Hydraulic

Pressure, Force & Energy
Lesson Outcome 2 (LO2:CO1)

By the end of this lesson, student should be
able to calculate force, torque, pressure, work,
energy, power and flow rate
Mass and force

Force Arising from gravitational attraction
between the mass of an object and the earth.
This force is A.K.A. weight
F = W = mg [kgms-2 or N]
m: mass [kg]
Force and pressure

Pressure in fluids: The force acting per unit area,
P = F/A [Pa or Nm-2]
100 kPa = 1 atm = 1 bar
Increase force, increase pressure.
Decrease area, increase pressure.
Example: Force F is applied to and enclosed fluid
via piston of area A. Pressure P is produced.
Pressure and weight

Pressure arising in fluid from weight of fluid:
Head pressure.
Dependent of height (h) and density (),
P = gh
Pressure transfer
What happen to the pressure in the system?
A P1>P2
B P1<P2
C P1=P2
Pressure measurements
Differential
pressure
Gauge
pressure
Absolute
pressure
Differential pressure
Almost all pressure transducers measure the
pressure difference between two input ports.
Pressure transmitter indicates P1-P2 (= P)
Gauge pressure
Almost universally used in hydraulic and
pneumatic systems.
Low pressure input port is open to
atmosphere. Pressure transmitter indicates
pressure above atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure
Pressure transmitter measuring pressure with
respect to vacuum.
Important when compression of gases are
considered.
Gauge pressure and absolute pressure
Example
A lifting is to lift a load of 15kN and is to have a
system pressure of 75 bar. How large does the piston
surface need to be?
Solution:
P = F/A
A = F/P
= 15000N/(75x105 Pa)
= 0.002 m2
Work, energy & power

Work (W) is done/energy transferred when an object is
moved at a certain distance (s) against a force (F),
W = F s [J or Nm]
Power : Rate of work,
Power = W/t (time) [Js-1 or Watt]
1 kW = 1.34 Hp
Given Flow rate (Q) = Volume [m3]/t [s],
Derive Power = P Q
Prove that Power = P Q = W/t
Pipe area A
The concepts of hydraulic energy, power, and

power transformation are simply explained in
the following: Consider a forklift that lifts a
load vertically for a distance y during a time
period t.
To fulfill this function, the forklift acts on the load

by a vertical force F. If the friction is negligible,
then in the steady state, this force equals the
total weight of the displaced parts (F=mg). The
work done by the forklift is
W=Fy
The energy delivered to the lifted body per unit of
time is the delivered power N, where
N = Fy/t = Fv
N=Mechanical power delivered to the load, W

v=Lifting speed, m/s
The load is lifted by a hydraulic

cylinder. This cylinder acts on the
lifted body by a force F and drives it
with a speed v.
The pressurized oil flows to the
hydraulic cylinder at a flow rate Q
(volumetric flow rate, m3/s) and its
pressure is p. Neglecting the friction
in the cylinder, the pressure force
which drives the piston in the
extension direction is given by F =
pAp.
Flowrate
During the time period, t, the piston travels
vertically a distance y. The volume of oil that
entered the cylinder during this period is V=Apy.
Then, the oil flow rate that entered the cylinder is
Assuming an ideal cylinder, then the hydraulic

power inlet to the cylinder is
Torque
Torque (T) is a rotary force, a product of force
(F) and the effective radius (r),
T=Fr
r
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we have learn how to:
Calculate force,
torque,
pressure,
work,
energy,
power and flow rate
In hydraulic system
200N
10 cm
50cm
Pascal and Bernoulli Principle

able to explain Bernoullis principle, Pascals
law, types of fluid flow and pressure
measurements
Pascals Law
Pressure in an enclosed fluid can be
considered uniform throughout a practical
system.
Small differences may
arise from head pressures
at different heights, but
negligible compared with
the system operating
pressure
Pascal's law AKA Principle of transmission of

fluid-pressure
is a principle in fluid mechanics that states
that pressure applied anywhere in a confined
incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in
all directions
If F at A is 50 lbf, how much the pressure at B,C,D &

E?
A) PA = PB = PC = PD = PE
B) PA = PB+PC+PD+PE
Flow rate
Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are
concerned with the flow of fluid down a pipe.
Velocity flow of a system measures linear
speed past a point of measurement.
Of prime importance in design of both
systems.
Types of fluid flow

Laminar flow:
1) Low flow velocity
2) Flow pattern is smooth
3) Low velocities at the pipe walls
4) Highest flow at the center of pipe
Laminar flow
Re < 2000
'low' velocity
Dye does not mix with water
Fluid particles move in straight lines
Rare in practice in water systems.
Types of fluid flow

Turbulence:
1) Particle do not move parallel
2) Become turbulent when velocity increased
3) Sudden change in direction of cross section
Turbulent flow
Re > 4000
'high' velocity
Dye mixes rapidly and completely
Particle paths completely irregular
Average motion is in the direction of the flow
Cannot be seen by the naked eye
Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to detect. Must use laser.
Mathematical analysis very difficult - so experimental measures are
used
Most common type of flow
Types of fluid flow

The nature of flow is determined by Reynolds number (Rc),
Rc = (vd)/
where
v : flow velocity (m/s)
d : pipe diameter (m)
: fluid density (kg/m3)
: dynamic viscosity of fluid (kg/(m.s))
If Rc < 2300, flow is laminar. If Rc > 4000, flow is turbulent
Reynolds number
Kinematic velocity, k = /
Replacing k into Rc
Rc = (vd)/k
where
v : flow velocity (m/s)
d : pipe diameter (m)
k : kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/s)
If Rc < 2300, flow is laminar. If Rc > 4000, flow is

turbulent
k : fluid kinematic viscosity

The SI unit of kinematic viscosity : m2/s.
The cgs physical unit for kinematic viscosity is
the stokes (St), named after George Gabriel
Stokes. It is sometimes expressed in terms of
centistokes (cSt).
1 St = 1 cm2s1 = 104 m2s1.
1 cSt = 1 mm2s1 = 106m2s1.
So which one is preferred in hydraulics system??

Laminar or turbulence?
Consideration?
Velocity,
smoothness of movement
Accuracy of cylinder
system efficiency (minimum friction loss)
Bernoullis Principle
If the flow rate in a system is constant, then
the total energy in the system will also be
constant irrespective of the variation in the
cross section of the fluid passage.
TOTAL ENERGY = POTENTIAL ENERGY + KINETIC
ENERGY
Bernoullis Equation
Point 1
Point 2
P2
P1
P1
v1
P2 v2
g z1
g z2
2
2
where,
P1, v1 and z1 are pressure, velocity and datum height of the
center line of pipe at point 1 respectively.
P2, v2 and z2 are pressure, velocity and datum height of the
center line of pipe at point 2 respectively.
Bernoullis Equation
In practice, we need to add friction head (hf), i.e.
pressure lost due to friction.
2
P1
v1
P2
v2
g 2 g z1 g 2 g z2 h f
Most manufacturers specify maximum flow rate

allowed through a valve.
Valve should offer least amount of pressure drop.
Bernoullis principle can guide designer of valve
and pipe to use optimum size.
Pressure measurement
Bourdon pressure gauge
consists of a flattened C shaped tube which is
fixed at one end. When pressure is applied to the
tube it tends to straighten, with the free end
moving up and to the right.
For low pressure ranges a spiral tube is used to
increase the sensitivity.
If an electrical output signal is
required, the pointer is replaced by a
potentiometer
Flow measurement
Venturi meter
Flow measurement
Orifice plate meter
Water was the first fluid used for the

transmission of fluid power.
The main advantages of water as a hydraulic fluid
its availability, low cost, and fire resistance. On
the
Disadvantages of water:
corrodes,
evaporates,
support growth of bacteria,
contaminates,
poor lubricity,
low viscosity
Mineral oils were readily available at the beginning

of the 20th century, but were not practically used in
hydraulic systems.
1940s: First additives were used to improve the
physical and chemical properties of hydraulic
mineral oils. The first additives were developed to
counter rust and oxidation.
But, mineral oils are highly flammable, and fire risk
increases when operating at high temperatures.
This has led to the development of fire-resistant
fluids that are mainly water-based, with limitations
on the operating conditions. The need for extremes
of operating temperatures and pressures led to the
development of synthetic fluids.
Power transmission
Lubrication
Sealing thin hydraulic film act as sealing
that reduce leakage
Cooling capable to absorb heat generated
by moving part
Cushioning of oscillations caused by pressure
jerks
Corrosion protection
Viscosity
Oil density
Oil compressibility
Thermal expansion
Vapor Pressure
Lubrication and Anti-Wear Characteristics
Compatibility
Chemical Stability
Oxidation Stability
Environmentally Acceptable Hydraulic Oils
Viscosity describes the resistance to the

laminar movement of two neighboring fluid
layers against each other.
Simply, viscosity is the resistance to flow. It
results from the cohesion and interaction
between molecules
E.g. The lower plate

is fixed, while the
upper plate is
moving at a steady
speed v
Important to keep the oil viscosity within a

certain range during the systems operation;
otherwise, the operating conditions will change
with temperature.
The viscosity index (VI) of oil is a number used in
industry to indicate the effect of temperature
variation on the viscosity of the oil.
A low VI signifies a relatively large change of
viscosity with temperature variation.
A high VI means relatively little change in
viscosity over a wide temperature range.
The best oil is the one that maintains constant
viscosity throughout temperature changes.
Effect of Viscosity on Hydraulic System

Operation
The oil viscosity influences the function of
hydraulic power systems as it introduces
resistance to fluid flow and to the motion of
bodies moving in the fluid. Herein, the
following effects are studied:
Hydraulic losses in transmission lines
Resistance to fluid flow in narrow conduits
Viscous friction forces and damping effect
Density - the mass per unit volume: =m/V.

The hydraulic oils are of low compressibility
and volumetric thermal expansion. Therefore,
under ordinary operating conditions, the oil
density is practically constant.
The density of mineral hydraulic oils ranges
from 850 to 900 kg/m3
The oil density affects both the transient and
steady state operations of the hydraulic
systems.
Local Losses
Result from a rapid variation in the magnitude or
direction of the velocity vector. E.g. throttling
elements, elbows, and T connections area
Directly proportional to the fluid density
Hydraulic Inertia
Occurs during the early running stage
Affects the transient response of the hydraulic
transmission lines, but it has no significant effect
on its steady state behavior
Defined as the ability of liquid to change its volume

when its pressure varies.
Liquids are of very low compressibility, compare
with gas. Therefore, liquids are usually assumed
incompressible.
But this is applied when the liquid compressibility
has no significant effect on the performance of the
studied system.
The hydraulic oil compressibility has a direct
impact on the transient behavior of the hydraulic
system.
Generally, the reduction of oil volume by 1%
requires an increase of its pressure by 10 to 20
MPa.
The hydraulic liquids are subjected to

volumetric thermal expansion. Generally, the
volume of liquids changes with temperature
as follows:
The fluid must be capable of covering the

contact surfaces of all moving parts with a
thin and continuous lubricating film.
The lubricating film may be destroyed, as a
result of high loading forces, insufficient oil
delivery, and low viscosity.
The lubricating power and film strength of a
liquid are directly related to its chemical
nature and can be improved by the addition
of certain chemical agents.
The fluid must be fully compatible with other

materials used in the hydraulic system, such as
those used for bearings, seals and paints.
It should not react chemically with any of these
materials, nor change their physical properties.
Moreover, the fluid leaks out from the hydraulic
system and encounters other system parts, such
as electrical lines, mechanical components, and
others, so the fluid must also be compatible with
the materials of these parts.
The hydraulics fluid must be stable in term of

chemical and oxidation.
Some metals, such as zinc, lead, brass, and
copper, have undesirable chemical reactions
with certain liquids.
Can be improved by the addition of oxidation
inhibitors
An oil leak may result in considerable pollution of

the surroundings and ground water.
Mineral oils are composed of relatively stable
hydrocarbon compounds, and are only very slowly
broken down by microorganisms in the
environment.
Thus, pollution by conventional mineral hydraulic
oils can disturb the ecological balance for long
periods.
Led to a growing interest in biodegradable
products including hydraulics fluid.
Mineral Oils
The most widely used hydraulic fluids.
Relatively inexpensive, widely available, and can be
offered in suitable viscosity grades.
Good lubricity, noncorrosive, and are compatible with
most sealing materials with the exception of butyl
rubber.
Chemically stable for reasonable operating
temperatures. At higher temperatures, however, they
suffer chemical breakdown.
Premium grade mineral oils contain a package of
additives to combat the effects of wear, oxidation,
and to improve viscosity index and lubricity.
Disadvantages of mineral oils:

Cannot be remedied by incorporating additives.
High flammability
Increase in viscosity at high pressures.
Fire risk excludes the use of mineral oils in

hazardous areas such as injection and plastic
molding machines, coal mines, and near
furnaces.
The viscosity pressure characteristics limit
their use to pressures below 1000 bar
This hydraulic fluid consists of tiny droplets

of oil dispersed in a continuous water phase.
The dilution is normally between 2% and 5%
oil in water, and the characteristics of the
fluid are more similar to water than oil.
It is extremely fire-resistant, is highly
incompressible, and has good cooling
properties.
Nain disadvantages - poor lubricity and low
viscosity.
The water-in-oil emulsions are the most popular

fire-resistant fluids.
They have a continuous oil phase in which tiny
droplets of water are dispersed. Their lubrication
properties are very much reduced.
For optimum life, the operating temperatures should
not exceed 25C, but intermittent operation up to
50C is permissible.
At the higher temperature, water content is affected
owing to evaporation, which decreases the emulsions
fire-resistance properties.
When the system has been idle for long periods,
there is a tendency for the oil and water to separate.
However, during running, the pump will re-emulsify
the fluid.
These fluids were developed primarily for use in

aircraft because of their very low flammability
characteristics.
However, their application is limited since they
cannot be used at high temperatures because of
their water content.
Their lubricating ability is inferior to that of
mineral oils; they attack most paints; they are
very stable with respect to shear because of the
low molecular weight of their constituents;
Good anti-freeze properties make them
particularly suitable for low-temperature
applications.
Synthetic oils, such as phosphate esters, have remarkably

good fire resistance properties. They are used in industries
such as plastic molding and die-casting, where unusually
great fire risks occur.
Their lubricating ability is similar to that of mineral oil.
Synthetic oils are superior when compared with mineraloilbased fluids in term of Thermal stability, Oxidation
stability, Viscosity-temperature properties (VI), Low
temperature fluidity, Operational temperature limits and
Fire resistance
Disadvantages:
Elastomers used in conjunction with phosphate esters must be
chosen carefully.
Certain metals, particularly aluminum, and most paints are
susceptible to attack.
The following are the main requirements imposed on

hydraulic liquids:
Satisfactory flow properties throughout the entire
range of operating temperatures.
A high viscosity index that ensures moderate
viscosity variation in relation to the temperature
fluctuations.
Good lubricating properties are a prerequisite to
reduce the wear and increase the service life of the
system.
Low vapor pressure to avoid cavitation.
Compatibility with system materials since the fluid
should not react chemically with any of the used
materials or deteriorate their physical properties.
Chemical stability is necessary to increase the

service life of liquid and avoid performance
deterioration.
Corrosion protection by adding effective
corrosion inhibitors.
Rapid de-aeration and air separation.
Good thermal conductivity is required to rapidly
dissipate the heat generated due to friction
between elements and due to hydraulic losses.
Fire resistance is essential in some applications.
Electrically insulating properties can be
significant in a number of modern designs.
Environmental acceptability.
Power pack
Tank/resevoir
Pump
Valves
Components of a Hydraulic
System
Piping system
Actuator
Power supply/
electric motor
Consist
of three main components
Reservoir
Electric motor
Pump
Through hydraulic reservoir the hydraulic system is

supply with fluid means that the reservoir stores the
required quantity of fluid.
The reservoir performs important functions such:
Dissipating heat through its walls
Conditioning the fluid by helping settle the
contaminants
Relief of air from the systems
Providing mounting support for the pump and other
components.
A proper tank has the following:

Baffle plate for preventing the return fluid from
entering the pump inlet
For maintenance purposes a reservoir should
have an inspection cover
A filter breather for air exchange
Level indicator for checking the fluid level
Connections for suction discharge and drain
lines.
Inspection
cover
Used to drive the hydraulic pump
Mechanical device that converts mechanical

power into hydraulic energy.
Generates flow with enough power to overcome
pressure induced by the load.
Its mechanical action creates a vacuum at the
pump inlet which allows atmospheric pressure to
force liquid from the reservoir into the inlet line to
the pump.
Delivers this liquid to the pump outlet and forces it
into the hydraulic system.
The control of hydraulic power in hydraulic power

systems is carried out by means of control valves.
Types of hydraulics valve
Pressure control valves (PCVs)
Directional control valves (DCVs; direct- and pilotoperated)
Flow control valves (FCVs)
Check valves
To drive loads by converting the hydraulic power

into mechanical power.
The mechanical power delivered to the load is
managed by controlling the fluid pressure and flow
rate, by using various hydraulic control valves.
The hydraulic actuators are classified into three
main groups according to motion type:
Hydraulic cylinders, performing linear motion
Hydraulic motors, performing continuous rotary motion
Hydraulic rotary actuators, performing limited angular
displacement
The elements of the hydraulic system are interconnected by

hydraulic transmission lines, through which the hydraulic
liquid flows.
These lines are either rigid tubing or flexible hoses. The rigid
tubing lines connect fixed nonvibrating elements, and the
flexible hose lines connect moving parts.
Regardless of their simple design, the hydraulic tubes have
an important effect on the steady state and transient behavior
of the system.
Transmission lines affect system performance in the following
ways:
Hydraulic friction losses; hydraulic resistance of lines
Hydraulic local, or secondary, pressure losses
Oil compressibility and elasticity of pipe material
Hydraulic Pump
Hydrodynamic
pump
Centrifugal
pump
Axial
pump
Positive displacement
pump
Gear
pump
Vane
pump
Piston
pump
Generally used for low pressure, high volume

flow applications.
Not capable of withstanding high pressure
Normally the maximum pressure capacity is
limited to 250-300 psi.
Used for transporting fluids from one location
to another.
E.g. Centrifugal pump
- Axial pump
Eject a fixed amount of fluid into the system

per revolution.
Capable of overcoming the pressure from
mechanical loads and friction.
Advantages:
High pressure capability (up to 12,000 psi)
Small, compact size
High volumetric efficiency
Small changes in efficiency throughout the design
pressure range
Great flexibility in term of pressure and speed
ranges
Gear pump always produce fixed

volume displacement. Thus the
volumetric displacement of a gear
pump can be represented by:
VD
D
4
Di L
2
where Do, Di, and L is

referred to outside diameter,
inside diameter and the width
of the gear teeth.
A gear pump teeth has a 25 mm width, 75

mm outside diameter and 50 mm inside
diameter. What is the volumetric
displacement of the gear pump in liter per
revolution?
Basic Comparison - Dynamic Pumps

Vs. Positive Displacement Pumps
Dynamics
Positive Displacement
Mechanics
Imparts velocity to the liquid

resulting in a pressure at the
outlet (pressure is created
and flow results).
Captures confined amounts

of liquid and transfers it
from the suction to the
discharge port (flow is
created and pressure
results).
Performance
Flow varies with changing

pressure.
Flow is constant with

changing pressure.
Viscosity
Efficiency decreases with

Efficiency increases with
increasing viscosity due to
increasing viscosity.
frictional losses inside the
pump (typically not used on
viscosities abov e850 cSt).
Basic Comparison - Dynamic Pumps

Vs. Positive Displacement Pumps
Centrifugal
Positive Displacement
Efficiency
Efficiency peaks at bestEfficiency increases with

efficiency-point. At higher or increasing pressure.
lower pressures, efficiency
decreases.
Inlet
Conditions
Liquid must be in the pump Negative pressure is created

to create a pressure
at the inlet port. A dry pump
differential. A dry pump will will prime on its own.
not prime on its own.
Assuming an ideal pump, with no internal

leakage, no friction, and no pressure losses,
the pump flow rate is given by the following
expression:
the input mechanical power is equal to the

increase in the fluid power
A gear pump of 12.5 cm3 geometric volume

operated at 1800 rev/min delivers the oil at
16 MPa pressure. Assuming an ideal pump,
calculate the pump flow rate, Qt, the increase
in the oil power, N, the hydraulic power at
the pump exit line, Nout, and the driving
torque, Tt, if the inlet pressure is 200 kPa.
Hydraulic power delivered to the fluid by the

real pumps is less than the input mechanical
power due to the volumetric, friction, and
hydraulic losses.
The actual pump flow rate, Q, is less than the
theoretical flow, Qt, mainly due to:
Internal leakage
Pump cavitation and aeration
Fluid compressibility
Partial filling of the pump due to fluid inertia
The effect of leakage is expressed by the

volumetric efficiency, v, defined as follows
Q - actual pump flow rate

Qt - theoretical flow rate
v indicates amount of leakage that takes place in the

pump
Mechanical efficiency (m): Indicates amount of

energy losses due to reasons other than leakage.
= 2N / 60
m = pQt/TA
= (pump output power, no leakage)/(actual power
delivered to pump)
where p : pump discharge pressure [Pa]
Qt: pump theoretical flow rate [m3/s]
TA : theoretical torque delivered to pump [Nm]
: radial pump speed [rad/s]
Or
m = TT/TA
= (theoretical torque to operate pump)/(actual
torque delivered to pump)
where
TT [Nm] = (V [m3] P [Pa])/2
TA = (actual power delivered to pump [W])/(2N/60
[rpm])
Total efficiency: tot = vol m

where
tot : total efficiency
vol : volumetric efficiency
m : mechanical/motor efficiency
A leakage of oil from a pump is 6% at 230 bar. Calculate

the total efficiency if the flow rate at 0 bar is 10 dm3min-1
and the motor efficiency is 75%.
Solution:
Q (P = 0 bar) = 10 dm3min-1
Q (P = 230 bar) = 10 0.94 = 9.4 dm3min-1
motor = 0.75, vol = 9.4/10 = 0.94
Therefore
tot = motor vol = 0.705 (= 70.5 %)
A pump has a displacement volume of 100 cm3. It

delivers 0.0015 m3/s at 1000 rpm and 70 bars. The
prime mover input torque is 120 Nm.
a) What is the overall efficiency of the pump?
b) What is the theoretical torque required to operate
the pump?
a) From QT = V n,
Given V = 100 cm3/rev
= 0.0001 m3/rev
QT = V n
= 0.0001 m3/rev (1000/60 revs-1)
= 0.00167 m3/s
Solve volumetric efficiency

vol = QA/QT
= 0.0015/0.00167 = 0.898 = 89.8%
Solve mechanical efficiency
m = PQT/TAN
= (70 105)(0.00167)/(120)(1000 (2/60))
= 0.93 = 93%
Therefore, tot = 0.93 0.898 = 0.835 = 83.5%
b) m = TT/TA
TT = m TA = 0.93 120 = 112 Nm
The pump in Example 2 is driven by an electric motor

having an overall efficiency of 85%. The hydraulic
system operates 12 hours per day for 259 days per
year. The cost of electricity is RM0.11 per kWh.
Determine:
a) The yearly cost of electric to operate the hydraulics
system.
b) Amount of yearly cost of electricity that is due to the
inefficiencies of the electric motor and pump.
Power (Fluid Power/Output Power)

Fluid power can be calculated from the pressure and the flow rate. It is also the
output power of a hydraulic pump. The following equation applies:
P=pxQ
Where P is referred as Pump output power [W], p is referred as Pressure [Pa]
and Q is referred to Flow rate [m3/s].
Pressure, p
Fluid
Power
Flow, Q
A hydraulic pump produced a flow rate of 4.2 l/min

of oil. The resistance in hydraulic system produced a
working pressure of 60 bar for the pump. What is the
output power produced by the pump?
Pump torque is calculated as force (F) time the

distance from the force to the pivoted point (d).
T=F x d
Pump torque can also be calculated as the relation of
pressure and pump delivery.
P
p Q p V
T
2N 2N
2
A hydraulic pump produced a flow rate of 4.2 l/min of

oil. The resistance in hydraulic system produced a
working pressure of 60 bar for the pump. It is powered
by an electric motor which rotates at 1000 rpm. If there
is no loss of energy from the electric motor to the
pump, calculate the theoretical torque produced by the
electric motor to drive the pump.
Hydraulics Valve

able to explain type of hydraulic valves:
i)
directional control valve (2/2 way, 3/2 way, 4/2

way, 4/3 way)
ii) non-return valve
iii) pressure valve (pressure relief valve and
pressure regulator)
iv) flow control valve (one way flow control valve)
Hydraulic Valve Types

Pressure control valves (PCVs)
Directional control valves (DCVs; direct- and
pilot-operated)
Flow control valves (FCVs)
Check valves
Pressure Control Valve (PCV)

To control and regulate pressure in hydraulic
system
Types
Pressure relief valve
Pressure regulator
PCV Pressure Relief Valve

connected with high-pressure and return low
pressure lines.
used to limit the maximum operating pressure in
the high-pressure lines. The relief valve consists
mainly of a poppet, loaded by a spring.
P
PCV Pressure Relief Valve

The poppet is pushed by the spring to rest against its seat
in the valve housing. The spring pre-compression force is
adjusted by a spring seat screw or by inserting distance
rings.
The following formula is used to calculate the cracking
pressure for this valve
Normal position
PCV
Pressure control valve practically is used

in every hydraulic system.
It is normally a closed valve whose
function is to limit the pressure to a
specified maximum value by diverting
oil from pump flow back to the tank.
Refer to the circuit : When the motor is
on and the control valve is un-actuated,
the fluid pressure in the pipe line will
increase. At the maximum pressure, the
pressure relief valve will open and allow
the fluid to return back to the tank
Without the pressure relief valve the pipe
line may explode or the pump damage.
If the valve is actuated, the piston will
extend. When the piston fully extend the
pressure will also increase and again the
pressure relief valve will open.
PCV - Pressure regulator

Reduce the output pressure to safe/usable
pressure.
Automatically shuts off hydraulic flow at a
certain pressure.
A
Directional Control Valve

(DCV)
DCVs are used to start, stop, or change the
direction of fluid flow.
The valves are specified by the number of
connected lines (ways) and the number of
control positions.
The control positions determine the way in
which the lines are interconnected, and
consequently the directions of fluid flow.
Directional Control Valve

(DCV)
E.g.
A 4/3 directional control valve is connected to the
pressure line (P), return line (T), and cylinder lines (A
and B). In its neutral position, the valve closes all of the
four lines and the cylinder is stopped. By switching the
valve to any of the other positions, the cylinder moves
in the corresponding direction.
DCV Types
Types:
1. 2 ports/2 way
2. 3 ports/2 way
3. 4 ports/2 way
4. 4 ports/3 way
DCV: 2/2 way valve

1 working port and 1 pressure port
Control delivery by closing or opening the passage
Type of 2/2 Way Valve. (Normally Open and Normally Closed)
2/2 Way Valve (Normally Close) type
2/2 Way Valve (Normally Open) type
DCV: 3/2 way valve

1 working port,1 pressure port and 1 tank connection
Control delivery
Normal position P is closed and A to T is open
Actuated position T is closed, flow from P to A
Type of 3/2 Way Valve. (Normally Open and Normally

Closed)
3/2 Way Valve (Normally Open) type
3/2 Way Valve (Normally Closed) type
3/2 Valve (Normally Closed)

Use for single acting cylinder
NORMAL
POSITION
ACTUATED
DCV: 4/2 way valve

2 working port (A, B), 1 pressure port and 1 tank
connection
Control delivery
Normal position flow from P to B and A to T
Actuated position flow from P to A and B to T
4/2 Valve (PB Type )
4/2 Valve (Lever type) NORMAL POSITION

Use for double acting cylinder
4/2 Valve (Lever type ) ACTUATED
NEUTRAL POSITION
The 4/2 way DCV used in previous circuit are sometime

impractical since they continuously sending flow and
pressure into hydraulic actuator. The should give a relief
to the actuator, a NEUTRAL position should be used,
where the actuator is not subjected to pump pressure.
4/2 Valve
4/3 Valve
4/3 way valve
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC

4/3 Valve With Closed Neutral Position
Closed Neutral Position:

(1) The Pump is blocked.
(2) The flow goes to
Pressure Relief Valve.
(3) The maximum allowed
pressure of the system is
set by the pressure relief
valve.

4/3 Valve With Tandem Neutral Position
Tandem Neutral Position:
(1) A desirable condition

where the only pressure
involve line resistance.
(2) The power consumption
is reduced. Is said to be
UNLOADED.
(3) Less energy wasted.

4/3 Valve With Open Neutral Position
Open Neutral Position:

(1) A combination of a
tandem and float neutral
position.
(2) A flow will return to the
tank from the pump.
(3) At the same time, A bit
of flow might still be
flowing (floating) at the
actuator.

4/3 Valve With Float Neutral Position
Float Neutral Position:

(1) A desirable condition for a
circuit with motor, since it
allow the motor to spin until
fully stop.
(2) This condition is said to allow
the motor to float or spin
freely without influence of
pump.
(3) Not using it may caused
pressure increase at the motor,
since spinning motor might
give a resistance when the
positioned is changed.

4/3 Valve With Regenerative Neutral Position
Regenerative Neutral
Position:
(1) A term used where the
flow returning from
actuator is feed back
into the pressure line to
give supplemental
power.
DCV: Actuation symbols
Check valve
Also known as non-return valve
generally used to allow for free flow in one
direction
prevent (obstruct) the fluid flow in the
opposite direction
Type:
Spring loaded
Without spring
Check Valves in Circuit
Flow Control Valve (FCV)

FCV is used to regulate speed
It limit the amount of flow in a main or
branch hydraulic circuit
Types:
Throttle valve
One-way FCV
FCV: Throttle valve

Used to restrict the flow from
either direction
AKA as needle valve.
A throttle valve control the
flow rate in the circuit.
By controlling the flow rate,
the speed of the actuator can
be controlled.
FCV: One way flow control valve

Restrict the flow in one direction while
allowing a bypass in the opposite direction
Used to reduce the speed of cylinder
movement
10 0%
A one way FCV give a controlled flow direction

from left to right (A) and a free flow in reverse
(B)
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we have learned the type of
hydraulic valves both in graphic and circuit
symbols
Hydraulic Actuator

able to explain type of hydraulic actuators:
Explain type and working principles of hydraulic
actuators (single acting, double acting and rotary
cylinders)
Calculate the cylinder size selection (bore and
piston rod size)
Introduction
Hydraulic actuators are installed to drive loads
by converting the hydraulic power into
mechanical power.
The hydraulic actuators are classified into 2
category:
Linear actuator - Hydraulic cylinders
Rotary actuator - Hydraulic motors, rotary
actuators
1. Linear actuators
Converts hydraulic energy to mechanical
energy.
Generates linear movements. Linear motors.
Basic types:
o Single acting cylinder
o Double acting cylinder
Single Acting Cylinders

Only piston side is supplied with
hydraulic fluid.
Only work in one direction.
Return stroke effected by spring or
load.
Applications:
Lifting
Clamping
Moving workpiece
Single Acting Cylinder
A single acting cylinder is only powered in one direction

It needs another force to return it such as an external load
(e.g. in a car hoist or jack) or a spring.
No hydraulic fluid is present on the low pressure side.
To extend the cylinder

or to push the load,
pump flow and
pressure are sent to the
pressure port.
When pressure is
released, the spring
automatically returns
the cylinder to the fully
retracted position.
Gravity Return Single Acting Cylinder : In Circuit
Hydraulic Cylinder : In Application
Double Acting Cylinders

Both piston surface is supplied with hydraulic fluids.
Fluid power works in both directions (extend &
retract)
When piston extends, the fluid on rod are displaced
in reservoir.
When piston retract, fluid in piston area are
displaced in reservoir.
Hydraulic Cylinder : Double Acting Cylinder
A double acting
cylinder is powered
in both direction.
In the case of
double-acting
cylinders, both
piston surfaces can
be pressurized.
Pressure Port and
Vent port can be
change during
extending or
retracting.
Double Acting Cylinder : In Circuit
Specifications of a Hydraulic
Cylinder
Bore diameter
o Working pressure determined by bore diameter
o Larger diameter produces larger forces
Piston rod diameter

o Normally 1/6 of bore diameter
Stroke length
o Length by which the piston rod moves from one
extreme position to another extreme position
Specifications of a Hydraulic
Cylinder
Working pressure
o Pressure that can be handled by cylinder
o Limited by size of bore, rod and tube thickness
Test pressure
o Pressure used during testing (by manufacturer)
o Normally 1.5~2 times of normal working pressure
Selecting a Cylinder
Area ratio
= AP/APR ; APR = AP AST
AP : Area of Piston
AST : Area of Rod
Cylinder is selected to suit application load (F
= P A).
Can be used to calculate piston diameter. Even
so, hydraulic mechanical efficiency must be
included,
F p. A.
hm
F
d 2
A
p.hm
4
d
4F
p.hm .
Standard bore diameter, dp
25
32
40
50
60
63
80 100 125
Standard rod diameter, dst
dst (mm)
1.25 12
14
18
22
25
28
36
45
56
1.4
14
18
22
28
32
36
45
56
70
1.6
16
20
25
32
36
40
50
63
80
18
22
28
36
40
45
56
70
90
2.5
20
25
32
40
45
50
63
80
100
Example
A cylinder with area ratio 2:1 is to lift 40 kN
load. The max system pressure for pump is to
be 160 bar. Calculate the piston diameter, dp
and piston rod diameter dST for this system.
The mechanical-hydraulic efficiency of
cylinder amounts is 0.95.
Selecting a Cylinder-Example
Piston diameter, dp
dp
4F
;
p.hm .
33.5
5.79cm
6cm
F 40, 000 N ; p 160bar 1600 N / cm 2
Selecting a Cylinder-Example
Piston rod diameter, dst
AP
AP
APR AP AST
28.27
2
2
d ST
28.27
4
d ST 4.24
4.5cm
Hydraulic Cylinder : Extending
AP
p
AR
vE
FE
Where :
Ap = Piston cross section area (m2) Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s)
AR= Rod cross section area (m2)
vE= extend rod velocity (m/s)
FE= Extend force (N)
p = pressure from pump (N/m2)
FE = p x Ap
Hydraulic Cylinder : Retracting
AP
vR
AR
FR
Where :
Ap = Piston cross section are (m2)
AR= Rod cross section area (m2)
FR= Retract force (N)
FR = p x (AP-AR)
Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s)

vR= Retract rod velocity (m/s)
p = pressure from pump (N/m2)
Hydraulic Motor
Convert hydraulic energy to rotary mechanical
energy
Motor capacity: p M
V
QnV
p pressure ( Pa )
M torque ( Nm)
V Geometric displacement capacity (cm 3 )
Q Flow rate ( L / min)
n speed (rpm)
Cont
Example
A motor with capacity of V = 10 cm3 is to operate
at a speed of 600 rpm. What flow rate is required
by the motor?
Example
A1
A2
F2
F1
P2
P1
1.5cm
5cm
A2
A1
Establish
relationship
between P1 and P2
(eg. P1 = 9P2 +3F15).
Show the
calculation steps.
Cylinder Force : Examples
Cylinder Velocity : Examples
Cylinder Delivery: Examples
Q
A
and
v1 v2
Examples of linear actuators
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we have learned the type of
hydraulic actuators. Student should be able to:
Explain type and working principles of hydraulic
actuators (single acting, double acting and rotary
cylinders)
Calculate the cylinder size selection (bore and
piston rod size)
Hydraulics Circuit Design

By the end of this lecture, student should be
able to design and analyze basic hydraulic
circuit both for single-acting and doubleacting cylinder
Introduction
A Hydraulic circuit is a group of components such
as pumps, actuators, and control valves so
arranged that they will perform a useful task.
When analyzing or designing a hydraulic circuit,
the following three important considerations
must be taken into account:
1. Safety of operation
2. Performance of desired function
3. Efficiency of operation
Safety of Operation
ressure and Temperature ratings

P
Interlocks for sequential operations
Emergency shutdown features
Power failure locks
Operation speed
Environment conditions
Meet functional requirements
eet required performance specification

M
Life expectancy same as machine
Facilitate good maintenance practice
Compatibility with electrical and mechanical
components

Withstand operational hazards
Efficiency of Operation
eep system Simple, Safe and Functional

K
Access to parts need repair or adjustment
Design to keep min operational cost
Design to prevent and remove contamination.
Hydraulic circuit elements

Each design must have following section
1. Power supply section pump, elec motor,
engine, etc
2. Power control section valve, magnetic
valve, plc, controller, etc
3. Drive section cylinders, motors
Circuit Design Approach
Circuit Design Approach
What do engineer need to

know?
Usually, the user specifies the final result of
design
Eg: Customer need a hydraulic power pack to lift 3
tons load
Engineer needs to get several answers before

offer for hydraulic power pack:
For what application
How many cylinders
Nature of the work (lift/clamp/push etc)
Work out for the following info
Bore size of cylinder

Rod size of cylinder
Stroke length
Speed of movement required
Expected load to take
Let customers requirement

Q: For what application
A: Special purpose of drilling
Q: How many cylinders

A: two double acting cylinders (1 for clamping & 1 for
drilling)
Q: Nature of the work (lift/clamp/push etc)

A: Clamping cylinder acting first, followed by drilling
And the details from customer

Bore size of cylinder (clamping = 80mm,
drilling = 63mm)
Rod size of cylinder (standard)
Stroke length (clamping= 20mm, drilling =
120mm)
Speed of movement (clamping = 1.5 m/min,
drilling = 200mm/min)
Expected load to take (clamping = 600kg,
drilling = 500 kg)
Step 1: Pump capacity

Calculate pump capacity for hydraulic power unit (Q=n.V)
Capacity (cm3/min) = Area of cylinder (cm2) X Speed of movement
(cm/min)
Aclamping d1 (cm 2 ); d1 8cm

4
50.24cm 2
Pump required 50.24cm 2 x150cm / min
7536cm 3 7.5lit / min
(1000cc 1litre )
For drilling, by using similar approach - pump req = 0.623 lit/min;

select 7.5 lit/min
Step 2: Working pressure

Pr essure Force Area
clampingforce(kg )
Clamping presure
2
clampingarea(cm )
600
11.94kg / cm 2
50.24
500kg
2
Drilling presure
16.05kg / cm
31.15
Max. working pressure = 16.05 kg/cm2
Step 3: Horsepower
PQ
Power (kW )
;
600
P working pressure(kg / cm 2 )
Q flowrate (lit / min)
16.05(kg / cm 2) 7.5(l / min)
Power in kW
0.2kW
600
kW
0.26hp ;
hp
0.764
Therefore we can choose the next standard size of

electric motor; i.e. 0.5 hp, run at 1440 rpm
Step 4: Reservoir size

Thumb rule: Reservoir should be 4 times of
flow rate of the pump
Here, pump flow rate = 7.5 l/min, therefore,
the reservoir should be at least 30 litres
Manufacturer standard size = 50, 75, 100, 125
litres, etc. So, 50 litres reservoir can be chosen
Summary of basic parameters

Reservoir capacity = 50 litres
Pump capacity = 8 lit/min (in lieu of 7.5
lit/min)
Motor = 0.5 hp, 1440 rpm
Working pressure = 20 kg/cm2
Control of Single-Acting Hydraulic

Cylinder
Components
Single acting cylinder

3/2-way valve
Pressure relief valve
Hydraulic pump
Initial position
fluid flow goes to the tank via PRV
Piston oil from the blank end drains back into the tank
When actuated
Fluid goes to the blank end and extends the cylinder
At full extension, pump flow goes through PRV
Control of Single-Acting Hydraulic

Cylinder
Drive section
Control section
Power supply
section
SAC: Force and Speed
Control of Double-Acting Hydraulic

Cylinder
Components
Double-acting cylinder
4/3 way valve
Centered position
Cylinder is hydraulically locked
Fluid from pump goes to tank
Left position
Cylinder is extended against the load force
Oil in the rod-end flow back to tank via 4/3 way valve
Right position
Cylinder retracts as oil flows into rod-end side
Oil in blank end returned to tank

Cylinder

Cylinder Left position

Cylinder Right position
The output force ( F ) and piston velocity of

DAC are not the same for extension and
retraction strokes.
During the extension stroke, fluid enters A
through the entire circular area of the piston
(AP).
retraction stroke, fluid enters the rod end

through the smaller area ( AP AR ),
AP = piston area
AR = rod area.
Since AP > ( AP AR ), the retraction velocity >

extension velocity since the pump flow rate is
constant.
The power developed by a hydraulic cylinder for either the

extension or retraction stroke, can be found out by

Regenerative Cylinder Circuit
Regenerative circuit is used to

speed up the extending speed of
a double acting cylinder.
During the extension, flow from
the rod end regenerates with the
pump flow to provide greater
flow rate.
The operation of the cylinder
during the retraction stroke is
the same as that of a regular
double acting cylinder.

AP
Ar
vext
QT=QP+QR
QR
The total flow rate (QT) entering the blank

end of the cylinder equal the pump flow
rate (QP) plus the regenerative flow rate
(QR) coming from the rod end of the
cylinder.
QT= QP + QR
Solving for the pump flow rate,
QP= QT - QR
QP AP vext ( Ap Ar )vext
Hence,
QP
vext
QP
Ar
Retracting speed :
vret
QP
Ap Ar
Ratio of Extending and Retracting Speeds
vext Ap Ar Ap
1
vret
Ar
Ar

Ratio of Extending and Retracting Speeds
vext Ap Ar Ap
1
vret
Ar
Ar
Load carrying capacity during extension
Floadext pAr
(Less than regular double acting cylinder, Fload=pAp)
This is because system pressure acts on both sides of the piston during the
extending stroke of the regenerative cylinder.
Load carrying capacity during retraction
Floadret p( Ap Ar )
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we have learned how to design
a hydraulic circuit for single and double acting
cylinder
Basic Electro-Hydraulics

able to:
Explain electro-hydraulic components symbol and
function: series and parallel circuits, open/close
contact switch, OR/AND logic circuit, relay, coil
and solenoid
Design and analyze memory circuit
Electrical switching: Limit

switches
1. Open Contact Switch
2. Closed Contact Switch
3. Changeover Contact Switch a combination of an
Open and a Closed Contact Switch. Usually used on
Relay and Limit Switch.
Switching as Logic Circuits

YES (Identity) Gate
+24V
0V

NOT (Negation) Gate
+24V
0V

OR (Conjunction) Gate
+24V
0V

AND (Disjunction) Gate
+24V
0V
Combination of Logic Circuits

+24V
0V
Basic Component Symbols
Coil
Solenoid
RELAY
IMPORTANT COMPONENTS IN
ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
SOLENOID
1. Relay
Consists of a coil and a set of changeover contact switch
Its function includes:
1. To help switch over small

current to larger current
2. To help switch over small
voltage to larger voltage
3. Consists of multiple large
contact switches for
simultaneous switching of
multiple outputs
4. Safety feature: Interlock
capability
Return
spring
Cover
Armature
12
A1
Coil
A2
14
22
11
24
21
Symbol
Contacts
Coil connections
Contact connections
12
A1
A2
14
11
22
24
21
Symbol
A1
A2
12
A1
A2
14
11
22
24
21
Symbol
A1
A2
12
A1
A2
14
11
22
24
21
Symbol
A1
A2
12
A1
A2
14
11
22
24
21
Symbol
A1
A2
Circuit Examples
The circuit on the right is a
direct connection without
using relay. The lamp will
switch on as soon as the
contact switch is closed.
However, if there is a power
surge from the main, then
the user will experience
some form of electric shock.
+24V
0V
Circuit Examples
The circuit on the right is an
indirect connection with a
relay (K1). Once the switch is
pressed, relay coil (K1) will be
energized. The coil will then
closes the relay switch thus,
switching the lamp.
The safety measure here is
that, if there is a power surge
from the 240V, then the user
will be protected from any
form of electric shock.
+24V
24 0V
K1
K1
0V
2 different circuits
2. Solenoid Valves
A solenoid is like a coil of the relay
When it is energized, it will switch on the
valve, similar to turning on the hand lever of a
normal valve.
2. Solenoid Valves
If it is a single solenoid valve, then the valve
will switch off automatically through a spring
mounted at the opposite end of the valve.
If it is a double solenoid valve, then the valve
will switch off only after the second solenoid
is being energized.
Types of Solenoid Valve

Single Solenoid Valve
Double Solenoid Valve
Symbols of Solenoid Valve

Hydraulic Circuit Symbol
A
Electrical Circuit Symbol
Y1
Y1
P
Y1
Y2
P
Y1
Y2
Circuit Example
+24V
F=0
S1
K1
S2
K2
Y1
Y2
P
K1
T
0V
Y1
K2
Y2
Memory Circuits
Relevancy:
1. Used to build Continuous Cycle circuit.
2. Used to latch a circuit for continuous supply of
electricity to a particular line.
3. Used when replacing a double solenoid valve to a
single solenoid valve of a circuit, without changing
the originality of the circuit function.
Types of Memory Circuits

Memory ON (Dominant Set)
+24V
ON
K1
OFF
K1
0V
K1
When ON is pressed, Relay coil K1

will be energized. Both relay K1
switches will close. This means, while
the lamp turns on, the relay switch will
continuously energize the coil.
Therefore, the lamp is permanently on.
Only when the OFF button is pressed,
the lamp will switch off.
To confirm that this is a Memory ON
circuit, press both ON and OFF
together. The lamp will still light ON.
Types of Memory Circuits

Memory OFF (Dominant Reset)
+24V
ON
OFF
K1
0V
K1
K1
The function of this circuit is

similar to the previous Memory
ON circuit. However, please
note that the OFF button is
placed below the ON button,
not parallel!
To confirm that this is a

Memory OFF circuit, press both
ON and OFF together. The lamp
will NOT light ON.
Proximity Sensors
Proximity -> closeness
Detect close objects without contact.
Various types:
1. Inductive sensor
2. Capacitive sensor
3. Optical sensor
Inductive Sensor and Symbol
Used to sense only metal type of object.
Capacitive Sensor and Symbol
Used to sense only high density objects.
Optical Sensor and Symbol
Used to sense only reflective type of object.
END OF LECTURE
Design of Advance ElectroHydraulics Systems

able to:
Design and analyze advanced electro-hydraulic
circuit with multiple actuators using solenoid
valves.
Multi Actuator Circuit

More than 1 actuator
1 cylinder needs 1 valve
Tips for circuit design:
Identify sequence of movement
Identify limit switch/sensor status
Multi Actuator Circuit

Example:
A hydraulic actuated drilling

machine contains two double
acting cylinders (DACs). When the
work piece is located at its
position, cylinder A will clamp the
work piece. Then, the drilling
process starts, where the spindle is
controlled by cylinder B. After
completion of drilling, cylinder B
will retract to the initial position,
before the clamping cylinder
retracts.
Sequence: A (extend) -> B (extend)
-> B (retract) -> A (retract)
Step 1: Sequence
Identify sequence of movement
A+
B+
B-
Cylinder A
ACylinder B
A 0
F=0
A 1
B 0
F=0
B 1
Step 2: Grouping
Make the group
A+
B+
K1
B-
A-
K2
A group must contain different elements

1 group represents 1 coil
Step 3: Limit switch/sensor

status
Identify limit switch/sensor status

<= Actions
A+
B+
BA-
A1
B1
B0
A0
Cylinder A
<= Sensors
Cylinder B
A 0
F=0
A 1
B 0
F=0
B 1
Step 4: Rephrase
Rephrasing the sequence and limit

switch/sensor status
A1
B0
A+
Start
B+
BB1
Right
side of
circuit
AA0
Left
side of
circuit
Designing of Hydraulic Circuit

A0
Y1
Y2
A1
B0
Y3
Y4
B1
2 coil for
2 groups
4 solenoid for
Y1, Y2, Y3 & Y4
A+ K1 + Start + A0
Latching
B+ K1 + A1
B- K2 + B1
K2 due to changing group
A- K2 + B0
Exercise
Design an electro hydraulics to conduct this
sequence:
Cylinder 1 & 3 extend simultaneously
Cylinder 2 extend
Cylinder 2 retract
Cylinder 1 & 3 retract simultaneously
END OF LECTURE
Basic Hydraulic Circuit Simulation
Problem 1
A furnace door is opened and closed by a double
acting cylinder. Given the force acting to the piston
rod is 3kN and the working pressure is 50 bars. The
efficiency of this component is 82%
Determine:
1. Bore diameter
2. Pump capacity if the max stroke is 15cm in 20
seconds
3. Required power of motor to drive pump if the
pump efficiency is 75%
4. Design a hydraulic circuit for this system if the
cylinder is activated by a 4/3-way valve.
In Automation Studio
Draw and simulate the hydraulic circuit
For the problem studied,

-Find the cracking pressure from simulation
-Identify the dependent and independent variables
(e.g. load, bore size, flowrate etc)
-Design and experiment to identify the dependent
var values when your independent var changes)
Lab Report
1. Introduction (Min 2 pages)
i. Introduce the hydraulic and electro-hydraulic system
ii. Introduce the software used
iii. State the objective (Discuss within the group)
2. Studied Problem (Min 1 full page)

i.
Explain and state the problem studied. You may modify the
original problem to make your study more interesting
3. Methodology (Min 1 full page)

i.
ii.
Explain how the computational simulation is conducted

Explain what is your dependent and independent variables
4. Result (Min 3 pages)

i.
Insert the hydraulics and electro-hydraulics diagram,

simulation model etc, and give simple explanation
ii. Table show the data of dependent and independent
variables
5. Discussion (Min 2 full pages)

i. Discuss your observation, when changing the load,
bore diameter or flowrate.
6. Conclusion (Min 1 page)
i. Explain what you have learn in this lab
Deadline: 1 week
The Perfect Gas Laws

Laws governing pneumatic systems
Lesson Outcome 12(LO12:CO2)

able to:
Explain Boyles law, Charles law, Gay-Lussacs Law,
General gas law
Explain the characteristics, advantages,
disadvantages and application of pneumatic
systems.
Identify basic pneumatic components
Boyles Law
GENERAL GAS LAW

Charles Law
Gay-Lussacs
Law
Boyles Law
Temperature constant
Volume will change inversely with absolute
pressure
Charles Law
Pressure constant
Volume will change inversely with absolute
temperature
Gay-Lussacs Law
Volume constant
Pressure will change inversely with absolute
pressure
General Gas Law

Combination of Boyles, Charles, Gay-Lussacs
Law
No parameter is held constant
Remember, all are expressed in ABSOLUTE terms,

not GAUGE terms!
Example
Gas at 6.895 106 Pa and 38 C is contained in
the 50.8 m3 cylinder as shown below. A piston
compresses the volume to 38.1 m3 while the
gas is heated to 93 C. What is the final
pressure in the cylinder?
Ans: 1.09 107 Pa
Pneumatics in review
Pneumatics in Review
Definition: The use of compressed air in order to
generate force that can produce mechanical
movement
Pneumatics has been used for carrying out
mechanical tasks for a long time
Important applications:
Determine the status of processors (sensor)
Switching of actuators by means of final control
elements
Carrying out work (actuators)
Good VS bad
Advantages of pneumatics
Raw material freely available

Easily transportable and stored
Can be used in high temperatures
Clean
Fast
Explosion proof
Parts are easy to design & build
Disadvantages
Preparation
Compression
Force limitations
Noise
Applications
Drilling
Milling
Sawing
Finishing
Forming
Stamping
Embossing
etc
Pneumatics & control system

development
The product development in pneumatics can be
considered in number of:
Actuators
Sensors and output devices
Processors
Accessories
Control systems
Pneumatics & control system

development
Factors in development of pneumatics control
system:
Reliability and safety of operation
Ease of maintenance
Cost (economy, spare parts, etc)
Assembly and connection
Interchangeability and adaptability
Compact design
Operation efficiency
Pneumatic power unit and

application
Portable power unit
Impact wrench
COMPONENTS
Intermediate reservoir
Supply taken from top of ring main
Air reservoir
Reservoir within a pneumatic system
Service unit
1-2 % gradient
Consuming
devices
Compressor
Condensate
collector tank
Compressed air supply: Delivery
1. Air generation and

distribution
Compressor fills the reservoir as storage
tank
Pipeline is installed with a gradient of 1 to 2 %
Condensate removal are installed under the
main pipeline
2. Valves
Function: Control the pressure or flow rate of
pressure media
Categories:
Directional control valves
Non-return valves
Flow control valves
Pressure control valves
Shut-off valves
Directional control valves 1

3/2 Way Valve - 1 Input (supply), 1 Output (Working
Line) and 1 Exhaust
2
Applications:
1)As input signal
(pushbutton, limit
switch,
emergency
button)
2)To control Single
Acting Cylinder
Directional control valves 2

5/2 Way Valve with 1 Input (supply), 2 Output
(Working Line) and 2 Exhaust
4
3
1
Application:
- Control
movement of
Double Acting
Cylinder
Valves numbering system
ISO 5599-3 Lettering System

1
P
2, 4
A, B
3, 5
R, S
Port
Pressure port
Working lines
Exhaust ports
Non-Return Valves (OR-Shuttle

Valve)
2 input and 1 output
Allow a signal to flow in
one direction
Output is acquired if one

(or both) of input supply
pressure
2
1
For circuit with more

than 1 input signal
Non-Return Valves - AND (Two

Pressure Valve)
2 input and 1 output
2
1
Output only acquired if both

input supplied with pressure
For circuit with more than 1
input signal
Flow Control Valve One Way

Flow Control
1
100%
input and 1
output.
To reduce speed
of piston
movement
(adjustable)
Non-Return Valves - Quick

Exhaust Valve
1 input, 1 output and 1
exhaust
To increase speed of
piston movement (but
not adjustable)
2
1
3
3. Power components
Consists of control elements & actuators
Linear actuator
Single acting cylinder
Double acting cylinder
Rotary actuator
Air motors
END OF LECTURE
Pneumatic Compressor

able to:
Explain type of compressors (piston compressor,
screw compressor and rotary compressor)
Category of compressor
Air compressors can be split into
positive displacement devices (where a fixed
volume of air is delivered on each rotation of
the compressor shaft)
dynamic devices such as centrifugal or axial
blowers.
Majority of air compressors are of the

positive displacement type.
A compressor is selected by the pressure it required to

work at and the volume of gas it is required to deliver.
Pressure in the receiver is generally higher than that
required at the operating position, with local pressure
regulation being used.
Pressure at the compressor outlet (which for practical
purposes will be the same as that in the receiver) is
called the working pressure and is used to specify the
compressor.
Pressure at the operating point is called the operating
pressure and is used to specify valves, actuators and
other operating devices.
A compressor delivery volume can be

specified in terms of its theoretical volume
(swept volume multiplied by rotational speed)
or effective volume which includes losses.
The ratio of these two volumes is the
efficiency. Obviously the effective volume
should be used in choosing a compressor
(with, again, a safety margin for leakage).
Required power of the motor driving the
compressor is dependent on working pressure
and delivery volume
Piston compressor
Piston compressors are the most common
type of compressor
a basic single cylinder form is shown in
below.
Piston compressor
As the piston descends during the inlet
stroke (a), the inlet valve opens and air is
drawn into the cylinder.
As the piston passes the bottom of the
stroke, the inlet valve closes and the
exhaust valve opens allowing air to be
expelled as the piston rises (b)
Piston compressor
Piston compressor implies that the valves are similar
to valves in an ICE. In practice, spring-loaded
valves are used, which open and close under the
action of air pressure across them.
One common type uses a 'feather' of spring steel
which moves above the inlet or output port (c).
A single cylinder compressor gives
significant pressure pulses at the outlet
port. This can be overcome to some extent
by the use of a large receiver, but more
often a multicylinder compressor is used.
Piston compressor: Double

acting
A compressor which produces one pulse of air per piston
stoke is called a single acting compressor.
A more even air supply can be obtained by the double
acting action of the compressor, which uses two sets of
valves and a crosshead to keep the piston rod square at
all times.
Piston compressor: Multi stage

For pressures over a few bar it is far more economical
to use a multistage compressor with cooling between
stages.
As cooling (undertaken by a device called an
intercooler) reduces the volume of the gas to be
compressed at the second stage there is a large energy
saving.
Piston compressor: Multi stage

Normally two stages are used for pneumatic pressures
of 10 to 15 bar, but multistage compressors are
available for pressures up to around 50 bar.
There is contact between pistons and air, in standard
piston compressors, which may introduce small
amounts of lubrication oil from the piston walls into
the air. This very small contamination may be
undesirable in food and chemical industries.
Screw compressor
Piston compressors are used where high pressures
(> 20 bar) and relatively low volumes (< 10,000
m3/hr) are needed,
but are mechanically relatively complex with many
moving parts.
Many applications require only medium pressure (<
10 bar) and medium flows (around 10,000 m3/hr).
For these applications, rotary compressors have the
advantage of simplicity, with fewer moving parts
rotating at a constant speed, and a steady delivery
of air without pressure pulses.
Screw compressor: Dry rotary

One rotary compressor, known as the dry rotary screw
compressor, is shown in Figure and consists of two
intermeshing rotating screws with minimal (around 0.05
mm) clearance.
As the screws rotate, air is drawn into the housing,
trapped between the screws and carried along to the
discharge port, where it is delivered in a constant pulsefree stream.
Rotary compressor
The vane compressor,
operates on similar
principles to the hydraulic
vane pump, although air
compressors tend to be
physically larger than
hydraulic pumps.
An unbalanced design is
shown, balanced versions
can also be constructed.
Vanes can be forced out by
springs or, more commonly,
by centrifugal force.
A single stage vane compressor can deliver

air at up to 3 bar, a much lower pressure
than that available with a screw or piston
compressor.
A two-stage vane compressor with large
low pressure and smaller high pressure
sections linked by an intercooler allows
pressures up to 10 bar to be obtained.
Dynamic compressor
A large volume of air (up to 5000 m3/min) is often
required for applications such as pneumatic conveying,
ventilation or where air itself is one component of a
process (e.g. combustion air for gas/oil burners).
Pressure in these applications is low (at most a few
bar) and there is no need for a positive displacement
compressor.
Large volume low pressure air is generally provided by
dynamic compressors known as blowers.
A high shaft rotational speed is needed and the volume
to input power ratio is lower than any other type of
compressor.
Air Capacity Rating

The air capacity rating of compressor is
measured in m3/min of free air at the
atmosphere pressure.
The equation is formulated from general gas
law:
2 1
1 = 2 ( )( )
1 2
Subsrcipt 1 represent compressor inlet atm condition
Subscript 2 represent compressor discharge condition
Divide both side of eq. with time; V/t = Q

2 1
1 = 2 ( )( )
1 2
Note that the absolute pressure and
temperature must be used.
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + 1 atm
Absolute temperature = Temp (in C) + 273
Example
Air is used at 1.0 m3/min from a receiver at 40C and
1000 kPa gauge. If the atm pressure is 101 kPa and
atm temperature us 20C, how many m3/min of free
air must the compressor provide?
Sizing of Air Receiver

Air receiver is referred to an air reservoir
the function is to supply air at essentially
constant pressure
Normally, the pneumatic system demands air
at a flow rate that exceed the compressor
capability
The air receiver must be capable of handling
this demand
To determine the proper size of receiver:
101( )
=

t time that receiver can supply required amount of air
(min)
Qr consumption rate of pneumatic system (m3/min)
Qc output flow rate of compressor
pmax, pmin max and min pressure level in receiver
(kPa)
Vr receiver size (m3)
Power to Drive Compressor

Theoritical power (kW) =
0.286

1
17.1
*Actual power can be determine by compressor
efficiency
Advanced Electro-Hydraulic
Circuit Simulation
LAB 2
Problem
Valve manifold blocks are
to be drilled horizontally
and vertically by two
hydraulic actuated feed
units. The two drilling
axes are to intersect.
Since the drilling axes
are intersecting, you
need to ensure that the
first drilling operation is
completed before the
second one starts.
In your group, design an electro-hydraulics

circuit
Draw and simulate the electro-hydraulic

circuit in Automation Studio
Lab Report
1. Introduction (Min 2 pages)
i. Introduce the electro-hydraulic system for multi-actuators
ii. State the objective (Discuss within the group)
2. Studied Problem (Min 1 full page)

i.
Explain and state the problem studied. Explain the

drilling problem above.
3. Methodology (Min 1 full page)

i. Explain the steps in conducting this laboratory
ii. Explain the steps in electro-hydraulics circuit design
4. Result (Min 2 pages)

i.
Insert the electro-hydraulics diagram, simulation model etc, and give

simple explanation
5. Discussion (Min 2 full pages)

i.
Discuss your observation
ii. Compare between hydraulics and electro-hydraulics system
iii. Pro and con of electro-hydraulics system
6. Conclusion (Min 1 page)
i.
Explain what you have learn in this lab
ii. How the simulation can help to improve hydraulic design
Deadline: 1 week after lab
Air receivers, treatment and

pressure regulation system

able to:
Explain the air receivers, air treatment and
pressure regulation system
Air receivers and compressor

control
Introduction to air receiver

An air receiver is used to store high pressure
air from the compressor.
Air coming from the compressor will be warm
(if not actually hot!) and the large surface
area of the receiver dissipates this heat to the
surrounding atmosphere.
Any moisture left in the air from the
compressor will condense out in the receiver, so
outgoing air should be taken from the receiver
top.
They are usually of cylindrical construction

for strength,
safety relief valve to guard against high
pressures arising from failure of the
pressure control scheme.
Pressure indication and temperature
indication are provided, with pressure
switches for control of pressure and high
temperature switches for remote alarms.
A drain cock allows removal of condensed

water, and access via a manhole allows
cleaning.
Compressor Control
Control of the compressor is necessary to
maintain pressure .
The simplest method is to start compressor
when receiver pressure falls to minimum
pressure, and stop the compressor when
pressure rises to a satisfactory level again
Start/Stop Motor
Two pressure switches are required (with
the motor start pressure lower than the
motor stop pressure)
The pressure in the receiver cycles between
the start and stop pressure settings.
Start/Stop Motor
Exhaust regulation approach

The compressor runs continuously and an
exhaust valve is fitted to the compressor
outlet.
This valve opens when the required
pressure is reached.
A non-return valve prevents air returning
from the receiver.
Compressor Inlet approach

Compressors can also be controlled on the
inlet side. An inlet valve is held open to
allow the compressor to operate, and is
closed when the air receiver has reached
the desired pressure, (the compressor then
forms a near vacuum on its inlet side).
Compressor Inlet approach
Selection of control method

The control method is determined by flow rates
from receiver to the load and the capacity of the
compressor.
If the compressor has significant spare capacity, for
example, start/stop control is commonly used.
If compressor capacity and load requirements are
closely matched, short start/stop cycling may cause
premature wear in the electrical starter for the
compressor motor. In this situation, exhaust or inlet
regulation is preferred.
Intro to Air Treatment

Atmospheric air contains moisture in the form of
water vapour.
The amount of moisture in a given volume of air
is known as the humidity
If we refer to days with a high amount of water
vapour as 'humid' or 'sticky', and days with low
amounts of water vapour as 'good drying days'.
The amount of water vapour which can be held in a
given volume depends on temperature but does
not depend on pressure of air in that volume.
One cubic metre at 20C for example, can hold 17
grams of water vapour.
Stages of air treatment

Air in a pneumatic system must be clean and dry to
reduce wear and extend maintenance periods.
Atmospheric air contains many harmful impurities
(smoke, dust, water vapour) and needs treatment
before it can be used.
In general, this treatment falls into three distinct
stages
Stages in air filtering

Stage 1: Inlet filtering removes particles which can
damage the air compressor.
Stage 2: There is the need to dry the air to reduce
humidity and lower the dew point. This is normally
performed between the compressor and the
receiver and is termed primary air treatment.
Stage 3: The final treatment is performed local to
the duties to be performed, and consists of further
steps to remove moisture and dirt and the
introduction of a fine oil mist to aid lubrication.
Stage 1: Inlet Filtering

Inlet filters are used to remove dirt and smoke
particles before they can cause damage to the air
compressor,
classified as dry filters with replaceable cartridges
(similar to those found in motor car air filters) or wet
filters where the incoming air is bubbled through an oil
bath then passed through a wire mesh filter.
Dirt particles became attached to oil droplets during
the bubbling process and are consequently removed by
the wire mesh.
Both types of filter require regular servicing:
replacement of the cartridge element for the dry type;
cleaning for the wet type.

Filters are classified according to size of particles
they will stop.
Particle size is measured in SI units of micrometres
(the older metric term microns is still common) one
micrometre (1 #m) being 10-6 metre or 0.001
millimetre.
Dust particles are generally larger than 10m,
whereas smoke and oil particles are around 1 m.
A filter can have a nominal rating (where it will
block 98% of particles of the specified size) or an
absolute rating (where it blocks 100% of particles of
the specified size).

Microfilters with removable cartridges passing air
from the centre to the outside of the cartridge case
will remove 99.9% of particles down to 0.01m, the
limit of normal filtration.
Coarse filters, constructed out of wire mesh and
called strainers, are often used as inlet filters.
These are usually specified in terms of the mesh
size which approximates to particle size in
micrometres as follows:
Stage 2: Air dryers

An air humidity is raised by compression.
Before air can be used, this excess
moisture has to be removed to bring air
humidity to reasonable levels.
In bulk air systems, all that may be
required is a simple after-cooler similar to
the intercoolers, followed by a separator
unit where the condensed water collects
and can be drained off.
Stage 2: Air dryers

Figure shows a typical
water trap and separator.
Air flow through the unit
undergoes a sudden
reversal of direction
This cause heavier water
particles to be flung out
to the walls of the
separator and to collect
in the trap bottom from
where they can be
drained.
Stage 3: Lubricators
A carefully controlled amount of oil is often
added to air immediately prior to use to
lubricate moving parts
This oil is introduced as a fine mist, but can
only be added to thoroughly clean and dry air
or a troublesome sticky emulsion forms.
It is also difficult to keep the oil mist laden
air in a predictable state in an air receiver, so
oil addition is generally performed as part of
the secondary air treatment.
Lubricators
The construction of a
typical lubricator is
shown with its symbol
in Figure.
Stage 3: Lubricators
As air enters the lubricator its velocity is increased by a
venturi ring causing a local reduction in pressure in the
upper chamber.
The pressure differential between lower and upper
chambers causes oil to be drawn up a riser tube,
emerging as a spray to mix with the air.
The needle valve adjusts the pressure differential across
the oil jet and hence the oil flow rate.
The air-oil mixture is forced to swirl as it leaves the
central cylinder causing excessively large oil particles to be
flung out of the air stream.
Summary
Explain the air receivers, air treatment and pressure
regulation system

Hydraulic

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Pressure, Force & Energy

Lesson Outcome 2 (LO2:CO1)

Mass and force

Force and pressure

Pressure and weight

Gauge pressure and absolute pressure

Work, energy & power

The concepts of hydraulic energy, power, and

To fulfill this function, the forklift acts on the load

N=Mechanical power delivered to the load, W

The load is lifted by a hydraulic

Assuming an ideal cylinder, then the hydraulic

Pascal and Bernoulli Principle

Lesson Outcome 3 (LO3:CO1)

Pascal's law AKA Principle of transmission of

If F at A is 50 lbf, how much the pressure at B,C,D &

Types of fluid flow

Types of fluid flow

Types of fluid flow

If Rc < 2300, flow is laminar. If Rc > 4000, flow is turbulent

If Rc < 2300, flow is laminar. If Rc > 4000, flow is

k : fluid kinematic viscosity

So which one is preferred in hydraulics system??

Most manufacturers specify maximum flow rate

Water was the first fluid used for the

Mineral oils were readily available at the beginning

Viscosity describes the resistance to the

E.g. The lower plate

Important to keep the oil viscosity within a

Effect of Viscosity on Hydraulic System

Density - the mass per unit volume: =m/V.

Defined as the ability of liquid to change its volume

The hydraulic liquids are subjected to

The fluid must be capable of covering the

The fluid must be fully compatible with other

The hydraulics fluid must be stable in term of

An oil leak may result in considerable pollution of

Disadvantages of mineral oils:

Fire risk excludes the use of mineral oils in

This hydraulic fluid consists of tiny droplets

The water-in-oil emulsions are the most popular

These fluids were developed primarily for use in

Synthetic oils, such as phosphate esters, have remarkably

The following are the main requirements imposed on

Chemical stability is necessary to increase the

of three main components

Through hydraulic reservoir the hydraulic system is

A proper tank has the following:

Used to drive the hydraulic pump

Mechanical device that converts mechanical

The control of hydraulic power in hydraulic power

To drive loads by converting the hydraulic power

The elements of the hydraulic system are interconnected by

Generally used for low pressure, high volume

Eject a fixed amount of fluid into the system

Gear pump always produce fixed

where Do, Di, and L is

A gear pump teeth has a 25 mm width, 75

Basic Comparison - Dynamic Pumps

Imparts velocity to the liquid

Captures confined amounts

Flow varies with changing

Flow is constant with

Efficiency decreases with