Production of Materials Summary

1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene for the production of other
substances.
identify the industrial source of ethylene from the catalytic cracking of some of the fractions from the refining of petroleum

Catalytic cracking is the splitting (cracking) of large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules

It gives two types of products:

- An alkane with a shorter chain than the original

- A molecule containing a double bond an alkene

Both these products are useful. The shorter alkanes can be blended with petrol, to increase the supply. Alkenes (particularly ethylene) are
very useful building block substances for making all sorts of useful chemicals

Cracking is a chemical process. It involves breaking a strong covalent bond between two carbon atoms. This requires high temperatures
and a catalyst
identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into many useful products

The spread of electrons around the molecule is not even

There is an area where the electrons are more dense (double bond)

Electrons do not like to be close together

This makes ethylene and other alkenes highly reactive where the double bond is located. The only way the molecule can achieve a more even
spread of electrons is for the double bond to break and form single bonds
identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Molecules of ethylene polymerise to produce long chains
H
H

C C

H H H H H H

H
H

C C C
n

C C C H

H H H H H H

The polymer chain can also be represented as:

H H
C C

H H
identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term
Polyethylene is called an addition polymer.
An addition polymer forms when small molecules (the monomer), such as ethylene, add together to form long molecules (the polymer), such as
polyethylene, and no other product.
outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially important polymer
Stages in the production of polyethylene
1.
Initiation: A chemical called an initiator starts (initiates) the reaction by opening the double bond of an ethylene monomer. This forms an
ethylene free radical. A free radical has an unpaired outer shell electron so it is very active.
2.
Propagation: The monomers join, forming a chain.
3.
Termination: When free radical ethylene chains combine, a complete polyethylene molecule is formed and the process stops (it is
terminated).
There are two types of polyethylene
1. Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
It is produced under high pressures, high temperatures (300OC) and in the presence of an
(organic peroxide). The product has significant chain branching. This means that at some
atoms one hydrogen atom is replaced by an alkyl group. Consequently the alkane chains
pack close together in an orderly way

initiator
carbon
cannot

2. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

It is produced under low pressures, low temperatures (60OC) and uses a catalyst which is a mixture of titanium(III) chloride and a
trialkylaluminium compound (Ziegler-Natta process). The molecules produced are unbranched and able to pack closely together. The product is
more crystalline

identify the following as commercially significant monomers:

- vinyl chloride
- styrene
by both their systematic and common names
Common Name
Vinyl chloride
Styrene

Systematic name
chloroethene

Structure

ethenylbenzene

H
H
H

C C

H
Cl
H
or

H
H

C C

H
C6H5

describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties
Common Name
Vinyl chloride

Styrene

Polymer
Polyvinylchloride

Polystyrene

Properties
The presence of the large chlorine atom
restricts the ability of the polymer chains to coil
or flex and so PVC is quite rigid
Electrical insulator

Used for
Under water pipes, credit cards, kitchen
utensils

Impervious to oils and most organic materials

Bottles to hold oils and most organic materials

Expanded polystyrene - is made by producing

gas bubbles inside polystyrene.
It has a low density
Light weight, heat insulator, absorbs shock
Crystal polystyrene is produced as a hard,
clear plastic

Flotation devices, boogie boards, core of surf

boards
Styrofoam coffee cups, eskies, fast food
containers
Audio cassette and CD cases, clear plastic
drinking glasses

Electrical insulation

analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model
the polymerisation process
Each student in the class used a modelling kit to build a model of ethylene. Coloured plastic balls were used to represent the atoms, one colour
for carbon (black) another colour for hydrogen (white). Each of the atoms for the ethylene molecule were joined together using plastic ball
joiners which represented bonds.

Each student then removed one of the double bonds from one carbon. This bond was attached to the carbon of another students ethylene
molecule (i.e. the carbon atom which had had a bond removed) to form the polymer polyethylene.

What is good about the model?

Show what atoms, and the number of atoms involved

How they are arranged (spatial distribution)

Show how the atoms are joined

What are the limitations of the model?

Doesnt show how the double bond can be broken/rearrange

Doesnt show the moving nature of the bonds

Relative size and distances between the atoms is not correct

Colours not real

2. Some scientists continue to research the extraction of materials and energy from biomass to reduce our
dependence on fossil fuels.
discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the petrochemical industry
Petroleum, natural gas and coal - the source of petrochemicals- are finite resources. Currently Australia has petroleum reserves that will last
about ten years and natural gas reserves that will last about one hundred years. Fossil fuels have taken hundreds of millions of years to
accumulate. Over 95% of fossil fuel is burnt as a source of energy and once burnt, fossil fuels are no longer available. Less than 5% of fossil
fuel is used to make plastics and only a small percentage of that plastic is recycled.
An additional problem with using plastics from fossil fuels is that many of these plastics are not biodegradable and cause a problem of disposal.
One suggestion is that they could be burnt as an alternate source of energy. However this will still be returning carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
and adding to the Greenhouse Effect. There is also the problem that toxic fumes are produced when some plastics are burnt.
explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
Condensation polymers are polymers that form by the elimination of a small molecule (often water) when pairs of monomer molecules join
together.
describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed
HO

OH

OH

HO

HO

H
+ H2 O

+ H2 O

+ H2 O

Condensation polymers are polymers that form by the elimination of a small molecule when pairs of monomer molecules join together. This
process involves a reaction between two functional groups where a small molecule, usually water, is eliminated and the two functional groups
are linked together.
Condensation polymerisation usually involves a reaction between two different monomers.
The most common type of condensation polymerisation occurs between monomers containing a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) and either an
alcohol (-OH) or amine group (-NH2)
describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass

Different representations of
cellulose

Cellulose is a flat, straight and rigid molecule made up of repeating glucose units.
Each glucose unit has 5 carbon atoms and an oxygen atom forming a puckered ring.
Many of the hydroxyl groups on the rings are available to hydrogen bond cellulose molecules together side by side.

This forms long strong cellulose fibres that make wood such a strong building material. The reduced availability of hydroxyl groups for bonding
with water and the joining of cellulose molecules together to form very large aggregations of molecules in fibres makes cellulose insoluble in
water. The high degree of hydrogen bonding between chains of cellulose also makes it much more resistant to chemical attack.
Cellulose is a natural condensation polymer. Most dry plant material consists of up to 50% cellulose. Approximately 500 000 000 000 (5 x 10 11)
tonnes of cellulose are produced each year by land plants.
identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon chain structures needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw
material
On a global scale plants produce almost 100 billion tones of cellulose per year. It is the most abundant organic compound on earth. Half of all
the organic carbon in the biosphere is contained in cellulose.
Starch can be used as a fuel by almost all kinds of living systems, but only a few microorganism certain bacteria, protozoa, and fungi can
hydrolyse break down cellulose. Cows and other ruminants, termites and cockroaches can break down and use cellulose for energy only
because of microorganisms that inhabit their digestive system.
Because cellulose molecules bind together so tightly, they are quite resilient to hydrolysis by acids and even cellulytic enzymes. When cellulose
does hydrolyse, the end product is glucose. Glucose can be fermented to ethanol. Ethanol can then be dehydrated to ethene. From ethene a
wide variety of petrochemicals can be manufactured. Thus renewable biomass is converted to ethene which normally comes from nonrenewable petroleum.
Cellulose has the allure of being a less expensive source of petrochemicals compared to starch from corn. A cellulose based industry has yet to
evolve. This is because on an industrial scale there is no simple or efficient chemical way of hydrolysing glucose. Cost effectiveness is the major
issue and scientists need to find strategies which will increase the specific action of cellulase (the enzyme which hydrolyses cellulose) and
develop better fermentation organisms to allow for the break down of glucose.
use available evidence to gather, and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the development and use of a
named biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesis the material and an
evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties
Biopolymer Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)

CH3 O

CH3 O

CH3 O

C
C HC
C HC
C
C
O
O
C
O
O H C
H2
H2
H2

PHB is synthesized naturally by bacteria. PHB plays the same role in the bacterium that fat does in humans or starch in plants.
The polymer is produced industrially by bacteria (especially Alcaligenes eutrophus) growing in tanks with a carbon-based food source. The
polymer is then isolated and purified.
Recently attempts to produce the polymer more economically have used genetic engineering techniques. Genetically engineered bacteria,
such as E.coli, can be used to produce PHB, with the advantages of faster growth, better yields, easier recovery and the production of less
biomass.
Scientists have also found that by genetically engineering plants such as cress and potatoes they can be made to produce biodegradable
plastics rather than storing starch. This has the advantage of being a much cheaper process.
The properties of PHB include: insoluble in water, permeable to oxygen, resistant to UV light, biocompatible, high MP, high tensile strength.
The properties are similar to those of polypropylene.
PHB has the advantage of being biodegradable, thus allowing better waste management, and of being made from renewable crops rather
than fossil fuels. The use of transgenic plants is expected to lower costs so this polymer becomes price competitive with traditional
petroleum produced polymers. It can be used in medical applications, where biodegradability and biocompatibility are important properties;
there is often no fossil fuel alternative to their use.
PHB is used by the US navy to make cups. Now sailors are free to throw their cups into the waves. In Japan, PHB is used in disposable
razors. The discretion surrounding women removing body hair means they can be instantly flushed down a toilet due to PHBs rapid
degradation in sewage.
Limiting factors in PHBs use is its brittleness and it still costs more than using fossil fuel based plastics, and the fact that they are more
readily available to industrial countries than to the third world.

3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from plants. Such renewable resources will be of
increasing importance as fossil fuel reserves are depleted.
describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process
and the catalyst used
Hydration of Ethylene

H
C C

H C C O H

O
H

H H

H+

H H

This reaction is carried out at 300OC using either sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid as the catalyst. The reaction requires a catalyst as the water
molecule itself will not attack the electrons in the ethylene double bond.
describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst and the catalyst used
Dehydration of Ethanol

H H
H C C O H
H H

alumina

H
C C

O
H

This reaction is carried out at 350OC. In the past alumina was used as a catalyst but today porous ceramic catalysts are used. In the laboratory
concentrated sulfuric acid can also be used as a catalyst.
process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital technologies or computer simulations to model
- the addition of water to ethylene
- the dehydration of ethanol
Addition of water to ethylene
A modelling kit was used to build a model of ethylene and water. Coloured plastic balls were used to represent the atoms, one colour for carbon
(black), one colour for hydrogen (white) and another for oxygen (red). Each of the atoms for the ethylene and water molecules were joined
together using plastic ball joiners which represented bonds.

One of the double bonds from one carbon of the ethylene molecule was removed and one of the O-H bonds was removed.

The oxygen atom was then attached to the free bond on the carbon atom. The hydrogen atom was then attached to the carbon which had the
bond removed from it. Ethanol was thus formed.

Dehydration of ethanol
A modelling kit was used to build a model of ethanol. Coloured plastic balls were used to represent the atoms, one colour for carbon (black), one
colour for hydrogen (white) and another for oxygen (red). Each of the atoms for the ethylene and water molecules were joined together using
plastic ball joiners which represented bonds.

The oxygen atom was removed from the bond to the carbon atom and a C-H bond was removed from the other carbon atom.

The free bond on the carbon atom was then attached to the carbon atom, which had lost a C-H bond to form ethylene. The H with the bond was
then attached to the oxygen atom to form water.

describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar substances

The ethanol molecule has a water loving (hydrophilic) -OH group that helps it dissolve polar molecules and ionic substances. The short,
water fearing (hydrophobic) hydrocarbon chain CH3CH2- can attract non-polar molecules. Thus ethanol can dissolve both polar and nonpolar substances.

Ethanol is used as a solvent in dissolving medicines and food flavourings and colourings that do not dissolve easily in water. Once the nonpolar material is dissolved in the ethanol, water can be added to prepare a solution that is mostly water.

Industrially and in consumer products, ethanol is the second most important solvent after water. Ethanol is the least toxic of all the alcohols
as it is poisonous in moderate amounts rather than small amounts. Consumer products listed as containing alcohol practically always
contain ethanol as the alcohol.
outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource

Ethanol combusts in air, releasing carbon dioxide, water and heat.

Ethanol
+
oxygen
carbon dioxide
+
water
C2H5OH
+
3O2

2CO2
+
3H2O
Because the ethanol molecule contains an O atom, the combustion is practically always complete. There is hardly any formation of the
polluting CO or C forms, which form from the incomplete combustion of many other hydrocarbons.

Ethanol can be called a renewable resource because ethanol can be made from plant material (e.g. sugar can, corn, wheat and other
cereal crops) and the products of its combustion, carbon dioxide and water, are the reactants needed by plants for photosynthesis.
assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Advantages

It is a renewable resource (as it can be manufactured from crops by fermentation) and so would reduce the use of non-renewable oil.

Ethanol from sugar cane is using a by-product that makes sugarcane production more sustainable.

As a fuel in its own right or as part of a petrol/ethanol, the combustion of ethanol produces less greenhouse gases than petrol and other
fossil fuels by themselves. As part of a petrol/ethanol ethanol assists the petrol to burn more efficiently and cleanly and increases the fuels
octane rating. Less carbon is deposited in the engine. Spark plugs last longer.

It can be used up to 10% in an ethanol/petrol mix without having to modify the fuel system of the engine.
Disadvantages

Large areas of agricultural land would need to be devoted to growing suitable crops with consequent problems of soil erosion,
deforestation, over use of water resources, fertilizer run-off and salinity. Energy must also be expended in fertilizing and cultivating the
crops and then distilling the ethanol. If this energy for cultivation and distillation is derived from fuel combustion then there is no reduction in
carbon dioxide greenhouse emissions by using ethanol.

Disposal of the large amounts of smelly waste fermentation liquors after removal of ethanol would present major environmental problems.

Ethanol produced from fermentation contains water which can cause corrosion of the engine. Ethanol at greater than 10-15% requires
engine modifications and this is expensive.
process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of
current usage

During the 1970s the government of Brazil began subsidizing the production of ethanol by fermentation of sugar cane. This decision was
made to reduce oil imports and increase employment. Subsidies needed to be introduced to protect sugar growers and engine
manufacturers. Despite an economic crisis in 1998, the outlook for a continued biofuels program in Brazil is positive although it may need
to proceed at a slower pace. Today approximately one-quarter of the 13 million motor vehicles in Brazil use pure ethanol as a fuel. Most of
the remaining vehicles run on a mixture of ethanol and petrol containing up to 20% ethanol.

Other countries including Australia and the US also produce a limited amount of a petrol-ethanol mixture.

Australia lacks the arable land to grow sufficient sugar cane crops to make ethanol an important contributor to our liquid fuel demands.

Recently in Australia the media has had a negative impact on the use of ethanol as fuel extender. It has portrayed the fuel as being
damaging to car engines. Many ordinary car users have been led to believe that any ethanol in their petrol will damage their car engines
and as a result have shyed away from using ethanol blended fuels. Until the public is educated on the benefits of ethanol as a fuel
extender it is unlikely its use will increase.

The use of biofuels such as ethanol, enjoy political support around the world, but in many cases this support is not translated into action.
There are no new incentive schemes currently proposed worldwide. The current availability and relatively low cost of crude oil has
hampered research into the development of viable methods to manufacture ethanol as a fuel.

describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted

The conditions that promote the fermentation of sugar are:

a suitable micro-organism such as yeast

water

a suitable temperature for the fermenting yeast

low oxygen concentrations favouring the fermenting yeast

a small amount of yeast nutrients such as phosphate salt.

Once the ethanol concentration reaches 14-15% by volume, the yeast cannot survive, and the fermentation process stops.
summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

Cane sugar waste, such as molasses, is rich in sucrose (C12H22O11), however, it is uneconomic to separate.

If water and yeast is added, the sucrose reacts with water producing glucose and fructose, both of which have the molecular formula
C6H12O6.

sucrose
+
water

glucose
+
fructose
C12H22O11
+
H2O

C6H12O6
+
C6H12O6

Fermentation can then occur:

glucose or fructose

ethanol +
carbon dioxide
C6H12O6

C2H5OH +
CO2
present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol
C6H12O6 (aq)

2CH3CH2OH (aq)
+
2CO2 (g)
process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar
cane
Industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane

Sugar cane is crushed.

Sugar cane juice is clarified through filtration and by the adding of lime.

Sugar cane juice is evaporated to concentrate the sugar and begin crystallisation.

Liquid containing sugar crystals is centrifuged. This process may be repeated to obtain more crystals.

An enzyme (sucrase) is added to convert sucrose to the simple sugars glucose and fructose.

Glucose is fermented by yeast inside airtight vats to obtain impure ethanol and water.

Ethanol is purified by:

Filtration to remove all solids.
Distillation to remove most of the water.
define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data
The molar heat of combustion of a substance is the heat liberated when one mole of the substance undergoes complete combustion with
oxygen at a constant pressure of exactly one atmosphere with the final products being carbon dioxide gas and liquid water.
Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8

IUPAC nomenclature for alkanols refers to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists' (IUPAC) way of naming alkanols.

You are only required to deal with straight chained alkanols with up to, and including, 8 carbon atoms.

For straight chained alkanols (those without side branches) the number of carbon atoms in the chain is given by the prefix as follows:
Number of carbon atoms
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Prefix
meth
eth
prop
but
pent
hex
hept
oct

The presence of the -OH, substituting for a H, on one of the carbons is indicated by the suffix 'ol'. The middle syllable 'an' indicates the fact
that the carbon atoms are saturated. (There are no double or triple bonds).

A number is used to indicate which carbon has the -OH attached to it. Of course you can usually get two numbers for such a carbon,
depending on which end of the chain you start from. Simply use the smallest number you can. (No number is needed for methanol or
ethanol as the -OH can only be on an end carbon, when there is only one or two carbons in the molecule.)

Numbers and letters in IUPAC nomenclature are linked with a hyphen.

E.g. CH3CH2CHOHCH3 has 4 carbons so it is a butanol, but as the -OH is on the second carbon from the right (or the 3rd from the left) it is
correctly called 2-butanol.

4. Electrochemical methods are important in producing materials and making energy available.
explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons

More active metals will displace less active metal ions from solution in an oxidation-reduction reaction.

When an active metal is placed in a solution containing ions of a less active metal, the active metal displaces the less active metal from
solution. This occurs because a more active metal atom loses one or more electrons and becomes a positive ion. The electrons lost are
transferred to the ions of the less active metal, resulting in them becoming metal atoms.
For example, if an iron nail is placed in a solution of blue copper (II) salt, some of the iron nails dissolves.
Fe

Fe2+

2e-

(oxidation)

At the same time, the blue colour of Cu2+ ions disappears and a dark copper coating appears on the nail surface.
Cu2+

2e-

Cu

(reduction)

Cu2+

Fe2+

The overall reaction is:

Fe

Cu

The electrons lost by iron atoms undergoing oxidation are used to reduce copper (II) ions to copper atoms. Oxidationreduction reactions
(also called redox reactions) involve transfer of electrons.
identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals

Metals can be arranged in an activity series from most active to least active:
Most
Least
K Na Li Ba Ca Mg Al Cr Zn Fe Co Ni Sn Pb Cu Hg Ag Pt Au

If a metal is higher in the activity series, the metal atoms will react when put in a solution of ions of a metal that is lower in the activity
series. The less active metal ions are displaced from solution as they form atoms.

In reacting, the more active metal atom (M) changes to a metal ion (Mn+) by losing one or more electrons to form a cation.
M

Mn+
+
ne
Metal reactions can be related to the activity series. For example:

the metals from K to Pb react with dilute acids releasing hydrogen gas

the metals from K to Mg react with liquid water

the metals from Al to Ni require water to be in the form of steam before reacting.
account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons
Oxidation number: A number given to an atom or ion to indicate (theoretically) the number of electrons it has lost or gained (i.e. its state of
oxidation)
A species that undergoes oxidation loses electrons, therefore its oxidation number will increase
A species that undergoes reduction gains electrons, therefore its oxidation number will decrease
outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow
describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions
define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells
Galvanic cell: A device which makes a chemical reaction occur in such a way that it generates electricity
Redox reactions involve a transfer of electrons from one reactant to another. An electric current is a flow of electrons through a wire. We can
make redox reactions generate electricity by arranging for the oxidation and reduction half reactions to occur at different locations, and by
providing a wire for the electrons to flow through

Each half reaction is separated and the components of each half reaction are called a half cell
The conductors of a cell which get connected to the external circuit are called electrodes
The anode is the electrode at which oxidation occurs, while the cathode is the electrode at which reduction occurs
The electrolyte is a solution of the metal ions, of the same metal as the electrode. It conducts an electric current and is decomposed by it
N.B. Electricity flows through electrolytes by the movement of charged ions. Electricity flows in electrodes or through wires by the
movement of electrons
The salt bridge is the ion path between half cells which keeps the electrical balance in the cell. Its purpose is to allow the migration of ions
to occur. This prevents the build up of positive charge at the anode and negative charge at the cathode. Positive ions move from the anode
to the cathode and negative charges move from the cathode to the anode
Some galvanic cells use an inert platinum or graphite electrode if neither component of a half cell is a conducting solid

gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid cell and evaluate it in comparison to:
button cell
fuel cell
vanadium redox cell
lithium cell
liquid junction photovoltaic device (eg the Gratzel cell)
in terms of:
chemistry
cost and practicality
impact on society
environmental impact

Anode
Cathode

Electrolyte
Cost and
Practicality

Social Impact

Environmental
Impact
Diagram

Dry Cell (Leclanche cell)

The zinc container, oxidation occurs here
Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2eCarbon rod surrounded by a layer of ammonium chloride and
manganese dioxide paste. The manganese ion is reduced
Mn (IV) + e- Mn (III)
A paste containing ammonium chloride and zinc chloride
Inexpensive and easy to manufacture; robust
Non-rechargeable
Short life
Does not store a large amount of electricity
Develops leaks when it goes flat (the zinc casing gets eaten
away during operation)
If used continuously ammonia produced may expand and
cause the cell to burst
First portable battery excellent for low drain appliances (e.g.
LCD calculators, low watt torches, transistor radios)
Used for low drain appliances
Robust, easy to store
Weakly acidic paste has a minor effect on environment
Manganese compounds oxidize to insoluble, inert oxides

Button cell (e.g. mercury, silver)

Powdered zinc
Zn (s) + 2OH- Zn(OH)2 + 2eCarbon and AgO paste (or mercury)
Ag2O(S) + H2O(l) + 2e- 2Ag(s) + 2OHor
HgO(S) + H2O(l) + 2e- Hg(s) + 2OHPotassium hydroxide
Expensive (Ag and Hg)
Non-rechargeable
Constant stable voltage over long periods
Small size

High current density power source for watches, hearing

aids, cameras
Mercury cells obsolete technology due to government
regulations
Because of its small size, it has allowed for the
miniaturisation of watches, hearing aids, cameras
Mercury is toxic and recycling is required
Silver button cells need to be recycled to extract the silver

5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials to assist in tracing and thus better understanding
complex chemical reactions.
distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable

Isotopes Atoms of the one element that differ by having different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.

Stable Nucleus A nucleus which will not break down (decay) and emit radiation (nuclear strong force outweighs electrostatic repulsion)

Radioactive (unstable) Nucleus A nucleus which will break down (decay) to form another nucleus and emit radiation

Conditions under which a nucleus is unstable:

- If its Z > 83
- If its ratio of neutrons to protons places it outside the zone of stability (as can be seen on a neutron versus protons graph)
e.g.
n/p ratio is too high (excess neutrons): A neutron decays to form a proton and a beta particle.
n/p ratio is too low (excess protons): A proton decays to form a neutron and a positron.
Too many nucleons (nucleus too heavy): Loss of an alpha particle occurs to reduce the nucleus by 2 protons and 2
neutrons.
describe how transuranic elements are produced
Production of Transuranic Elements
Transuranic elements are elements with an atomic number above that of uranium (Z>92)
The elements neptunium (93), plutonium (94) and americium (95) are produced by neutron bombardment in a nuclear reactor
When U-238 is bombarded with neutrons it can be converted to U-239. This undergoes beta decay to produce neptunium and then
plutonium
Step 1:

238
92

1
0

Step 2:

239
92

239
93

Np +

0
1

Step 3:

239
93

Np

239
94

Pu

0
1

239
92

Pu-239 is changed to americium by neutron bombardment

Step 4:

239
94

Pu

1
0

240
94

Pu

Step 5:

240
94

Pu

1
0

241
94

Pu

Step 6:

241
94

Pu

241
95

Am

0
1

Transuranic elements with atomic numbers above 95 are produced using particle accelerators. Small charged atomic nuclei are accelerated to
very high speeds. The small particles with high kinetic energy then hit a target of large atoms.
e.g.

239
94

Pu

4
2

238
92

Pu

12
6

He
C

242
96

Cm

246
98

Cf

+
+

1
0

4 01 n

describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

1.

By bombarding the target nucleus with charged particles, usually the nuclei of other elements to produce isotopes that are deficient in the
number of their neutrons. The neutron deficiency makes the isotopes radioactive

Problem Electrostatic repulsion between these positively charged particles and the target nucleus

This can be overcome using a particle accelerator uses alternating electric and magnetic fields to produce the velocities required for the
particles to penetrate the target nucleus

Three types of particle accelerators: linear accelerators, cyclotrons and synchrotrons

Cyclotrons are accelerated in a spiral pattern

The Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) operates the National Medical Cyclotron at Sydneys RPA hospital
for the production of radioisotopes for medical use
2.

By adding an extra neutron into the target nucleus to produce isotopes that are neutron rich which makes the isotopes radioactive

The source of neutrons for these reactions is a nuclear fission reactor

ANSTO operates the research reactor called HIFAR (High Flux Australian Reactor) at Lucas Heights near Sydney

The HIFAR reactor has been designed to produce a source of neutrons by the fission of uranium-235

The sample is placed in the core of the reactor where it absorbs neutrons and is transformed into a radioactive isotope

10

identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation

1. Photographic Film
First method for detecting radiation
Still used today in some radiation badges worn by laboratory workers handling radioactive substances
Degree of darkening of the film is a measure of the amount of radiation
2. Ionisation Counter: Geiger-Muller Counter
Radiation enters the metal tube
This causes the gaseous argon atoms in the tube to be ionized, forming positive ions and free electrons
The argon ions and free electrons produced allow a current to flow between the electrodes
These bursts of current are converted into audible clicks on a built-in speaker or converted into a digital readout.
3. Scintillation Counter
Uses the fact that some substances such as zinc sulfide produce a flash of light (scintillation) when struck by radiation
As the radiation is absorbed, the electrons in the ZnS atoms jump to an excited state. In returning to their ground states they emit photons of
light.
The flashes of light are countered electronically to measure the amount of radiation
process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements
In December 1998 Russian scientists at Russias Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna produced element 114 by firing calcium-48
atoms into a supply target of plutonium-244 using an accelerator in a 40 day experiment. Detectors picked up signs of two atoms lasting for 30
seconds.
identify one use of a named radioisotope:
- in industry
- in medicine
In industry

Cobalt-60 (Co-60) is used in a process called industrial radiography, to inspect metal parts and welds for defects.
In medicine

Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) is used in a wide range of medical applications, such as pinpointing brain tumours.
describe the way in which the above named radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical properties
In industry

Cobalt-60 is used in industrial radiography to inspect metal parts and welds for defects. Beams of radiation are directed at the object to be
checked from a sealed source of Co-60. Radiographic film on the opposite side of the source is exposed when it is struck by radiation
passing through the objects being tested. More radiation will pass through if there are cracks, breaks, or other flaws in the metal parts and
will be recorded on the film. By studying the film, structural problems can be detected.

Radiation can show the flaws in metal castings and welding that cannot be seen because they are inside the metal.

Co-60 is used because it is an emitter of gamma rays which will penetrate metal parts. Co-60 has a half-life of 5.3 years and can be used
in a chemically inert form held inside a sealed container. This enables the equipment to have a long lifetime and not require regular
maintenance.
In medicine

Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) is used in over half of the current nuclear medicine procedures, such as pinpointing brain tumours. Tc-99m can
be changed to a number of oxidation states. This enables production of a wide range of biologically active chemicals. The Tc-99m is
attached to a biological molecule that concentrates in the organ to be investigated.

Tc-99m is used because:

it has a very short half-life of 6 hours

it emits low energy gamma radiation that minimises damage to tissues but can still be detected in a person's body by a gamma
ray sensitive camera

it is quickly eliminated from the body

technetium is reasonably reactive; it can be reacted to form a compound with chemical properties that leads to concentration in
the organ of interest such as the heart, liver, lungs or thyroid.
use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and
medicine
Benefits
In medicine, radioisotopes are widely used in a beneficial manner in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease. In terms of prevention,
hospital supplies such as surgical instruments can be irradiated to destroy microorganisms. Being a cold process, this permits the sterilisation of
heat-sensitive substances without compromising their structure.
In terms of diagnosis, very small doses of radioisotopes can be used to detect the presence of diseased cells and analyse how well organs
function. Such diagnosis procedures can eliminate the use of invasive surgery.
In terms of treatment, radiation can either be projected onto or injected into a diseased person. Such procedures are usually performed post
surgery, and are used to eliminate the need for further invasive procedures.
In industry, radioisotopes are often used as tracers to detect leaks in water and gas pipes. Only small amounts of radioisotope are needed. Their
use in this manner eliminates the need to excavate and remove entire pipelines to identify the site of a leak.
Radioisotopes can also be mixed with sewage at ocean outflows. The detection of the radioisotopes can then be used to analyse the dispersion
of this sewage.
The ability of gamma radiation to penetrate materials can also be used to measure the thickness of materials manufactured in sheets. The
amount of radiation which passes through the material is proportional to that materials thickness. This method allows for very accurate
measurements to be made.
Problems

Technicians and workers in nuclear industries must avoid being contaminated or irradiated as diseases such as cancer and leukaemia can
result from radiation exposure. Regular health checks are needed.

Cobalt-60 can get mixed with scrap metal and cause contaminations if melted in a mill, and could cause millions of dollars worth of
damage.

Technetium-99ms capabilities are limited due to its short half-life, and its emission of low energy gamma radiation.

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