‘Trenos mi Conremronany Ista Trends in Contemporary Islam: A Preliminary Attempt at a Classification Abdullah Saeed ‘The University of Melbourne Melbourne, Australia Ja wide range of terms has been used to discuss and describe Muslims an emerging debate about how best to classify Muslims today and contemporary trends in Islam, This article is presented as a contribution to this debate.! Classification can be broadly defined as “the arrangement of knowledge into specific groups or systems.”? Such classification can be based on hierarchy or on broader sociologically orientated criteria, It can involve distributing material things into classes or categories or, alternatively, it can involve arranging groups of people into same classes or categories.* Classification systems are used widely by scientists as well as statisticians for the purpose of data collection and analysis, For instance, when categorizing religion, the Australian Standard Classification of Religious Groups (ASCRG 2005) states that“... classification criteria are the principles by which classification categories are aggregated to form broader o higher-level categories in the Classification structure. Three classification criteria are used in the ASCRG to form the categories of the [religious] classification: (a) similar religious beliefs; (b) similar religious practices; and/or (c) cultural heritage." However, there are a number of difficulties in classifying religious groups. Usually religions share a common heritage, common practices and doctrines, but there can be many exceptions to this, making classification difficult, In addition, classification criteria change over time. For example, traditionally, Christianity, religious groups were categorized sociologically as churches, sects or cults.’ However, today, a more commonly accepted classification is on the basis of religious families, denominations, segments or branche theological belief, political orientation and conflicts * O: the past fifty years and in particular during the last two decades, and Islam, There 395‘Tue Musiim Worn + Vorume sr + Jue a Another aspect of classification that can cause difficulty is choosing the ‘most appropriate method for the specific faith or religion. For instance, categorization can be based on historical descendents by identifying sub-groups within groups, thus iclentifying a branching hierarchy of a particular faith, Or a religion can be classified on criteria relating to size, number of adherents, or the geographical spread of this religion or its independent and distinct nature.” Other choices of classification can include: the religion’s theology, its history or level of political power and social acceptability, or the number and nature of deities, to name a few. Other questions that can be raised in determining a religious categorization can he: does the faith group consider itself to be part of (or the definitive version of) a larger religion? And, does the larger religion consider the faith ‘group to be part of its tradition# Problems may also arise when attempting to identify the degree of doctrinal and theological similarity between the various sub groups and determining the diversity in ritual, practice and organization. While these are key issues in classification, itis increasingly common today to see classification schemes that are based not on historical ties, but on current organizational affiliation or doctrinal similarity.” In Islam, many of these difficulties of classification also exist Classification of Muslims Today ‘The usual classification of Muslims is based on differences among Muslims on several areas: (a) religio-political differences on the question of leadership of the Muslims after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, leading to Sunnism, Shifism and Kharijism; (b) legal differences leading to Hanafis, Malikis, Shafiis, Hanbalis and Ja‘faris; (c) theological differences leading to Mu'tazilis, Ash'aris and Maturidis; (d) differences in the emphasis on spirituality leading to Sufis and non-Sufis; (e) differences in the emphasis on the rational aspects of Islam leading to rationalists and non-rationalists (or traditionalists. In the modern period, classification of Muslims into modemists and traditionalists has also been common, More recently, ems such as radicals, militants, extremists and moderaces, have also been used and their meanings are often unclear, What is noticeable is that recently a plethora of terms have emerged to discuss Islam and Muslims, In this article, I seek to identify broad trends among Muslims today. Each trend specified below would have its share of members from legal schools, theological schools and other areas of Islamic thought. Hence, no specific references to these areas are made in discussing a particular trend, the focus instead being on the broad orientation of the trend. In the following, broad orientations of Muslims today towards law, theological purity, violence, politics, separation of religion and state, practice, modernity or ijtihad are taken as a basis for the classification of the trends. 396“‘Taenns 1m Conramronany Istam 1, Legalist Traditionalists Legalist traditionalists are primarily concerned with maintenance of the law as conceptualized in the classical schools of law: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘, Hanbali and Ja‘fari. They uphold solutions arrived at by classical jurists of the relevant school, and reject calls for reform of Islamic law and criticism of traditionalism, Taglid (uncritical following of one's legal school) is a prominent, feature of legalist traditionalist, Key issues of concern for legalist traditionalists include: implementation of classical Islamic law in today’s societies (From family law to criminal law as they were conceptualized in the schools of law); maintenance of classical views, for instance, the inequality of men and women in certain areas of law; a literal reading of Qur'an and Sunnah texts; reverence for the opinions of the imams and key figures within each school of law; strict adoption of the principles of jurispruclence (usa) and application of them in constructing law; where necessary, to benefit from the opinions expressed in other schools of law in dealing with contemporary problems rather than exercising independent reasoning (ijtibad), An example of legalist traditionalist thinking is that of Yasuf al-Qaradawi, well known contemporary scholar based in Qatar, who argues that a woman cannot be a leader in Friday prayer (jum'a), In his response to a question relating to whether it is permissible for a woman to lead the prayer (sald, al-Qaragawi states: ‘Throughout Muslim history i has never been heard of a woman leading. the Friday prayer or delivering the Friday sermon, even dluring the era when a woman, Shagarat al-Durr, was ruling the Muslims in Egypt during the Mamluk period. It is established that leadership in prayer in Islam is to be for men. People praying behind an imam are to follow hhim in the movements of prayer — bowing, prostrating, etc. — and listen attentively to him reciting the Qur'an in prayer. Prayer in Islam is an act that involves different movements of the body. «Hence, it does not befit a woman, whose structure of physique naturally arouses instincts in men, to lead men in prayer and stand in front of them, for this may divert the men’s attention from concentrating in the prayer and the spiritual atmosphere required. .. . Hence, itis to avoid stirring the instincts of men that the Shari'a dictates that only men ‘can call for prayer andl lead people in the prayer, and that women's rows, in prayer be behind the men." 2, Theological Puritans Unlike legalist traditionalists, whose focus is Iskamic law, theological puritans are concerned primarily with theological matters such as “correct 397Tus Musim Wop + VowwMes + Jur mn belief.” They seek to purify society of what they consider to be practices antithetical to Islam, such as reverence for saints and saint-worship, magi certain Sufi practices and what they call innovation in religious matters (bid'a).. ‘Theological puritans are also concerned with the literal affirmation of God's attributes without any interpretation Generally speaking, theological puritans do not follow a specific school with respect to its principles but follow the views of the Hanbali school with respect to minor issues, They emphasize a literal reading of the key sources of Islam (the Quran and Suna) and maintain a highly conservative outlook with regard to women and family. This trend calls for the revival of ijtihad in some form and emphasizes the necessity of returning to the teachings of the Qur’an and the Sunna and does not accept anything with regard to belief unless it based on a clear-cut textual support from these two sources. In addition, thi trend propagates the belief in the attributes and names of God, as provided in the Qur'an or explained by the Prophet, and has revived the obligation of jihad (although they disagree on how this jibdd should be undertaken). ‘Theological puritans call for the cessation of innovations and superstitions, such as visiting graves and seeking requests or invoking God through an intermediary such as “saints” or building tombs and decorating them. This, trend calls for strong opposition to the views of Sufis and the “innovations* they have introduced to the religion of Islam." They also argue for maintaining, some form of “separation” between Muslims and non-Muslims, believing that mixing is harmful to the Muslim’ beliefs, behavior and outlook, They rely heavily on the teachings of figures such as Muhammad b, Abd al-Wahhab (@. 1792) and the modern proponents of their teachings, usually referred to as Salafis, 3. Militant Extremists ‘A third contemporary trend is that of the militant extremists, The late 20th- and early 2ist-century militancy among Muslims is associated with a range of activities, These include localized national liberation struggles, international struggles such as the First Afghan War (as a result of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan) and anti-Western (more specifically anti-American) struggles by militant extremists such as that of Usama Bin Laden. In the early 2ist century, it is the anti-Western struggle that dominates much of the debate on militancy ancl extremism among Muslims, particularly as a result of the events of "9/11" and a series of bombings in both Muslim and Western countries by a global network of ‘These militant extremists are driven by a worldview that is characterized by a deep sense of injustice against Muslims and a profound sense of powerlessness surrounded by a world, they believe, that aims at obliterating ant extremist, 398“YaEnns 1 Conremporany Isi.ait Islam and Mustims. This worldview is enhanced by a narrative that reinforces this sense of injustice from the time of the Crusades, to colonialism, to post-colonial domination of Muslims by the “Christian” West. This view includes a belief that the West is committed to the domination and subjugation ‘of Muslims, the ‘stealing’ of Muslim lands and resources and the economic, military and political control of Muslims to prevent any challenge to this domination. Militant extremists also believe that the West is committed to constraining the spread or growth of Islam through supporting anti-Mustim missionary activities. They also feel betrayed by fellow Muslims who collaborate’ with the West against Mustims, They are motivated by a particular understanding of jtbdd whose theater is global and by a belief that less resourceful people can defeat a powerful enemy using terror as a tool to achieve specific objectives. ‘Their thought is reflected in Usama Bin Laden's inst the Americans in which he said: “The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies — civilians and military —is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which its possible to do i, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque {one of islam's most holy places, in Jerusalem) and the Holy Mosque lin Meccal from their grip, and in order for their armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim. This is in accordance with the words of Almighty God, ‘and fight the pagans all together as they fight you all together, and ‘fight them until there is no more tumult oF oppression, and there prevail justice anc! faith in God." 4, Political Islamists Unlike militant extremists, political Islamists overall choose an Islamic socio-political pathway to change. They reject, at least in theory, the modern ideologies of nationalism, secularism and communism. They also reject “Westernization.’ Political Islamists argue for reform and change in Mus communities, emphasizing ‘Islamic’ values and institutions over what they see as Western counterparts, They are interested in establishing an Islamic state or an Islamic socio-political order in Muslim societies. Most argue for a gradual approach through education, beginning at the grassroots level, avoiding violence, Political Islamists are particularly keen to project an alternative program to expand the scope of what Islam means and its role in society today. ‘They are reacting to a situation in which the role of Islam in society, as they see it, is constantly being eroded. in their view, the roots of this erosion lie largely in the colonial period. They believe that in the post-independence period, the modern state continued (o implement various colonial projects, including the marginalization of Islamic law, and that this has to be reversed. ‘They argue that God's sovereignty should be supreme in the state, in which 399Vou 9° case the state should enforce and implement Islamic law, not, as they say, “man-made law.” Notable movements associated with political Islamists include the Muslim Brotherhood of Egypt and the Jamaat-i Islami of Pakistan. They have similar approaches to social change, inclucling an ideology that emphasizes a more activist Islam that challenges the existing authorities, whether state or religious. ‘They are determined to change Muslim societies from within. Maududi, the founder of Jamaat-i-Islami of Pakistan, highlights certain key aspects of Islamic political philosophy, as he understood them: ‘The belief in the Unity and the Sovereignty of Allah is the foundation of | the social and moral system propounded by the prophets. It is the very ‘starting-point of the Islamie political philosophy. The basic principle of Islam is that human beings must, individually and collectively, surrender all rights of overlordship, legislation, and exercising of authority over thers, No one should be allowed 10 pass orders or make commands on his own right and no one ought 1o accept the obligation to carry out such commands and obey such orders. None is entitled to make laws, lon his own authority and none is obliged to abide by them, This right vests in Allah alone. ... According to this theory, sovereignty belongs, (0 Allah, He alone is the lawgiver." 5. Secular Liberals This trend sees Islam as largely confined to the domain of personal belief and as a faith based on a relationship between God and the individual. Many value piety at a personal level. They do not see any need for an Islamic state, nor the implementation of what is referred to as Istamic law in Muslim societies, Among the issues they are concerned with are: protection of religion from state control; respect for the religious freedom of all condemnation of declarations and acts of misogyny and homophobia carried out in the name of Islam; and a commitment to equal rights for both sexes. Secular liberals fight the oppression of women, emphasize democracy, are against symbols such as the wearing of Aijab. They call for personal freedom as long as people do not break existing laws and emphasize the non-intrusion Of the state into peoples’ personal lives.” |, including Muslims; 6, Cultural Nominalists The Focus of cultural nominalists is on culture, rather than religion. This trend represents Muslims who are “culturally Muslim” — that is, those who are usually born into Mustim families and are associated with Islam but are not interested in the beliefs or practices of Islam, They may adopt certain basic beliefs but are not practicing Muslims except in so Far as occasionally attencling Eid prayer. They may also display some interest in religio-cultural practices like 400‘Tauvps 1m Contemporary Ista burial and circumcision, This trend represents a very large number of Muslims today, ‘They are not interested in the practice of their religion be it private or public. 7. Classical Modernists Classical modernists are committed to reform of Islamic thought, both legal and theological, and place strong emphasis on jtfhdd. Classical modernism is in part a continuation of the reformist movement of Islam in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and is seen as a way to address the challenges posed by modernity while remaining faithful to the basics of Islam, As many Muslim thinkers saw it in the 19th and early 20th centuries, thé impact of the West on Muslims required a response commensurate with the enormity of the challenge. Among the first “modernists,” we may include Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh (in Egyp0, and Sayyid Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Iqbal in the Indian Subcontinent Among the key concems of the classical modernists is the reform of Islamic thought through an emphasis on ijtibad. They believe that the modem context demands a reappraisal of the intellectual heritage of Muslims and this requires giving up the blind imitation of early scholars. Classical modernists believe that revelation does not clash with reason and that an effort should be made to revive Islam's rationalist philosophical tradition. They argue for a flexible interpretation of Istam and its sources in order to develop institutions: commensurate with modern conditions, and that social change must be reflected in Islamic law. Classical modernists believe that a return to Islam, as it was originally practiced, would inject into Muslim societies the intellectual dynamism required to catch up with the West. They emphasize scientific knowledge as a way to catch up with the West through reform of Islamic education and condemn what they see as deviations and accretions not worthy of the earliest Muslims (salaf), such as certain Sufi practices and syncretism: 8 Progressive Ijtibads Progressive jjtihadis can be considered intellectual descendents of classical modernists. Progressive ifihadis argue for major changes in the methodology of Islamic law and for reform of Istamic law itself. For them, many areas of traditional Istamic law require substantial change and reform to meet the needs of contemporary Muslims. They perceive that some areas of traditional Islamic law are not relevant today, and that they are in need of replacement with legislation more in keeping with the needs of contemporary Muslims, ‘This trencl emphasizes enacting or perhaps re-enacting core Islamic values of justice Cad!), goodness and beauty Gibsan) in their societies and the world at lange and engaging both Islamic tradition and modernity on the issues of 401human rights, social justice, gender justice and pluralism. Progressive ijtihaclis believe that Muslims need to enter contemporary debates on these and other issues such as globalization, freedom of speech and equality of all people regardless of religion, gender, race, ethnicity or language. They support action that involves a relentless striving towards a universal notion of justice in which no single community's prosperity, righteousness and dignity come at the expense of another.” They believe in an interpretation of Islam that ‘accommodates pluralism, seeks to recover Islam's early compassionate tradition, supports a revival of the rationalist heritage of Muslims and tries to retrieve Islam from literalist interpretations. Progressive jtihadis stand up to ‘what they consider to be “arrogant” modernity, and endeavor to tackle its excesses while at the same time calling for open and safe spaces to undertake a rigorous, honest and potentially difficult engagement with the Islamic tradition, While doing so they remain hopeful that such an engagement will lead to further action." ‘The label of “progressive itihadlis" brings under it a range of Muslims such as Muslim feminists like Fatima Memissi, activists who argue for pluralism like Farid Esack, neo-Modernists like Fazlur Rahman, proponents for a more humane interpretation of Islam such as Khaled Abou El-Fadl, proponents of full participation in Western societies as citizens such as Tariq Ramadan, and even philosophers like Hasan Hanafi. In a sense, the progressive jjtihadi category brings together a large number of sub-groups, but as this article is about broad trends, these sub-groups and their characteristics will not be dealt with here. ‘The following is from the Progressive Muslim Union (PMU) website Ga group based in the United States). It lists twelve principles that guide the work of the PMU, many of those may be shared by other progressive ijtihadis. Although this is only one group of progressive jihadis, the following selected principles from their website (abridged) provides an indication of the broad orientation of progressive ijithadis: ‘+ We affirm that a Muslim is anyone who identifies herself or himself as “Muslim,” including those whose identification is based on social commitments and cultural heritage. ‘+ We affirm the importance of celebrating the ans, culture, andl the pursuit of joy in our daily lives, . ‘+ We affirm the equal status and equal worth of all human beings, cegardless of religion, gender, race, ethnicity, or sexual orientation, We oppose any restrictions on women's full participation in society and believe that separation and segregation of men and women is contrary to the equity among genders ‘enshrined in the Quran, ‘+ We affirm that justice and compassion should be the guiding principles for all aspedts of human conduct 402“Taens im Conranronany Ista + We affirm our commitment to social and economic justice and our opposition to the culture of militarism and violence + We reject the authoritarian, racist, sexist and homophobic interpretations of our faith as antithetical 10 the principles of justice and! compassion + We call for critical inquiry and dynamic engagement with Islamic scripture ‘early Muslim sources, the Islamic intellectual heritage, and traditional and, ‘current Muslin discourses. + We endorse the separation of religion and state in all matters of public policy, not only in North America, but also across the Muslim world + We recognize the growing danger of religious exiremism and view the politicization of religion and the intrusion of religion into politics as win threats (o civil society ancl humane civilization. + Recognizing our participation in the broacer human family, we seek to engage with and contribute to other philosophical and spiral traditions and progressive movements.” Concluding Remarks ‘The above discussion provides an overview of key trends within today. The purpose of this exercise is to make a contribution towards a more systematic look at contemporary trends in Islam and shape a more appropriate terminology to be utilized in discussing them, away from the often misused terms stich as fundamentalism, Islamism, radicalism and so on, However, the categories identified in this article are intended to be preliminary. More work is needed in order to refine these categories further and identify various sub-movements within each broad trend. islam Endnotes 1. A large part of this article is hased on a chapter of my forthcoming book, Islamic ‘Thought: An Introduction, (Routledge, London). While the chapter focuses on six tends, have added two further trends in this article, namely the “cultural nominalists” and “classical modernists.” 2, "Glossary of library terms", library wur.nl/desktop/elp/faq. glossary Jum 3. wordnet princeton.edu/perW/webwn, 4, Austalian Bureau of Statistics, “Australian Standard Classification of Religious Groups CASCRG), 1996" hitps//www-abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/ ‘9N04F207ABO2DBE9CA25697 E00184CBCopendocument 5. “Levels of Clasiication of Faith Groups", hup://worw adherents.com/clasify ta 6. “Christian sub-menu: Meta-groups, ings, families, denominations & belie? systems" hitp://www religioustolerance.orp/christ7 him, 7. “Levels of Classification of Faith Groups” hutp://oww.adherents.com/classfy html 8, "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents" huxpe//wwew adherents comvReligions_By_Adherents. html 9. “Levels of Classification of Fath Groups’, hitp://wwwacherents.com/ctassiy. bt 403‘Tue Musi Worn + Vouwes + Jury axe 10. _hiepy//www-islamonline.nev/servier/Saellte2ci=11 19503549588pagename= IslamOnline-English-Ask._ Scholar/Patwa/FatwaBAsk TheScholar I. “The Wahhabi Movement: History and Beliefs" hitp://e-ww.islamonline.net/ servlet/Satellite?pagenamesIslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/Fatwak/Facwal&cid 1119503544184 12. Text of “Fatwa Urging Jhiid Against Americans." Published in Al-Quls al“Arabi ‘on 23 February 1998. Statement signed by Usama Bin Muhammad Bin Ladin: Ayman al-Zawahiri, leader of the Jihad Group in Egypt: Abu Yasir Rifai Ahmad Taha, a leader of the Islamic Group; Sheikh Mir Hamzah, seeretary of the JamiatltUlema-e-Pakistan; and Fazlul Rahman, leader of the Jihad Movement in Bangladesh. 13. Sayyid Abul Ala Mauctudi, “The Political Theory of Islam; in Mansoor Moadde] and Kamran Talatof (ed.), Contemporary Debater i Ilan, Lonclon: Macmillan, 2000, 270, 14. “A Secular Muslim Manifesto’ by Tewhik Allal and Brigitte Bardet “The Manifesto attracted several huncired signatories and a list of Les Amis dy Manifeste™ Friends of the Manifesto) composed of non-Muslim intellectuals expressing their solidarity Covwew manifest. org), Tek All, a French union activist, who was born in Morocco of Algerian parents, and his wile Brigite Bardes, a teacher and feminist activist, are che authors of this Manifesto, 15. Omid Safi, “Introduction,” in Omid ‘Oneworld, 2003), 3 16, Omid Saf, “Introduction”, 18. 17. Progressive Muslim Union of North America, “PMU Statement of Principles” bupu/wvow pmuns.orp. (eal), Progressive Muslims (Oxford 404