Running

head: GENDER STEREOTYPES IN ADVERTISING

Gender Stereotypes in Advertising:

The Impact and Effectiveness
Anna R. Rohweder
Spring 2016

GENDER STEREOTYPES IN ADVERTISING

Gender Stereotypes in Advertising:

The Impact and Effectiveness
The purpose of this paper is to look closely at gender stereotypes in advertising in the
United States, particularly stereotypes of women. More specifically where these gender
stereotypes in advertising come from, how they are used, their impact, and how they have
changed over time. The falsification of gender roles, especially among women, has received
negative criticism from not only society but also advertising professionals themselves. It has
been argued that advertisers create unattainable standards, often misrepresent gender roles, and
use gender stereotypes that are dated and no longer relevant (Tuncay Zayer & Coleman, 2015, p.
266).
Changing values and beliefs in a society largely impact how gender stereotypes have
changed in advertising (Eisend, 2010). Women have gone from a housewife image to a
supermom image over the past six decades (Jaffe & Berger, 1994). Many developments in
society, such as large increases in female college graduates and female employment rates, have
impacted these changes of gender stereotypes in advertising (Wollin, 2003). In a study conducted
by Zimmerman and Dahlberg (2008), research found that although traditional stereotypes in
advertising have decreased, the sexual objectification of women in advertising has increased.
Respondents found these ads culturally acceptable, whether or not they found them unethical
or offensive.
While evaluating society as a factor in the way that gender stereotypes are used in
advertising, it is also extremely important to examine the influence of the advertising
professional. Research from Tuncay Zayer and Coleman (2015) reveals that not only do beliefs

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and values affect the way ads are created and executed, but also many advertising professionals
use stereotypical perceptions of men and women.
The impact and effectiveness different gender stereotypes in advertising have on an
audience is vital for advertising professionals to understand when creating ads. Modern gender
stereotypes have been looked at in detail to determine the effectiveness and perception. For
example, the supermom image is found to have a lack of effectiveness and seem unrealistic
among women, especially women with higher incomes. Techniques used in gender related
advertisements, such as humor, play a large role in how gender roles are perceived in the ads.
Therefore, it is essential to examine gender stereotypes in advertising along with their
impact and effectiveness. Gender stereotypes are defined. The evolution of gender stereotypes in
advertising, the impact of society and the advertising professional, and the effectiveness and
impact of using modern gender stereotypes, along with techniques used are researched.
Recommendations are then made to create ways in which gender discrimination in ads can be
avoided by advertisers. Finally, ways in which society can indirectly impact the avoidance of
gender stereotypes in advertising are considered.
Gender Stereotypes Defined
Gender stereotypes in advertising have long been a topic of interest to many advertising
professionals. To have an understanding of gender stereotypes in advertising, one must define
what these gender stereotypes are in general, why advertisers use them, and the consequences for
either avoiding or using these stereotypes.
Using demographics in advertising is the best way to reach a target audience and sell
advertisements. Gender falls into its own category within the demographic segmentations.
Wolin (2003) describes gender as social or cultural meanings associated with the maleness and

GENDER STEREOTYPES IN ADVERTISING

femaleness imposed and expected by society (p. 111). According to Tuncay Zayer & Coleman
(2015), gender can be described as a social resource not only used by advertisers but within
society as a whole (p. 266).
Looking closer at what exactly a stereotype is helps to create the big picture of gender
stereotypes. Eisend (2010) defines stereotypes as a set of concepts pertaining to a social
category (p. 419). Many characteristics set both people and things apart. A stereotype occurs
when there is a belief that every person within a social category possesses a trait because one
other person in that category possesses that same trait. Stereotypes are not necessarily always a
bad thing. Many times stereotypes can help create general expectations of people that can be
valuable in everyday social life (Eisend, 2010, p. 419). Stereotypes become negative when they
are distorted and misevaluations of traits and/or characteristics of someone in a social category
are applied (Eisend, 2010, p. 419).
Gender stereotypes as a whole are defined as beliefs that men and women are different
because of certain attributes they possess (Eisend, Plagemann & Sollwedel, 2014, p. 257). These
attributes include both gender roles, which are different activities deemed appropriate for either
men or women, and sex-linked traits, which are the psychological characteristics of men and
women (Browne, 1998, p. 83). Eisend (2010) uses research to show that there are four different
components that make up gender stereotypes. Each component has a masculine part and a more
feminine part. First, different traits such as gentleness and assertiveness can distinguish male and
female stereotypes. Second are physical characteristics like choice of clothing and hair length.
The third component is role behavior, like being the housekeeper or having more dominant roles.
Last, is occupational status such as stay-at-home-mom or lawyer (Eisend, 2010, p. 419).

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Advertisers often use gender related and gender stereotypical advertising for many
reasons. In modern advertising, gender is probably the social resource that is used most by
advertisers. Thousands of images surround us every day of our lives that address us along gender
lines (Tuncay Zayer & Coleman, 2015, p. 266). According to Wolin (2003), the reason gender
is so often used by advertisers is because gender segments are very large, yielding large profits.
They are also reachable and easy to identify and measure. Most importantly, they are responsive
to the marketing mix (Wolin, 2003, p. 111).
The problem with using gender as a social resource is that advertisers often create
unattainable standards, use outdated gender stereotypes (e.g. the house wife image) and give
inaccurate depictions of gender (Tuncay Zayer & Coleman, 2015, p. 266). In American print
advertisements and television, men are typically depicted as strong and powerful (Browne,
1998). In contrast, women are often depicted as passive, with a lack of intelligence and
credibility (Browne, 1998). Subtle aspects like body language and facial expressions in
advertisements are also used. According to research of gender portrayals in print advertisements,
conducted by Browne (1998), women often looked shy, dreamy, gentle and helpless, while men
often looked powerful and dominant (p.84).
The result of gender stereotypes in advertising can be negative, particularly for women.
For example, body dissatisfaction and reduced self-worth can be the result of stereotypical
beauty ideals, and reduced incomes for women can come from stereotyping of occupational roles
(Eisend, 2010, p. 419). Avoiding such stereotypes and achieving equal life opportunities for
both genders in different spheres of life is a central concern of gender policy and has become a
social objective in many societies (Eisend, 2010, p. 419).
The Evolution of Gender Stereotypes

GENDER STEREOTYPES IN ADVERTISING

Research of male and female advertising portrayals from the 1970s revealed women
typically were shown inside the house as a housewife figure, while men were shown playing
sports, or involved in a professional activity (Jaffe & Berger, 1994, p. 33). The same research
was conducted using advertisements from the 1980s and revealed little differences from the
previous decade (Jaffe & Berger, 1994, p. 33).
Research shows that the degree of gender stereotypes in advertising has decreased over
the years and that this decrease comes from developments in society rather than developments in
advertising (Eisend, 2010, p. 436). While biology is also considered part of gender role
differences, the biological make up of men and women does not change yet social factors do
change (Eisend, 2010, p. 419). This provides evidence of how a changing society plays a large
factor in the evolution of gender stereotypes. Many of these societal developments are linked to
the increased number of female college graduates, increased female employment rates and
changing roles in the family (Wolin, 2003, p. 113).
With these changing roles, comes more modern female stereotypes that advertisers use
such as supermom, where the wife works and takes care of kids and the house, and the
egalitarian image, where the husband and wife share the responsibilities (Jaffe & Berger, 1994,
p. 32). More than 80 percent of women, who have children still living at home, now have a job
outside the home and no longer carry the role of housewife (Jaffe & Berger, 1994, p. 32).
Many gender portrayals have become the norm for society and many Americans have
become accustomed to things like sexual objectification of women. Zimmerman and Dahlberg
(2008) found that although the traditional stereotypes of women (e.g. housewife ads) have
decreased, advertisements that sexually objectify women have increased (p. 72). In a study
conducted by Zimmerman and Dahlberg (2008), an advertisement that uses a woman as a sex

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object was shown to 94 different female undergraduate college students and measurements of
their attitudes towards this advertisement were conducted. One of the most interesting results
was in the category of culturally acceptable. It had the lowest mean, showing that the majority
of respondents, whether or not they found the advertisement to be unethical or irritating, did find
the advertisement to be culturally acceptable (Zimmerman & Dahlberg, 2008, p. 75).
Societys impact. Stereotypes evolve in a changing society. It is important to consider
whether a changing society (more specifically evolution of gender stereotypes) impact the use of
gender stereotypes in advertising, or if its the other way around (Eisend, 2010, p. 419). Eisend
(2010) examined the evolution of gender stereotypes using the mirror and mold arguments.
The mirror argument says that advertising is a mirror of values that are already in practice in a
society and that advertising changes when a society changes. The mold argument claims that
advertising shapes the values and behavior of society (Eisend, 2010, p. 421).
Eisend (2010) found that the mirror effect is more likely to occur than the mold
effect in advertising. Often advertisers and marketers use existing values in a society to sell their
brand, rather than modify values (Eisend, 2010, p. 436). Advertisers want to relate values and
beliefs consumers already have to increase effectiveness. This suggests that gender stereotypes in
advertising are changing because of a changing society, not vise versa.
Impact of Advertising Professionals Perception of Gender Roles
Although it is now evident that the values and norms in adverting come from society, the
important role that advertisers play when creating and implementing advertisements cant be
ignored. In a study conducted by Tuncay Zayer and Coleman (2015), the impact advertising
professionals have on male and female audiences was examined. Using qualitative research such
as interviews, focus groups and field observations, the study revealed the impact of advertising

GENDER STEREOTYPES IN ADVERTISING

professionals perceptions on gender portrayals. This study looked at how ethics impacts the
creative and strategic choices when making gender related advertisements, as well as the effect it
has on male and female audiences (Tuncay Zayer & Coleman, 2015, p. 264).
The results of the research conducted by Tuncay and Zayer (2015) revealed that the
beliefs, values and previous experiences of advertising professionals impact the work that is
conducted when strategizing and creating advertisements. Results also suggest that some
advertising professionals rely on stereotypical perceptions of men and women that cast women
as particularly vulnerable and therefore in need of protection and men as immune to media
influence (Tuncay Zayer & Coleman, 2015, p. 268). Many professionals seemed to have a lack
of understanding and responsibility toward gender roles when creating and strategizing
advertisements (Tuncay Zayer & Coleman, 2015, p. 273). Tuncay and Zayer also found that
leaders within the advertising agencies can impact the norms and values of the company as a
whole, therefore impacting the creation and implementation of ads conducted by that agency.
Effectiveness and Impact Techniques Used in Modern Gender Role Advertising
Changing gender stereotypes in advertising, along with changing norms and values in
American society, allow new stereotypes to be created by advertisers that reflect a modern
society. Along with modern stereotypes, it is important to look at the impact and effectiveness of
different techniques such as the gender of a spokesperson, gender stereotypes in humor
advertisements, and gender stereotypes in advertisements for children.
In a study conducted by Jaffe and Berger (1994), the effect of modern female role
portrayals was examined, along with how these portrayals impact the intent to purchase. Six print
advertisements for food products were shown to 140 married women, ages 21-50, with a
variation of incomes and employment status. The print ads used two modern female role

GENDER STEREOTYPES IN ADVERTISING

portrayals: egalitarian image, in which the woman is depicted as equal to her husband when
sharing responsibilities, and supermom image, in which the woman takes care of the house,
kids, husband, and has a job (Jaffe & Berger, 1994, p. 33). The ads also used the traditional
portrayal of housewife, although previous research already shows that modern role portrayals
are more effective than traditional (Jaffe & Berger, 1994, p. 34). Feelings towards the ads and
purchase interest were documented.
Results show that when averaging over all segments of the womens market, an
egalitarian positioning is favored over either a superwoman or a traditional positioning (Jaffe &
Berger, 1994, p. 39). Also, women with higher incomes had a higher intent to purchase after
seeing ads using the egalitarian image (Jaffe & Berger, 1994, p. 38). This can be supported with
the economic resource theory, which assumes that if a wife doesnt make as much income as her
husband, she has less power (Jaffe & Berger, 1994, p. 34). The more a wife brings in for income,
the more she expects her husband to contribute to household responsibilities, therefore creating
the egalitarian image. Women found the supermom portrayal unrealistic, were unhappy with the
look of ease that advertisers gave it, and had a lower intent to purchase than advertisements using
the egalitarian image (Jaffe & Berger, p. 34).
In addition to this, a research study conducted by Wolin (2003), examined the impact of
the intent to purchase using different genders for spokespersons in advertisements. Using a series
of research dating back to the 1970s, it is revealed that the gender of a spokesperson in an
advertisement plays a large role in the consumers intent to purchase. More specifically, males
are used more often than females as spokespeople for a brand, and males are remembered more
than females (Wolin, 2003, p. 119). Similarly, in advertisements directed towards children, males
are used more frequently for voiceovers and spokespersons (Browne, 1998, p. 84).

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Advertising directed towards children has long been a topic of ethics. The technique of
using gender roles in ads that appear on childrens television is found to influence values, beliefs,
and self-esteem of adolescents through content analysis research conducted by Browne (1998).
Gender stereotypes in advertisements directed towards children are especially concerning
because children are growing both physically and cognitively. Many values that children learn as
adolescents are values that they will carry with them when they become active members in
society. Research suggests that children use nonverbal cues when developing impressions of
others and even very young children are aware of the behaviors and roles appropriate for each
sex (Browne, 1998, p. 84). Results show children as young as two-years-old view boys as
strong, tough, and aggressive and girls as shy, helpless, and gentle (Browne, 1998, p. 84).
Browne also found female adolescents and teenagers are easily impacted by commercials that
use female models or that emphasize beauty and often self-esteem is lowered. When looking at
the levels of gender stereotyping in childrens commercials, it is shown that not only did boys
appear more frequently, they also were depicted as more dominant, active and aggressive than
girls (Browne, 1998, p. 93).
Eisend, Plagemann and Sollwedel (2014) researched the effectiveness of the technique of
humor within both traditional gender stereotypical advertisements (e.g., women as housekeeper
and men as dominant figure) and nontraditional stereotypical advertisements (e.g., men doing the
housework and women working). Using both humorous and nonhumorous, as well as traditional
and nontraditional stereotypical print advertisements for a couch from IKEA, research suggests
that gender stereotypical advertisements typically depend on humor (Eisend, Plagemann &
Sollwedel, 2014, p. 260). Attitudes are more positive when humor is used with gender
stereotypes in ads and possible negative consequences of stereotyping are reduced (Eisend,

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Plagemann & Sollwedel, 2014, p. 268). More specifically, nonhumorous ads typically use a
traditional female stereotype. For example, nonhumorous ads for something such as a cleaning
product are more likely to use women in the traditional housekeeper role. Ads that use humor
typically use and exaggerate traditional male stereotypes (Eisend, Plagemann & Sollwedel, 2014,
p. 260). Eisend, Plagemann and Sollwedel also found that nontraditional stereotyping in
humorous ads is favored, especially among women, over traditional stereotyping.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Research for this paper suggests that gender stereotypes in advertising, especially for
women, can be negative, create unattainable standards, and can depict gender roles in ways that
are not, or are no longer, realistic. The evolution of stereotypes in advertising from traditional to
modern, along with what is culturally acceptable, is largely due to changing values of society as
a whole. Advertising professionals can rely on stereotypical perceptions when creating and
strategizing ads. Values, beliefs and previous experiences can impact the work of these
professionals. In order to prevent negative gender stereotypical advertisements,
recommendations are made.
The solution to preventing negative stereotypes is not necessarily to avoid using gender
related advertisements, as these advertisements can be a great way to target a large audience
(Wolin, 2003) and can be relatable to every day social life (Eisend, 2010). Advertising
professionals should instead gain a better understanding of stereotypes when creating ads in
order to prevent gender discrimination. Taking time to learn which gender role portrayals are
most effective and preferred by a target audience for a product can not only help ensure a
successful campaign but can also help prevent backlash among consumers.

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In addition, advertisers should consider which gender role techniques are most effective.
For example, using humor along with nontraditional stereotypes, or depicting women using the
egalitarian image, may be the best way to ensure a successful campaign when women are the
target audience. Both advertising professionals, and advertising agencies as a whole, should
avoid using personal values and beliefs when creating gender related advertisements. By
allowing consumers, who arent affiliated with an advertising agency, to view the ad and give
feelings and opinions before finalizing it, bias can be avoided (Tuncay Zayer & Coleman, 2015).
With society as the foundation of values depicted in advertising, educating the country on
gender stereotypes could also be a solution. The values of society are reflected in advertising
(Eisend, 2010). By focusing on changing beliefs and values of society, advertising would be
impacted in an indirect way. For example, educating children in schools that females have just as
many opportunities as males, can create values and beliefs that would be carried throughout life.
Also focusing on policies that prevent gender discrimination in places like the work
environment, where occupational gender stereotypes sometimes occur, can help eliminate these
stereotypes. When gender related stereotypes are avoided in society, advertising will follow.
In conclusion, if these recommendations are put into practice, misconceptions of gender
stereotypes in advertising, bias from advertising professionals, and backlash from consumers
could be avoided. By using gender roles, along with techniques, in ways in which the consumer
can relate to, rather than feeling discriminated, a successful advertising campaign will be more
likely. Consumers will be less likely to be impacted in a negative way. Values and beliefs in
advertisements are likely to come from society rather than the advertising agency. By focusing
on changing values and beliefs of society as a whole, advertisements are likely to reflect these
values and beliefs, therefore allowing negative gender stereotypes in advertising to be changed.

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