% compared to baseline. This was calculated with the
formula % change= 100% *(drug-baseline)/baseline. s=(baseline*0.1)*100%.

Discussion
The data for application of epinephrine to the heart showed a positive chronotropic and inotropic effect,
which was consistent with what was expected. Epi simulates the effect of the sympathetic nervous system

(direct application to the paraverterbral ganglion would activate the SNS), acting on the receptors and
opening sodium channels to cause an influx of Na+. The G protein is activated, increasing cAMP levels
(Silverthorn, 2015). Phospholamban is phosphorylated by Protein Kinase A, which keeps it from
inhibiting the SERCA pump. The intracellular Ca++ concentration increases, and the reuptake of Ca ++
increases (Frank & Kranias, 2000). These effects cause a faster contraction by decreasing the time
between contractions and an increase in the strength of contraction. Na + and Ca++ are also affected by
digitalis. This drug inhibits the sodium calcium pump which typically removes Ca ++ from the intracellular
fluid and pumps Na+ in. Digitalis results in more Na+ outside of the cell, which generates energy to pump
K+ against the concentration gradient. It allows Ca ++ to stay longer in the sarcoplasm, increasing force of
contraction with a positive inotropic effect.
The data for application of calcium showed a negative chronotropic effect and a positive inotropic
effect, which was consistent with what was expected. Calcium solution on the heart causes leaks in the
cytoplasm, and through release of Ryanodine receptors, CIC causes Ca ++ influx. Active sites on actinmyosin actin filaments are freed, finishing muscle contraction and increasing force of contraction.
Additionally, the cell membrane is hyperpolarized by external Ca ++ (Waters & Tomicek, 2016). These
effects result in an increase in time between contractions and an increase in force.
The data for application of potassium showed negative chronotropic and inotropic effects, which
was not consistent with what was expected. K+ depolarizes cells by leaking into the intracellular fluid,
bringing the baseline to threshold. It slows repolarization so that the cells are hyperpolarized and cannot
return to resting membrane potential. K+ has no effect on Ca++, resulting in an expected negative
chronotropic effect and no inotropic effect (Waters & Tomicek, 2016). Potassium makes contraction
difficult since threshold is harder to reach, resulting in its use in lethal injections.
The data was accurate with regards to the general +/- chronotropic and inotropic effects, except in
the case of potassium's inotropic effect. Only the chronotropic epinephrine effect and the inotropic
potassium effect were considered significant, resulting in data that was not as strong as it could have
been. The data was weak because the chronotropic and inotropic effects were overall not considered to be

significant by drug application. For future experiments, the drugs with insignificant percent changes could
be applied with more than ~2 drops for a more noticeable effect. Additionally, the frog heart stopped after
the caffeine, the calcium, and the potassium and needed to be revived with atropine or epinephrine each
time, which may have affected the data. In the future, the order of drug application could be altered so
that these drugs were either applied at the end of the experiment, or each applied after atropine or
epinephrine. The entire experiment could have also been conducted with a faster pace, so as to minimize
deterioration from the start of the experiment to the end, potentially skewing data of the drugs applied
towards the end of the experiment.
References
Frank, K. and Kranias, E. G. Phospholamban and cardiac contractility. PubMed, 2000.
Silverthorn, Dee U. Human Physiology. 7th Ed. Pearson, 2015. Print.
Waters, John R., and Nanette J. Tomicek. Physiology Laboratory Manual. 3rd Ed. Plymouth:
Hayden-McNeil, 2016. Print.