ee Ce eat Perris ot ern nce alee eed piss Seer eae Lat peepee hepehmeetieeterees ra reat ene ere Pee Raed ieee rete Deere eed ap eoee Ponte rar enc hach eee nett mere meee ad eich ecrur tenner peepee ae nero peer wey fe) fe) Ke} iy P= ° rad Littler TagCIRCUIT wn METER Lame SYMBOLS eaTTERY ENGINEER'S MINI-NOTEBOOK SOLAR CELL PROJECTS BY FORREST M. MIMS ZL FIRST PRINTING -1494 A SILICONCERTS™! Book. COPYRIGHT © 1994 By FORREST M. Mims ut | ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PRINTED IN) THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,ABOUT THE MINI-NOTEBOOK SERIES: 9 WHERE TO FIND! PARTS. ELECTRON |c PARTS IN THIS Zook ARE AVAILABLE FROM RAIOSRACK STORES. OR FROM RADIOSHAGK UNLIMITED (RSL). SOME PARTS NAVE NORE THAN ONE. DESIGNATION FOR EXAMRE, THE PofucAR 2N2Z22, TRANSISTOR CAN BE REPLACED EY THE 2w2222A, THE MP522221 AND THE 14982222 PLEASE READ THIS THis. Book INCLUDES STANDARD _CIRCLITS Aut CIRCUITS DESIGNED ay FORREST M) MIMS IL, EACH THE OU CRISIS OF WE 1970S STIMULATED. SIGNIFICANT. NEW RESEARCH IN SOLAR ENERGY. OLD KINDS OF SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS WERE IMPROVED AND NEw KINDS WERE DEVELOPED. THin-FILM SOLAR CEU (4985°s) — MANY KINDS OF SOLAR CEUS HAVE BEen! DEVELOPED, BUT THIN-FILM CELLS OF SILICON AND. OTHER SEMICONDUCTORS ARE AMONG THE MOST IMPORTANT, THEY CAN BE MADE AS FLEXIBLE SHEETS MUCH LARGER THAA STANDARD SILICON SOLAR. CELLS. isLCENERGY FROM THE! SUN THE SUN EMTS. AN INCREDISLE AMOUNT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC. RADIATION, THE TOTAL: RADIATED POWER 16 5.83x10" KILOWATTS CRU) G8 585 000,000,004 o00,00,000,006200. warts. Most oF Tis RabiATION 1s’ cost ro-SPAcE. “ONLY A TINY FRACTION 1S INTERCEPTED BY. EARTH AWD THE OTHER PLAVETS. ACCORDING TO THE SOLAR ENERGY INDUSTRIES ASSOCIATON. GErA), ALC THE ELECTRICITY CONSUMED IN THE unvreD STATES Couto EE PROVIDED. ey. PHOTOVOLTALe SOLAR CELL MODULES COVERING 013\%4 0F THE CAND AREA OF THE U.S, CTHE SOLAR CONSTANT t IRE MEAN AMOoWT OF SUNLIGAT AT THE TOP_OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE 1S CALLED THE SOLAR CONSTAMT. MEASUREMENTS MADE BY SEVERAL SATELLITES SHOw _TALCT THE SOLAR CONSTANT IS 186.6 WATTS PER SQUARE CENTIMETER. ' 0m noha = ~ A eed w/a oR 1308 W/m *. SC rt Serr EARTH TE SUNLIGHT INTENSITY AT EARTH VARIES. ESCAUSE EARTH'S OREIT AROUND THE SUN! IS SUIGHTLY ELLIPTICAL. THE MEAN DISTANCE 0€ EARTH FRom THE SUN 15 42,957, 120 MILES (144,400,000. KWLoMETERS)) IN) EARLY TANUARY EARTH! 1S ABOUT 1,600,600. MILES G,,S15,000 Kx) closeR To THE SUN. ins FARLY “TULY EARTH IS “ABOUT 1,400, 00 Mies 2,595,600 KM) FARTHER FROM THE SUM. GEE Beane oA acini Page.) i, 585,30 mn rf 91,357) a FIRE DIFFERENCE ie THE WTENSITY OF SURUGHT GETWEEN PERINELION (cLO=EST POINT) AnD. APAELION CFARTAEST PoIT) IS ABOUT G.7 %, USE THE SOLAR COMSTART TABLE TD FIND THE SOLAR CONSTANT FOR THE FIRST. DAY OF ANY MONTH. SOLAR CONSTANT TABLE MUCTLPLY Tae MEAN) SoLAR cOuSTANT (1,308 WATTS PER SQUARE METER OR 136.8 MULIWATS PER SQUARE CENTIMETER) BY THE CORRECTION NUMBERS JN THIS TASLE 70 FIND THE ACTUAL SOLAR IRRADIANCE an TAE GIVEN DATES. JANUARY Lots Tuy 0.abu6, FEGRUARY 1.0288 — AudusT 0.9704) MARQH. 10173 SepremeeR 0.9878 APRIL, 9004 | loerogen 0. 4495 MAY 0.9841 NovEMBER 10.164 Tous O.474L. DECEMBER 110288 FROM KINSELL L. Coulson , "Soran AND. TERRESTRIAL RADIATION,’ ACADEMIC PRESS , ins, EXAMPLE: WHAT IS THE sun's _IARADIAN) AT THE TOP oF THE ATMOSPHERE on) MAY 1? THE IRRADIANCE. ON May L 150.9841 OF ME (MEAN) SOLAR CONSTANT. OF 126.8 MiLLAWATTS PER SQUARE CENTIMETER. 0.9841 x 136.8 15 TIMGLSMLAWATTS PER SQUARE CENTIMETER.SUNLIGHT AND THE ATMOSPHERE A SOLAR CELL ON A SATEWITE RECEIVES AT LEAST 15% MORE SOLAR ENERGY THAN, [AN IDENTICAL SOLAR CELL ON EARTH. FOR EXAMPLE, AT NOON OA) JULY 1 THE SOLAR IRRADIANCE AT ALBUQUERQUE, NEW. MEXICO, Is ABOUT tog MictIWATTS PER’ SQUARE Cm Goo mw /ame) IF THE SUN IS HoT BLOCKED BY A CLOUD. “FROM THE SOLAR CONSTANT TABLE (P92) THE IERADIANCE AT THE TOP OF TAE ATMOSPHERE ON JULY 4 IS 0.9466 % 136.8 mw/Cm? OR 132.2 mW) /Om? THUS ONLY 75.0% "OF THE INTENSITY of THE SUNUGHT AT TRE TOP OF THE ATMOSPHERE REACHES ALBUQUERQUE ON JULY 4. ALBUQVERQUE, Is ABOUT 1 MILE (1.6 KLOMETERS) ABOVE SEA LEVEL AND THE AIR IS OFTEN DRY. LESS SUNLIGHT REACAES REGIONS NEARER SEA LEVEL, ESPECIALLY WHEN THE AIR, IS MOIST. MUGK LESS SUWLIGHT IS RECEIVED EVERYWHERE DURING WINTER AND WHEN Clouds Block THE SKY. HERE ARE SoME OF THE CHIEF FACTORS TRAT AFFECT SUNCIGHT + 1. WATER VAPOR , OZONE AND. OTHER GASES IN THE ATMOSPAERE ABSORB SUNLIGAT. SOME SUNLIGHT IS SCATTERED IN VARIOUS DIRECTIONS BY MOLECULES OF a” sun AIR, THIS IS RAYLEIGH SCATTERING. OZONE AgsoRss DUTRAVIOLET AND ORANGE LIGHT AND VARIOUS INSERARED WAVELENGTHS ozone, =U taver WATER VAPOR, WATER VAPDR ABSORES VARIOUS IWRRARED WAVELENCTHS 2. AEROSOLS ARE TINY PARTICCES AND DROPLETS IN THE ATMOSPHERE THAT CAN AESORE CONSIDERABLE. SUNLIGHT OR SCATTER LT BACK INTO. SPACE. sun SCATTERING. oi LENs N fenosas Ne mane Pent bust Geers tne Py hike ARSDREING _,“ AEROSOL” POLLEN. see ar eet | tae S. CLoubs ARE FORMED FROM ENORMOUS RoMGERS OF THUY WATER DROPLETS OR ICE CRYSTALS. CLOUDS AZSORE AND SCATTER LIGHT. cuMuLUs clouds ‘CAN ABSORE MOST LAST. uN A DIRECT BEAM FROMTHE SUN. SS » y * zl cuRRUS coups es ABsone LESS @ Reta SUNUGAT TRAN. ee CUMULUS cLouDs. 4.THE TILT OF THE EARTH CAUSES suNcicuT. 7O PASS THROUGH MORE ATMOSPHERE OURING. FALL, WINTER AND SPainc. 9 o = 9 SUMMER sox winter, Less JT axmosracre More, 5 ATMOSPHERE aSOLAR CELLS == MANY, SEMICONDUCTORS. WILL GENERATE ELECTRICITY. FROM SUNLIGHT. THE Most COMMON AND BEST DEVELOPED SOLAR CELLS ARE MADE EROM SILICON. SINCE SILICON FORMS 27.7% OF EARTH'S CRUST, SiLicon SOLAR CELLS ARE POTENTIALLY IbEXPENISWE. Bur TRANSFORMING. SILICON {K:70. SOLAR CELLS 1S, AN EXPENSIVE PROCESS TAAT REQUIRES CONSIDERAELE ELECTRICITY. HOW SOLAR CELLS WORK LIGHT consists of PACKETS OF ENERGY CALLED PHOTDNS THAT TRAVEL INA WAVE~ LUKE FASAION. WHEN PHOTONS STRLKE SILICON ATOMS. THEY DISLODGE ELECTRONS, THE Missi ELECTRONS LEAVE BEHIND POSITIVELY CHARGED ATOMS. THESE ATOMS ATTRACT EREE ELECTRONS I THE SILICON. TIS RANDOM MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS CAn GE CONVERTED INTO A FLOW oF ELECTRONS IF A PN TUNCTION IS FORMED IN THE SWIcoN. ELECTRONS DISLODGED By PHOTONS NEAR THE PN) FONCTION ARE ATTRACTED To THE P SIDE LOF THE FUNCTION. THE REsuCT Is A Flow OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT WHEN LIGHT IS PRESENT. THe LEVEL oF CURRENT IN AMPERES 13 DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TD THE LIGHT INTENSITY. THE POTENTIAL OF THE CURRENT IN VOLTS \S DMRELATEO TD TRE CIGHT INTENSITY, ATYPICAL SILICON SOLAR CELL GENERATES O.45 TD O.SS VOLT IN OIRET SUNLIGHT. Fy] -—cureent Syn Ftow x +] +t Lomo | a} Sovak cect iz. SOLAR CELL EFFICIENCY Le EVERY POIs staiKinG A SOLAR CELL DISLDDGES| Ani ELECTRON, THE CBU WILL TRANSFORM NEARLY 100 % OF THE LIGHT TAAT STReS {TTD ELECTRICITY. THE, ACTUAL EFFICIENCY OF REAL SOLAR CELLS i IS FROM. ABOUT 5% To 20%. meee ARE SEVERAL REASONS FoR REDUCED EFFICIENCY: eee) Lande lak ete sani Se atta S-SOME LIGHT 15! ae acguen tym) TYPICAL SiLicont CZ uprer SOLAR CONTACTS den | Gasunuty 3 same lett is ARSoRRED | PRY ene a Bence ate | wy CEUUS PN JUNCTION. cat + eRe eR er er Ea NE” Ai Souae ofits oeréer ono pret De Me SOLAR sPecTRUM, > 1 Tsuna feaks r Eo] mere) concen) 2s Y ResRowse of é Siiscon cei PEAKS $ WS TRE NEAR INERARED | a tt spo" son eno uso _10¢01 ene. 800-40 3 WAVELENGTA Gam) 1BSILICON SOLAR CELL RATINGS 1.15 WMAPORTANT TO READ_AND UNDERSTAND SOLAR CELL RATINGS, ESPECIALLY WHEN THE CELLS ARE TO BE USED TO CHARGE A STORAGE CELL OR BATTERY, SILICON SOLAR CELL VOLTAGE “EL none “WAT_THE OLTAGE FLATTENS SLUR fae Liste unenstns orceeases OPEN CIRCUIT (mo LOAD AcROSS SotaR cece) b oD Sehte! CELL CONNECTED REROSS A S0-ouM RESISTOR CELL, VOLTAGE STRING OF SOLAR CELLS CONNECTED IN. SERIES OR Im PARACLEL (SEE Beco) 1S CALLED AN ARRAY. ALL MAE CELS IN AnD ARRAY SHOULD BE EQUALLY ILLUMINATED. SHADING ONE CELL IN A @.5-UOLT ARRAY. DROPRED. THE OUTPUT TD 6.2 volts. SILICON SOLAR CELL CURRENT zal THIS. GRAPA SHOWS THE. gus CURRENT FROM A. SILICON s SOLAR CEL FOR A RANGE S00 OF LOAD RESISTANCES. tn THE SAME. SOLAR CELL WAS 34s USED 7D PRODUCE. TAIS g GRAPA AWD THE OME on % s0| THE FACING PAGE. OTHER a CELLS MAY. GUE. SOMEWHAT. we DIFFERENT RESULTS, ce AO ola tets are late la ap Ligat Intensity INCREASING SOLAR CELL VOLTAGE WHEN SOLAR CELLS ARE USED. TD CHARGE STORAGE Ceus Of BATTERIES, SEVERAL, CELLS MUST BE CONNECTED IN’SERIES TO OBTAIN A SUFFKIENTLY HIGH VOLTAGE. Q ip to 36 4050 40 76. 8099 ida. LOAD ACROSS. CELL Connns) INCREASING SOLAR CELL CURRENT, CONNECTING SOLAR CELLS IN PARALLEL INCREASES THE OUTPUT CURRENT, THIS IS ESPECIALLY USERUL_ WHEN CHARGING. LARGE STORAGE GATTERIES. fiers a mite $i ECR isSOLDERING LEADS TOSOLAR CELLS SOLAR CELLS_OR SOLD WhiTH OR WITHOUT LEADS. SOLDERING LEADS TD SOLAR CES 1S TRICKY, BUT YOU CAN SAVE MONEY IF YOU ARE WILLIN'S 7D SOLDER THE LEADS YOURSELF USING THE REFLOW SOLDERING METHOD DESCRIBED HERE. 50 USE CARE. SUITABLE SOLDERING IRONS AND SOLDER ARE AVAILABLE FROM RADIOSHACK. SELECT A LoW-WATTAGE IRON. OF ABOUT 16 7 30 WATTS. USE_0.032- INGH_OR SMALLER ROSIN CORE SOLDER. DO NOT USE AciD-CORE SOLDER. GE SURE TD TIN THE TiP OF THE SOLDERING IRON. FIRST, ALLOW THE IRON TO BECOME HOT ENOUGH TD MELT SocDER. THEN. MECT SOLDER OVER THE TIP OF THE SOLOERING IRON. CAREFULLY BRUSH OFF THE EXCESS SOLDER WITH A SOFT CLOTH. AVOID SPLASHING SOLDER ON YOURSELF OR OTHERS. A PROPERLY. TINNED TIP WILL APPEAR SMOOTH AND SHINY. FOLLOW THESE STEPS TD SOLDER LEADS TO A SOLAR CELL 4. FINDA SAFE PLACE TO WORK. IT 15 ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT TMAT THE SOLDERING IRONS POWER CORD BE SAFELY PLACED. sO BE SURE AN ELECTRICAL QUTLET [Ss NEARBY. GBUTION: A HOT SOLDERING IRON CAN BURN Skin OR CLOTRING | 2. SILICON SOLAR CELLS HAVE ELECTRODES (ON GOTH SIDES. THE ELECTRODE on THE LIGHT SENSITIVE, UPPER SURFACE |S A THln) STRIP! OF METAL ALONG ONE EDGE OF THE CELL. PLACE THE CELL WITH THE TOP SIDE UPON YouR WORK SURFACE. CA PlEcE OF ScRAP wood 1S GEST) AND USE A PIECE OF MASKING TAPE To LD iT IN PLACE WHILE You SOLDER. iG SOLAR CEU'S. ARE FRAGILE, 3. WHEN THE SOLDERING IRON) IS HOT, GENTLY TOUCK TRE EDGE of THE TIPTD ONE END bf THE UPPER ELECTRODE. Like THIS? MASKING. TAPE urree ELecTaone WL AFTER A SECOND oR So, TOUCH THE END) OF A LENGTH OF SCLDE@ TO WHERE THE SOLDERING IRON TOUCHES THE ELECTRODE. ALCow SOME SOLDER TO MELT ONTO THE ELECTRODE AND REMOVE THE IRON. 5. REMOVE ABOUT 0.2 INCH.(S mm) OF THE ISSULATION FROM THE END OF SOME WRAPPING WIRE. PLACE THe EXPOSED END of THE WIRE ALONG THE TOP OF THE SOLDER THAT You MELTED onito THE ELECTRODE AND THEN GENTLY PRESS THE SOLDERING (RON AGAINST. THE WikE AND REMELT THE SOLDER. WHEN THE WIRE PUSHES INTO THE MOLTEN SOLDER, HOLD THE WIRE VERY STILL ANG REMOVE THE SOLDERING IRON. SOLAR SDLDERING ce [RON ~~ wiRe, Sorpée G. AETER THE SOLAR CELL COOLS, Gently REMOVE THE TAPE, FLIP THE CELL OVER AND TAPE Ir In PLACE AGAIN, FoLlow STEPS 3-S AGove To SOLDER A LENGTH OF WRAPPING WIRE To THE BACK ELECTRODE. AFTER THE WIRE SINKS IND THE MOLTEN SOLDER, BE SURE TO KEEP THE WIRE VERY STLC WHILE THE SOLDER COOLS, } 7ef MOUNTING SOLAR CELLS SOLAR CELLS ARE AVAILABLE UNMOUNTED og IWSTALLED IN VARIOUS KINDS OF PROTECTIVE ENCLOSURES. IT'S BEST To INSTALL UNMOUNTED CEUs IN AN ENCLOSURE og TO MOUNT THEM ON A PROTECTIVE PANEL. Two metHoDS THAT I HAVE USED ARE DEScRIGED HERE. ADVANTAGES OF MOUNTED CELLS 4, SOLAR CELLS ARE BRITTLE AND EASILY BROKEN. MOUNTING THEM GREATLY REDUCES THE RISK OF BREAKAGE. 2.WIRE LEADS SOLDERED TOA SOLAR cete ARE EASILY PULLED AWAY. MOUNTING THE CELL WILL PROTECT THE LEADS B.AN ENCLOSURE OR PANEL CAN BE MOUNTED, ON THE CIRCUIT ITIS DESIGNED To POWER. 4. AN Enccosuré_or PANEL PRoTECTS THE SOLAR CELL(S) FROM MolsTURE AND DUsT, INSTALLING CELLS IN AN ENCLOSURE ONE OR MORE SOLA CELLS CAN BE EASILY NOSTALLED IN A TRANSPARENT BOX, CLEAR. SOLAR bwogerRuctED Plastic CEL VIEW OF THE SON Box ances OR LIGHT SouRcE i FOAM PLASTIC cushion) Rous ee ce CeADS PLACE. 1a i E THE DRAWING ON THE FACING PAGE shows A SOLAR CELL SANDWICHED BETWEEN A FOAM PLASTIC CUSHION AND THE LID OF A CLEAR PLASTIC Box. YOU CAN ALSO. SAMDWACH THE CELL(s) BETWEEN THE LID AND A. PLASTIC. OR CARDBOARD LINER INSERTED IN THE LID AND. CEMENTED IN PLACE. TAVE USED \NDIVIDUAL RADIOSHACK SOLAR. CELLS |NSTALLED IN PLASTIC. GOES AS LiGAT SENSORS WITHOUT EVER DAMAGING A CELL OR BREAKING ITs LEADS. SERIES OR PARALLEL ARRAYS OF CELLS CAN BE INSTALLED IN LARGER PLASTIC BOXES. SbuER THE CELLS TO ONE ANOTHER WITH SHORT LENGTHS oF WRAPPING WIRE. SECURE THE CELLS IN. PLACE AS SHOWN On) THE FACING PAGE OR USE A LINER AS DESCRIGED ABOVE. Be SURE THE CONNECTION WIRES Do Not BLOCK AsY OF THE CELLS. MOUNTING SOLAR CELLS ONA PANEL FoR Many YEARS T HAVE USED HOMEMADE SOLAR CELL PANELS To CHARGE FLASHLIGHT SEUS ON Bicycle TRIPS. HERE'S How THEY ARE MAD! PLACE A CLEAR ACRYLIC. OK 70 Bead oF MOUNT. SILICONE BATTERY CEMENT HOLDER AROUND, ATEND ceus OF PANELSOLAR CELL CONCENTRATORS. A SOLAR CELL CONCENTRATOR INCREASES SME Amount OF LIGHT COULECTED @Y. A. SOLAR CELL. CONCENTRATORS ARE BEST USED. IN)_APPLICATIONS IN. WHICH. SOLAR CELLS ARE USED AS LIGHT SENSORS FOR VARIOUS CIRCUITS, RATAER THAN POWER GENERATORS. A CONCENTRATOR CAN BCOST TE POWER FROM A SOLAR CELL ILLUMINATED GY SUNLIGHT. BUT CONCEATRATORS ARE Nor ALWAYS PRACTICAL FOR THIS PURPOSE SINCE THEY CAN CAUSE A CELL TO BECOME DVERNEATED. PARABOLIC REFLECTOR LARGE FLASHUGATS THAT USE REPLACE ARLE BULES CAN BE USED AS CONCENTRATORS FoR SOLAR CEUS. MOUNT TO CELLS BACK-TO.-BACK WITH DOUELE SIDED TAPE CONNECT THE PLUS LEAD OF ONE CELL. TO TRE NEGATIVE LEAD OF TRE SECOND cea, EXTEND THE REMAINING LEADS THROUGH THE LAMP OPENING. USE AN ADHESIVE TO SECURE THE CELLS INSIDE THE REFLECTOR. THE FLASHLIGHT CASE HAS PLENTY OF ROOM. TO INSTALL MANY. KINDS OE LIGHT ACTUATED CIRCUITS. ne eLEcroR Ve NK oS bait fe ‘eno view SIDE VIEW CEMENT SOLAR CELL LEADS TO LAMP OPENING PAMR_OF BAcK-TO-tACK SOLAR CELLS 20. FRESNEL LENS. SOLAR Finer PLASTIC GEL I FRESNEL, LEMS IS Ly EN TF AN Excelibar t CONCENTRATOR Es f FOR A SOLAR. <<] ce wir ves aL { AND CELL INSTALLED. INA HOUSING, 70 A <= ere wee ge ELECTRONIC, * PLENTY OF SPACE. CIRCUIT LENS FOR CIRCUUTRY., TROUGH CONCENTRATOR SOLAR CELL wer TH < TROVGA CAN BE PLASTIC OR Sheer |METAL, UNEO WITH SAIWY ALUMINUM TAPE. BOX CONCENTRATOR ALUMioM Fou. oR Suny, ALOMINUM, TAPE SOLAR cell. MAKE @ox FROM PLASTIC OR SHEET METAL FOR Best RESULTS. raLEAD= ACID AND Nickel CADMIUM. (NiCd) ARE THE MosT Common STORAGE SATTERIES, CERTAIN ALKALWGE y LITHIUM AND OTHER TYPES cans Aso BE USED AS RECHARGEAELE STORAGE EATTERIES. WHEN CHARGING ALSTORAGE GATTERY YoU MUST OBSERVE SEVERAL PRECAUTIONS TD AvdiD DAMAGE TOME EATTERY OR.ONE OF ITS CEUs. THESE PRECAUTIONS WILL ALSO GREATLY REOUCE THE POSSIBILITY OF FIRE OR EVEN EXPLOSION, WHICK CAM OCCUR WHER A STORAGE BATTERY IS IMPROPERLY CUARGED. STORAGE BATTERY PRECAUTIONS 1. CHARGE ON CUS Ano BATTERIES Pésiguep To RE RECHARGED, CAUTION: NEVER ATTEMPT TO CHARGE OTHER FINDS OF EAXTERIES! THEY MAY OVERHEAT, Swell AND POSsiBAy EXPLODE. 2. NEVER EXcEED THE AwxiMuMm ALLOWED CHARGING CURRENT FOR A STORAGE CEL oR BATTERY. INSTEAD OF REDUCING TRE CHARGING TIME, TRE CELL OR THE BATTERY MAY €& RURIED. 3, CHARGE MULTIPLE STORAGE CELLS In SERIES INSTEAD OF IN PARAWEL. + 4 KEEP BATTERIES AWAY FROM. DIRECT SUNUGHT WHILE BEING CHARGED, CELLS IN SERIES: 56 5. IF A BATTERY BECOMES KOT WHILE BEING CHARGED, IMMEDIATELY OiScoNMECT IT OR Remove i'r FROM TAE SOLAR CHARGER. figow IT To cool EEFORE USING. IT. @ 0 SOLAR CELL BATTERY CHARGERS \ Bie « caynign! pa eats ~ OF A STORAGE, WAIL CELL OR BATTERY STORAGE Woh A WAIL, CATTERY COIN, METAL Fo. OR OTHER CONDUCTOR. 7_USE TAPE 0 INSLLATE THE EXPOSED TERMINALS OF STORAGE CELLS AND. BATTERIES. OTHERWASE THE TERMINALS MIGHT BECOME ACCIDENTALLY SHORTED TOGETHER. WHEN PossiBcE, Use An ISSLATED BATTERY HOLDER OR CONNECTION CLiPS. WITA INSULATED LEADS. B. ITS BEST TO CHARGE NICKEL CADMIUM STORAGE CEULS AND GATTERIES WHEN THEY ARE FULLY DISCHARGED. THIS INCREASES. THE TIME THESE CEU'S WILL FUNCTION BETWEEN CHARGES. 9, NEVER GUESS AgouT THE SPéciFicATIONS, OF AN. UNKNOWN OR UNMARKED GATTERY. THE SPECIFICATIONS of BATTERIES SOLD BY RADIOSHACK ARE LISTED IA) THE RADIOSHACK, CATALOG. You CAN Find THE SPECIFICATIONS OF BATTERIES VIA TAE WoRLD Wide WER. BEGIN YOUR SEARCH BY SELECTING ONE OF THE WEB SEARCH ENGINES. TYPE WA) TAE MANUFACTURER'S NAME AND THE WoRD "BATTERY" OR *cECL* 1D NARROW YouR SEARCH. ialSOLAR CELL BATTERY CHARGERS. SERIES ARRAYS OF SOLAR CELLS ARE USED TO CHARGE STORAGE CELLS AND ZATTERIES. THE ARRAY MUST GENERATE A SLIGHTLY KIGHER. VOLTAGE THAN TAAT OF TAE BATTERY BEING CHARGED, HERE ARE TAE NUMBER OF SERIES — SOMNECTED CELLS COMMONLY USED TO CHARGE SOME POPULAR BATTERY CONFIGURATION S: 4 L2-voet NiGd CELL 4 SOLAR CELCS DARUOLT NiCd CELLS IN SERIES — 9 SOLAR CELLS 4 Lo-volr Nied CELLS IN SERIES —1e SOLAR CELLS, 4 A2-WoLT LEAD-ACID BATTERY —e SOLAR ceus SOLAR PAAR CHARGER THIS CIRCUIT WILE CHARGE 2 AA Nicd ce”es, IF THE CELLS ARE FULLY DISCHARGED, SOLAR CELLS THAT GENERATE SD TO 100 mA” wict CHARGE THE CES In AGOUT STO & HOURS, Di PREVENTS THE NiCd CELLS FROM. DISCHARGING THRcUGH THE SOLAR cEuS. 24 SOLAR BATTERY CHARGER ITIPS 1 NEVER EXCEED THE RECOMMENDED CMARGE RATE FoR B STORAGE CELL. 2LINCREASED CURRENT REDUCES CHARGING TIME. CHECK THE BATTERY'S SPECIFICATIONS, TO FIND TRE MAKIMUM ALLOWAGLE CURRENT. 3,0 NoT USE A SOLAR ARRAY THAT BELUERS. Too MUCH CURRENT To THE CELLS BENG CHARGED. H. SEVERAL TIMES A DAY REORIENT A SOLAR PANEL So \T FACES THE SUN. ‘5, S0LAR (CELLS work BEST WHEN cool. AUOID PLACING A SOLAR PANEL ON SURFACES THAT BECOME HOT IN SUNLIGHT, SucH AS PAVEMENT o@ DARK PAINTED METAL, G. STORAGE BATTERIES CAN BE MOUNTED ON THE GACK SIDE OF A SOLAR PANEL, EUT TREY WORK BEST WHEN KEPT INA COOLER LocATION WHILE GEING CHARGED. MONITORING A SOLAR CHARGER You CAN MEASURE THE CURRENT FROM A SOLAR PANEL WwiTd A MULTIMETER. 4. CONNECT A MUCTIMETER SET TO MEASURE CURRENT BETWEEN THE BLOCKING DIODE AND. THE BATTERY BEING CHARGED. GE SURE | TO OBSERVE POLARITY, oR... 2. CONNECT A 1-OUM POWER REsistOR BETWEEN THE ELockING C1O0E AND THE BALTERY BEING CHARGED. USE A MULT METER To MEASURE THE VOLTAGE (v) ACROSS The RESistoR CR). FROM OHMS Cay, CURREAT EQUALS N/R OR IN THIS CASE, VIOTAKE A'SOLAR CELL INTO SPACE SOLAR CELLS ARE SENSITIVE TO ONLY PART OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM. THEREFORE A SOLAR CELL Cen Nor MEASURE THE POWER OF THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF SUNLIGHT AT THE TOP OF THE ATMOSPHERE CTHE SOLAR CONSTANT), EVEN, IF You 2 J ARRANGEMENT. tp) oRuse A CASHLGHT N=84 yourAce \ : aN Miso" LED vou ace | /Lews Tis LEO cuasent | Ligut shieUD whe WHEN THs. +4 Stace 1S Open Te cn cuits, Belay i PoUeD in AnD the Ley Cubs, Abucr et fro conmaee sensany, socae ceut 3] le Arer/, ‘ mie aeuy id can contro lai ge AmMoToR, — [zRFS10 Am, Lame, ert. fo Ta\fry > RZ conTRoLs, = OPAMP GAIN, tet qLoar, iH RY1 Is RADIOSHACK 275-004 OR SIMILAR LowW-CURRENT RECAY. 34PULSED BREAK-BEAM SYSTEM a A PULSED BREAK-BEAM StsTéA Is GENERALLY IMMUNE XO STEADY-STATE LIGAT SOURCES, THIS (5 VERY IMPORTANT WHEN TRE SYSTEM, 1S OPERATED IN THE PRESENCE OF ROOM LIGHTS OR WEAK SUNLIGHT. A SOLAR CELL RECEIVER FOR A PULSED GREAK-EEAM SYSTEM, 15 SHOWN ON TAE. FACIAIG PAGE. SHOWN, BGLow [SA SSS PULSED LED TRANSMITTER THAT WILL WORK WITH THIS RECEIVER PULSED BREAK- BEAM TRANSMITTER: o mi +4 R2 controcs fox PULSE FREQUENCY Ch contRos 4 PULSE wiDTH | RL = 4006 7 Ra % RB. e t 555 tk z 2 qt Leo rem Oot mF r For Gest RESuUTS: 4, USE AN INFRARED oR SUPER GRicaT RED LED FoR MaxIMUM RANGE. 2, POWER THE TRANSMITTER ANO RECEIVER FRom SEPARATE SATTERIES. 3. 6 SuRe THE BEAM FROM THE CED [MLUMINATES THE SOLAR cECL. Yo fob ttt PULSED BREAK-BEAM RECEIVER C1 _thocks Ri contaais Tae Sisnal + 9V THE GAIN OF FROM. STEADY- OP AMP TLog2. STATE ReDvcE 4 TD Lent REDUCE THE GAIN), ‘SOURCES. Po Re SOLAR cee |e THE LED 1S USED a TEST oRcUT OPERATION, Skis Aw Seo Switen, Ry AS RADIOSHACK 18-004 RELAY TO OPERATE, swireK Sito POSITION A ADTUST R2'OF THE TRANSMITTER TO ITS MID-POINT. WHEN LIGHT FROM THE LED Is, STRIKING THE SOLAR cELc, ADWST 4 OF THE RECEIVER UN TL THE RE'CEIVER'S LED. SWITCHES ON. THE LED sHoucD switch OFF WHEN THE TRANSMITTER LED IS POINTED AWAY, FROM THE SOLAR CELL.OR ITS LIGHT IS BLOCKED. switcH Si TO E 1D SELECT RELAY. 44SUN POWERED TONE GENERATORS. THE CIRCUITS ON THIS AND THE FACING PAGE ARE POWERED SOLELY BY SUNLIGHT OR A BRIGHT LAMP. MOST PRODUCE A TONE OR BUzz. ONE GENERATES A.SOUND THAT SOUNDS MUCH LIKE A TICKING ELOcK. SOLAR POWERED PIEZO BUZZER SOLAR cee THE SOLAR ARRAY aneay 1s MUST. PROVIDE PZ SUPFICIENT VOLTAGE et 5 70. POWER THE PIEZO { > eu22€R. ANY PIEZO Buzzee CAN SE. POWERED BY SuMLicHT, P2 1s A PlEZo Buzzer. SOLAR POWERED DUAL-GATE OSCILLATOR THE SOLAR ceLe ARRAY SHOULD, PROVIDE 3 voLTS SOLAR cELL ARRAY Re 470K Pe. #iicREASE TO © WouTs. FOR MoRE voLuMe. Ries Onn EXPERIMENT wih VALUE OF C1 AND RA TO CHANGE FREQUENCY. 42 bag mepetetet | = 6 SOLAR POWERED 555 OSCILLATOR Ri conrras, FREQUENCY. P2is A PIEZO Buzzee on SPEAKER ELEMENT, FoR GEST RESULTS THE socaa. CELL ARRAY SHouLD PROVIDE 2.70.4 voLTs. SOLAR POWERED CLICKER (4) Pz. ch 7 tae 8 ai 0K Pzis A Piezo Buzzer (OR SPEAKER ELEMENT. REDUCE, et to INCREASE FREQUENCY. SOLAR POWERED CLICKER (2), at 2k 1 SOLAR, yaa fp te Tis cigcuir emits SOUND. Like THAT OF A TICKING cuock. US€ 3-volT SOLAR ARRAY, LED IS A BLINKING. TYPE LED. Ok TD REPLACE. Pz with MACNETIC SPEARES aLIGHT CONTROLLEB TONE SILICON SOLAR CELLS CAN BE USED IN MANY KinDS OF TONE GENERATORS THAT RESPOND TD DAYLIGHT OR ARTIFICIAL ClGHT. LIGHT CONTROLLED SS5 OSCILLATOR: THE FREQUENCY AnD VOLUME oF souND PRobucéD. gy A BASIC SSE OSCILLATOR cin) SE EASILY MODIFIED BY CONNECTING A SILICON SOLAR CELL AT VARIOUS POINTS. +9 Apsust RA TO CHANGE FREQUENCY SOLAR ce @ with cei nene | inereasing Licar IWEREASEE TONE FREQUENCY, AN ISTERESTING APFLICATION Is TD REPLACE Ct WITHA SOLAR, CELL. | SINCE A SoLAR CELL HAS, CAPACITANCE , THE CiRcuiT wide OScILLATE, LIGAT ar THE CELL wilt CHANGE THE TONE. FREQUENCY OR CUT IT OFF ENTIRELY, THE CEL SHOULD BE ORIENTED Like cecL@), HIGH GAIN LIGHT CONTROLLED TONE P2- Piezo SPEAKER +9y. OR BUZZER ELEMENT SOLAR, cell a x Boo @y © of a z e ame Pore @A ot TT ®t eeis eezo SOEAKER Ti ELEMENT CONNECT SOLAR CELL HERE. (ncReAsinG KXoHT WILL INCREASE TONE FREQUENCY. Wim CEU CONNECTED. HERE, INCREASING {eur REDUCES VOLUME FROM. Pe. LIGHT FALLING ON CEU HERE REDUCES EREQUENCY OR COTS OFF TONE ENTIRELY. LichT STRIKING CELL HERE REDUCES YoLuHe FROM PZ OR GUTS OFF TONE. LIGHT FALLING On CELL HERE Cums OFF SOME OR CAUSES CHIRPS: LIGHT STRIKING CELL HERE REDUCES THE TONE. FREQUENCY. 44 commons OP AMP G48, Ere). THE FREQUENCY OF THE TONE PRODUCED BY THIS CIRCUIT IS REDUCED AS THE INTENSITY of LIGRT AT THE SOLAR CELL IS INCREASED. I OPERATION, THE PHOTOCURRENT. FROM THE SOLAR CELL Is AMPLIFIED AND CONUERTED TO A VOLTAGE BY OP AMP IC1. THIS VOLTAGE IS THEN. APPLIED To THE CONTROL INAUT OF A SSS IC CONNECTED AS AN OSCILLATOR. WHEN THE Solag ceLis DARK, ADSUST RZ. UNTIL THE DESIRED TONE Is PRODUCED. THEW ILLUMINATE THE SDLAR CELL. You CAN GET. DMIQUE EFFECTS BY USING A FLASHING Light. beIR REMOTE CONTROLTESTERS NEAR-INFRARED EMITTING DIODES ARE USED IN REMOTE CONTROL TRANSMITTERS FOR TELEVISIONS, VIDEO RECORDERS. AND. OTHER SYSTEMS. THEY ARE ALSO USED TD TRANSMIT DATA FRéM VARIOUS COMPUTERS. THE CIRCUITS SHOWN HERE VERIFY THAT NEARS INFRARED TRANSMITTERS ARE OPERATING. PIEZO ELEMENT TESTERS Rep Tt gep sovan souar Fi cence cou te ° ar 2 eI Z ginc [pz eusen] Pz, PZ\S ANY PIEZOELECTRIC SPEAKER ELEMENT OR EARPHONE. Coo NoT USE A PlEZcELECTRIC u22ER.) TL IN THE CIRCUIT. ON THE RIGAT IS ANY MIIATURE AUDIO OUTPUT TRANSFORMER. THIS CIRCUIT PROVIDES A LOUDER SOUND THAN THE CIRCUIT ON THE CERT. TEST TRE IR REMOTE CONTROL TRANSMITTER BY POINTING IT AT THE SOLAR CELL. A TONE WILL BE HEARD IF THE UNIT IS WORKING. MAGNETIC TRANSDUCER TESTERS flak se es Sth 2-0 3 Smee FT aren Ton HL PH Is A MINIATURE MAGNETIC EAR PHONE. BOTH CIRCUITS EMIT ATONE WHEN A WORKING IR TRANSMITTER 1S POINTED AT THE SOLAR CELL, JER SOLAR ARRAY FOR MORE VOLUME. a PES a TRANSISTOR REMOTE CONTROLTESTER PZIs A piezoscectric SPEAKER ELEMENT oR EARPHONE . (Do NoT +4y, USE A PlezoEcecTRIC. RB BUZZER.) POINT IR BAK REMOTE ContRoL AT SOLAR cE. PZ WILL EMIT TONE If UNIT IS WORKING. F 2N2222, oR k SIMILAR NPA sovagh ok TRANSISTOR OPAMP REMOTE CONTROL TESTER PZ IS A pezogtecTRIC SPEAKER ELEMENT. Gonor use A Piezo Buzzer.) 44 Iet- comHON POINT IR REMOTE CONTROL AT SOLAR CELL, PZ WILL EMIT A TONE IF THE REMOTE CONTROL TRANSMITTER IS WORKING. ADD R2 AND LED TO PROVIDE A VISUAL QUTPUT, THE LED WILL FLASH WHEN THE REMOTE CONTROL 1S POSTED AT SOLAR CELL. 47SOLAR-POWERED NIGHT LIGHT. Radiosuacxy Soran pane or PANELS | Ghdernss to paanoe. | Py ecrs. | oR MAKE | YOuROWN | b-awur | SOLAR CELL | PANEL. 4 (2-1 ceus) +] Ri contRoLs SENSinuITY aL. 200% 83 Linirs Rs__| conrent 220.2) THROVEH ShieLe THE LED PHoro ce, FROM LIGHT EmirreD at BY THE LED aneex| Leo is RED Sy OR cREEN ra Hich- cas BRIGHTNESS PHOTOCELL Tyre DURING DAYLIGHT HOURS THE SOLAR PANEL RECHARGES 1. AT NIGHT GL switches ON AND APPLIES CURRENT TO THE LED. 48 RESISTOR COLOR CODE } BLACK BROWN Red ORANGE 3 yeuwow 4 GREEN 5 voer ay 8 ware 4 wetter 8 Goo