ExploringtheUnknown:TheChallengesandDifficultiesofSigmundFreuds

PsychoanalyticalTheory

NicoleDAmico
SeniorDivision
HistoricalPaper
WordCount:1,976

Introduction
SigmundFreudiswidelyknownasanestablishedpioneerofthemind.Recognized
worldwideasoneofthetwentiethcenturysmostauthoritativeandinfluentialthinkers,Freud
combinedrigorousneurologymedicalstudieswithcontemporarypsychologicaldevelopmentsto
formulatehispsychoanalyticaltheories.Inhisownwords,Freudreflected,Lookingback,then,
overthepatchworkofmylifeslabours,IcansayIhavemademanybeginningsandthrownout
manysuggestions.Somethingwillcomeoftheminthefuture,thoughIcannottellmyself
whetheritwillbemuchoflittle.Ican,however,expressahopethatIhaveopenedupapathway
foranimportantadvanceinourknowledge.1 DespiteFreudsundeniableinfluenceonboth
psychologyandculture,severalFreudiantheoriesaredismissed,ignored,orcriticizedfortheir
highlycontroversialmanner.Freudmanagedtobypassalldifficultencounterstoexchangeideas,
information,andtheorieswhileexploringthemind.
PersonalLife
SigmundFreud2wasbornonMay6,1856,inFreiberg,MoraviatoparentsJacobFreud
andAmaliaNathansohn.3Sigmundsmother,Amalia,gavebirthtosixotherchildrenafter
Sigmund,butreferredtoSigmundaffectionatelyasSigiormygoldenSigi.4Thoughraised

1
2
3

Reef,Catherine.
SigmundFreud:PioneeroftheMind.
NewYork:Clarion,2001.Print,p.143
S
ee
AppendixI
foraphotoofSigmundFreud.

JacobFreudhadbeenmarriedtwicebeforeFreudsmother,Amalia.Jacobwasnearlytwiceasoldas

Amalia.Chiriac,Jean."SigmundFreud'sChildhood."SigmundFreud'sChildhood.AROPA,n.d.Web.9
Jan.2016.
4
AmaliasunconditionalloveforFreudpushedhimtoanalyzehisrelationshiptoher,oncewriting,Ifa
manhasbeenhismothersundisputeddarlingheretainsthroughoutlifethetriumphantfeeling,the
confidenceinsuccess,whichnotseldombringsactualsuccessalongwithit(
AChildhoodRecollection
fromDichtungundWahrheit
,1917,vol.XVII,p.156)Oncehegrewolder,andanalyzedhisloveforhis

Jewish,Sigmundannouncedhimselflaterasanatheist.Sigmundattendedmedicalschool,but
mostlystudiedthescienceofthemind.
FundamentalsofPsychoanalysis
Freudsmostimportantadditiontomodernpsychologyishistheoriesofpsychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis,orasystematicstructureoftheoriesconcerningtherelationofconsciousand
unconsciouspsychologicalprocesses,explorestheinnerthoughtsofthemindtotreatmentaland
emotionaldisorders.Psychoanalyticaltherapyaimstoreleaserepressedmemoriesofthepatient
throughdreaminterpretations,conversationsthroughmultiplesessions,andfreeassociation.
TheConsciousandUnconsciousMind
AccordingtoresearchpopularizedbyFreud,humansmindsexistastwostatesofbeing:
consciousandunconscious.Freudexplainedhistheoryoftheunconsciousmindasaniceberg.
Consciousness,orawarenessofonesownexistence,referstothementalmindsetinwhich
peoplespendtheirdailylives.Thisstateofconsciousnesscanbecomparedtothetipofan
icebergeasilyseenintheocean.Thenextleveldownonhismodeldescribespreconscious,or
anareaofthoughtsandfeelingsthatoneisnotawareof,butcaneasilybebroughtinto
consciousness.Preconsciousthoughtsexistasavailablememory.Forinstance,thoughitisnot
alwaysinapersonsmind,apersoncaneasilyretrievethememoryofaphonenumberfromtheir
preconsciousmind.ThelastlevelofFreudsicebergistheunconsciousmind.Feelings,
motives,anddecisionsareallpoweredbypreviousexperiencessometimestoosignificantor
disturbingtofullyrecognize.5Overtime,humanshaveevolvedtodevelopaseriesofdefense

mother,hedeterminedhehadwantedtomarryhismotherasaboy,andkillhisfather.See
Oedipus
Complex,
page4.
5

UnconsciousMind,
SimplyPsychology.SaulMcLeod,20092015:(accessedJanuary17,2016).

mechanismstoblockuncomfortablethoughts,emotions,orexperiences.Afterthediscoveryof
Freudsdefensemechanism,repression,fiveotherswerediscovered:denial,projection,
displacement,regression,andsublimation.6Throughvarioussessions,apsychoanalystworksto
revealtheuseofsuchdefensemechanisms,thereforemakingtheunconsciousconscious.
TheId,Ego,andSuperego
Despitealackofphysicalproofoftheunconsciousmind,Freuddeterminedthehuman
psyche,orpersonality,isstructuredintothreeparts:theid,ego,andsuperego.7Theinstinctive,
primitive,andoftenimpulsivesystemofthebrainisknownastheid.Freudspleasureprinciple8,
ortheideathateverywishfulimpulseshouldbesatisfiedimmediately,stemsoffoftheideaof
theid.Whenapersonsatisfiestheirid,theyexperiencepleasure,regardlessofconsequences
derivedfromtheillogicalandsometimesirrationaldemandsoftheid.Becausetheidisoften
morefantasyoriented,theegoexiststomoderatebetweentheillogicalid,andthereasonable
externalworld.Whiletheidcanoftenbedescribedaschaotic,theegoworksaccordingtothe
realityprinciple.Therealityprincipledevelopstosatisfytheidsneedswhilepostponing
satisfactiontoavoidcertainconsequences.Theoretically,apersonsegoworkstopointtheidin
therightdirectionwhileconsideringsocialnorms,etiquette,andrationalthinking.The
superegoisthethirdandfinalsystemofFreudspersonalitytheory.Apersonssuperegoexists
astheconscienceandtheidealself.Whentheegofailstoreasonwiththeidsimpulsive
behavior,theconsciencepunishestheegowithguiltyfeelings.Theidealselfrepresentsthe
imaginaryideaofhowapersonshouldbetheidealselfisdeterminedthroughsocietynorms,

6
7
8

ManydefensemechanismsweredetailedbyAnnaFreud.

See
AppendixII
foravisualrepresentation.

Freud,Sigmund.
BeyondthePleasurePrinciple.
Essay,1920.

parentalideals,andhowonefeelstheyshouldbehave.Peoplewilloftenexperienceafeelingof
failureiftheiridealselfhastoohighofstandards.
PsychosexualDevelopment
Freudfirstproposedhiscontroversialideaknownaspsychosexualdevelopment
throughthree

essays.9Thepsychosexualmodelisusedtodemonstratethesexualinstancesin
whichhumansexperience.PriortoFreudsstudies,peopleassumedsexualityonlyarose
postpubertyFreudspsychosexualtheoryexpandedontheideathatsexualityformsatavery
youngage,anddevelopsthroughoutmultiplestages.Withoutsuccessfulcompletionofeach
stage,themindusesvariousdefensemechanismstoavoidunpleasantfeelings.10Thefirststageis
calledtheoralstage.Duringtheoralstage(ageszerototwo),infantsreceivepleasurefromthe
mouth.Freuddeterminedthenextstageastheanalstage(agestwotofour).Thethird
psychosexualstagereferstothephallicstage(agesfourtofive).Duringthephallicstage,
childrenhaveastrongfascinationwiththeirgenitals.Freudbelievedallmalechildrenwent
throughwhathecalledanoedipuscomplex.Theoedipuscomplex,namedaftertheancient
Greek,Oedipus,whounknowinglykilledhisfatherandmarriedhismother,wasdirected
towardsyoungboyswhofeltafrighteningattractiontotheirmothers.Theseboyssawtheir
fatherasathreat,creatingcastrationanxiety,inwhichtheboyfearedhisfatherwouldcastrate
him.11Todealwiththesefeelings,boysrepresstheirdesirestowardstheirmothers,andidentify
morewiththeirfathers.ThesethoughtsareparalleledforgirlswiththeElectracomplex.Girls

TheFreudReader,
editedbyPeterGay.Freud,Sigmund:
ThreeEssaysontheTheoryofSexuality,
1989,
W.WNorton&Company.(p.239291)
10

"TheFreudianTheoryofPersonality."JournalPsycheRSS.JournalPsyche,n.d.Web.3Feb.2016.
11
Freudwrotethateachmalewasmeanttodirectourfirstsexualimpulsestowardsourmothersandour
firstimpulsesofhatredandviolencetowardsourfathers.
TheInterpretationofDreams,
Freud1899.
9

weresaidtohaveexperiencedpenisenvy,inwhichtheylongedforapenis,butinstead
seeminglydesiredtheirfathers.Oncethisdesirehasbeensuppressed,thegirlidentifiesmore
withhermother.Thisdevelopmentalideahassincebeencriticized.Fromtheagesofaboutsixto
puberty,childrenengageinthelatencystage.Duringthisstage,sexualfeelingsarerepressed
untilmembersoftheoppositesexareconsideredgross.Thegenitalstagefocusesonyoung
peoplefrompubertyonward.Thisisthestageinwhichpeopleexploretheirsexualdesires,direct
feelingstowardothers,andbuilduponsexualgratification.
DefenseMechanisms
Unfortunatelyforpsychoanalysts,reachingtheunconsciousmindcanbenearly
impossibleduetoinvoluntarydefensemechanisms.Defensemechanismsworktodefendthe
mindfromunpleasantthoughtsandfeelings.Theseunpleasantthoughtsandfeelings,suchasa
traumaticlossorevent,arethoughttobepushedintotheunconsciousmind.Forthemostpart,
defensemechanismsprovetobeusefultheyprotectagainstoverwhelminganxiety12,and
dictatehowonereactsinstressfulsituations.However,oncedefensemechanismsgrowoutof
proportionfromtheego,theycandevelopintophobias,obsessions,hysterias,andstatesof
anxiety.Freudlabeledhismostknownandimportantdefensemechanismasrepression.Through
theworksofthesubconsciousego,repressionsuppressesathoughtordesireinoneselfsothatit
remainsunconscious.AnnaFreud,Freudsdaughter,developedotherdefensemechanism
theories:displacement,sublimation,projection,denial,regression,intellectualization,
rationalization,andreactionformation.Tocombatthemechanisms,Freudlabeledwhatisknown

Inlaterwork,Freuddifferentiatedbetweentwotypesofanxiety:primitive,automaticanxiety,and
signalanxiety.Freudbelievedanxietydevelopsfrominfancy,writinginfantsmentalhelplessnesswhich
isacounterpartofitsbiologicalhelplessness(Freud1926),thusderivingfromtheterrifyingexperience
ofbirth.
12

asFreudianslips.13AccordingtoFreud,theseslipsaccountedforrevealingsubconscious
thoughts,beliefs,wishes,ormotives.In1901,Freudwrote,AlmostinvariablyIdiscovera
disturbinginfluencefromsomethingoutsideoftheintendedspeech...Thedisturbingelementisa
singleunconsciousthought,whichcomestolightthroughthespecialblunder.14
DreamInterpretation
Torevealtheunconsciousmind,Freudusedwhatisknownasfreeassociation.During
freeassociation,apatientsrandomthoughtsanddetaileddescriptionsofdreamsdeciphered
whattheirunconsciousmindtrulydesired.Freuddetailedhisfindingsinhisbook,called
The
InterpretationofDreams15
followingthepublicationof
TheInterpretationofDreams,
Freud
claimeddreaminterpretationwasthestartingpointofanewanddeeperscienceofthemind.
However,totrulyanalyzedreams,sessionscouldlastforhours,andoccurformultiplemonths,
orevenyears.Thedevelopmentofmedicationstosuppressunsettlingthoughtsbecamemore
common,asitwasquicker,seeminglymoreeffective,andlessexpensive.Freudexperimented
withmedicationsbothforhimselfandformedicalpurposes,includingcocainebecauseof
cocainesusefulproperties,itwasconsideredaformofmedicationintheearlytwentieth
century.16
DenyingtheOedipalandElectraComplexes
FreudstheoriesontheOedipalandElectracomplexareconsideredtobehismost
controversialfindings.PsychologistswhocriticallyexaminedFreudsupbringingpredictJacob

13
14
15
16

Freudreferredtothemas
Fehlleistungen,
orfaultyactions.

Freud,
ThePsychopathologyofEverydayLife.

Publishedin1899.

Atfirst,Freudtestedcocaine,andurgedfriendsandfamilytotrycocaine,butceasedmedicaltrialsof

thedrugaftercomplicationsarose.Reef,p.42.

Freudmayhavesexually,physically,ormentallyabusedFreudasayoungchild,leavinghim
witharesentfulfeelingtowardshisfather.17Othersagreepsychoanalystscantelltheirpatients
certainwordstoessentiallyplaceafalsememoryinpatientsminds.18Thisinitialfailure
causedcolleaguestodisagreewithFreudinlaterteachings.
Criticism
Freudsexplorationofthemindhasleftalastingimpressiononthehistoryof
psychology,mentalillnesses,andthecultureinwhichpeopleraisechildren.19 However,
controversy,speculation,andimpatiencehinderedFreudintheexchangingofknowledge.While
addressingcolleaguesonhysteriainmales,listenersdisagreed,exclaimingthenonsense,and
pointingoutthecommonknowledge:apersonmusthaveauterustobehysterical.20
UnfortunatelyforFreud,duetothelackofpsychologicaladvancesintheearly1900s,his
theorieswereoftenignoredanddisputed.Freudalsosufferedmanypersonalsetbacksandbattles
includingselfdoubtandtheconstantneedforacceptance.InaletterwrittentoWilhelmFliess21 ,
Freudwrote,Incidentally,Ihavebeenthroughsomekindofneuroticexperience,withodd
statesofmindnotintelligibletoconsciousnesscloudythoughtsandveileddoubts,withbarely
hereandtherearayoflight.OtherwiseIamemptyandaskyourindulgence.IbelieveIamina
cocoon,andheavenknowswhatsortofcreaturewillemergefromit.22 CriticismofFreudcame
evenfromwithin:Freudsownchosensuccessor,CarlGustavJung23,lashedoutatFreud,

17
18
19
20

Reef,p.62.

Reef,p.62.

Referstopsychosexualdevelopmentalstagesdetailedabove.

HystericcomesfromtheGreekword
terikos
,meaningofthewomb.Duringthistime,most

doctorsbelievedhysteriaresultedfromamalfunctioninguterus.Reef,p.43.
21

See
AppendixIII
foraphotoofSigmundFreudandWilhelmFliess.
22

Freud,June12,1897.
23

See
AppendixIV
foraphotoofFreudandJung.

writingIaccedetoyourwishthatweabandonourpersonalrelations,forIneverthrustmy
friendshiponanyone.Youyourselfarethebestjudgeofwhatthismomentmeanstoyou.24
Conclusion
SigmundFreudestablishedthebeginningsofmodernpsychologythroughdetailed
writings,theories,andideas.Heexploredtheunknownmind,utilizingtechniquesrarelyheardof
previously.Thoughfacedwithdifficultiestoexchangetheinformation,Freudpavedthewayto
contemporarypsychologywithhisstudiesonpsychoanalysis.Althoughheencounteredmany
obstaclesandawiderangeofcriticism,Freudisnowregardedasageniusoftheunconscious
mind.WithoutFreudsextensivetheoriesofpsychoanalysis,psychologywouldnothavereached
thesuccessesithastoday.

24

C.GJung,January6,1913.

AppendixI

ThisisaphotographtakenofSigmundFreud,dateunknown.
Sexuality.
Digitalimage.NationalGalleryofVictoria,n.d.Web.10Mar.2016.

10

AppendixII

TheabovepictureisavisualrepresentationofFreudsicebergtheoryoftheconscious,
preconscious,andunconscious.Theego,superego,andidarealsorepresentedtodemonstratehis
entiretheory.
McLeod,Saul.
TripartitePersonalityTheory
.Digitalimage.
Id,Ego,andSuperego.
Simply
Psychology,2010/2015.Web.25Mar.2016.

11

AppendixIII

TheabovepictureisaphotoofSigmundFreud(left)andWilhelmFliess(right).This
photowastakensometimeinthelate1890s.FreudandFliesscorrespondedfrom18871902,and
createdadeepfriendship.
TheHistoryofPsychiatry&Homosexuality.
Digitalimage.
MentalHealthSyllabus.
Groupfor
theAdvancementofPsychiatry,2012.Web.12Feb.2016.

12

AppendixIV

TheabovephotographisofSigmundFreud(left)andCarlJung(right),takenin1911.
PhotoofFreudandJung.Digitalimage.Weebly,n.d.Web.27Feb.2016.

13

NicoleDAmico
SeniorDivision
IndividualPaper
ExploringtheUnknown:TheChallengesandDifficultiesofSigmundFreudsPsychoanalytical
Theory
AnnotatedBibliography
PrimarySources
Freud,Sigmund."AChildhoodRecollectionfromDichtungUndWahrheit."1917.Ed.James
Strachey.
TheStandardEditionoftheCompletePsychologicalWorksofSigmundFreud.
Vol.XVII.London:Hogarth,1954.156.Print.
AChildhoodRecollectionfromDichtungUndWahrheitwasashortessayinthelarger
TheStandardEditionoftheCompletePsychologicalWorksofSigmundFreud.
Further
analyzationsintoFreudschildhood,hisrelationshipwithhisparents,andanotablequotewere
allpresentinFreudsshortessay.

Freud,Sigmund.
BeyondthePleasurePrinciple
.Comp.JamesStracheyandGregoryZilboorg.
NewYork:Norton,1920/1975.Print.
SigmundFreuds
BeyondthePleasurePrinciple
wasusedtoexpandanunderstandingof
thepleasureprinciple,realityprinciple,andthereasonsbehindtheid,ego,andsuperego.Though
theeditionfoundwaspublishedin1975,Freudsoriginalessaywaspublishedin1920.

Freud,Sigmund.
Inhibitions,SymptomsandAnxiety
.Standarded.Vol.20.NewYork:Norton,
1929/1977.Print.
Freudseditionwasusedtofurtheranunderstandingofanxietyanditssymptoms,The
editionusedinthispaperwaspublishedin1977,butFreudsoriginalwaswrittenin1929.

Freud,Sigmund,andC.G.Jung.
TheFreud/JungLetters:TheCorrespondenceBetween

14

SigmundFreudandC.G.Jung.
Ed.WilliamMcGuire.Trans.RalphManheimandR.F.
Hull.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUP,1974.Print.
ThisprimarysourcewasthecorrespondencebetweenFreudandJung.Byreading
throughselectlettersbetweenthetwomen,IwasabletobetterlearnFreudstheoriesandeven
hispersonalitywithpeers.

Freud,Sigmund,andWilhelmFliess.
TheOriginsofPsychoanalysis:Letters,DraftsandNotes
toWilhelmFliess,18871902.
Ed.MarieBonaparte,AnnaFreud,andErnstKris.Trans.
EricMosbacherandJamesStrachey.GardenCity,NY:Basic,1954.Print.
FreudsletterstoandfromWilhelmFliesssupportedreasoningsbasedintheCriticism
paragraph.HiswritingstoFliessjustifiedFreudsownpersonalsetbacks.Thetwoconsidered
themselvesgoodfriends,showingasideofFreudthatwasnotoftenseen.

Freud,Sigmund.
ThePsychopathologyofEverydayLife.
Ed.JamesStrachey.NewYork:
Norton,
1901/66.Print.
SigmundFreuds
ThePsychopathologyofEverydayLife,
writtenoriginallyin1901,
helpedtostudyFreudianslips.Thoughslipswereonlymentionedbriefly,extensiveresearchwas
neededtofullyunderstandthetheory.

Freud,Sigmund."ThreeEssaysontheTheoryofSexuality."
TheFreudReader
.Ed.PeterGay.
NewYork:W.W.Norton,1989.23992.Print.
ThreeEssaysontheTheoryofSexuality,writtenbyFreud,wasfoundin
TheFreud
Reader
onpages239to292.TheessayswerewrittentodescribeFreudspsychosexual
developmenttheory.Freudspersonalessaysgavethebackgroundneededforthishistorical
paper.

PhotoofFreudandJung.Digitalimage.Weebly,n.d.Web.27Feb.2016.

15

ThisphotoofFreudandJungwasusedin
AppendixIV
toshowFreudandJungtogether.
FreudandJungwerementionedasaresultoftheirbriefcorrespondence,friendship,and
eventualdisagreements.

TheHistoryofPsychiatry&Homosexuality.
Digitalimage.MentalHealthSyllabus.Groupfor
theAdvancementofPsychiatry,2012.Web.12Feb.2016.
Thispicturewasshownin
AppendixIII.
Itwasshowntodemonstratethefriendship
betweenFreudandFliess.

SecondarySources
Beystehner,KristenM."Psychoanalysis:Freud'sRevolutionaryApproachtoHuman
Personality."NorthwesternUniversity,Aug.1998.Web.18Mar.2016.
ThispaperwaswrittentogiveabriefbackgroundofFreud,histheoriesonthehuman
personality,andcriticismofFreudswritings.TheessaywasnearlyessentialtotheCriticism
paragraph.

Chiriac,Jean."SigmundFreud'sChildhood."
SigmundFreud'sChildhood
.AROPA,n.d.Web.9
Jan.2016.
SigmundFreudsChildhoodhelpedtolearnthechildhoodofFreud.LearningFreuds
childhoodwascriticaltotheresearchofthispaper.

Emanuel,Ricky.
AutomaticandSignalAnxiety.
London:Icon,1996.N.pag.Ideasin
Psychoanalysis.
Anxiety.
TheFreudMuseum.Web.16Mar.2016.
Thisexcerpt,originallypublishedinthenovel
Anxiety,
gaveinsightintoanxiety.The
articlesimplifiedFreudsoriginalthoughtsonautomaticandsignalanxiety.

Flem,Lydia.
FreudTheMan:AnIntellectualBiography.
NewYork:Other,2003.Print.

16

FlemsbiographyofFreudhelpedtolearnaboutFreud.AlthoughFreudspersonallife
wasonlybrieflymentioned,thebiographyestablishedwhyFreudwrotewhathewrote,andhow
hewroteit.

Freud,Anna.
TheEgoandtheMechanismsofDefense
.London:HogarthandInstituteof
Psychoanalysis,1937.Print.
AnnaFreud,Freudsdaughter,expandedonSigmundsoriginaldefensemechanismof
repression.Thoughthisauthorsresearchwasnotshowcasedentirely,Iutilizedherresearchto
furthermyownknowledgeofdefensemechanisms.

Isbister,J.N.
Freud:

AnIntroductiontoHisLifeandWork.
Cambridge,UK:Polity,1985.Print.
ThisnovelgavebackgroundtoFreudandhistheories.Itdemonstratesthehistoricalneed
forFreudandhisteachings.

JournalPsycheRSS."TheFreudianTheoryofPersonality."JournalPsyche,n.d.Web.3Feb.
2016.
ThisarticleexplainedthebasisofFreudspersonalitytheory.Thoughnotentirely
detailed,itwasaperfectstartingpointtolearnaboutpersonality.Itwasespeciallyusedto
describetheid,ego,andsuperego.

Laplanche,Jean,andJ.BPontalis.
TheLanguageofPsychoAnalysis
.London:Karnacandthe
InstituteofPsychoanalysis,1988.Print.
Thisdetailedsecondarysourceexplainedpsychoanalysis.Itwascrucialtothe
constructionoftheFundamentalsofPsychoanalysisparagraph.

McLeod,Saul."Id,EgoandSuperego."SimplyPsychology,2010/2015.Web.16Jan.2016.
Thiswebsitewasabasicintroductiontotheid,ego,andsuperego.Itwasneededtotruly
identifyanddefinetheid,ego,andsuperego.

17

McLeod,Saul."Psychoanalysis."SimplyPsychology,2007/2015.Web.7Jan.2016.
ThearticlefromSimplyPsychologyprovidedfurtherteachingsofpsychoanalysis.Itwas
writteninamuchsimplerlanguage,aidingtheresearchanddevelopmentofthispaper.

McLeod,Saul.
TripartitePersonalityTheory
.Digitalimage.
Id,Ego,andSuperego.
Simply
Psychology,2010/2015.Web.25Mar.2016.
Thispicturewasusedin
AppendixII.
Thediagramwasusedasavisualrepresentationof
theconscious,unconscious,ego,id,andsuperego.

McLeod,Saul."UnconsciousMind."SimplyPsychology,2009/2015.Web.17Jan.2016.
ThearticlefromSimplyPsychologyprovidedfurtherteachingsoftheunconsciousmind.
Itwaswritteninamuchsimplerlanguagethanothersources,aidingintheresearchand
developmentofthispaper.

Reef,Catherine.
SigmundFreud:PioneeroftheMind.
NewYork:Clarion,2001.Print.
ReefsnovelgaveastartingpointtotheresearchofSigmundFreud.Itdetailedhislife,
describedthebasicsofhistheories,andexplainedhislegacy.Withoutthisnovel,thecreationof
thispaperwouldnothavebeenpossible.