ing the ise, ath, he ohn ing ald ang den the ads ege and slie Pte history of technique aad eagincerng erifes to the eresisabl wge of bomaaity toward increasing the speed ‘of locomorioa, Means of locomotion on the ground, 02 the vrtace of sal within water, shrough the at, and paps through empey space, compete ina evergrowing for toward highetvelocidcsObviouly, there ae limitations for crery typeof locomotion, Ata cetain spec, any parce Ope ineicient nnd uneconomical chat i i soable © other more sppopeat type eis dfical to find mearureof che comparative economy of locomotion, sac ee impostble to finds general measure for the vale of peel in hata life. Obviously, apeed as quite diferent value in wat sod peace, in eansporaton of persons, fd of cargo. ‘The appredation of spect depends upoa our ‘whole philosopty of Me chae is, on factor fr beyond the ope of engineering scene. Te this shore study, the problem of comparative merits of vations mesos of locooion is considered merely fom an agi tering point of view. The power required for tansporeation E Gfunit weight is sed as mature forthe compacion. Ev dently for 2 dfaite sytem of locomotion, the minimum of poreeaconny fenton fui wig dined 3 the pyc laws ofthe resistance of te medium, the ef Elieney ofthe tethod of propalsion, the wai weight snd foe toneunption of the particular type of powerplant, and maay eiher factor, Neverthcls, i peat cae Hone thre all dies cogetic, a general wend, alot a Kind of waiver aw, aa be found forthe power regired per eit gross weighs of he Sehile as fonction of mastmum speed. “The demonstration i this gener read it ee subject ofthe presen contribution One has to realize hatte material x nccsaily approximate fd incomplete, sad the eoocutious are of cher tetatve aa 5 The data for power, weight, and maximum spool ar takes in general from plications; the data concerolng the products of the Tat coner, from records of this om. "No eased tiatral was ed inthe plotting ofthe diagrams. ‘The authors present their stay inthis incomplete form to cocouage 2 more complete compilation of statistical mata fy petons or organization which areas better poston odo Suck works, They will be especialy glad if mansfarares frou speik up 20d show eramples fa which the power Sreght ratio er below the Minimum curves shown in the oompanyiog diagexms. 1 pclinary examination of ch mattal has shown that it apps jusiiol to sparse the data for dndivial vices ifom the data for trate. Te is known that, especially ia the tive of fas tan, the average resistance per ehice is aub- Stanly sulle than Ghat of aslogle vehicle In he fe 13930 Thorson Lec + Duccior of Enginceog, Fiat Company, Profesor Poltecic, Toros iy Mo RSME : “Honorary Poksace, Columbia Usivcsisy; Chacmas ofthe Sci tiie Advisory Bond ofthe USAF; Conlane of the Acoet Bagh eviag Corporation, Ata, Cal, ASME Metal, 1901. Mam td WHAT PRICE SPEED? Specific Power Required for Propulsion of Vebicles By G. GABRIEL? ann TH. von KARMAN* ‘TABLE 1 TYPES OF VEHICLES 1G Cognit WG) Moredeves NG Athi chips alway cate | (2) Helicopters 0) tachips Q ree Bead ie 6) Des 6) Aacomobiles anes Submarines on a) Chmmercat fice ‘aiplanes © Sobatines sub = oie: pare of this paper, we restrict ourselves to single vehicles ‘Table gives the types of single vehicles co be considered. ‘The flowing procedure was employed inthe evaluation of the material: First, an exteasive amount of material was colleceed for each type of vehicle and the power for unit weight (ia hp per ton), calculated and plocted as fonction of the maximum velocity ‘hich che vehicle caa reach in level motion. The values thus ‘obtained show large dispersion. This appeacs nacaral sioce ‘aot all vehicles are designed with a view to obtaining the highest velocity with a minimum power per unit weight. Other factors, such 25, for example, the price of manufuctucing ‘ot design criteria incompacible with minimum power, may prevail. For our parpose, it seems to be logical to determi 4 limiting curve for each type representing the “minimam' value of the “power per unit weight” as 2 fonction of the “maximum velocty.”” Hence, from the great oumber of vehicles of a given class, those examples were telected which have less power for unit ‘weigh installed-than other vehicles of the same class and same maximum velocity, A continuous curve is plotted through the poines representing these selected examples. It ‘must be noted that this curve docs not necessarily determine che ‘minimum of the power that is required to transport one ton at 4 given velocity. Te may occur that a vehicle built for higher velocity can be more economical at 2 lower speed, not using its fall power, than a vehicle designed for the same lower speed a5. its maximum velocity. The exact meaning of the curve is the statement that, according to present experience, in order 10 design a vehicle of 2 cercain type for a given maximum speed, at least as much power bas to be installed as is shown by the diagram, Te must be noted also thae the full power installed in the ve~ hele is used in the computations. This includes, of course, some power which is not used for production of theust; for ‘example, power used for auxiliary purposes. Also in the case of tracks and railway cats, a certain portion of the power is reserved for climb, In other words, the maximom speed in- dicated in the diagram is, in genera, les than the fall speed ‘which could be reached by the vehicle ifthe fall power could be utilized om a horizontal track. These types of vehicles are often designed in such a way that che maximum power is not available for the horizontal run. To minimize ths effec, such, examples were selected for which the power reserve at the maximum speed is relatively small. On the other hand, the necessity of such power reserve corresponds to the nature of the vehicle and, therefore, ie appears justified to use the full power for the comparison with other types. 715y a Mea) siepneys T Peponen mueseT/ss io. 1 SVAUUATION OF DATA YOR COMMNCIAL PLANES Fig. 1 represents an example of the evaluation of the dara re- lated to one type of locomotion, namely, commercial airplanes. ‘The diagram contains 85 points represeating 85 airliners—old and new-—with a maximum speed between 80 and 395 mph. ‘The nondimensional quantity ¢ plotted as ordinate is the ratio between the maximum power P and the product gross weight W times velocity V. The quantity P/V is the tractive force which would cotrespond to full use of the power P for propal- sion with a propulsive efficiency of 100 per cent. ‘Then € = P is the ratio between this tractive force and the weight we erthe vehicle. Bvidendy, if one comparcs two vehicles and onsders the work nectsacy for 2 given anspor perform seee fe, the tunsporeation of the same gross weight over The sin’ dicance, Eb work is dircly proportional to For cuaniple, in the ease of commercial aerate, the diagram Tove thee an opeimem for power requircmenc.xits #6 4 Speed of approsimacely 320 mph. As 2 tattr of fact, che ine FEC aeictmum specd ftom 200 mph Ceny, from the DC3) fo 360 mph (Constellation or DCS) has been achieved by ‘easily deerensing che work necesary for she same tamsport Povlormunces The amount of work fcreacs only slightly if Ee speed i xined 0 400 mp Ine conser the propulsion problem from the viewpoint of che Faintance of the mediom, ci the taro beeween a kied ‘Sf eral reitance which includes in addition co direct drag, the drag equivalent to losses in the transmission and in the fropultirc mechanisme-and the gros weight of the vehicle FoF Lied of global fiction coeficiece forthe vehicle. We Clit the covifeiene of the specific tractive force ot speci Tein apparcot that ths cocfcent i tefl for the comparison of difctene types of tunsportacion, since ie gles at indication ‘tthe pice ons as to pay in Power for speed, and it helps co fi out whether» cerain system of taneporeation i suitable for further spend increase without penalty of higher specifier power fojurement or whcther one inte the economical lint Gr course the ral measure of economy should be the work ecaaty co wanspor ertaia wef ond, overa given disteace. ‘Tharctore our consiusions ios fas etonomy i eoncerned— re nity correct only if the catio of wsefal oad to gross ‘Weight remains constant. ‘The authots hope that somebody Wilfeney foreher the present analysis substicuting the esol Toad for che gross weight. Since exsce information concerning ful Toad i not cally available to the authors, they decided foros the grove ight a parameter. Ii the following paragraphs we shall consider the three main classes of vehicles somewhae in detail Fig. 2 shows the curves representing the minimum specitic ‘power Cic., built-in horsepower divided by gross weight), as 2 Fonction of maximum spced for various types of single vehicles. ‘Mecuanican ENGINEERING Fig. 3 shows che specific eactive force, i, the power pet ‘unit weight divided by the maximum velocity. Both diagrams how that nautical vehicles have the lowest values for specific power or specific tractive force at least at low velocities. Evie Jently this fact makes ships che most economical single ve~ hieles at low speed. ‘The diagrams also show that for medium speeds the terrestrial and, for high speeds, the acrial vehicles represent the opeimum cases. ‘Generally speaking, the power required for ship propulsion consists of four contributions: 2) Theskia fiction cring on the wetted surface. () The pressure drag produced by eddy or wake formation. ©, The wave resistance. @ Thesir resistance of the superstructure, ‘The frictional resistance ean be considered proportional £0 ‘the square of the velocity, the density of the water, and the tvetted-surface area, multiplied by a coelicient which essentially epends upon roughness of che surface, and a dimensionless [Pataincter known ae Reynolds number. "For a smooth surface, {he friction coefficient decreases with increasing Reynolds faumber, ie, itis smaller for large boats than for small boats. For rough surface, the coeficient is essentially independent of speed. The eddy resistance behaves in general similarly to the frictional resistance. Fig. 3 shows that ia the speed do- main in which these two components of the resistance predom- nate, the specif tractive force, for example, in the case of merchant ships, showsa moderate increase with speed. For the tame vehicle, the specific tractive force would be approximately proportional to the squate of the speed. However, if we Consider ships of diferent sizes, then ships of large displace neat are better off because the wetted surface increases more Slowly than the displacement, ic, the gross weight. There fore the increase of the specific tractive force in our diagram is much slower than that predicted by the quadratic law. Ie wheoade] Lene | veo} ee ore ‘ees aah pat - ime. 2. sencinc rowne oF swNors vameuas apps dome Or speci beew sion! may thea dime Ast velo. the the only how capi bikie The cha ees thet pet T spe: abo for hiefic Is Ocropsr, 1950 71 = owen Iv USS-#T/5i WeWwelt Iv LB) V=SSEED IN FT/S oo gE eooit__L rio, 3) sPHcinic RESETANCE OF SINGLE VENCLES appears, nevertheless, that at lease in the practical speed ‘Dhan she lomess hip rege the lear cacie free ‘One other hae for both merchant sed Batdcships, the sper tetve force shows» tpid icra inthe sere ge ‘wen 30 aod 40 mph ‘The featon for this inteate isthe Ineraing wave restance which depends upon anther dimen: sons femcter known as Froude amber, ‘This parecer maybe deine by the formula V/V gL where Vie thespecyg ‘Be eceleraconofgxvty and Lan appropestely chose ett Simenson of thei, for ample, ie eagh ofthe ater in ‘hs the spend becomes ofthe same order of again a the ‘Seloty bt propagation of te predominant wave prodaced by Tee ition of the ship Coin veloc iv proportional 0 the quantity Vg, the wave resistancerapidly increases, The nyleectve remedy aguigt tis obtacle co Sect icra is fo Incense the length ofthe ship. "Thi measure is Limived, owever,by several fico, one of which i che increase of feructural weight due to high being moment, frthemoe, Sapleal iavesonen, aed alo the penal limi of maneuvers: Silty. Docking tad the ike alo lime che sis of sip. The Gompied data show that for example, in the case of er han ships, the tangent eo the curve shown ia ig. 2, atthe prose sped line ae seal ie sbowe 6 which mesos the fort pect increase of about 1 percent, che bllein power petton muse be incensed by abou perce. Avimilarrralt FE showa for tlre, Evidently, there means of leamo- tion are appeeching spots at which farther incest appear tneonomiea, "The destroyers are shore in the diagrams operstng in che speed range eewecn 35 sad 50 mph. This operion requires ‘Rowe 8 ines ager ecive fore por une weights require, for example fore lage commercial liner, OF course chese ve Hele ar noe bilefor economical opeatonat such highspeed ‘Theit main feature ig mancuverability in battle conditions. ‘Theit maximam speed is limited rather by eavieation charac teristics of the propellers chan by increasing wave resistance. ‘The specific tractive force required for the submarine oo the surface ie considerably larger than for merchant ships or batelo~ ships, Thie is due partly to the face chae they are not buile ‘primarily for sueface locomotion and partly to the limitations of their size. The submarine in submerged state faces frictional ‘and eddy drag only. The diagram shows a eather surprising increase of power fequired with increasing maximum speed. Such an increase of power docs not seem necessary from a hy- rodynamie poine of view and must be conaccted with the particular specifications for the design of the submarines con- Sidered. Ie is to be noted that recent progress in submarine design is aot included in our figures. ‘The resistance of terrestrial vehicles can be separated invo three components. These are as follows: @ Rolling friction. @ Ai resistance of the body. GO Ai resistance of the rotating wheels. In addition, since ous definition of tractive force is based on total power uile into the vehicle, the transmission losses are included. In examining Fig. 3, 2 large disproportion in specific tractive force required for tracks aad passeager automobiles, as com- pared to rail cars, is evident. This is explained sufficiently by the diference in the rolling friction beeween pacumatic tires and road, as compared to the rolling friction between steel Wheels and rail. In the case ofthe railcar, we find that atrela- tively low speeds Cbeeween 50 and 70 mph) the specific tractive718 force is estentially independent of speed. As a matter of fact, ‘at these speeds the greatest portion of the total resistance is ‘onsibatel by therol tion whichis sentially proporsional to the load on the wheels and almost independent of speed ‘hs the relative contribution of the air resistance increases, the ‘specific tractive force increases. The rate of increase of «, However, is not determined directly by the law of air resistance ‘which would make the tractive force proportional to the square (Of the speed; the increase of power ata higher rate is due to sey- ‘eal factors, such as the necessity of a climb reserve which pre- ‘ents the we of the total power buile in ac high-speed level run. ‘Similar conditions prevail in the case of automobiles. A re~ ‘cent analysis carried out by Romani for the French Center for ‘Studies in Automobile Engineering shows that in the casc of a nicely streamlined automobile, which is supposed to have a dag cocficient equal to about 0.3, referred ro the master cross section ofthe ca, the ai resistance becomes equal to the rolling resistance at a speed of about 40~45 mpl. Ar higher speeds, the air resistance becomes more and more the controlling fac tor. Forcommercial passenger cars, 125 mph can be considered ‘as the highest speed. "The curve shows that also in this case the installed power per uaie weight is larger than would be strietly necessary following the law of air resistance. Te is interesting to note, however, that the increase of power required is much more moderate for racing cars. This is due (Gdto better streamlining, i.., reduction ofthe coeficient of the ait resistance; (2) tothe face that the design of racecars allows, ‘the use of full motor power in Jevel run at maximum speed, ‘As a matter of fact, if we compare the specific tractive force for ‘the car holding the present speed record with a standard pas- ‘Senger cat which has 120-mph maximum speed, we find chae che ‘ratio between the respective values of the specific resistance is, equal co about 3, wheress the ratio between the squarcs of the velocities is aboue 11. For vehicles of the same size and thape, whose resistance consiats estentially of air resistance, the two ratios should be equal. Of course, in addition to the points mentioned in the foregoing, it must be considered thar the rolling resistance is also reduced in the case of che racing cat by-use of special tires and roadbeds. For motorcycles, only one poine is shown in cach diagram since there is lite difference between the performance of Gifferent makes of motoreyles. The comparison shows that the motoreycle is rather prodigal device for locomotion, This may be due partly to the relatively large air resistance which is produced by the wheel itself and the parasite drag of the bodies exposed to wind, Te has to be pointed ont, however, that the ratio of usefal load to coral weight is very favorable in the ease of che motorcycle. ‘tis interesting to see that che tractive force of single trucks Gwithout trailer) is practically independent of speed in the speed range between 30 and 50 mph where the rolling friction is, the determining factor, and the curve representing trucks con stiruces almost 2 continuation of the curve representing pas- senger aucomobiles. ‘Actial vehicles are predomisant in the high-speed range, ‘especially inthe speed range above 150 mph. There is one n0- table exception, that is the ighterthan-aircraft—the airship. In its own speed range, the airship appears several times mare favorable—at least in che sense considered in this paper—than the helicopter, This does not mean, of course, that the ait- ship can replace « helicopter. The latter is a short-range de- vice, with excellene ability to take off and land almose every: where. The airship is « long-range means of transporeation requiring special landing installations. The specific erative foree of the airship is of the same order as that of the truck oF ‘Macuanicat, ENGINEERING ebeautomobile, Tes also seen that ia the speed rangein which Sishipe were wed, the specie erative fores doesnot show any Increte with incessng speed, One may thecfore conclude thar ie should be posible to design alshige of considerably higher speed (ey, 120 mph) withowe any significa increase of tbe work aecesay for given transport performance. For this tim the snc ofthe airship as tobe enlarged cousderably and {his nay tequite the solution of sew several problems as trel ab hew methods of propliion; sigaicant aodyaamic [provements may also appear feasible. At present the dif fcuies of haodling of wey argeshipe and cheneed oftelatvely large eapial investment sem to be the main impediments co the revival of ainhip development. On the other hand, its large cargo capacity aod che comfort of eravel yet may sure a plce forthe srship in tamsoceaic travel i 4 specd range be- Erveca those of the Lage pascoge ship and the commercial lin. Procceding to some remaris concerning heavier-than-ait cafe copetilyaeplanes lets coorder Fig. 5, the dia- fam showing the specie erctve fore a 4 feaction of the Easianum speed ‘The large specie eraceive force required at Tow speed i a characernie Teatce ofall aisplanes. Ic is sppatetly an aoavoidsbe consequeee ofthe at thatthe ait lao as to prove its own sustentation by power. This is, Ereoute, ls trac in the cise ofthe helcopecr and ofthe bird= {inftatng omichoper which, however, has not ye reached any Sage of practical application, In so fr 26 commercial ait Crassport is conceroed, this face ea fandamencal restriction in the application ofthe airplane, Whereas in the domains of ‘hip; allway, aod sutomobiletanaporation eis posible to bru high-powered fase vehicles for pasoger transport and low-powered slow vebieles for inexpensive argo, the same problem has not oon solved yee wo fara air eanoport i our raed Tetusglance fora momenta the diagram showing the power required pr ton for vaio airplanes ig. 2)- or all aispanes, the maim number of borepowers re quire for 1 ton weigh i greater than 110._ This orresponds [Oa power loading of about 50ib per bp. This doesnot mean thar seplane canbe deaigaed to carry noe thas 30 1b per bp. However dis vlue ofthe power loading spear athe pre toe time 352 highest lini for sa economaly posible air Plane. Ie algo repcscats a reatonable limi for takeof. To ovure,jevasste ake-of may change the ake-of limitations Ge sls farthsiore, hat the rato Between the speed ofthe faves commercial aiflane and the slowest private plane in the is about 45:1, whereas the ratio berweea their specific powers iss cha 2:2. ‘hre are to reasons for this fat: Ei Alepancs with low wing londing have, in general rele Sely low stroctural ficiency. When thesie ofsucha lightly Touded planes increatedy the cngty weight gos up to such aa ‘rene that pay loud and range shrink aml ubecononical Teme. GQ) Stall aicplance have in genera. a Jess favorable [Hedag rai has lege airplanes becawe ee parasite drag fomeieces 2 lager portion of the roal drag. Whether Tow powered glider with exe Ledag ratio could reach aiden popularcy to make its manvlacrue snd ste economi- cally faible, is yetan undcided question. Maybe if small {ft oe carboprop engine could be manafacrred at low cost, {ie peten stwation would change. Tens been mentioned alteady thatthe sped of commercial sisiners has Been grestly incensed wihoue petulty to thet Sconomy. Ia this Levelopment—in addition 0 azrodyaamic Snprovetentsthe relation of highalltede air uansport pled s significant cole. The speceacula increase of spect of Eabeeding sivcafe i due maiiy t the increase of sac and fight alta. the div ab on the thi by th aErR SsNe ich ey ade bly, eof his and aig ‘dy te se ‘ly eal dle cag ach val vad | | 9 | Ocroner, 1950 Ie is quite inbtractive to look at the diagram representing che spect tractive force for aizplanes CFig. 3). By is defini~ tooth quay ual ode rage ati ofthe ane divided by the propulsion efieney. ‘The optimum ratio for sees adr tte ie abou 0.08 gonespondiog toa fed fatio of 124, of taking foto accouoe the propeller ficiency shout M¢-l. "This gue is prof ofthe rather highly developed State of acodynamic design, In the case of Sghters, the opt- ‘mum occurs at a speed of about 400 mph, aad the bes valle is O16, whichis yet an cxcellen figure if One cakes ito account the face chat fighters are aot primacy designed for exonomy— tha economy ust be suctifced for maneuverability and offen five armament, which mesos woavoidable parasite drs ‘We have sen tha inthe case of ship, che increase of wave resistance at a ceria Froude number increases greatly the power require. Ia somewhat analogots way, the plane fas co overcome the socalled compresibility cect, when fone approaches tonic velocity, Le Mach number 1. This Gclesly shown ia the diagrams.” For example, in Fig. 2, the horsepower pet weight ratio increases rapidly between 500 fad 600 mp speed, ands corresponding increase ofthe ractive- force cottcicat appears in ig. >. Ie knows, however, that by the ase of so-called sweptback wings, the citieal Mach vbr ean be increased, and the rapid ig of che drag delayed to a higher speed range “The relatively favorable values for the B47 bomber are probebly due othe ele of sweep back. ‘The data for fighter Bich swepebuck wings arc in general not yet available for lication, but they probably would yild pointe between Tac tpetntag the iynesk ud the a bomber, “There ate ao published data available for airplanes with supersonic velocity at level fight, ‘Our representation of et planes ie aot quite consistent with that of propellerdrivenarplanes, For jee planes, we used che static thru of the cogine divided by the gross weight of the Beplane forthe eacalation of che specie active force. Simi larly, we sed thrust horsepower for the calculation of the horsepower per ton esti, Ie as felt thac i is dificule to say ‘what is Che meaning of baile-ia power" in the case of the fet Zagine, The use ofthe thrast horsepower forthe comparative Computation gives some advantage to che jet engine, beatae {a the ese ofthe conventional sitpanes, the shaft horsepower twas taed which fs equal tothe thrust horsepower divided by propulsion efficiency. For caiosity’s sake, the auchors included some data conceen- ing the man, walking snd running, the maa on bicycle, and che horse. ‘They did not attempe co discuss quantitatively the case off sod fowl, nor that ofthe man switsning in wate. The maia difculey in che case ofa living power plant isthe catimate of the effective horsepower, which greatly depends ‘upon the duration of the efore wel in locomotion. Afr ‘consulting some publications on che matter, Table 2 was com- pill andthe data given inch able were wed for che diagrams. Te has to be realized chat chese data are somewhat arbitrary Nevertheless, one can make interesting observations; for ex- ample, the power per weight ratio is almost identical for the fastest racchore and the fastest battleship ae about the same aaximmum speed, is che belieof dhe authors thac ie would be of interest to analyze sport records conceraing swimmers, tarathon walkers, runaer, hors and dog races, and the like, fom point of view of the performance of che human and animal power plane Composite vehicles ére in use on the ground, on the water 719 TABLE 2 DATA ON LIVING POWER PLANTS Weight, Speed, Power, ind of locomotion if “Bes” hp Maie—Waveawo avo Reno Walking. eso re Mahigg fase 0.00 BS 3 8 1Ooeyard rane. mo 24 0m Mse—On Breen Prenre ip WS sas oo highway i BO (Oe facetack ener scwweeee 1338 SBA LOL Hors. With carsage ae fase ep. 34st With erage, eorcng. 2s 90S Racehorse it gallop, wih jockey.. 1000 3832.0 surface, and i the air, We want to restrict ourselves t0 the terrestrial vehicles. The tugboat is employed mostly for river and catal transportation, and at low speeds; it is rather im- practical on high sea. ‘The glider train has been used as an aerial composite vehicle, but the advantages of such an ar- Fangement.are not very great, in so far as saving of power is ‘concemed. Ithas been suggcsted that aerodynamic advantages ‘could be realized by coupling airplane wings end by end be- ‘cause the tip lostes would be essentially reduced. Similar ef fect is realized in formation ight of birds and also of airplanes. ‘There are, however, aot many data available om this subject. Fig. 4 represents the curves for power per ton at maximum speed for tractors and trucks with trailers and various types of trains, The reduction of power required per unit weight is ‘due to several reasons: (1) Especially in the ease of fast tains, the air resistance of the complete train is considerably less ‘than the sum of the ait resistances of the single cars used separately. (2) The concentration of the propulsive power in the locomotive allows the employment of large power-plant ‘units, with becter efficiency and lower specific weight. Te is seen, however, that the trains driven by electromotors fed {from power linc have higher power per weight ratio chan, for ‘example, the Dicsel-electric and steamdriven passenger tins. Fa aan mo. 4 sencine PowER OY cONVOTS3 & oe UA "sad i 5 8 8 19. 5. SPRCIRIC RESISTANCE OF CONVOYS “They ae even fs favorable than single less, The reason Tre Mbiy the sped linitation bythe method of ransmision Eien cergy fom the power lin othe Joonmodve. Bev ose of this lnitation, the designe of sock trains tay not GE aaad uch efor fr power economy for example, hae the doignen of Diseclecne tae “th ae eight ea goo doth, ee mow economical ype of tranaort the seed snnge beeen 4 and 60 mph in $0 Hee iter reget s contact The data show a wide Seba ecoling co the digcrene number of ear i the dame ident ie and design ofthe cr hemselves. For Rusia righ enon, onc obsios » specif tative force seine of te order of 0.0523 x 6O-mph sped which means deer Sire force of about lb is sicene to move 1 om aie at is Gosdeable spect, This gure i to becom. SOR lis Gos for tock a the sme sped and with 0.08 for planes ne speed of 200-500 mph. Unfrcnatly, aie EP eoe poimed ont peviowly ie isnt possible to controct ‘et tise eith rexsomsle ecoaomy at low sped in order ro sie ih che lend in ego canspoct For speed of GB ogi, te coficene of trsexve for: would be of the ie es Gomequeny, the need men shoeld have the Sitenton chat the slay age i 90 ye terminated, The eete Change over fom ratond to escks, which ocorel ia EuSteen pss aly de to the greater feubiiey ofthe tuck tam nad les hacdling cons of che cargo cried by eto return to che dagen pertinent single voices, wwe shcree in Boh igs and 3 hae al ures le above MSI ining in. tn ecer words fr evry cls of vehicle ‘fare corn limiting sped beyond which the vehicle e- See economia The mtease of specie esistnce with SEG fire ven vhile i etemined by the law of resis ecforhe heiofloemotio cme Sich uae iiss general, depend on various characteris dimeasionlss ours For example, the law of resistance for ships de- Serb pon the Reyeolss number sod the Froude oumnber q ‘Mrcnanicat ENGINEERING “The Reynolds number determines the ratio between inertial and frictional forces. It contains the density and viscosity Coefficient of the duid medium, 2 characteristic length of the Nehicle and its speed. ‘The Froude number represeits a ratio between inertial forces in the fuid and graviey. Te is composed of the velocity of the vehicle, a characteristic length, and the fcceleration of gravity. The law of resistance of terrestrial ‘ehicles depends primarily on the coefficient of rolling friction dad the cocficient of the aic resistance. The best values of these coefficients for practically possible shapes are more or less given, However, if we consider the law of similarity of similarly designed vehicles of differen sizes, we find thar che fatio between air resistance and weight depends on a non- ‘dimensional parameter quite analogous to the Froude number, since the weight of che vehicle increases with the thind power of, the length, and the air resitance with its second power. ‘The same parameter enters also into the analysis of arial ‘vehicles. In addition, the Reynolds number has an influence as far 25 the frictional resistance of the vehicle is concerned, ‘aed the Mach number as far as compressibility effects enter into the picture "The consideration of all chese parameters, however, does not sive a fall explanation of the limitations of speed which we {vestigate in this paper. For example, theoretically speaking, the increase of size or at least the length would prevent the rapid increase of resistance per weight ratio which limits the speed of the boats by keeping the Froude number sufficiently low. Why cannot this be done? Of course, increase of size thas practical disadvantages, which are diffeuie to be put into equations. The main limitations, however, are certainly ‘those imposed by structural considerations. ‘eis necessary, therefore, to investigate which dimensionless parameters should be construed co express the similarity rela- Hons Detween structures of different sizes. ‘The stractural ficiency ofa vehicle depends certainly on che specific weight ¥ (of the construction material and the allowable stress, for the Sime material, The ratio between allowable stress and the specific weight has the dimension of a Iengeh so that the (quantity vL/ey, where L represents the characteristic length Sf che structure, is. dimensionless quantity. As a matter ‘of fact, if we replace the allowable stress by the ultimate sess 7. of the material, che quantity 7Z/e, becomes the ratio be- ween the length of the vehicle and the so-alled length of fupeure of the material, The length of rupture is che lengeh oft vertically hanging rod which would break under its own weight, f we incrodace such a structural parameter into our con siderations, it appears more understandable that every class of ‘means of transportation approaches a speed limit beyond which fno practical design is possible. If we eliminace the length L between the Froude aumber V/-V/gL and che secuctural parameter +L/o, = afL/ae, we obtain & new parameter which ‘can be written in the form V/-V/a/p._Ivis easly seem that this parameter is dimensionless, since the quantity w/p has the Eimension of the square of a velocity, As a matter of fact, the velocity V/eu/e can be given a mechanical interpretation ‘One cam imagine a chin ting buile of a material with the ulti- imate strength e, and the density p. If one rotates such a ring with the circumferential velocity V, the quantity Veu/o represents the speed at which such a ring would break under the action of the centrifugal forces. Te is inceeesting to compare approximate values of the qua tiey Vee for various construction materials, Such a com- pation is given in Table 3 for a few materials. a addition to the strese-density ratio, the table also incor- porates the ratio between clastic modulus and density. TheOcroser, 1950 781 ‘TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF V/es/p AND V/E/p FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS Maes Servrurl sea. Sesnlee srt 5), crepe). Trani ‘quantity ~V/Zp has also the dimension of a velocity. As a reer Of ait i drcly proportional to the velociey of Droperationofsounl inthe iaveral concerned eisrenata- Dieta hav almost the eae vate forall the Mater on sidered inthe cable ‘Ste the sues in general, and pecially Ayoamic nets, are dapemiet upon the spol of th hil, 20d on the otet tod Limiting ln wich shoul be valid for al types of Wetices, cannot depend pon parameter ootningquaneies Tented to specie mein specie par of reid, fe frobsble thatthe vagy of the dimenstonie parame have a determining influence on the limitations of speed. ‘The clastic modules enters ia the resiseance against buckling and in the flexibility ofthe structure, which also may introduce limitations. In cerisin structures, for example, thin-walled so~alled monocoque structures, combinations of the ultimate stress and the elastic modulus determine the allowable ultimate load. Hence both dimensionless structural parameters may. hhave influence on speed limitations. ‘According to the evidence of our collected material, the minimum value of the specific resistance of single vehicles seems to follow a trend which indicates that the over-all ‘minimum value of ¢ is approximately proportional to the speed of the vehicle. The equation of the limiting line shown in Fig. 3 would be ¢ » 000175 where V is the speed in mph. However, further analysis of the various vehicle systems is necessary to decide whether or not # general law expressed in the dimensionless parameters Ne NE can be established, Tis, however, an intersting question whether, and ia which. ‘way, further increases of velocity of locomotion may be possible without paying che penalty for speed. First thete is the question of how far propulsion efficiency ‘can be increased. In most cases of vehicles of high-qualisy Sesign, the propulsion eficiency is almote atthe opeimmum limie. ‘The improvement of thermodynamic efficiency of the power plants may radically change the range of various vehicles, bue caters only indirectly into the consideration of the specific Fesistance or the powerweight ratio. For example, a prime "otor with lower weight and lower consumption fy make possible co increase che size of x boat ia order to come into a Inore favorable Froude-nomber range without becoming uttetly ‘uneconomical. ‘There is also the question of novel methods of propulsion: For example, the drag cocficicut of surface vessels may be de- ‘creased very essentially by lifting the bulk of the floating seruc- ture above the water level and supplying sustentation by hydro~ foils, We do not ateempe to estimate the effet of such a radical innovation, Whether the trisls until now appear promising is a question of individual judgment. In the feld of aerial Yield Tensile Densey pine, tengeh, ‘Ele 5 Pa pat aups/ease ‘n some ooo 35.25 r eo ee BS ieee Meee sseo0o 35.3 too ‘fom "Bono “4 ‘6 frome sumo 89 Br wleos iow «87s 5800 vehicles, the long-range rocket shot into high alticude and sliding from the ionosphere to a distant poincon theearthmay Fepreseat a new method of transportation... This ease does not fit easily into our computations because it does not represent level flight but a combination of ballistics and glider technique. “According to compueations of H. S. Tsien, a rocket wich an average speed of 4500 mph over 2 3000-mile range would tequire a thrust of 190,000 Ib of 140 sec duration. This total impulse, distributed over the total flight duration of 40 min, ‘comresponds to an average thrust equal to 11,100 Ib. The inital weight ie estimated to be equal to 96,000 Ib and the final weight co 19,000 Ib. With 57,500 Ib as average weight, the specific resistance would be equal co € ~ 0.2. This figure is, of course, excellent for such tremendous speed. On the ‘other hand, the ratio beeween useful and total weight ie extremely low as compared to levcl-lying aerial vehicles Distegarding, however, such speculative means of trans- portation, ic appears from the considerations of this paper that probably substantial increase in speed could be realized if new materials with inceased stress-ensity ratio could be made available, Hf the quantity Ve/» could be increased cssentially beyond the present limits, evidently the limiting ine of the specific resitance versus speed would be displaced to higher values of the velocity. At a recent date, ticaniam alloys seem to give such promise. High-rate titaniam alloys, ‘manufactured at feasonable prices, may substantially change: the results of the present analysis. Canadian Jet Fighter 'HE Avro Canada Canuck CP-10, ssid co be the most powerful fighter inthe worl, flew from Toronto to Borton recy at an average speed of 35 mph, long-range, all-weather, twin-jet fighter, frst of is type, coved Ue Mail route tn a * Recently the Canuck flew from Toroato to Montreal ae 38 ral bela to bea Canaan recor. 1p spec isaillon the secret lise. Designed for the defense of North America, the new day- night fighter will complement the FO6A Sabtc, the RCAFs apdard day fighter. Ie made it st fighe January 19, 1950, and sacs this time another preproduction motel ofthe aisera hus been buile “The Canuck is presently ited with Rolls Royce Avon turbo- jee engines but ie i planned 0 fe later models with Avro Canada Orendas, These are now being tested in the air in a special Lancaser fying tet bed. eis algo planned to install these Orendas in the RCAF Sabre fighters. ‘Although of original Canadian design, ic incorporstes the beat features ffom the coosiderable fighter manufacturing ‘experience of the United Seates and che United Kingdom. km planning the airerafe cae was taken not to duplicate aircraft building plans ehewlhere. The efore was aud is being eakenco- choote equipment fo it which could be easily obtained on this