Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities

Emergent Literacy Skills of Preschool Students with Autism: A Comparison of Teacher-led

and Computer-Assisted Instruction
Author(s): Jason C. Travers, Kyle Higgins, Tom Pierce, Randall Boone, Susan Miller and
Richard Tandy
Source: Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 46, No. 3
(September 2011), pp. 326-338
Published by: Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23880589
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Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 2011, 46(3), 326-338
Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities

Emergent Literacy Skills of Preschool Students with Autism:

A Comparison of Teacher-led and

Computer-Assisted Instruction
Jason C. Travers Kyle Higgins, Tom Pierce,

University of Massachusetts Amherst Randall Boone, Susan Miller, and

Richard Tandy
University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Abstract: Children with autism are at-risk for poor literacy outcomes and have the right to learn literacy skills.
Despite this, students with autism often may be perceived as not ready for literacy instruction. This study focused

on teaching alphabet skills to young children with autism. Two instructional conditions were compared,
traditional teacher-led group instruction that used alphabet books and multimedia computer-assisted instruc
tion. Data were compared to determine the effects on alphabetic skills acquisition and maintenance. The effects

on student attentive behavior and engagement in problem behavior in each intervention condition also were

compared. Results indicated that both interventions were effective for improving and maintaining student
alphabet recognition skills. In both intervention groups, the children had high rates of attention to task and low

rates of undesirable behavior. Directions for future research as well as conclusions regarding the design of
literacy interventions for students with autism are discussed.

Poor or complete lack of development in lan- behaviors results in decreased meaningful,

guage and communication often results in an literacy-related interactions with environment,

absent foundation for literacy skills (Morrow, As a whole, these impairments produce lim
2001). Autism is characterized by pervasive ited engagement in the typical learning expe
delays in language and communication skills, riences that contribute to emergent literacy
marked impairment in social development, skills, making people with autism particularly
and engagement in narrow, restrictive, and at-risk for developing poor literacy skills
stereotypical behaviors (APA, 2000). Conse- (Coleman-Martin et al., 2005). Despite being
quentiy, students with autism are likely to have at-risk for poor literacy, reducing stereotyped

difficulties acquiring and generalizing typical (i.e., self-stimulatory) and non-compliant be

literacy skills. Complicating language delays haviors, and increasing attention and motiva
are the existence of social impairment and tion typically are the priority of early interven
reliance on behaviors that often obstruct typ- tion teams as these behaviors directly impact

ical learning experiences (National Research the learning of students with autism (NRC).
Council [NRC], 2001). Poor social skills result Reading is a skill that is vital to indepen
in decreased interactions during literacy op- dence, employment, and daily living (Educa
portunities (Coleman-Martin, Heller, Cihak, tion for All [EFA], 2005). Without adequate
& Irvine, 2005), adding an additional barrier and efficient literacy instruction, students

to early and formal literacy learning. Further, with autism will mature into adults with in

the engagement in narrow and stereotyped sufficient skills vital to gainful employment,
adaptive daily living, and enjoyable social,
recreation, and leisure activities. The charac
r i teristics of autism often result in more restric

Correspondence concerning this article should

be addressed to Jason C. Travers, School of *^ve education placements (Prior & OzonofF,
Education, 171 Hills-South, University of Massachu- 2007) and decreased access to literacy curri
setts at Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003. E-mail: cula (Mirenda, 2003). Failure to learn to read

JasonTravers@me.com can negatively impact quality of life in several

326 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2011

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ways. Illiterate students with autism may expe- In their attempt to measure more complex

rience limited academic achievement and so- reading behaviors in children with autism,
cial opportunities while being forced to de- Heimann, Nelson, Tjus, and Gillberg (1995)
pend on others for increased levels of support. used specially designed multimedia computer

By acquiring even the most fundamental liter- software to determine if it could produce
acy skills, people with autism will experience gains in word identification and sentence cre

greater success in school, achieve greater in- ation. Their study involved the use of quasi
dependence, and have more opportunities to experimental design to measure global and
participate in their community (Copeland, specific reading skills prior to and after the

2007). computer intervention. The results indicated

People with autism often are described as that CAI could produce statistically signifi

having superior ability to process visual stimuli cant gains in the areas of phonological aware

(Happe, 1999; Prior & Ozonoff, 2007; NRC, ness and global reading assessment scores.

2001). Approximately 10% to 20% of children These findings were consistent with a replica
with autism are hyperlexic (Grigorenko et al., tion study by Basil and Reyes (2003). However,

2002). Hyperlexia is the precocious ability to these researchers also found that the use of
decode words while demonstrating an inabil- software increased the student's ability to spell

ity to comprehend what is read before the words presented in the software as well as
age of five (Silberberg & Silberberg, 1967). novel words despite years of failed attempts to

Thus, 80% to 90% of children with autism teach similar skills using traditional methods,
require literacy instruction to promote decod- Koppenhaver and Erickson (2003) observed
ing and all require instruction to develop that when a computer was accessible and turned
reading comprehension skills (Grigorenko et on, the frequency and quality of student engage

al.). Because typical literacy instruction in- ment in literacy activities increased. They sug
volves the use of informal instruction and en- gested that the incorporation of a computer
gagement in literacy-rich environments, and into a natural early literacy area of a preschool
because autism is characterized by deficits classroom for students with autism may lead to
that negatively impact typical learning experi- more frequent initiations in early literacy activi
ences, children with autism require systematic ties (Koppenhaver & Erickson).

early literacy instruction. Unfortunately, very The scientific examination of traditional

few researchers have explored the utility of emergent literacy instruction for students with

systematic literacy instruction provided to chil- autism has been largely ignored (Koppen
dren without disabilities. Instead, they have haver & Erickson, 2003). However, attempts
focused on reading comprehension for hyper- to address other literacy skills via the use of
lexic students or sight-reading skills for this traditional interventions and CAI have yielded
population (Koppenhaver & Erickson, 2003). positive results. The extent literature provides
Williams, Wright, Callaghan, and Coughlan support for the efficacy teaching literacy skills
(2002) found that children with autism spent to students with autism via traditional inter

more time engaged in literacy activities when ventions and CAI. However, the limited re
they were exposed to combined conditions search cannot provide definitive conclusions,
that included traditional and digital books Practitioners are required by IDEA (2004) to
when compared to traditional books alone. utilize scientifically-validated practice when
They also found that five of eight students in teaching students with autism. The positive
the computer condition were able to consis- findings in the limited literature provide clear
tently identify three words from the digital indication that further scientific examination
text. Coleman-Martin, Heller, Cihak, and Ir- is warranted,

vine (2005) used computer-assisted instruc

tion (CAI) to promote sight reading skills to Method

students with severe language impairments

(only one participant was diagnosed with au- This study was designed to compare the effec
tism). All three participants demonstrated an tiveness of a traditional, teacher-led instruc

ability to identify words taught during the tion (TLI) model to computer-assisted in
computer conditions. struction to teach alphabetic skills for a group

Emergent Literacy Skills / 327

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of preschool students with autism (N = 17). Setting

Preschool-age children with autism were taught

the names of letters, an essential early literacy This stud>' was conducted in preschool class

skill (Adams, 1990; Committee on the Preven- rooms for students with autism in nine ele
tion of Reading Difficulties in Young Chil- mentar7 schools in a larSe scho1 dlstnct ln
dren, 1998; Simmons et al., 2002, Teale & the Southwestern United States. The school
Sulzby 1986). The study also was designed to dlstnct encompassed a large urban and rural
examine the effects of each condition on area wlth diverse racla1' linguistic, familial,
student attention and undesirable behaviors. religious, and economic groups. The self
The data from the two conditions were com- contained classrooms provide early intensive

pared to determine differences in acquisition behavioral and educational interventions to

and maintenance of alphabetic skills as well as promote language, social, emotional, behav

behaviors ioral, motor, and cognitive development.

Each classroom was taught by one special ed

ucation teacher and typically had two para

Participants professionals. Enrollment in these programs

Students selected for this study were children included 4 to 6 students with autism and 1 to

attending preschool programs specifically for 4 developing peers. Each classroom

students with autism in a large urban school had at least one computer for students to use

district in the Southwestern United States. during the school day.

Seventeen children in these programs ages 3
to 6 years old were selected from nine differ
ent preschool programs. All students had to

instrumentation

meet the following criteria to participate: Alphabetic knowledge. The Brigance Diagnos
(a) have motor skills needed to move and tic Inventory of Early Development-2 (IED-2) (Brig

click a computer mouse, (b) be able to sit in a ance, 2004) was used to measure student
chair during assessment, and (c) be able to knowledge, mastery, and maintenance of let
point to or say answers to questions. Addition- ter names. The IED-2 is a criterion-referenced

ally, all participants had to: (a) have qualified assessment designed for use in educational
for special education services under the state's programs for young children up to a develop
educational definition of autism, (b) have an mental age of seven years. The IED-2 is a corn

Individualized Education Plan (IEP), (c) have prehensive assessment of developmental and
attended a self-contained preschool classroom pre-academic skills. Skills included in the as
for students with autism, (d) have been 3-6 sessment are validated via expert review of
years old, and (e) have demonstrated diffi- textbooks concerning early childhood devel
culty identifying letters of the alphabet. A stu- opment and education as well as the scientific

dent qualifies for special education services literature (Brigance). A subtest of the readi
for autism in the state if educational perfor- ness assessment is designed to measure stu
mance is negatively impacted by: (a) signifi- dent ability to recognize and name capital
cant deficits in verbal and nonverbal com- letters of the alphabet (see pages 200 to 201 in
munication, (b) significant deficits in social the IED-2). This subtest was administered dur
skills development, (c) repetitive activities, ing pretest, posttest, and maintenance phases,
stereotyped movements, and resistance to The IED-2 provides specific stepwise instruc
changes in the environment, and (d) atypical tions for measuring receptive (e.g., pointing
responses to sensory experiences. The teach- to) and expressive (e.g., saying) letter recog
ers were certified without waivers to teach stu- nition skills. Both formats were used and ad

dents with autism in the state and taught in ministered in accordance with the assessment

self-contained preschool classrooms for stu- instructions.

dents with autism. Teachers held or were cur- Behavioral measures. A whole-interval record

rently pursuing Master of Education Degrees ing system was used to record student atten
in Special Education and had between 0- tion during all videotaped treatment sessions.
10 years experience teaching students with An occurrence was scored if the student dem
autism. onstrated attention for the entire 10-second

328 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2011

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interval (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). terrater reliability checks on teacher fidelity to

An observer recorded occurrences and non- TLI were conducted. A second rater viewed

occurrences of student attention to task dur- 25% of randomly selected sessions and scored
ing 10-second intervals for the duration of all TLI fidelity. The scores obtained by two raters

10-minute lessons. were compared and interrater agreement was

A partial interval recording system was used calculated by [agreements/(agreements +
to record student engagement in undesirable disagreements)] X 100 = percent of agree
behavior during all videotaped treatment ses- ment. Interrater agreement for TLI fidelity
sions. An occurrence was scored if the student was 100%.

engaged in undesirable behavior (e.g., tan- Fidelity to CAI was calculated by (number
trums, self-stimulation, aggression at any time of sessions with 100% fidelity)/(total number

during the interval (Cooper et al., 2007). An of sessions) X 100 = percent of CAI fidelity.

observer recorded all occurrences and nonoc- There were 222 sessions with 100% CAI fidel

currences of undesirable behavior during 10- ity. A total of 258 CAI sessions were scored.
second intervals for the duration of each 10- Fidelity to CAI was 86.0%. Interrater reliability

minute lesson for all CAI and TLI sessions. To checks on CAI were conducted. A second

determine reliability, two additional observers rater viewed 25% of randomly selected ses
randomly selected and scored 25% of the sions and scored CAI fidelity. The scores
videotaped sessions using the same scoring were compared and interrater agreement was

method. calculated by [agreements/ (agreements +

The 10-minute videotaped sessions were disagreements)] X 100 = percent of agree

paired with a soundtrack that counted 10- ment. Interrater agreement for CAI fidelity

second intervals. Attention-to-task behaviors was 100%.

were scored using whole-interval recording.

The scores were compared using interval-by7

Materials

interval analysis (Cooper et al., 2007). The

obtained agreements and disagreements were Alphabet books. The teacher-led lessons in
calculated using [agreements/ (agreements + corporated the use of alphabet. Each book
disagreements) X 100 = percent of agree- focused on a specific letter of the alphabet,
ment]. Interrater reliability for attention-to- The teacher read each book to the students
task behaviors was 82.1%. Undesirable be- for ten minutes daily, four days per week, for
haviors were scored using partial-interval four weeks. Each book had three chapters,
recording. The scores from both observers The books were bound at the top in an easel

were compared using interval-by-interval anal- format, providing students with a direct view
ysis (Cooper et al.). The obtained agreements of the stimuli (e.g., illustrations, target letter,
and disagreements were then calculated using distractor letters, mastered letters). The oppo

[agreements/ (agreements + disagreements) site side (i.e., the side facing the teacher)
X 100 = percent of agreement]. Interrater provided a script for the teacher to read. The

reliability for undesirable behaviors was 88.4%. books were organized into three chapters.

The first chapter introduced the letter.

Fidelity to Interventions

Chapter one included large color illustrations

with the target letter in contrasting color. The

Teacher fidelity checklists were developed to second chapter was dedicated to promoting
measure teacher adherence to the treatment discrimination between the target letter and
in both instructional conditions. An observer distracting stimuli (e.g., numerals). Identical
viewed all the videotaped sessions (TLI and illustrations found in the first chapter of the
CAI) and completed the respective checklist book were used in the second. In the second
to measure teacher adherence to the treat- chapter the target letter and two numerals
ment. Fidelity to TLI was calculated by (num- were placed around the illustrations. When
ber of sessions with 100% fidelity)/(total asked to point to the target letter, a student
number of sessions) X 100 = percent of TLI had to search and discriminate between the
fidelity. A total of 147 TLI sessions were re- target letters and other stimuli (e.g., illustra
corded. Overall fidelity to TLI was 88.2%. In- tions and numerals) and point to the target

Emergent Literacy Skills / 329

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Hooray kjrH!

TWs is the tetter H. {repeat 1)

**<) tt* fc# above, potnttng to the lw as

' wrtyts te tomtom *ss$mm faim#

ewH|swaJs8 test?aM& page- The tm>*\

imm m*<t n repJace* mUh Mk #**

to protect cop)*'#*!

ferndlthe fttte { ^Nf gsSW&tg

<*W"#WWIW<|

toMtcetwwMS

H few Mows*. Some people twe in

home*.

*M<!t these* atone

As! tost tiudtnt t *ptwW lo M*

*1* tfswwa. m4e & tm*

J^tiWKt: Show and meee w*.

Some hemes ere mad* wrth candy and

frMta|. Yummy!
*fce#ith6ne atso**
**fc w*t wstm to "petnt H*

1* laterm*: model ft ttpee

^ineen^JfctN* end move t.

Houm toolt totoerent. Some houses ere

smai.

AAeMt<taiaMie*)Mfnleir
eroratpt * Pratt*

I" trwrmt-. mcOti ft rep**

*2"* tneemKfc Sfto* aed mem m.

Figure 1. Page samples of Chapter 1 from alphabet book "Hooray for H" used during teacher-led instruction.

letter. The size of the target letters and dis- were used in these final pages). The third
tractor numerals in the illustrations gradually chapter presented illustrations along with the

became similar in size (i.e. a within stimulus target letter and other previously taught let
prompt) as the chapter progressed. The ters in order to promote discrimination and
within stimulus prompt (e.g., target stimuli mastery. Previously taught letters were ran
was larger than distracting stimuli) was built domly placed on each page and students were
into early pages of the chapter in order to asked to identify the target letter or previously

provide the teacher with an opportunity to taught letters (see Figure 1).
reinforce students for independent and ap- Alphabet book lessons. Books were made
propriate responses. Chapter two concluded with letters chosen by random selection from
with five pages that only included large and a pool of letters that 80% or more students
identically sized numerals with the target let- had difficulty identifying at pretest. The ran

ter, all in different positions (no illustrations domly chosen letters for the teacher-led in

330 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2011

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struction were R, G, T, and H. These letters trials with opportunities to access games with
subsequently were excluded from the selec- stimulating qualities. The purpose of the games
tion pool prior to selecting letters for the com- was to provide a reward for properly identify

puter condition. The teacher read the chap- ing letters.

ters of the specified book and elicited student A discrimination learning approach (Lovaas,
responses to instructional cues in the teacher 2003) was the basis of the software design,
scripts. Each lesson was 10 minutes in length. Each letter was formally introduced using
The teacher provided students with opportu- massed trials (Lovaas) and an errorless learn
nities to identify the target letter in a chapter ing technique (Bondy & Sulzer-Azaroff,
at least three times during the lesson. The 2002). After completing the introduction les
teachers maintained a slow and steady pace sons (on the first day of the week), the stu
throughout the book. Teachers also held up dents were required to discriminate between
the book for students to see while reading and numerals (on the second day of the week) and
pointing to the target letter (when appropri- the target letter. During mastery lessons (on
ate). In order to maintain consistency of treat- the third and fourth day of the week), stu
ment across classrooms, a specific daily treat- dents were required to discriminate between
ment program was written and supplied to current and previously targeted letters. In
teachers. eluded throughout the lessons were short
When indicated in the script, the teacher games designed to reinforce letter name
asked each child to point to the target letter. learning (see Figure 2).
Each child was given 3 to 6 seconds to re- Computer-assisted instruction lessons. The
spond. The teacher provided immediate feed- computer-assisted alphabet lessons were devel
back after the student: (a) provided a correct oped, formatively evaluated, and refined ac
response, (b) provided an incorrect response, cording to expert feedback. The software was
or (c) provided no response after 3 to 6 sec- developed in accordance with the positive
onds had elapsed since the instruction. Feed- attributes of educational software for students
back for correct responses was enthusiastic with disabilities (Boone & Higgins, 2007).
in both tone of voice and body language. So- Specifically, instructional characteristics of
cial praise also was used (e.g., high fives). software as outlined by Boone and Higgins
Feedback for an incorrect response or a non- (e.g., prompts, small teaching sets, correction
response was non-punitive and corrective strategies, repetition, and independent ex
(e.g., "No, that's not the letter H. This is the ploration) were incorporated into the soft
letter H"). After an incorrect or non-response, ware during development. Additional areas
the student was given another opportunity to that were considered during development in
make the correct response. The teacher re- eluded: (a) directions, (b) feedback and eval
peated the trial by asking the question again uation, (c) content, (d) interface and screen
and providing the appropriate feedback. If a design, and (e) individualization. In addition
second incorrect or non-response occurred, to these positive attributes for students with
the teacher provided the proper feedback and disabilities, the software also included positive
moved on to the next child or page of the attributes of educational software for young
book. children and attributes specific to students
Computer software. The CAI condition re- with intellectual disabilities (Boone & Hig
quired the installation of the software de- gins). Letters chosen for incorporation into
signed and created specifically for the study. the software were randomly selected from a pool
The software was programmed using the soft- of letters that 80% or more students did not
ware authoring program Runtime Revolution: recognize at pretest. Letters already selected for

Media Version (Runtime Revolution, 2008). alphabet book lessons were excluded from the
The software was compatible with both Macin- pool prior to selection of letters for CAI. The
tosh and PC platforms and provided instruc- letters selected for CAI were J, V, U, and Q.

tion on capital letter names. The software was Each student participated in basic corn
programmed to end after a 10-minute instruc- puter training including: (a) moving a mouse

tional time period. The software was designed to move a cursor on the computer screen,
around operant conditioning, using discrete- (b) clicking a mouse to manipulate objects on

Emergent Literacy Skills / 331

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Q#

^ Q

U J

Xvv.'-h - r ^

Figure 2. Screenshots of mastery lesson from software used by students for computer-assisted instruction.

the computer screen, and (c) clicking on ob- the letter when presented with distracting
jects when given an auditory directive by stimuli (e.g., numerals). The mastery lessons
the computer. This training occurred prior to measured the student's ability to recognize
the initiadon of the CAI intervention. Two previously taught letter names while in the
weeks prior to receiving the CAI interven- presence of each other (e.g., J, V, and U si
tion each student practiced daily for 10 min- multaneously appeared with directions to find
utes with Millie's Math House (Riverdeep Inter- one of the letters). Games were developed for

active Learning, 1995), a preschool mathe- the purpose of providing positive reinforce
matics software program. This software did ment, exploration, and motivation to com

not teach names of letters. Students practiced plete the lessons. Animation, auditory instruc
until each student satisfactorily demonstrated tions and feedback, short games, and sound
the ability to move the mouse and click on 10 effects were incorporated into the three les

objects. son formats. Each lesson lasted between 8 and

The software used three specific lesson for- 12 minutes, averaging 10 minutes in length,
mats similar to the three chapters in the A I- Students interacted with the software for a
phabet books used in the teacher-led condition. four-week period. Students were provided
The introduction lesson emphasized repeated with daily computer lessons for 10-minutes,
exposure to a letter and its name. The discrim- four days per week. The teacher or parapro
ination lesson taught the student to recognize fessional ensured the proper lesson was

332 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2011

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TABLE 1

Tests of Within-Subjects Effects for the Alphabet Recognition Assessments Using the Brigance Inventory of
Early Development-II
Type III
Source
Source

Time
Time

F F Sig. Sig.
Sum
Sum ofof
Squares
Squares
df
df Mean
Mean
Square Square
EffectEffect
Size
Size

1265.247
1265.247

4
18.384
316.312
316.312 18.384

<.001*
<.001*

.535
.535

1101.153
17.206
Error
Error
(Time) (Time)
1101.1536464 17.206

Note. *p < .05.

loaded on the computer and that the video tenance of letter recognition skills. Pairwise
camera was recording when the student sat comparisons were calculated with Sidek's cor
down at the computer. Specific lessons were rection for multiple comparisons. Findings re

required for each day of the treatment phase vealed significant improvement (p S .001)
and followed the format found in Figure 2. from pre-test to all subsequent assessments.
Comparison of pretest scores to the posttest

Results r TLI (p < .000) and CAI posttest (p < .001)

Analysis of Alphabetic Recognition Measures

indicated significant gains in letter recogni

tion skills, indicating that the students signif

icantly improved their letter recognition skills

Students were administered the portion of the after receiving both interventions. A compar
Brigance Inventory of Educational Development-II ison of TLI posttest and CAI posttest scores

(IED-I1) (Brigance, 2004) designed to assess did not yield significant differences between
alphabet recognition skills a total of five the two interventions (p = .944). These find
times: (a) prior to receiving any intervention, ings indicate that while both interventions
(b) upon completion of the first four-week produced significant improvement in letter
intervention, (c) after a two-week mainte- recognition skills at all assessment points,
nance period without instruction, (d) at the CAI was not more effective than TLI for
completion the second four-week interven- achieving acquisition of letter recognition
tion, and (e) after a second two-week mainte- skills (see Table 2).

nance period. The scores obtained from these A significant difference between pretest to
assessments were analyzed to compare the ef- the TLI maintenance test (p < .001) and to
fectiveness of the TLI and CAI instructional the CAI maintenance (p < .001) was found,
interventions on the acquisition and mainte- indicating the significant gains were main
nance of letter name knowledge for students tained for both interventions, despite two
with autism. Descriptive and inferential statis- weeks without instruction. Further indication

tics were used to compare the scores on the of maintenance is evidenced by a comparison
ZED-//(Brigance). Assessments from the coun- of the TLI posttest to TLI maintenance tests,
terbalanced groups were combined and a one- This comparison indicated no significant dif

way repeated measures analysis of variance ference (p = 1.000). Similarly, a comparison

(ANOVA) was conducted to test for signifi- of the CAI posttest to the CAI maintenance
cant change across time. The F test was signif- test also found no significant difference (p =

icant [F(4, 64) = 18.38, p < .001, a = .05]. .051). These findings indicate that both inter
This indicates that students significantly in- ventions produced letter recognition skills
creased their ability to recognize letters at the that were maintained after two weeks without

conclusion of the study (i.e., after having re- instruction.

ceived both interventions) (see Table 1). A comparison between the CAI and TLI
Further analysis using pairwise comparisons maintenance tests was conducted to deter
was conducted to determine if either interven- mine if TLI or CAI produced superior main

don produced superior acquisition and main- tenance of letter recognition skills. The corn

Emergent Literacy Skills / 333

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TABLE 2

Pairwise Comparisons of Pretest, Posttests, and Maintenance Tests

(I) Time

(J) Time

Pretest

Mean Difference

Standard

(I-J)
(H)

Error

Sig.a

TLI Posttest

-9.765

1.758

<.001*

TLI Maintenance

-9.706

1.288

<.001*

CAI Posttest
CAI Maintenance

-7.706

1.521

.001*

-10.353

1.625

<.001*

TLI Maintenance

1.000

.059

.994

CAI Posttest

2.059

1.729

.944

TLI Maintenance

CAI Maintenance

-.647

1.206

1.000

CAI Posttest

CAI Maintenance

-2.647

.818

.051

TLI Posttest

Note. Sidak Adjustment for multiple comparisons.

* p < .05

parison of TLI and CAI maintenance scores rate of attention (76.3% of all intervals and a
revealed no significant difference (p = 1.000), lower rate of undesirable behavior (4.7% of all

indicating that although both interventions intervals).

produced durable gains, neither intervention Paired samples -tests were used to deter
was significandy better for achieving mainte- mine if there were significant differences in

nance of learned letters. attention between CAI and TLI conditions, as

well as undesirable behavior between CAI and

Analysis of Behavior Measures TLI. The first -test compared the mean of
Attention-to-task and undesirable behavioral

attention-to-task during CAI to the mean of

attention-to-task during TLI. Findings indi

data were collected via videotape observations

, , i . j ... cated no significant difference for attention
and were analyzed in order to determine it
. u -c .i to-task between interventions (p = .089). A
attention-to-task behaviors were significantly r

different according to CAI and TLI. A similar second Paired samPles Rest was used to eval"
comparison was conducted to determine if uate differences in undesirable behavior be
undesirable behaviors were significantly dif- tween the CAI and TLI interventions. The
ferent according to CAI and TLI. Paired sam- data indicated no significant difference of un
ples statistics of behavioral data indicate that desirable behaviors (p = .554). These results
CAI yielded a moderately high rate of atten- reveal that neither intervention produced sig
tion (65.6% of all intervals) and a very low rate nificandy higher rates of attention or lower
of undesirable behavior (6.4% of all inter- rates of problem behavior. Results from these
vals). Similarly, TLI produced a slighdy higher analyses are in Table 3.
TABLE 3

Summary of Paired Samples i-Tests of Attention to Task and Undesirable Behavior in Computer-Assisted
Instruction and Teacher-Led Instruction

Paired Differences
Std. Standard

Mean Dev. Error

Errar Mean t df
CAI
CAI and
and TLI
TLI Attention
Attentiontoto
Task
Task
-0.1071
-0.1071
0.2438
0.2438
0.1138
0.1138
-1.812
-1.812
16 16 .089
CAI
CAI and
and TLI
TLIUndesirable
Undesirable
Behavior
Behavior
0.0167
0.0167
0.0591
0.0591
0.0276
0.0276
0.604
0.604
16 16 .554

334 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2011

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Discussion identified as key elements of effective teach

ing for students with autism (NRC, 2001).
Inadequate literacy instruction will likely re- However, it appears that these instructional
suit in students with autism experiencing lim- components can be difficult for teachers to
ited academic achievement and social oppor- consistently implement (Goodman et al.
tunities and depending on others for life- 200g) Jn this stud>. thc teachers taught from
defining levels of support (Alberto & Hefflin, scripted TLI materials. The TLI aiphabet
2007). By acquiring even basic literacy skills, books drected the teacher in what tQ say>
students with ausm are able to succeed in when t) say t and when tQ moye forward

school, achieve independence, and partid- ^ book Thus tbere was ^ roQm for

pate in their community (Copeland, 2007). teacher em)r in impiementing the instruc
Because the behavioral characteristics of au- donal roudne appears that these scripted
tism often result in more restrictive educa- instructional procedures improved the consis
tional placements (Prior & Ozonoff, 2007), tency of nstruction and may have produced

students with autism receive instruction focused more effective teachers n ^ siluati()n.

on behavior and often receive no literacy- Tbe inteiventions in tbis study required

based instruction (Mirenda, 2003). very ^ teacber resources xhe software was

The purpose of this study was to examine if provided on a disc and easily installed. The
students with autism learn to identify and books were prepared based on pretest results
maintain letter names more efficiently using and provided to the teachers. Because the
TLI or CAI. Additionally, this study measured teacber participants were trained in deliVering
the behavior of students with autism during the inteia.entlonSj there was no need for them
TLI and CAI to determine what differences, if to create )esson plans or otherwise prepare for

any, were observed across the two instruc- intervention. The TLI lessons were deliv

tional conditions. ered to a whole group of students (versus

more common one-on-one instruction often

Alphabet Recognition

used in early intensive behavioral intervention

programs), and required only 10 minutes of

The data show that there was a significant daily instruction. The CAI briefly required
main effect for CAI over time. This finding teacher time (to start the lesson for the stu
means that CAI successfully increased student dent) and then allowed her/him to perform

ability to recognize letters of the alphabet. other duties while the students received CAI.
The data also indicate that there was a signif- The low demand of teacher time and re
icant main effect for TLI over time, meaning sources may have contributed to the success of
that TLI also significantiy increased student both interventions. The lessons were effective,

ability to recognize letters of the alphabet. easily infused into the daily routine, and re

However, no interaction effect between the quired very litde teacher resources.

TLI and CAI interventions was found. The Further support for the efficiency of these
effectiveness of both interventions may be due interventions may be the relatively small
to the inclusion of specific features during the amount of instructional time dedicated to
design phase. Features of well-designed CAI each of the two interventions. The students
for students with autism were incorporated showed significant letter recognition in each
into the creation of the software used in this intervention (CAI and TLI) despite only re
study (Boone & Higgins, 2005, 2007; Williams, ceiving 10-minutes of explicit, daily instruc
Wright, Callaghan, & Murphy, 2001). The tion, for four days a week during a four-week
software also incorporated well-established be- period. Although the lessons were short, they
havioral teaching methods (NRC, 2001). repeatedly exposed students to letter names
Similar features from the software (e.g., and provided opportunities to interact with
consistent cues, feedback, prompting, shap- the teacher or computer. The teacher-led les
ing, interesting and motivating stimuli, active sons may be considered efficient in that the
student participation, and repeated exposure) lessons were delivered to several students si
were incorporated into the alphabet books multaneously and produced significant, last
used during TLI. These qualities have been ing results. The CAI lessons may be consid

Emergent Literacy Skills / 335

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ered efficient in that they were delivered to that providing well-designed, motivating, and

the students in the absence of the teachers stimulating early literacy instruction to pre
(who were then able to conduct other teach- school children with autism is warranted,
ing-related duties) while still achieving signif- Withholding literacy instruction for these chil
icant and durable gains in letter naming skills. dren may actually contribute to ongoing at
Since both interventions were effective for tention and behavior problems. Conversely, if
producing robust and lasting gains in a rela- students with autism are provided with emer
tively small amount of time, teachers may be gent literacy interventions that are highly mo
afforded the luxury of choosing, perhaps on a tivating and stimulating, increased attention,
daily basis, which method to implement in the low rates of undesirable behaviors, and liter
classroom. acy learning may be achieved. One potential
implication is that young children with autism
Behavioral Findings

who are capable of learning literacy skills

should not be denied access to instruction

The CAI and TLI interventions were de- (Mirenda, 2003). Some teachers believe that
signed with the intent of providing interesting other skills must first be mastered before stu
and motivating stimuli. The software utilized dents are given access to literacy instruction
stimulating graphics, sound effects, inter- (Mirenda). However, the findings in this study

active games, and animation. The alphabet suggest this interpretation may be unfounded,
books included illustrations of popular char- Teaching literacy skills may result in wide
acters from children's television programs spread gains related to behavior, attention,
and films. The CAI lessons provided repeated and academic learning,
opportunities to interact with the software,
requiring active learning. The TLI lessons also
Limitations
provided opportunities for students to inter
act with the book. The active participation in The limitations of this study should be consid

both instructional conditions, in conjunction ered when evaluating the findings as well as
with the use of the characters in the alphabet designing new studies. First, the heteroge
books and the multimedia design of the soft- neous and limited sample size makes general
ware may have boosted attention during both izations to the entire population of students
interventions. Descriptive statistics indicated with autism difficult. A study that uses a group
that the mean attention-to-task during TLI was of students with similar profiles or a larger
10.7% higher during TLI when compared to sample size may obtain different results. Also,
CAI. However, despite this finding, the data the data were collected in self-contained class
indicated that the difference in attention-to- rooms for students with autism. Methods used

task behavior between TLI and CAI was not in this study may not produce the same effect
significant. The rate of attention was similar for students with autism who are in inclusive

during both interventions. This means that settings. The short length of time the infer
tile children similarly attended to the alpha- ventions were implemented during the study
bet lessons in both instructional conditions. It may limit generalization. Lastly, classrooms
may be that the use of highly interesting char- were selected based on convenience. Accord
acter illustrations is vital for teaching alphabet ingly, the findings of the study may not gen
skills using teacher-led instruction. It also may eralize to other classrooms,
be that students with autism are highly moti
vated and interested in CAI that uses multi

Recommendations for Future Studies

media instruction and educational games. It

seems likely that the motivating and interest- With research in autism primarily focusing on
ing stimuli in both interventions played a cen- early intensive behavioral intervention pro

tral role in the high rates of attention exhib- grams (Cohen et al., 2006; Lovaas, 1987),
ited by the students. there is little scientific exploration of other
The low rates of undesirable behaviors and aspects of developmentally-appropriate early
high rates of attention-to-task behaviors exhib- childhood education (e.g., literacy skills) for
ited by the students in this study may suggest students with autism. Consequently, little is

336 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2011

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known about what types of interventions are

effective for teaching emergent literacy skills

to children with autism. Also lacking is an

understanding of the specific intervention
components that may be essential to achieve

desired academic effects. A compilation of

research-based, early intervention literacy in

can use CAI independently to learn and main

tain an early literacy skill in self-contained
autism classrooms. They also can learn and
maintain alphabetic skills during traditional,
book-based, small group instruction that in
corporates behavioral teaching methods and
direct-instruction. Second, the alphabet books

structional interventions should be con

and instructional software were effective be

structed. From this, a checklist should be cre

cause they both were developed according to

research on teaching methods for students
with autism and software design for students
with disabilities. Formative evaluation by ex
perts, teachers, and children yielded inter
vention qualities that produced positive and
lasting effects on student learning and behav

ated to which developers can refer when

considering the design and development of
instructional interventions for students with
autism.
Future studies also should examine inter

vention components that educators perceive

to be efficient literacy interventions for chil
dren with autism. The efficiency components
that teachers need to adequately implement
instruction may be influenced by several vari
ables. An understanding of these factors could

lead to better design and implementation of

interventions.
To better understand the effects of well

designed literacy interventions on student be

haviors, a replication of this study should com

pare student baseline behaviors to student

behaviors during the instructional phase in
order to determine if literacy interventions
have a functional relationship with undesir

able and attentive behaviors. A better under

standing of how well-designed instructional

ior. Third, the TLI and CAI were efficient

interventions because they required very little

teacher resources, achieved desired effects in

a small amount of time, and were easy to

incorporate into the daily classroom routine.
Well-designed interventions that also incorpo
rate interesting and motivating qualities can
produce high rates of attention and low rates
of undesirable behavior in preschool students
with autism. Importantly, preschool students
with autism should have access to quality early
literacy interventions regardless of limits in
current school-readiness skills or engagement
in undesirable behaviors because these skills

may not necessarily be prerequisites for liter

acy learning.

interventions impact the behaviors of students

with autism may yield better short- and long
term outcomes of students with autism.

Future studies should focus on the develop

ment of a valid scope and sequence of early
literacy instruction for young children with
autism as well as best practices for the use of
digital and traditional instruction. Research
should explore the effects of other digital and
traditional technologies to teach other early

learning concepts (e.g., sizes, shapes, posi

tions, body parts) to students with autism.
Longitudinal studies should be conducted
that examine learning outcomes for students
with autism to determine the type of literacy
instruction (TLI or CAI) that is best suited to
specific literacy skills.
Conclusions
Several conclusions can be drawn from this

study. First, preschool-age students with autism

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Received: 22 June 2010

Initial Acceptance: 25 August 2010
Final Acceptance: 20 September 2010

338 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-September 2011

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