SPECIAL PUBLICATION No. 08.2.

34

February, 2012

HANDBOOK
OF
GEOTEXTILES

THE BOMBAY TEXTILE RESEARCH ASSOCIATION

L.B.S. MARG, GHATKOPAR (W), MUMBAI - 400086
TEL. : 022-25003651 / 2652
EMAIL : btra@vsnl.com
WEBSITE : www.btraindia.com

ISBN 978-81-7674-132-3

2012 THE BOMBAY TEXTILE RESEARCH ASSOCIATION

All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced or used in
any form, whatsoever without the written
permission from the publisher

Published by :

THE BOMBAY TEXTILE RESEARCH ASSOCIATION

L.B.S. MARG, GHATKOPAR (W), MUMBAI - 400086
TEL.
: 022-25003651 / 2652
Fax
: 022 -25000459
EMAIL
: btra@vsnl.com
WEBSITE : www.btraindia.com

PREFACE
Geotech sector is one of the rapidly growing sectors of Indian technical textile industry. Estimates of
around 15-20% growth per annum are often talked about, for the next few years. This is obvious
because of the large number of projects that are on-going and in the pipeline in various parts of the
country, coupled with active role being played by the Ministry of Textiles; Government of India in
promoting these knowledge based textile products. The Centre of Excellence (COE) for Geotech set
up by the government of India at Bombay Textile Research Association (BTRA), Mumbai, is one of
the series of steps in this direction.
At BTRA, a state of the Art accredited Geotech lab is functioning which caters to testing needs as per
national and international standards. A Resource centre with an excellent collection of reference
materials, standards and specifications are available for those interested.
One of the bigger hurdles in use of geotextiles in India is lack of awareness on all aspects of utility of
these products by the construction engineers. While attempts of creating awareness on the
application potential of geotextiles is being made by various agencies, one handicap that needed
attention was the absence of critical information on raw materials, manufacturers and their
products, range of products available, application areas, potential users of geotextiles, test facilities
within national and international accreditation and this was a great constraint. When this point was
discussed at a meeting of Indian Technical Textile Association (ITTA) (a body of all those who
interested in promotion of technical textiles), BTRA was entrusted with the task of bringing out a
suitable guide book for this industry. Hence this handbook is an attempt to address the long felt
need of Geotech industry. This handbook is based on the knowledge and experience of
manufacturers, raw material suppliers and other nodal agencies. The handbook is being circulated
as a part of our long-term goal of enhanced usage of geotextile in infrastructural projects and we
hope will be a ready reckoner for all stockholders of the industry.
This handbook is result of sustained efforts of Mr Vitin Gupta, Mr V Kannan of Reliance Industries
Ltd and Mr Amol Shivdas of BTRA to whom our thanks are due.

Dr. A N Desai
Director
BTRA

Mumbai
Date: 12th February, 2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction ---------------------------------------------------- 1
2. Functions ------------------------------------------------------ 7
3. Application matrix ---------------------------------------------- 10
4. Geotextiles in Roads ------------------------------------------- 11
5. Case studies on usage of Geotextiles in Roads --------------- 31
6. Jute Geotextiles ----------------------------------------------- 47
7. Case studies on Jute Geotextiles in Roads -------------------- 51
8. Geotextiles in Erosion control --------------------------------- 55
9. Case Studies - Geotextiles In Erosion Control --------------- 59
10. Polymer Gabions in Erosion Control --------------------------- 73
11. Case studies on Polymer Gabions in Erosion Control --------- 77
12. Geobags and Geotubes for Erosion control ------------------- 83
13. Case studies - Geotubes in erosion control ------------------- 91
14. A few geosynthetics products --------------------------------- 99
15. Geogrids -------------------------------------------------------- 101
16. Case studies on Geogrids ------------------------------------- 107
17. Prefabricated Vertical Drains ---------------------------------- 115
18. Miscellaneous case studies ------------------------------------ 117
19. International Case studies ------------------------------------- 123
20. Standards on geotextiles -------------------------------------- 141
21. Properties and Testing of Geotextiles ------------------------ 145
22. Profile of few Indian Geotextiles Manufacturers ------------- 161
23. Appendices -------------------------------------------------169
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

Indian Govt supports covering COEs---------------------- 171

Associations for Geotextiles ------------------------------ 172
List of Nodal agencies in India --------------------------- 173
List of NHAI consultants ----------------------------------- 176
List of NHAI contractors ---------------------------------- 179

24. References -------------------------------------------------185

1. INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetics wherein geotextile is a part are, used in a wide variety of applications for
infrastructure projects like Roads, River & Sea Bank Protection, Canal Lining, Landfills,
Airport taxiways etc. In broad terms there are around 9 categories of Geosynthetics.
1
2
3
4
5

Geotextiles
Geogrids
Geonets
Geomembranes
Geosynthetic Clay Liners

6
7
8
9

Geofoam
Geocells
Drainage / Infiltration Cells
Geocomposites

Geotextile is any permeable textile material used with foundation, soil, rock, earth, or
any other geotechnical engineering related material as an integral part of a man-made
product, structure, or system.
Geotextiles forms one of the largest groups of geosynthetic material. Its functions and
properties are deeply studied, so now it is widely accepted and used in various areas of
geotechnical structures. Most important factor that makes it prominent is its longer life
and resistance to biodegradation because of its synthetic fiber content rather than
natural content like Jute, cotton, wool, or silk. Unlike natural fibers like cotton, jute etc
synthetic fibers which are constituent of geosynthetics, have higher strength and not
prone to degradation under soil condition and hence have longer life. The synthetic
fibers are made into porous structures of woven, non woven or knitted. The original
term used for geotextiles, and still sometime used is filter fabrics. This is because of the

fact that geotextiles are porous to liquid flow across their manufactured plane and also
within their thickness.
Literature available shows that geotextiles have been effectively used outside India since
1950. Paper entitled as Use of Plastic Filters in Coastal Structures, proceedings from
the 16th International Conference Coastal Engineers, Tokyo, by Barrett, R.J., describes
the work originating in late 1950s using geotextiles behind precast concrete seawalls,
under precast concrete erosion control blocks, beneath large stone riprap, and in other
erosion control situations.

Early laying of Geotextiles in India

In the late 1960s Rhone-Poulenc Textiles in France worked on use of nonwoven needle
punched fabrics for unpaved roads, beneath railroad ballast, within embankments and
earth dams. Main emphasis was on the functions like separation and reinforcement but it
was recognised that fabric can also transmit water within the plane of their structure,
acting as drains. This drainage function of geotextile leads to various other usages like
dissipation of pore-water pressures, and horizontal and vertical flow interceptors. So
today geotextiles is well recognised for all these functions.
As per the Ministry of Textile, Government of India, Current Geotextiles Market in India
(Imports and domestic production) as per 2007-08 is around Rs 272 Crore, comprising
imports of an estimated Rs 105 Crore and domestic production of around Rs 167 Crore.
In terms of product category, the market includes Rs 241 Crore of synthetic woven/nonwoven Geotextiles (85 Crore of woven and 67 Crore of Non-woven) as well as other
products like Geogrids and Others (Geomembranes, Geonets and Geocomposites). Agrobased Geotextiles (made of Jute and Coir) are also developing and finding acceptance as
a class of products. Market size for these products was around Rs 31 Crore. The
domestic market has shown a healthy growth rate of 15-18% on YOY basis as per the
industry estimate.
Geotextile Structures
There are two principal geotextile types, or structures:
wovens and nonwovens. Other manufacturing
techniques, for example knitting and stitch bonding are
occasionally used in the manufacture of specialty
products.

Non Woven Geotextile

Nonwovens: Nonwoven geotextiles are manufactured from either staple fibers (staple
fibers are short, usually 1 to 4 inches in length) or continuous filaments randomly
distributed in layers onto a moving belt to form a felt-like "web". The web then passes
through a needle loom and/or other bonding machine interlocking the fibers/filaments.
Nonwoven geotextiles are highly desirable for subsurface drainage and erosion control
applications as well as for road stabilization over wet moisture sensitive soils.
Wovens: Weaving is a process of interlacing yarns to make
a fabric. Woven geotextiles are made from weaving
monofilament, multifilament, or slit film yarns. Slit film
yarns can be further subdivided into flat tapes and
fibrillated (or spider web-like) yarns. There are two steps in
this process of making a woven geotextile: first,
manufacture of the filaments or slitting the film to create
yarns; and second, weaving the yarns to form the
Woven Geotextile
geotextile. Slit film fabrics are commonly used for sediment
control, i.e. silt fence, and road stabilization applications
but are poor choices for subsurface drainage and erosion control applications. Though
the flat tape slit film yarns are quite strong, they form a fabric that has relatively poor
permeability. Alternatively, fabrics made with fibrillated tape yarns have better
permeability and more uniform openings than flat tape products.
Monofilament wovens have better permeability, making them suitable for certain
drainage and erosion control applications. High strength multifilament wovens are
primarily used in reinforcement applications
Polymers Gabions: Polymer Gabions are rectangular or
cylindrical baskets fabricated from polymer meshes and
usually filled with stone and used for structural purposes
such as retaining walls, revetments, slope protection, and
similar applications
Polymer Gabion

Geogrids: A geogrid is geosynthetic material used to

reinforce soils and similar materials. Geogrids are
commonly used to reinforce retaining walls, as well as subbases or subsoils below roads or structures. Soils pull apart
under tension. Compared to soil, geogrids are strong in
tension.
Geogrids

Geobags: Geobags are sand-filled high-strength geotextile

bags available in the various sizes and are used in
riverbank, beach protection, and offshore breakwaters.

Geobags

Geotubes: Geotextile tubes are large tube like

structures fabricated from high strength geotextile
with soil-in-fills. Geotextile tube is formed in situ by
the hydraulic pumping of local soil into the
prefabricated geotextile tube. This leads to a flexible,
monolithic, continuous structure that is highly
resistant to water currents. Sand is widely used as
the soil in-fill material because of its low
compressibility but other hydraulically pumped soil
types can be used. Geotextile tubes are normally
characterized in terms of theoretical diameter.

Geotubes

Geocomposites: They combine the best features of different materials in such a way
that specific applications are addressed in the optimal manner and at minimum cost.
Thus, the benefit/cost ratio is maximized.
PVDs The prefabricated vertical drain is a long flat
tube of woven or non-woven geotextile with a core
inside. For construction of structures on sites
underlain by thick strata of soft cohesive soils, a
method of foundation soil improvement is generally
required to prevent bearing capacity failure and or to
avoid excessive total and differential settlements.
These soft soils have a very low bearing capacity to
due to their saturated state; the PVDs are used to
increase the bearing capacity of the soil by removing
the excessive water present inside.

PVD

Geotextile Polymers
Almost all geotextiles available in the India are
manufactured from either polypropylene or
polyester. Polypropylene is lighter than water
(specific gravity of 0.9), strong and very durable.
Polypropylene filaments and staple fibers are used
in manufacturing woven yarns and nonwoven
geotextiles. It is preferred as it is inert material
and geotextiles made of polypropylene are inert to
chemical attack and can be used in harsh climatic
conditions.
Raw material - Polypropylene

High tenacity polyester fibers and yarns are also used in the manufacturing of geotextiles. Polyester
is heavier than water, has excellent strength and creep properties, and is compatible with most
common soil environments. In addition natural fibers like Jutes are also used for geotextiles.
To know about products like geonets, geocells etc readers are encouraged to visit
http://gmanow.com/

2. FUNCTIONS
Geosynthetics have six broad functions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Separation
Reinforcement
Filtration
Drainage
Barrier
Protection

Based on these functions geotextiles possesses wide range of applications in various

areas of geotechnical structures.
Separation:
Separation of two dissimilar materials which intend to serve different purposes in such a
way that their integrity and functioning remains intact. This is achieved by placing
flexible porous textile between two dissimilar materials.

Without Geotextiles

With Geotextiles

When stone aggregates are placed over a subgrade consisting of fine aggregates in
flexible pavement, then there are two possible mechanisms that can take place. One is
that fine soil attempts to enter into the voids of stone aggregate, thereby ruining its
drainage capability; the other is that the stone aggregates attempts to intrude into the
fine soil, thereby deteriorating the stone aggregate strength. This would diminish the
performance of the aggregates as well as the subgrade layer. However, with the use of
geotextiles between these two layers will avoid these mechanisms, leading to
satisfactory performance of both the stone aggregates and subgrade layer.

Reinforcement
Low strength fine grained silt and clay are good in compression but poor in tension. In
such case, geotextiles materials which are good in tension can recover the deficiency of
low strength soil. Geotextiles reinforcement is defined as synergistic improvement in the
total system strength created by the introduction of a geotextiles into a soil and
developed primarily through the following three mechanisms: One, lateral restraint
through interfacial friction between geotextile and soil/aggregate. Two, forcing the
potential bearing surface failure plane to develop at alternate higher shear strength
surface. And three, membrane type of support of the wheel loads.
Filtration: (Permittivity)
It is defined as the equilibrium geotextileto-soil system that allows for adequate
liquid flow with limited soil loss across the
plane of the geotextile over a service
lifetime compatible with the application
under

consideration.

Influencing

characteristic of this function is apparent

opening

size

because

to

perform

Geotextiles as filter fabric

this

function the geotextile needs to satisfy two

conflicting requirements: the filters pore size must be small enough to retain fine soil
particles and at the same moment it should allow the flow of water perpendicular to the
plane of fabric (Permittivity). The geotextile must also have the strength and durability
to survive construction and long-term conditions for the design life of the drain.
Additionally, construction methods have a critical influence on geotextiles drain
performance. Figure explains the filtration function of geotextile.
Drainage
Drainage refers to the ability of geotextile
whose three-dimensional structure provides
an path for flow of water through the plane
of the geotextile. Thus drainage is defined
as the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile system
that allows for adequate liquid flow with

Geotextiles as drainage layer

limited soil loss within the plane of the geotextiles over a service lifetime compatible
with the application under consideration. Above figure also illustrates the Transmissivity
function of geotextile.

Barrier (Sealing) Function

A geotextile performs this function when
impregnated
polymeric

with

mixes

asphalt

rendering

or
it

other

relatively

impermeable to both cross-plane and inplane flow. In this function geotextile is

placed on the existing pavement surface
following the application of an asphalt tack
coat. The geotextile absorbs asphalt to
become

waterproofing

Geotextiles as barrier

membrane

minimizing vertical flow of water into the pavement structure.

Protection (Cushion) Function
A geotextile can be used in any landfill project for properly protecting the geomembrane
from tearing or puncturing during construction.

Research indicates that a properly

selected nonwoven, needle-punched geotextile cushion installed above and/or below the
geomembrane can effectively protect it from construction and operational damage.

Geotextiles as protection

3. APPLICATION MATRIX
Category Sub-Category

Functions

NEW ROADS -

REINFORCEMENT

BELOW
SUBGRADE

SEPARATION

OLD ROADS-

REINFORCEMENT

Pavement
Interlayer- to
prevent
reflective
cracking

MOISTURE
BARRIER

RIVER
BANKS

EMBANKMENT
PROTECTION

FILTER FABRIC

SEA

EROSION
CONTROL

As Geotubes for

Potential/
presentation

DRAINAGE

ROADS

Protection
Geotube

10

Chart

4. GEOTEXTILES IN ROADS

11

12

4. GEOTEXTILES IN ROADS [1]

A large variety of detrimental factors affect the service life of roads and pavements
including environmental factors, subgrade conditions, traffic loading, utility cuts, road
widening, and aging. These factors contribute to an equally wide variety of pavement
conditions and problems which must be addressed in the maintenance or rehabilitation
of the pavements, if not dealt with during initial construction. Pavement maintenance
treatments are often ineffective and short lived due to their inability to both treat the
cause of the problems and renew the existing pavement condition. The main cause of
distress in pavements is that they are quite permeable with 30 to 50% of precipitation
surface water infiltrating through the pavement, softening and weakening the pavement
subgrade and base, accelerating pavement degradation. Existing pavement distress such
as surface cracks, rocking joints, and subgrade failures cause the rapid reflection of
cracking up through the maintenance treatment.
Therefore, the preferred strategy for long-term road and pavement performance is to
build in safeguards during initial construction. These performance safeguards include
stabilizing

the

subgrade

against

moisture

intrusion

and

associated

weakening;

strengthening road base aggregate without preventing efficient drainage of infiltrated

water; and, as a last resort, enhancing the stress absorption and moisture proofing
capabilities of selected maintenance treatments. Geotextiles are the most cost-effective
tools for safeguarding roads and pavements in these ways.
The four main applications for geotextiles in roads are subgrade separation and
stabilization, base reinforcement, overlay stress absorption, and overlay reinforcement.
Subgrade stabilization and base reinforcement involve improving the road structure as it
is constructed by inserting an appropriate geotextile layer.

Subgrade separation and stabilization applies geotextiles to both unpaved and

paved roads.

Base reinforcement is the use of geotextiles to improve the structure of a paved

road. Geotextiles are also helpful in rehabilitating distressed road surfaces.

The application of a layer of asphalt concrete called an overlay is often the

solution for damaged pavement. Geotextiles can be used as interlayers by placing
them below or within the overlay. Some geotextiles relieve stress and others are
able to reinforce the overlay. The products may also provide a moisture barrier.

13

Though only widely recognized since the latter half of the 1900s, these
advantages were initially demonstrated as early as the 1930s using conventional
textile materials.

4.1 SUBGRADE SEPARATION AND STABILIZATION

Introduction to the Problem

Temporary roads used for hauling and access roads that are subject to low volumes of
traffic are often constructed without asphalt or cement concrete surfacing. In these
cases, a layer of aggregate is placed on the prepared subgrade of these roads to
improve their load carrying capacity. Problems are usually encountered when the
subgrade consists of soft clays, silts and organic soils. This type of subgrade is often
unable to adequately support traffic loads and must be improved.
Typical Solutions
Excavating and replacing unsuitable materials is costly and time consuming. Other
methods of subgrade improvement include deep compaction, chemical stabilization and
preloading.

14

The Geotextile Solution

Geotextiles are proving to be a cost effective alternative to traditional road construction
methods. As a result, the application of geotextiles to the construction of unpaved roads
over soft subsoils has become quite popular. Design has focused on the stabilization of
the subgrade and the reinforcement of the aggregate, leading to the identification of two
important functions: membrane action and lateral restraint. Membrane action is the
ability of a geotextile material to reduce and spread stress arising from the weak
subgrade. Lateral restraint, sometimes called confinement, is the lateral interaction
between the aggregate and the subgrade with the geotextile. The presence of the
geotextile restrains lateral movement of both the aggregate and the subgrade,
improving the strength and stiffness of the road structure.
Separation
At small rut depth, the strain in the geotextile is also small. In this case, the geotextile
acts primarily as a separator between the soft subgrade and the aggregate. Any
geotextile that survives construction will work as a separator.
Stabilization
For larger rut depths, more strain is induced in the geotextile. Thus the stiffness
properties of the geotextile are essential. A considerable reduction in aggregate
thickness is possible by the use of a geotextile having a high modulus in the direction
perpendicular to the road centerline; however, the benefits of the geotextile are not
wholly dependent on the membrane action achieved with a stiff geotextile. Lateral
restraint produced by the interaction between the geotextile and the aggregate is
equally important. The following general conclusions can be drawn relating to a typical
road base.

A geotextile element that functions primarily as a separator (typically when the

subgrade CBR 3) will increase the allowable bearing capacity of the subgrade by
40 to 50 percent. ((separation geotextiles)

A geotextile element that functions primarily to provide confinement of the

aggregate and lateral restraint to the subgrade (typically when the subgrade CBR
< 3) will both increase the allowable bearing capacity of the subgrade and
provide an improved load distribution ratio in the aggregate. The combined
benefits can enhance load carrying capacity of the road by well over 50 percent.

15

With very weak subgrades, it is often beneficial to combine the benefits of both
separation and stabilization.

Design for Stabilization

The design of geotextile-reinforced unpaved roadways has been simplified into design
charts that relate aggregate thickness requirements to a range of subgrade strengths,
based on standard highway design loading and various allowable rut depths.
BASE REINFORCEMENT
Introduction to the Problem
Permanent roads carry larger traffic volumes and typically have asphalt or port-land
cement concrete surfacing over a base layer of aggregate. The combined surface and
base layers act together to support and distribute traffic loading to the subgrade.
Problems are usually encountered when the subgrade consists of soft clays, silts and
organic soils. This type of subgrade is often water sensitive and, when wet, unable to
adequately support traffic loads.
If unimproved, the subgrade will mix with the road base aggregate degrading the road
structure - whenever the subgrade gets wet.
Typical Solutions
As with unpaved roads, a problematic subgrade is typically excavated and replaced, or it
is improved by the addition of cement, lime, or excess aggregate. In any case, the
traditional solution is often costly and always time consuming.
The Geotextile Solution
As was noted earlier, geotextiles are proving to be a cost effective alternative to
traditional road construction methods. In paved roads, lateral restraint also called
confinement is considered to be the primary function of the geotextile. With the addition
of an appropriate geotextile, the Soil-Geotextile- Aggregate (SGA) system gains
stiffness. The stiffened SGA system is better able to provide the following structural
benefits:

Preventing lateral spreading of the base

Increasing confinement and thus stiffness of the base
Improving vertical stress distribution on the subgrade
Reducing shear stress in the subgrade

16

INSTALLATION OF GEOTEXTILES FOR SEPARATION, STABILIZATION,

AND BASE REINFORCEMENT
1. Site Preparation
Clear and grade the installation area. Remove all sharp objects and large stones. Cut
trees and shrubs flush with the subgrade. Removal of topsoil and vegetation mat is
not necessary, but is recommended where practical. Excessively soft spots or voids
may be unsuitable for geotextile installation. Fill these areas with select material and
compact prior to geotextile installation. The problem area may be enhanced by using
a geotextile at the bottom of the excavation prior to backfilling.
2. Deployment of the Geotextile
Unroll the geotextile on the prepared subgrade in the direction of construction traffic.
Hold the geotextile in place with pins, staples, fill material or rocks. Adjacent rolls
should overlap in the direction of the construction. Depending on the strength of the
subgrade, the overlaps may have to be sewn.
3. Placement of the Aggregate
Place the aggregate over firm subgrades by back dumping aggregate onto the
geotextile and then spreading it with a motor grader. For weaker subgrades, dump
onto previously placed aggregate and then spread the aggregate onto the geotextile
with a bulldozer. On weaker subgrades, a sufficient layer of aggregate must be
maintained beneath all equipment while dumping and spreading to minimize the
potential of localized subgrade failure. Avoid traffic directly on the geotextile. When
using construction equipment on the aggregate, try to avoid any sudden stops, starts
or sharp turns. Maintain a minimum lift thickness of 6-inches (15 cm) except in cases
of low volume roads. Compact the aggregate to the specified density using a drum
roller. Fill any ruts with additional aggregate and compact as specified.
DESIGN OF GEOTEXTILE FOR ROAD WAY REINFORCEMENT
Combined use of geotextile (good in tension and poor in compression) and soil (good in
compression and poor in tension) suggests a number of situations in which geotextile
have made existing designs work better.
This section describes the design of unpaved roads; in which soft soil subgrade have
sand or stone aggregate placed directly above. No permanent surfacing, such as

17

concrete or asphalt pavement, is immediately placed on the stone. There are many
thousands of kilometres of unpaved secondary roads, access roads, and the like, with
no permanent surfacing on them, At a later time, perhaps years after settlement takes
place and ruts are backfilled, a permanent surfacing may be placed.
Geotextile mobilises tensile strength via deformation of the soil subgrade. Deformation
of the soil subgrade takes place by imposed traffic which causes the subgrade
deformation and hence the geotextile deformation with the development of tensile
properties of geotextile. How much deformation is necessary with regard to vehicular
loading, the particular geotextile, the time it takes for adequate strength mobilisation,
and so on, are all pressing questions, but the deformation characteristics of the soil
takes the precedence. A soft, yielding soil subgrade is needed to mobilise the geotextile
strength and this is decided on the basis of California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of soil
subgrade. CBR test is done as per ASTM D 1833 or ISO 12236. The CBR value is
comparison of the subgrade soils resistance to the force of a 50 mm diameter plunger at
a given deformation, with that of the standardised crushed stone base material.
For the purpose of using geotextiles in
roadway applications on soil subgrade of
different strength, functions are subdivided
based

on

the

CBR

values

of

the

soil

subgrade. This is tabulated as:

of

stone

required

Soaked

Separation

>8

>3

Stabilisation

8-3

3-1

<3

<1

Reinforcement and

Design consists the calculations made for the

thickness

Unsoaked

without

Separation

geotextile, then with a geotextile; the difference the thickness of stone that is saved. By
determining the cost of saved stone versus the cost of geotextile, so the value of using
geotextile is known.

18

GIROUD AND NOIRAYS ANALYTIC METHOD OF DESIGN:

Giroud and Noiray use the geometric model shown in figure for a tire wheel load of
pressure pec on a B X L area, which dissipates through h o thickness of stone base without
geotextile and h thickness of stone base with a geotextile.

The geometry indicated results in a stress on the soil subgrade of p o (without

geotextile) and p (with geotextile) as follows

po =

+ ho

p=

+ h

(1)
(2)

Where,
P = Axle load
= unit weight of stone aggregate
Since the pressure exerted by the axle load through the aggregate and into the soil
subgrade is known, the shallow foundation theory of geotechnical engineering can now
be utilised. It is assumed throughout the analysis that the soil is functioning in its
undrained condition. Critical in this design method are the assumptions that without the
geotextile the maximum pressure that can be maintained corresponds to the elastic limit
of the soil, that is,
po =

C + ho

(3)

With geotextile the limiting pressure can be increased to the ultimate bearing capacity of
the soil, that is,
p* = (

+ 2) C + h

19

(4)

thus for the case of no geotextile reinforcement, equations (1) and (3) can be solved ,
resulting in equation (5), which yields the desired aggregate thickness response curve
without the use of geotextile:

C=

(5)

Where,
C = Soil cohesion
P = axle load
pc = tire inflation pressure
ho = aggregate thickness, and
o = angle of load distribution
For the case where geotextile reinforcement is used, p* in equation (4) is replaced by (p
- pg), where pg is a function of the tension in the geotextile; hence its elongation is
significant. On the basis of the probable deflected shape of the geotextile-soil system,
pg =

(6)

Where,
E = modulus of geotextile,
= elongation (strain),
a = geometric property
S = settlement under the wheel (rut depth)
Combining equation (2), (4) and (6) and using p* = p - pg, gives equation (7), where h
is unknown aggregate thickness. It can be graphed for various rut depth thicknesses and
various moduli of geotextiles.

+ 2) C =

(8)

With these two sets of equations, the design method is essentially complete, since both
ho (thickness without geotextile) can be calculated. From these two values h = h o h
can be obtained, which represents the savings in aggregate due to presence of the
geotextile.

20

4.2 OVERLAY STRESS ABSORPTION AND REINFORCEMENT

Introduction to the Problem

Road surfaces must be maintained regularly. Commonly, a paved road becomes a
candidate for maintenance when its surface shows significant cracks and potholes. The
rehabilitation of cracked roads by simple overlaying is rarely a durable solution. The
cracks under the overlay rapidly propagate through to the new surface. This
phenomenon is called reflective cracking. Cracks in the pavement surface cause
numerous problems, including:

Riding discomfort for the users

Reduction of safety

Infiltration of water and subsequent

reduction of the bearing capacity of the subgrade

Pumping of soil particles through the crack

Progressive degradation of the road structure in the vicinity of the cracks due to
stress concentrations

Typical Solutions
In spite of reflective cracking, overlays are still the most viable option for extending the
life of distressed pavement. To lengthen the lifetime of an overlay, special asphalt mixes

21

can be specified. Also, the thicker the overlay the longer it will last. Thick overlays are
expensive as are special asphalt mixes, but the alternative is reconstruction. Depending
on the cause of the problem, this can involve removing layers of pavement, improving
subgrades, and repaving.
This is extraordinarily expensive and time consuming.
The Geotextile Solution
A geotextile interlayer can be placed over the distressed pavement or within the overlay
to create an overlay system. The geotextile interlayer contributes to the life of the
overlay via stress relief and/or reinforcement and by providing a pavement moisture
barrier.
A stress relieving interlayer retards the development of reflective cracks by absorbing
the stresses that arise from the damaged pavement. It also waterproofs pavements that
typically allow 30 to 60% of precipitation to infiltrate and weaken the road structure.
Reinforcement occurs when an interlayer is able to contribute significant tensile strength
to the overlay system. The reinforcement limits the movement of the cracked old
pavement under traffic loads and thermal stress by holding the cracks together.
The benefits of geotextile interlayers include:

Delaying the appearance of reflective cracks

Lengthening the useful life of the overlay

Added resistance to fatigue cracking

Saving up to 2 inches of overlay thickness

INSTALLATION OF INTERLAYERS*
The recommendations provided here are applicable for laying of geotextile (paving
fabric) ,' between, two bituminous layers as part of pavement strengthening to provide a
water resistant membrane and crack retarding layer. It is recommended that paving
fabric should be used over the entire pavement area affected by cracking and not in the
form of strips over the pavement cracks.
Step - 1 Preparing the Surface

Before the application of paving fabric, thoroughly

clean the existing pavement using a broom and/or
compressed air to the satisfaction of the Engineer.

22

* (Guidelines by CRRI)

Confirm that the existing pavement is dry.

Fill cracks exceeding 3 mm wide with appropriate crack sealant/bituminous

material by a method approved by the Engineer.

Level faulted cracks or joints with vertical deformation greater than 12 mm; use
a fine- grained bituminous mixture or other suitable material.

Properly repair potholes and other pavement distress to make them even with
the existing pavement surface. Repair shall be performed as directed by the
Engineer.

Allow crack filler & patching materials to cure prior to the application of tack coat.

A profile correction course shall be laid, wherever required, before placing the
paving fabric.

Step 2- Placing a Leveling course

Apply a leveling to uneven, rutted, or extremely rough surfaces. For best results,
place a leveling course (20 to 25 mm thick), whenever possible, before placing
the paving fabric.

This will maximize performance of the paving fabric by reducing reflective

cracking. A leveling course does several important things to promote success of
the overlay including providing a smooth surface on which to place a paving
fabric and a fresh, unoxidised surface to which the paving fabric or new overlay
can bond. Placing a paving fabric directly on an old surface can cause wrinkles,
which can themselves reflect a crack upward to the surface of the overlay.

Step - 3 Tack Coat Selection & Application

Selection of proper tack coat and application rate is one
of the most important aspects in construction and
performance of certain paving fabric interlayers.

The tack coat used to impregnate the fabric and bond

the fabric to the pavement shall be paving grade
bitumen of 80/100 penetration (VG-10).

Minimum air and pavement temperature shall be a t

least 10C or more for placement of tack coat. Neither tack coat nor paving fabric
shall be placed when weather conditions, in the opinion of the Engineer, are not
suitable.

23

Tack coat should be applied uniformly at the specified rate using a calibrated
distributor spray bar. Hand spraying and brush application may be used in locations
of fabric overlap. Every effort shall be made to keep the hand spraying to a
minimum.

The target width of tack coat application shall be equal to the paving fabric width
application plus 150 mm.

The tack coat shall be applied only as far in advance of paving fabric installation as
is appropriate to ensure a tacky surface at the time of paving fabric placement.

Traffic shall not be allowed on the tack coat. Any spillage or excess tack coat should
be either removed or sand sprayed over it.

Common field problems with tack coat applications include proper temperature
control, clogged or leaking spray bars or nozzles, application of too much or too
little material, and non-uniform distribution. Distribution must be uniform; do not
turn the outer nozzles perpendicular to the spray bars.

Application Rate of Tack Coat

The tack coat shall be applied, uniformly to the prepared dry pavement surface at
the rate of 1 kg/m2 of as recommended by the paving fabric manufacturer and
approved by the Engineer.

Within street intersections, on steep grades or in other zones where vehicle

speed changes, the normal application rate shall be reduced by about 20 percent
or as directed by the Engineer.

Temperature Control

The temperature of the tack coat shall be sufficiently high (140C) to permit a
uniform spray pattern. To avoid damage to the fabric, distributor tank
temperature shall not exceed 160C.

The paving fabric shall be installed while asphalt is still tacky.

A noncontact thermometer is useful in determining binder temperature.

Measuring Tack Rate

Tack rate should not be reduced to solve construction problems. Such reductions
can cause subsequent system failure.

Tack rate should be verified using pre-weighed, thin pans place directly in the
path of the distributor truck. The pans can be recovered after passage of the

24

distributor truck and weighed to compute the tack application rate. If measured
tack rate is different from specified rate, it should be appropriately adjusted
before further use.

Insufficient tack rate is the leading cause of poor fabric interlayer performance
and failure. Insufficient tack will result in unsaturated fabric, which can lead to
overlay slippage and/or debonding and will not provide waterproofing.

Step -4: Placing the paving fabric

The paving fabric shall be placed on a dry

surface. In case, it rains after installing the
paving fabric, but before placing the overlay
over it, all excess water should be removed
and the fabric should be allowed to dry up
sufficiently before placing the overlay.

The paving fabric shall be placed with heat set side facing up, onto the tack coat
using mechanical or manual lay down equipment capable of providing a smooth
installation with a minimum amount of wrinkling and folding. Slight tension can
be applied during paving fabric installation to minimize wrinkling.

If, wet fabric is applied or if fabric is applied on damp pavement, blistering can
occur because of vaporization of moisture underneath the asphalt- impregnated
fabric.

Pavement that has recently received rainfall but has a dry surface can retain
enough moisture to cause blistering. If blisters appear, workers should eliminate
them by using a lightweight rubber-tired roller before overlaying.

The paving fabric shall be placed prior to the tack coat cooling and losing
tackiness.

Paving fabric shall not be installed in areas where the overlay bituminous layer
tapers to a thickness of less than 40 mm.

Excess paving fabric, which extends beyond the edge of existing pavement or
areas of tack coat application shall be trimmed and removed. Wrinkles or folds in
excess of 25 mm shall be slit and laid flat.

Brooming and/or pneumatic rolling should be done immediately after the

placement of the paving fabric to maximize paving fabric contact with the
pavement surface.

25

All areas with paving fabrics placed will be paved the same day.

No traffic except necessary construction equipment will be allowed to drive on the

paving fabric. After laying the paving fabric, some loose bituminous concrete
should be sprinkled on it in the wheel path of the paver and the tipper to ensure
that the fabric is not picked up between the wheels.

Turning of the paver and other vehicles shall be done gradually and kept to a
minimum to avoid movement and damage to the paving fabric. Abrupt starts and
stops shall also be avoided.

Additional tack coat shall be placed between the overlap to satisfy saturation
requirements of the fabric. Overlap shall be sufficient to ensure full closure of the
joint but not exceed 150 mm. Overlaps of adjacent rolls shall be staggered by a
minimum of one metre.

All overlaps shall be stitched unless specifically allowed by the Engineer not to
stitch.

The stitching procedure shall be as recommended by the manufacturer. .

The paving fabric should be pegged at suitable locations and as directed by the

Engineer, so as to avoid wrinkles and folds during the placement of the overlay.

Damaged fabric shall be removed and replaced with the same type of fabric.

Step - 5 Bituminous overlay construction

Bituminous overlay construction shall closely

follow fabric placement.

All areas in which paving fabric has been

placed will be paved the same day.

Excess bitumen which bleeds through the

paving fabric shall be removed by spreading
hot mix or sand on the paving fabric.

The hot mix should be placed between a temperature range of 130C to 145C so
as to give enough heat to the bitumen in the tack coat to rise up the fabric.

No reduction in the overlay thickness shall be made on account of the use of paving
fabric.

26

4.3 Use of Geotextiles for Subgrade Dewatering.

Introduction to the Problem

A high groundwater table can, and often does, interfere with the stability of subgrade
soils. For instance, some clay soils can swell or shrink as their water content increases or
decreases, respectively. Also, most soils are considerably weaker when they have high
water contents or have not been drained prior to loading. This means that weatherrelated or seasonal fluctuations in groundwater levels can adversely affect permanent
structures founded on undrained soils. Draining saturated soils can increase their
strength and stability. Unfortunately, soils will only drain if there is an adjacent soil layer
or zone of higher permeability into which the water can escape. The lower the
permeability of the subgrade soils, the closer together the drainage layers/zones must
be to provide effective dewatering.
Typical Solutions
The traditional approach to subgrade dewatering is to dig a trench to the depth to which
the water table is to be lowered and filling the trench with coarse drainage stone.
Sometimes a perforated pipe is placed at the base of the trench to more efficiently
transport collected seepage to an outlet. Trenches are spaced to assure drainage of the
soil within a desired time period. Alternatively, in new construction, a coarse aggregate
drainage layer or blanket can be constructed beneath and before placing the subgrade
soil. Similarly, a pipe system is commonly placed within the drainage layer to transport
collected seepage. Since groundwater seeping into a drainage layer can carry subgrade
soil particles with it a phenomenon called piping. To prevent piping, a layer of fine
sand is commonly used as a filter over a drainage layer or in lieu of coarse stone in a
trench.
The Geotextile Solution
Effective subgrade dewatering requires a very porous drainage media to accept seepage
and a properly graded filter to prevent piping. Geotextile materials have become

27

commonplace in subsurface drainage applications. Commonly, geotextiles are being

used in lieu of select grades of sand because they are less expensive, provide more
consistent properties, and are much easier to install.
The advantages of geotextile filters can be extended to the drainage medium. Where
coarse aggregate can be costly, have variable gradations, and be costly and burdensome
to install, a geocomposite drain incorporating a 3- dimensional plastic drainage core
wrapped with a filtration geotextile overcomes all of these limitations.
INSTALLATION OF GEOTEXTILES FOR SUBGRADE DEWATERING

Trench excavation shall be performed in accordance with details of the project

plans. In all instances excavation shall be done in such a way as to prevent large
voids from occurring in the sides and bottom of the trench. The graded surface
shall be smooth and free of debris.

The geotextile shall be placed in the trench loosely with no wrinkles or folds, and
with no void spaces between the geotextile and the ground surface. Successive
sheets of geotextiles shall be overlapped a minimum of 12-in. (300 mm), with
the upstream sheet overlapping the downstream sheet. After placing the
drainage aggregate in trenches equal to or greater than 12-in. (300 mm) wide,
the geotextile shall be folded over the top of the backfill material in a manner to
produce a minimum overlap of 12-in. (300 mm). In trenches less than 12-in.
(300 mm) but greater than 4-in. (100 mm) wide, the overlap shall be equal to
the width of the trench. Where the trench is less than 4-in. (100 mm), the
geotextile overlap shall be sewn or otherwise bonded.

Should the geotextile be damaged during installation, or drainage aggregate

placement, a geotextile patch shall be placed over the damaged area extending
beyond the damaged area a distance of 12-in. (300 mm), or the specified seam
overlap, whichever is greater.

Placement

of

drainage

aggregate

should

proceed

immediately

following

placement of the geotextile. The geotextile should be covered with a minimum of

12-in. (300 mm) of loosely placed aggregate prior to compaction. If a perforated
collector pipe is to be installed in the trench, a bedding layer of drainage
aggregate should be placed below the pipe, with the remainder of the aggregate
placed to a minimum required construction depth. The aggregate should be

28

compacted with vibratory equipment unless the trench is required for structural
support.

29

30

5. CASE STUDIES ON USAGE OF GEOTEXTILES IN ROAD

Case Study -1: Use of Geotextiles in major district road (MDR) for
separation- Pune
Case study 2: Use of geotextiles as separator at Gadimoga
Case Study 3: Using of Geotextile in Ichalkaranji
Case Study 4: Woven Geotextiles for making paved roads at KOPT, West
Bengal
Case Study 5: Use of High strength Geotextile for Ground improvement
Case Study 6: Geotextiles for prevention of Cracks in Roads in Tata
Powers Co.

31

32

5. CASE STUDIES ON USAGE OF GEOTEXTEXTILES IN

ROADS
CASE STUDY -1: USE OF GEOTEXTILES IN MAJOR DISTRICT ROAD
( MDR) FOR SEPARATION- PUNE
BRIEF SUMMARY

A 2km stretch on the problematic road MDR82 was identified.

The history revealed that this road was required to be constructed every year
owing to severe deformation and rut formation.

Soil analysis revealed that the soil is black cotton soil expanding in nature. It is
characterized by its extreme hardness and deep cracks when dry and with
tendency for heaving and swelling during the process of wetting.

Roadbeds made up of such soils when subjected to changes in moisture content

due to seasonal wetting and drying or due to any other reason undergo
volumetric changes leading to pavement distortion, cracking and general
unevenness.

Considering all above points and characteristics of soil, a scientific design of the
road cross-section was prepared and Geo-textile was fabricated. Laying of the
fabric was completed in April 2004.

The performance of the road was monitored every six months and in October
2010 (after 6 years 6 months) no abnormalities were reported.

Background of the road status along MDR82: On an average, rut depths were
observed to range from 200-300 mm. Along this particular stretch, every year new road
is constructed.
The reasons identified were,
(i) Presence of a swelling sub-grade, like black cotton soil,
(ii) Inadequate drainage,
(iii)Seasonal heavy traffic with higher axle loads,

33

Status of road along MDR82 in July 2003

During the process of severe rut formations, non-uniformity in load spreading
phenomena occurs. This results in inadequate sub-grade reaction at one side (where
thinning of the aggregate layer occurs) and more than adequate sub-grade reaction at
other side (i.e. where thickening of aggregate layer occurs). This type of situation
reduces the design life of the road affect the riding quality and increase maintenance
cost. In such situations, one of the viable alternatives is to strengthen the road by
introducing a reinforcement layer in the form of geo-textile at the interface of a granular
sub-base

layer

prepared

sub-

and
grade.

Load spreading phenomena of sub-base on weak sub-grade

For the roads constructed on weak sub-grade, the inclusion of geo-synthetics, like geotextiles or geo-grids can lead to less deformation of the road and can reduce the
thickness of base materials needed. In many cases, this can be cost-effective, as the
savings in importing the base material and in repairs to the road can offset the cost of
reinforcement. A geo-synthetic placed at the interface between the aggregate base
course and the sub-grade functions as a separator to prevent two dissimilar materials

34

(sub-grade soils and aggregates) from intermixing. Geo-textiles and geogrids perform
this function by preventing penetration of the aggregate into the sub-grade. In addition,
geo-textiles prevent intrusion of sub-grade soils into the base course aggregate.
Localized bearing failures and sub-grade intrusion only occur in very soft, wet, weak
sub-grades. Therefore, separation is important to maintain the designed thickness and
the stability and load carrying capacity of the base course. The stabilization of roads on
weak sub-grade with a geotextile material is primarily attributed to the basic functions of
separation of the base course layer from the sub-grade soil, and a reinforcement of the
composite system. Geo-synthetics are thus a great boon for ease in construction over
soft soil as well as long-term performance of roads.

Schematic cross-section of geo-textile reinforced road (All dimensions are in meters)

Soil properties
The soil sample was collected 300 mm below natural ground surface along MDR82. All
the laboratory tests were conducted as per relevant Bureau of Indian Standards. The soil
is having a specific gravity of 2.80 and liquid limit equivalent to 69 % and plastic limit
equivalent to 33 %. The soil is having 62 % particles finer than 2 micron size, greater
than 2 micron but less than 75 micron size equivalent to 20.2 %, greater than 75 micron
but less than 4.76 mm size equivalent to 11.8 %, and > 4.76 mm equivalent to 5.9 %.
The soil can be classified as per IS: 1498, as CH type. CH indicates inorganic clays with
high plasticity.
In order to assess an un-drained cohesion of the soil, unconsolidated un-drained (UU)
tri-axial compression tests were conducted on saturated samples. Samples were molded
at maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. The tests were conducted

35

at three cell pressures namely: 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 kg/cm2 respectively. The results of
these indicate that the soil has got an un-drained cohesion equivalent to 52.5 kN/m2.
Table 1 presents the summary of soil properties. An average free swell of the soil
sample collected is obtained as 93 %, which indicates a high degree of expansion. CBR
value under un-soaked conditions is 7.8 % and with four days soaking in water CBR
values are obtained as 3 % and 1.8 % with 7 days soaking respectively. The black
cotton soil with pure fines in under soaked conditions, CBR value generally ranges from
1 - 1.5%.
The sub-grade soil is of a black cotton soil and expanding in nature. Potentially
expansive soils, such as, black cotton soils are montmorillonite clays and are
characterized by their extreme hardness and deep cracks when dry and with tendency
for heaving during the process of wetting. Roadbeds made up of such soils when
subjected to changes in moisture content due to seasonal wetting and drying or due to
any other reason undergo volumetric changes leading to pavement distortion, cracking
and general unevenness. A proper design incorporating the following measures may
considerably minimize the problems associated with expansive soils. As per IRC:372001, one of the alternatives is to stabilize the soil using quick lime extending over the
road formation width along with measures for efficient drainage of the pavement
section.
Design details of geo-textile reinforced road
The design of the geo-textile reinforced road was carried out as per the procedure
outlined by Giroud and Noiray (1981). By taking the properties mentioned in Tables 1
and 2 the pavement block sections with and without geo-textile layer were arrived.
Keeping in view of the expansive nature of the sub-grade, the sub-grade is pre-treated
with lime and saturated with water trickling. The design particulars include the following:
un-reinforced aggregate thickness with traffic h0 is equivalent to 0.72 m and whereas
reinforced aggregate thickness with traffic hR works out to be 0.51 m. The reduction of
aggregate thickness, h, resulting from the use of a geo-textile, is 0.21 m. This results
in 29 % percentage savings in the aggregate requirement.

36

The construction methodology involves trimming of the existing road surface and
widening to obtain the road formation width for the entire 2 km stretch along MDR82.
This is followed by treating the sub-grade in two stages: (i) by forming lime + black
cotton soil mix trenches on both sides and (ii) spreading of lime on top of the prepared
sub-grade and tricking with water

37

Status of un-reinforced road along MDR82 as on September 3, 2004

The geo-textile is overlaid on a compacted soft murrum base and pegged along the
edges to keep it in position. After laying the geo-textile, a thin layer of soft murrum was
laid to cushion the geo-textile fabric. This is adopted to protect the geo-textile from any
damages during laying, installation and post-construction stages. The laying of the fabric
was completed in April 2004 and is currently in the monitoring stage. The surface of the
road was built on the sub-grade of almost identical conditions but without any ground
improvement. The initiation of a rutting can be noted in Fig. Contrary to this, the
reinforced stretch was observed to behave well with reduced deformations and rutting.
This shows the significant influence of a geo-textile layer along with a lime treatment in
enhancing the performance of the road stretch along MDR82.

View of the road during laying of geotextile

38

Status of the geo-textile reinforced road on September 3, 2004

CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the design details, sub-grade treatment and construction methodology of
a demonstration project involving the use of Polypropylene woven geo-textile as a
separator cum reinforcement for a road were presented. A 2 km long stretch of road
along MDR 82 in the Daund Region of Pune district was selected for this project. The
project was undertaken to evaluate and compare the performance of a geo-textile
reinforced stretch of the road with adjoining stretches of road with conventional design
under identical conditions. Keeping in view of the site conditions, a 5 m wide
Polypropylene slit tape based woven fabric was custom designed and assessed for its
properties.

Monitoring

of

this

stretch

is

currently

under

progress.

Preliminary

observations show that, in the geo-textile reinforced section of the road, there are no
signs of visible distress even after about five months; where as earlier experience
showed that road constructed as per standard conventional practice deteriorated within
6 months. This shows the significant influence of a geotextile layer along with a lime
treatment in enhancing the performance of the road stretch along MDR82.

Condition of the Road after 7 years in 2011 (With Geotextile)

Condition of the Road after 7 years in 2011 (Without Geotextile)

Courtesy: Reliance Industries Ltd

39

CASE STUDY 2: USE OF GEOTEXTILES AS SEPARATOR AT GADIMOGA

Client: M/S Reliance industries Ltd
Consultant: M/S L&T Ramboll
Site Location: Village Gadimoga located about 25 Km from Kakinada, AP
Completion Date: April 2007
Products used: Woven Slit Film Geotextiles
Reliance industries is developing onshore terminal for KG D-6 field development near the
village Gadimoga located in state of Andhra Pradesh.
As a part of the development for KG D6, RIL has constructed internal haul roads on the
existing ground conditions having soil with very low CBR value
RIL and consultant L&T Ramboll had proposed to use Tape Woven Geotextiles for the
application of reinforcement and separator between Granular sub-base and sub-grade.
The total quantity used in the project was 212660 m2.
A schematic sketch of the roads using the woven geotextiles is shown below:

Cross-section of the road with Geotextiles

Design details for the roads

Courtesy: Techfab (India) Industries Ltd

40

CASE STUDY 3: USING OF GEOTEXTILE IN ICHALKARANJI

Contractor: Ichalkaranji Municipality
This was one of the first projects where geotextiles were used in India. The Geotextiles
were used in 1990, 21 years from now. The problem was deterioration of road
frequently.

Laying of Geotextiles in 1990

Road without geotextiles

Road with geotextiles

41

Woven geotextiles were used and the problem was reduced to a great extent.
To check the efficacy of geotextiles after several years, Geotextiles were excavated after
10 years. The test results showed that strength of geotextiles have not changed
significantly in the machine direction, proving that Geotextile can be a long time solution
to the problems of the roads.

Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates pvt ltd

42

CASE STUDY 4: WOVEN GEOTEXTILES FOR MAKING PAVED ROADS

AT KOPT, WEST BENGAL
BENEFITS:

Paved roads are the ones which carry heavy

vehicular movement. At dockyard a typical load would be

movement of heavy containers. Also the bottom most is a
weak base of sub soil. Woven Geotextile improvise the
subgrade and strengthen the same. Base reinforcement and
bearing capacity is improved. Reduction in thickness of the
granular layer can also be done. Use of Woven Geotextiles prevents aggregate
penetration and mud pumping.
INSTALLATION: Woven Geotextile was laid on the weak sub
soil, after clearing and leveling the same. Laying of rolls was
done manually overlapping each other, which was then stitched
with nylon threads. Post this more soil is laid and layered with
a road roller. Water is sprinkled; soil settles down and then
starts the laying of paver tiles. This is a process driven simple
installation.
Sr. No.
1
2
3
4

Parameter

Results

Grab Tensile in LBS (ASTM

D:4632-91)

250- Warp

Elongation in % (ASTM D:463291)

15- WARP

Bursting Strength in P.Si (ASTM

D:3786-87)

450

Trapezoidal Tear Strength in LBS

(ASTM D:4533-91)

90- WARP

250 -Weft
15- WEFT

90- WEFT

Index Puncture Resistance in LBS

100
(ASTM D:4833-91)
6
AOS in mm (ASTM D: 4751: 95) *
0.425
Water Permeability in Gal/SF/min
7
4
(ASTM D: 4491) *
8
UV Resistance in % per 500Hrs
70
*: Values are Maximum Average Roll Values. These are typical values at the time of
production. Handling and transportation may change these values.
5

Courtesy: Shri Ambica Polymer Private ltd

43

CASE STUDY 5: USE OF HIGH STRENGTH GEOTEXTILE FOR

GROUND IMPROVEMENT
Contractor: Simplex Infrastructure
Application of geotextiles as a separator cum drainage medium:
A lagoon 210 m x 130 m was made by construction of earthen bunds of height 3.6 m
on marshy land having very soft marine clay deposit of 4.0 to 8.0 m thickness.
Sand drains of 250 mm were used to improve ground improvement.
Geotextiles have been used to prevent the ingress of murrum bund into sand blanket.

Layout pattern of sand drain

Fabric Orientation in Bund

Year of laying: 1997

Feedback: Geotextiles has been used as separator as ground improvement work at the lagoon site,
since then it is still it is serving its function.
Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt. Ltd

44

CASE STUDY 6: GEOTEXTILES FOR PREVENTION OF CRACKS IN

ROADS IN TATA POWERS CO.
On permanent road structures we often see cracks generated and getting converted into
Ruts. The main causes for development of the cracks are; these road structures are
subjected to varying loads from the vehicles running over them as well as extreme
weather conditions have severe effects on the stability of the roads.

Conventional Method For Repair

Generally these roads are resurfaced with a fresh
coat of Bitumen. But the cracks start appearing again
on the resurfaced roads. This is due to reflection of
the cracks already formed on the earlier layer of
bitumen and this phenomenon is known as reflective
surface cracking.

Most Preferred Solution Globally

The

most

preferred

method

to

delay

the

crack

formation on to new surface coat is to reinforce this

layer by introducing a Polypropylene Non Woven
Geotextile layer just beneath it (DBM). This layer does
two

main

functions;

waterproofing

or

subsurface

drainage and reinforcement. This Geotextile layer acts

as a fluid barrier when impregnated with Bitumen from one side; also it drains the
surface moisture in lateral direction protecting the underlying layers. Secondly it acts as
a stress relieving layer and prevents the stresses developed in underlying layer to reflect
in new layer. Thus the useful life of the new layer is extended exponentially.

Why PP Non-Woven Geotextiles

The non-woven paving fabric is manufactured from high quality polypropylene fibres,
with heat treatment on one side to form a strong, flexible and dimensionally stable
fabric structure with optimum bitumen retention capacity. Polypropylene is one of the

45

most

durable

polymers

with

excellent

resistance

to

both

acidic

and

alkaline

environments. The affinity of Polypropylene for liquid asphalt ensures an excellent bond
between the fabric and the asphalt tack coat. High melting point of PP results in
withstanding high temperatures of bituminous mixes.

Introduction: A project was undertaken at Tata Power in 2007. The problem was heavy
rutting and appearance of cracked surface frequently.

Steps of Laying:
Basic preparations like cleaning with high pressure air,
filling of cracks and pot holes at the site were carried out.
A tack coat of bitumen was then applied the cleaned
surface of the road with the help of sprayers.

The fabric was then carefully laid on the tack coat with
the heat sealed side of the fabric facing the tack coat. It
was ensured that there are no wrinkles and folds on the
fabric to avoid formation of air pockets. Brooming of the
fabric was done to ensure complete removal of wrinkles.
After laying pegging was done to avoid wrinkle formation
during later operations.

A layer of DBM (dense bituminous macadam) was then

placed over the fabric. It was then compacted using road
rollers. A layer of BC (bituminous concrete) was then
placed over DBM and compacted. Traffic movement was
then allowed on the road.
Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt ltd

46

6. JUTE TEXTILE

47

48

6. JUTE GEOTEXTILE
Jute Geotextile is a natural geosynthetics made out of jute-fibers. Jute is a low cost,
renewable, biodegradable and eco-friendly natural product. Jute was tried long back as
field

experiment

before

the

concept

of

geosynthetics was thought of, Jute was applied

in a road at Dundee in Scotland in 1920,on
Strand Road at Kolkata, India in 1934 by
Bengal PWD and in a road in Mynamar during
World War II was reportedly successful. Use of
Jute

geotextile

for

improvement

of

the

performance of various geotechnical structures

had been extensively studied, jute geotextile impart strength to the soil by performing
three basic functions like separation, filtration and drainage. An in depth research
carried out in this field has shown that Jute Geo-textile if properly treated with
appropriate chemicals can successfully protect the roads and embankments against
erosions and can also guarantee a desired durability.
Jute geotextile is having some of the advantages over synthetic geotextiles such as it is
much cheaper than synthetic fibre, It is easy to blend with other natural material and
synthetic fibres, it is environmental friendly, design biodegradable, hydrophobic, anionic
and easily available material. Initially it has got the high strength and non-hazardous
properties. It is also a renewable source of energy as natural biomass.
Applications of Jute Geotextile:

Protection of all kinds of earth-slopes

Stabilization of embankments of roads & railways

Control of erosion of banks of rivers & waterways

Strengthening of roads, including haul roads

Control of settlement in roads & railway tracks

Stabilization of all kinds of spoil heaps, PFA

As anti-pollutant cover over solid wastes

For quick development of greeneries, lawns

Consolidation of soft soil

Construction of concealed drains in hill roads

As facilitator of vegetation-growth in arid & semi-arid zones

49

Jute Geotextiles in Roads

Jute Geotextiles as Separator to Improve Pavement Performance
The performance of pavements constructed on soft
soils can be improved using jute geotextiles. Jute
fabric

when

used

as

separator

prevents

the

penetration of subgrade material into voids of

granular

base

course.

The

permeability

characteristic of the fabric also aids in faster

dissipation of pore pressures and ensures better drainage which results in better long
term performance of the pavement. Provision of fabric enables subgrade develops its full
bearing capacity and thus controls rutting.
Jute Geotextile for Drainage and Filtration
To

arrest

the

sinking

of

road

pavement,

systematic network of roadside trench drains and

cross trench drains are constructed using nonwoven jute geotextiles. The trench drains are made
of

rubbles

encapsulated

in

non-woven

jute

geotextiles to stop the finer particle entering into

the

voids

of

encapsulated

rubbles,

thereby

preventing clogging the trench drains.

50

7. CASE STUDIES OF JUTE GEOTEXTILES IN ROADS

Case Study 1: Construction of Highway Embankment on Soft Marine soil
at Kakinada Port, India
Case study 2: Widening of Munshirhat- Rajpur Road, India

51

52

7. CASE STUDIES ON USAGE OF JUTE GEOTEXTILES IN

ROADS
Case study 1: Construction of Highway Embankment on Soft
Marine soil at Kakinada Port, India

1. Leveling in Progress

2. Laying of Jute Geotextile

3. Condition of road after seven years of

construction

53

Case study 2: Widening of Munshirhat- Rajpur Road, India

1. Jute

Geotextile

is

laid

on

the

subgrade

2. Consolidation of brick metal laid

over JGT on widened portion.

3. Finished road after widening

54

8. GEOTEXTILES IN EROSION CONTROL

55

56

8. GEOTEXTILES IN EROSION CONTROL

Geotextiles are the most widely used Geosynthetics
products and find application in many infrastructure
projects. For river bank protection, the major function
of geotextiles is filtration.
WHAT IS GEOTEXTILE FILTER?
A Geotextile placed in contact with soil, allows water seeping from the soil to pass
through while preventing any movement of soil particles (with the exception of a very
small amount of the fine particles located near the filter).
CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS VIS--VIS MODERN
GEOTEXTILES PROTECTION
Conventional methods to tackle the problem of Soil
Erosion includes construction of flexible structures
such as rip-rap or heavy armor stones, concrete
blocks, articulated concrete mattresses to break up
the water forces. To prevent washing away of the

Conventional
Method

underlying soil, layers of granular materials (graded filters) are placed between
underlying soil and rip-rap. A typical graded filter consists of successive layers of
sand, gravel and stones, the particle size of which are calculated. At times, minimum
four layers of different materials may be required in conventional methods
Shortcomings
When rip-rap revetment is used to dissipate the hydraulic forces, turbulence occur within
the interstices of the erosion control structure resulting in erosion of the base soil
through the pores in the facing.
Modern Geotextile Filters
Geotextiles are frequently used as replacement for
grades, the advantages associated are

Comparable performance,
Improved economy,
Consistent properties and ease of placement.
Reduction in number of granular layers
Lower overall cost & faster construction

57

Geotextile Protection

58

9. CASE STUDIES: GEOTEXTILES IN EROSION CONTROL

Case Study 1 - Geotextiles for Swan River Embankment Protection, Una, HP
Case study 2 - Geotextiles and Geobags For Churni River Embankment
Protection, West Bengal
Case Study 3 - Geotextile Reinforced Embankment for Height Raising of Jarosite
Pond at Zinc Smelter, Debary, Udaipur
Case Study 4: Erosion control Measures for the Bhagirathi River

59

60

9. CASE STUDIES - GEOTEXTILES IN EROSION CONTROL

Case Study 1 - Geotextiles for Swan River Embankment
Protection, Una, HP
Swan River Project

51km River Embankment Project to prevent flood

Year of Laying- 2009
Two phases, 1st phase of 17km is complete,
Imported Geotextiles used in 1st phase,
2nd phase Repol PP based Needle Punched Non
Woven Geotextiles specified,
Repol PP based Needle Punched Geotextile
confirms
the
specifications laid
down
by
authorities.
Domestic product certified by IIT Delhi
131000 Sq. Mtr. Geotextiles used.

Process Of Construction Of Embankment

Base embankment is compacted

A layer of 310GSM, 2.5mm Thick PP Needle
Punched Non Woven Geotextile is laid
Gabions filled with Boulders are placed over the Geotextile

Function of PP Needle Punched Non Woven Geotextile

Geotextile functions as a filter,

Prevents soil from embankment from being washed away,
Reduced the damage to the base embankment considerably
Extends life of embankment

Advantages of geotextile system v/s. Conventional riprap

Reduction in Granular layers

Considerable saving of construction time
Longer life of the embankment even after repeated floods.

Advantages of Polypropylene Non Wovens

Polypropylene is one of the most durable polymers

Excellent resistance to both acidic and alkaline environments

61

Failure of Conventional Grade Filters

Construction of Embankment with PP Needle Punched Non Woven Geotextile

62

Laying of Geotextiles

Laying of Gabions over Geotextile (Single Rip-rap layer)

63

Laying of Gabions over Geotextile

Final Embankment with rip-rap and geotextiles

64

SPECIFICATIONS OF THE PP NON WOVEN GEOTEXTILE

The general specifications of the Polypropylene Non Woven Geotextile required
in project were as follows.
Sr

Test

Standard

Unit

Specification

Weight (GSM)

ASTM D 5261

GSM

> 275

Thickness

ASTM D 5199

mm

> 2.5

Pore Size

ASTM D 4751

mm

0.15 to 0.20

Water Permeability

BS 6906/3

Ltr/Sqm/s 150 to 160

CBR Puncture Strength

ASTM D 4833

> 3850

Wide Width Tensile Strength

ASTM D 4595

kN/m

> 17.5

Grab Tensile Strength

ASTM D 4632

> 1100

Elongation at break

ASTM D 4632

< 50

Cone Drop

BS 6906/6

mm

< 15

ASTM D 4533

< 450

10 Trapezoidal Tear Resistance

65

Geotextiles Supplier: Techfab (India) Industries Ltd

Compiled by: Reliance Industries Ltd
66

STUDY 2 - Geotextiles and Geobags For Churni River Embankment

Protection, West Bengal

67

PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENT

Project started in 2009 and was completed in Jan 2010.

Base embankment was compacted

A trench 2 x 4 was made at the top and bottom of the embankment

A thick layer of Geotextile as Filter Fabric was laid.

To secure the geotextile, the trench was filled with boulders placed in a metal gabion.

68

The embankment was protected with two layers of bricks

(as they were readily available)

Two layers of 6500 sand filled, PP geobags were placed at edge of the river to take
care of

the soil erosion.

Function of Geotextiles and PP Non Woven Bags

Geotextiles function as a filter.
Geotextiles prevent soil from embankment from being washed away,
PP Geo-bags provide reinforcement to the edge of the embankment
Advantages of Geotextile system v/s. Conventional riprap
Reduction in Granular layers
Considerable saving of construction time
Longer life of the embankment even after repeated floods.

Compiled by: Reliance Industries Ltd.

69

Case Study 3 - Geotextile Reinforced Embankment for Height

Raising of Jarosite Pond at Zinc Smelter, Debary, Udaipur
Name of the Client
Year
Project Details

: Hindustan Zinc Limited

: 2010
:

The client intended to raise the height of the existing embankment to increase the
capacity of the jarosite pond. The height of the embankment varied from 6.0 m and
14.0m.

To minimize the foot print area of the embankment and the quantity of the embankment
fill, reinforced embankment slope was proposed by using Polyester Woven Geotextile as
reinforcement.
Use of woven geotextile to reinforce the steep embankment slopes was found to be a
technically viable and economical option.

After Construction of Reinforced

During Construction of Reinforced

Embankment Slope

Embankment Slope

Courtesy: Garware Wall Ropes Ltd.

70

Case Study 4: Erosion control Measures For the Bhagirathi river

Material: 240 GSM based on PPMF (polypropylene multifilament)
Department: Nadia Irrigation Division, West Bengal
Contractor: Jashjit Mukherjee

Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt Ltd.

71

72

10. POLYMER GABIONS IN EROSION CONTROL

73

74

10. POLYMER GABIONS IN EROSION CONTROL

1 Introduction
Coastal areas are prone to erosion due to continuous
impact of waves and tides. The waves slowly erode the
natural coast and over a period can cause danger to the
structures near shore. One of the most cost effective
techniques for the coastal area protection is the usage of
Rope or Polymer Gabions.

2 What is Rope or Polymer Gabions?

Polymer

Gabions

are

3-Dimensional

flexible

box

like

structures fabricated from polymer ropes and usually filled

with stone and used for structural purposes such as retaining
walls, revetments, slope protection, and similar applications.
3 Modern Rope Gabion Vis--Vis Conventional Steel Gabion
Polymer Gabion made from PP has following advantages over steel Gabions:

Excellent flexibility: The inherent flexibility of the rope and the continuous
integral construction imparts excellent flexibility to the gabion, allowing it to
adapt itself to uneven surface profiles and to accommodate significant amounts
of differential settlements and movements while retaining structural integrity and
continuity.

High Resistance to corrosion: PP is highly resistant to the chemical and

biological environments normally encountered in most applications. Hence PP
gabions do not corrode even in aggressive marine environments.

High tensile strength: The PP rope used to produce gabions, has very high
tensile strength

Ease of Installation: Supplied in ready to fill collapsed form.

75

76

11. CASE STUDY: POLYMER GABION FOR EROSION CONTROL

Case Study 1: Polymer Gabions for Tithal Beach- Swami Narayan Temple,
Daman
Case Study 2: Polymer Gabions for erosion control- Mahisagar RiverVadodara

77

78

11. Case Study on polymer gabions for erosion control

Case Study 1: Polymer Gabions for Tithal Beach- Swami Narayan
Temple, Daman

Tithal beach (north of Daman) is known for its

prominent Swaminarayan and Saibaba Temple.
Over the years the beach started getting eroded
due to waves and it was estimated that within 57 years the beach up to the temple would get
eroded and causing damage to the temple
complex.
Site location

Usage of PP rope gabions was suggested by

CWPRS, Pune. 20000 gabions were used to protect the beach in 2001-02. The
completed sea wall is as shown in the figures below.

Completed Polymer ( PP) Gabion sea wall

GABION INSTALLATION:
Generally 6 steps are involved during the installation of PP Gabions:
(1) Preparing and compacting bed and laying of Geo-textiles as filter fabric.
(2) Laying of cushion layer of sand/ murrom
(3) Metal frame placement

79

(4) Tying of PP Gabions with Metal frame.

(5) Filling PP Gabions with Stones / boulders
(6) Removal of Metal frame, and closing PP Gabions once it is filled with boulders.

Compiled by: Reliance Industries Ltd

80

Case Study 2 : Polymer Gabions for erosion

control- Mahisagar River- Vadodara

Owner: Irrigation Department, Vadodara Circle, Vadodara,

Gujarat
Contractor: M/s Rajkamal Builders, Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Site Location: At Mahisagar River, near Sindhrot village,

Vadodara

Completion Date: 30th June 2008

Product used:

Copper & Polymer Gabion

Description of the Project:

Irrigation Department proposed the construction of a weir
across the Mahisagar River to ensure a perennial source of
water on the upstream side and to facilitate recharging of the
ground water table in the surrounding areas. Total height of
the weir is 9.0 meters from the river bed level. The
department was interested in an alternative to the conventional RCC wing walls of the
weir to make the project more economical and to reduce the completion time.

The Solution:
The predominantly sandy materials of the bank are prone to erosion due to the water
currents. The Design Circle of the Irrigation department finalized a solution wherein
copper and polymer gabions underlain by a geotextiles was used to protect the
embankment from erosion by river water currents. Gabions fabricated from copper &
polymer ropes were used in view of their excellent flexibility and resistance to corrosion
and the ease and speed of construction, which made it possible to complete the work in
time.
Courtesy: Techfab India Industries Ltd.

81

82

12. GEOBAGS AND GEOTUBES FOR EROSION CONTROL

83

84

12. GEO-BAGS and GEO-Tubes for Erosion Control

1. What are Geo-Bags?
The Geotextile bags functions essentially like Geo-tubes but are comparatively smaller in
size, and used for erosion control of rivers as well as construction of breakwaters and
bunds.

Typical Geobag

Geobags for erosion control

2. Typical Installations structures of Geobags

Geobags for erosion control

Geobags as channel lining for erosion control

85

3 What are Geotubes?

Geotubes are geotextile containment structures that are used to encapsulate soil
to enable their use as flexible, erosion resistant mass-gravity structures in
hydraulic and marine applications including:

Construction of coastline structures for shoreline protection, reclamation,

break-water, Groyens, Dikes and Jetties.
Construction of river structures such as Dikes, Launching Aprons, Spurs etc.

Geotubes

*Courtesy: Techfab (India) Industries Ltd

Material of manufacture for Geotubes

The Specially Engineered Textile is composed of high tenacity 100%
polypropylene/polyester yarns that are woven into a stable network such that the
yarns retain their relative position. As geotextile material needs to be inert to
biological degradation and resistant to naturally encountered chemicals, alkalis
and acids polypropylene is generally preferred.

5 Modern Geo-Tubes protection Vis--Vis Conventional Steel Gabion

1. Geotubes containment tubes are easy to install, both onshore as well as
offshore below the surface of water.
2. As a flexible armoured structure, they offer minimal impact to the
environment
3. Provide a cost effective alternative to hard armor structures.
4. Chemically inert to alkaline and natural acids.

86

6 Typical Installation Structures

Different types of installation structure

Picture Courtesy: Techfab (India) Industries Ltd

7 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USAGE OF GEOTEXTILES TUBE*

TERMINOLOGY
Geotextile Tube - A large tube equal to or greater than 0.6 m in diameter, fabricated
from Specially Engineered Textile in lengths equal to or greater than 10 m. Geotextile
tubes used in coastal and riverine erosion control applications are most often filled
hydraulically with slurry of sand and water. The geotextile tube can also be filled by a
combination mechanical and hydraulic method.
Scour Apron - An apron of geotextile designed to protect the foundation of the main
geotextile tube from the undermining effects of scour. In coastal and river applications,
scour can be present at the base of the geotextile tube due to wave and current action.
Scour aprons may be on both sides of the main geotextile tube, or on only one side.
Scour aprons also reduce scour caused during the hydraulic filling process of the main
geotextile tube. Scour aprons are typically anchored by a small Anchor Tube filled with
sand at the water's edge or by sandbags placed in pockets sewn into the apron.
Injection Port - Also called as Fill Port Sleeve or Fill Port. Injection Ports are
sleeves sewn into the top of the geotextile tube into which the pump discharge pipe is
inserted. Injection Ports are typically 300 to 500 mm diameter and 0.9 to 2.0 m in
length. Fill Ports are spaced along the top of the tube to provide access to the
contractor. Spacing is usually no closer than 5.0 m to accommodate sand slurry but can
* Courtesy: Techfab (India) Industries Ltd

87

be as far apart as 20 m for some viscous fill materials. After pumping, all Fill Ports are to
be closed in accordance with manufactures recommendation.

7.1

SITE PREPARATION
A.

Areas in which geotextile tubes are to be placed shall be constructed to the

lines and grades shown on the Drawings. All obstructions, which could
damage the geotextile tubes, such as roots and projecting stones, shall be
removed.

B.

Immediately prior to placing the scour aprons and geotextile tubes, the
prepared area shall be inspected by the ENGINEER and no aprons or
geotextile tubes shall be placed thereon, until the area has been approved
by the ENGINEER.

7.2

PLACEMENT OF SCOUR APRON AND SACRIFICIAL GEOTEXTILE LAYER

Place scour apron in accordance with the lines, grades and dimensions shown on
the drawings. The ends of each apron shall be overlapped a minimum of 2.0 m.

7.3

PLACEMENT OF GEOTEXTILE TUBE

7.4

A.

Place geotextile tube within the limits shown on the Drawings.

B.

No portion of the geotextile tube shall be filled until the entire tube segment
has been fully anchored to the foundation along the correct alignment.
Means of assuring that the geotextile tubes are properly aligned and
anchored shall be incorporated into the placement methodology presented in
the Plan of Construction.

C.

Before injection of fill material, adjacent geotextile tube shall be overlapped

at end joints or butted together so that there are no gaps between the
tubes, unless shown otherwise in the Plan of Construction. Beneath the
tubes, the ends of each Scour Apron shall be sewn together or overlapped a
minimum of 2.0 m.

INJECTION OF FILL MATERIAL

A.

Following the apron and geotextile tube placement, filling with materials
from a designated area shall be accomplished in accordance with the
approved Plan of Construction. The discharge line of the dredge shall be
fitted with a valve to allow control of the rate of filling. The valve system
shall be fitted with an internal mechanism such as a gate, butterfly valve,
ball valve or pinch valve, to allow the contractor to regulate the discharge
into the geotextile tube. Any excess discharge shall be directed away from
the tube into a designated area.
1.

Typically, the dredge discharge pipe should be limited to 250mm

88

diameter or smaller. Dredge discharge pipes below 150mm diameter

may be too small to adequately fill the geotextile tube to the proper
height. Care should be taken not to overfill or over pressurize the
anchor tube that is incorporated into the Scour Apron.
2.

The dredge discharge pipe shall be free of protrusions that could tear
the fill port. The dredge discharge pipe shall be supported above the
fill port in a manner, which reduces stress on the fill port seams.
Excessive movement of the dredge discharge pipe during filling can
result in damage to the fill port. (The geotextile tube manufacture
should be consulted as to the best method to affix the dredge
discharge pipe to the fill port).

3.

Upon filling the geotextile tube, the fill port sleeves shall be closed and
attached to the main geotextile tube in a manner sufficient to prevent
movement of the sleeve by subsequent wave action or other
disturbances. (The geotextile tube manufacturer should be consulted
as to the best method to close and secure the fill port sleeve).

B.

The geotextile tube shall be completely filled to its design height as

determined by the geotextile tube manufacturer. The desired height shall be
0.5 x Theoretical Diameter of the geotextile tube as specified by the
project engineer. For filling of the Geotextile tubes to the desired height
more than one operation may be required to be carried out successively.

C.

Once the geotextile tubes have been properly installed the area is ready to
be backfilled to the lines and grade as outlined on the Plan of Construction.
If the geotextile tubes are not to be externally backfilled, the area shall be
left in a clean and properly graded manner.

89

90

13. CASE STUDY GEOTUBES IN EROSION CONTROL

Case Study -1: Shoreline and restoration of beach at Dahanu in Maharashtra

Case Study -2: Geotextile tube sea wall at Uppada, Andhra Pradesh
Case Study -3: Reclamation Work using Geotextile Containers at Port Terminal,
Hazira

91

92

13. CASE STUDIES -GEOTUBES IN EROSION CONTROL

Case Study -1: Shoreline and restoration of beach at Dahanu in
Maharashtra
Client: Maharashtra Coastal Department

Contractor: Gohel & company

Installation Year: 2011

Product used: Geo-Tube, 20m in length

Overview
Dahanu is located on the western coast of India, facing
Arabian Sea on the border of Maharashtra and Gujrat. The
1500m long beach is continuously eroding due to abrasive
action of the sea waves. The increasing erosion of the beach
has also endangered the adjoining structures and habitation
near this location.

The conventional methods for restoration of the beach and

erosion control have been tried and found ineffective, The
Geo-tubes made of engineered high strength woven fabric,
have been thought of as an effective solution to the problem
due to their capability of controlling the shore erosion caused
by strong wave action on the one hand and facilitating the
natural deposition of sand layer behind them in longer term.
The geotextile tubes that have been proven worldwide as an
effective alternative to conventional methods of shore
protection, erosion control, and reclamation was proposed as a
solution to the problem here.
The schematic diagram of the proposed solution is shown here. The system has three
components
a) Main tube (3.0m theoretical dia.)
b) Anchor tube (1.0m theoretical dia.) and.
c) Scour Apron made of high strength woven geotextile to prevent scouring of the base.

93

The above system performs as erosion control mechanism for protection of shoreline
and deposition of natural sand behind it. On the present project site the problem was
that of continuous erosion of shoreline due to wave action.
To solve the problem, a Groyne made of Geo-tube was proposed (3.0m theoretical
diameter) An anchor tube of 1.0m theoretical diameter was installed in front of this as
an anchor toe.
Installation:
1. Submersible slurry pumps were deployed to fill the Geo-tubes. A sand slurry mix
of 70% water and 30% sand was pumped through 10 BHP pumps.
2. This mix was pumped from the excavated pits made specifically to pump the
sand slurry. The slurry was pumped into the Tech-tubes through the inlet ports
provided on top of the tubes. The pumping operation was conducted in stages
and planned according to the tides.
3. After each filling operation the Tech-tubes are left for expulsion of water from
fabric and consolidation of sand.

Installation of Geotubes

Geotextile
tube

Anchor
Tube

Scour Apron

Scour Apron and Anchor Tube: Technical Specifications

Scour apron is required to be provided beneath the Geotextile tubes to control the
souring of the base. The Scour Apron shall be sewn with ANCHOR TUBE.

94

Cover layer
specifications

Geotextile

for

Protection

as

sacrificial

layer:

Technical

A non woven needle-punched UV stabilized staple fiber geotextile shall be used as

sacrificial layer over the Geotextile tube. The geotextile provided shall be made of 100%
Polypropylene UV stabilized yarn. The minimum weight to be used shall be 500
Gms/sqm.

Courtesy: TechFab (India) Industries Ltd.

95

Case Study -2: Geotextile tube sea wall at Uppada, Andhra

Pradesh
Name of the Client: Irrigation & CAD Department, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh
Year

: 2008 to 2011

Project Details

Coastal area of Uppada village in East Godavari district and the nearby villages namely
Subbammapeta and Ameenabada are subjected to severe sea erosion for the past
several years.
A Geotextile tube sea wall was proposed to be built along the coast line to prevent the
erosion. The materials identified for the construction includes geotextile tubes, geotextile
bags and woven geotextile and polymer rope gabions. Geotextile tubes made of
polypropylene woven geotextile, each 20m length and 3m diameter has been used as
the core of the sea wall.

The performance of geotextile tube sea wall with polymer rope gabions as armour layer
is well appreciated after the recent cyclones.

As the dredged sand or locally available soils are used as fill material, geotextile tubes
are cost effective. Compared to conventional structures, geotextile tube structures are
20 to 40 % cost effective depending on the site conditions.

Typical cross-section of Geotextile Tube Sea Wall

completion

Geotextile Tube Sea Wall after

Courtesy: Garware Wall Ropes Ltd

96

Case Study -3 : Reclamation Work using Geotextile Containers at

Port Terminal, Hazira
Name of the Client : Adani Hazira Port Private Limited, Ahmedabad
Year

: 2011

Project Details

As a part of land reclamation work at the port terminal, slope of height 10m was
supposed to be protected against erosion by the waves. Hence to protect the reclaimed
land from getting eroded due to the harsh marine environment, geotextile containers
filled with local available sand is stacked one above the other to form the required slope.
Polymer rope gabions filled with stones was provided as launching apron to prevent
scouring of the toe.

Reclamation using Geotextile Containers

Courtesy: Garware Wall Ropes Ltd

97

98

14. A FEW GEOSYNTHTETICS PRODUCTS

GEOGRIDS

PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS

99

100

15. GEOGRIDS
Applications of geogrids:
Following are the major applications of Geogrids:
1. Segmental Retaining Walls
2. Landslide Repair
3. Panel Faced Retaining Walls
4. Reinforced Foundations
5. Reinforced Steep Slopes
6. Track Bed Stabilization
7. Reinforced Embankments over Soft Soil
8. Landfill Embankment
9. Reinforcement of disjointed rock sections
10. Reinforcement in Paved/ Unpaved roads.

101

DESIGN METHODOLOGY*
The use of naturally available soil bundled with PET geogrid and wall fascia can be used
to replace the traditional retaining wall construction in areas of limited spaces. The
implementation of such Reinforced soil walls here after referred as RS walls prove to be
economical, efficient and esthetic with reduced times of construction. The current
practice of design methodology determines the geometry and PET geogrid requirements
to check internal and external failure using limit equilibrium methods of analysis. In
external stability evaluations for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall (MSEW) structures
PET geogrid reinforced sections is treated as composite homogenous soil mass and the
stability is evaluated according to conventional failure modes for gravity type wall
systems. Differences in the present practice exist for internal stability evaluation which
determines the PET geogrid required, principally in the development of internal lateral
stress and the assumption as to the location of the most critical failure surface. Internal
stability is treated as a response of discrete elements in a soil mass. This suggests that
deformations are controlled by PET geogrid rather than total mass, which appears
inconsistent given the much greater volume of soil in such structures. Therefore
deformation analyses are not included in current methods. The design approach should
consist of following,
A) Working stress analysis
B) Limit equilibrium analysis
Analyses of MSEW Structures: An analysis of working stresses consists of,
1.

Selection of PET geogrid location and a check that stresses in the stabilized soil
mass are compatible with the properties of the soil and inclusions.

2.

Evaluation of local stability at the level of each PET geogrid and prediction of
progressive failure.

Limit Equilibrium Analysis: A limit equilibrium analysis consists of a check of the

overall stability of the structure. The types of stability that must be considered are
external, internal, and combined:
1.

External stability involves the overall stability of the stabilized soil mass considered
as a whole and is evaluated using slip surfaces outside the stabilized soil mass.

* Courtesy: Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt Ltd

102

2.

Internal stability analysis consists of evaluating potential slip surfaces within the
reinforced soil mass.

3.

In some cases, the critical slip surface is partially outside and partially inside the
stabilized soil mass and a combined external/ internal stability analysis may be
required.

Design Requirement: Reinforced soil walls are designed to provide stability against
following conditions,
1.

External stability:- Geometrical dimensions are determined

2.

Internal stability:- Determine vertical spacing and strength of the PET geogrid

3.

Facing Stability:- Based on type of connection, fascia stability need to be

checked.

Forces acting on the reinforced soil wall

The forces acting on the reinforced soil wall are as depicted in the Figure and considering
the stresses the stability checks that are carried are
1. External Stability:
A) Sliding Stability:
1. Earth pressure due to retained soil drive the wall in forward direction and resistance is
offered by the friction developed along the base of the wall which depends on self weight
of composite reinforced soil mass.
2. Resistance to sliding varies with following factors

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a) Density of backfill,
b) Base length of PET geogrid
c) Angle of internal friction, and cohesion, c values of foundation soil
d) Angle of internal friction, of backfill.

Types of failure
Sliding force varies with following parameters
a. Wall height, h
b. Surcharge Loading or sloping surcharge (and its angle of steepness)
c. of retained fill
B) Overturning stability
a. Wall is subjected to over turning force due to earth pressure , which can be
calculated as product of destabilizing force and its height from toe of wall
b. Resistance is provided by the self weight of reinforced soil mass, which is the
product of self weight and its height from toe of wall
c. Resistance to overturning depends on
i. Geometry of wall
ii. Density of backfill material
C) Overturning force depends on,
a. Density of retained fill material
b. - value of retained fill soil

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c. Drainage conditions - If any water is present

d. Wall height
e. Back slope surcharge
D) Bearing capacity: - The load supporting capacity of foundation soil
a. Bearing capacity depends on the following parameters,
i. Width of wall
ii. Shear strength parameters of foundation soil i.e. c,
iii. Presence of ground water table
iv. Ground profile
2. Internal Stability:
A) For internal stability analysis reinforced soil mass is divided in two parts as
shown in Figure 3.

Active Zone Soil in this zone have tendency to move outward which causes
the failure

Resistance Zone : It is the stable zone behind the potential failure plane
B) To stabilize the active zone PET geogrids are placed in active zone and are
extended in to the

resisting zone which intersects the potential failure plane

Zone of Maximum Tension

105

It is very important to make the structure internally stable so that it acts as a composite
unit mass.
A) Tensile stresses are maximum in the PET geogrid at its intersection with potential
failure plan
B) This tensile stresses can

Pull the PET geogrid out of resisting zone (Pullout failure)

Can cause the failure of PET geogrid in tension (Tensile overstress)

Pullout resistance
o

Resistance to pullout is provided by the part of PET geogrid embedded in

the resisting zone.

With increase in embedded length resistance to pullout forces increase.

Resistance to tensile stresses

o

Increase the strength of PET geogrid.

Reduce vertical spacing (More number of PET geogrids).

106

16. CASE STUDIES ON GEOGRIDS

Case Study -1 Decongestion of National Highway 58 Uttar Pradesh
Case Study 2: RS Wall Construction | NH-8 Bhilad to Dahisar
Case Study 3: Strengthening & Widening of Road at Palanpur Swaroopgunj Package on NH-14

107

108

16. CASE STUDIES ON GEOGRIDS

Case Study -1 Decongestion of National Highway 58 Uttar
Pradesh
Owner: National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)
Contractor Name: Gayatri Projects Ltd.
Project Size: 11,700 sqm
Max. Height of Wall: 7.63 m
Project Type: Construction of Reinforced Soil Wall using Geogrid as soil
reinforcement
Location: Meerut- Muzzaffarnagar (NH 58 in the state of Uttar Pradesh)
System Offered: Geogrid with Panel Fascia
Consultant: EGIS BCEOM International Ltd.
Completion Year: 2010

Project Brief
The National Highway connecting Meerut to Muzzaffarnagar needed a site solution that
would not only be aesthetically pleasing, technically sound but would also create a
seamless travel at all the Meerut National Highway intersections.

Challenge
The biggest hurdle lay in the designing of the walls
involved, as it was identified that the side walls were
making an acute corner with the abutment and
sufficient space was not available to place the
Geogrid. Compaction of soil in the acute corner
presented several difficulties. The design and detailing
of the soil reinforcement for the acute angle corners
was a challenge. This required innovative and lateral
thought process.

Geogrid Solution
The facing comprised of Panel fascia - T-shaped panel wall which is an extremely stable
system and ideal for tall reinforced soil walls. While constructing a reinforced soil wall

109

the geogrid is laid perpendicular to the fascia, which was not possible here due to the
space constraint caused by the acute corner. Thus the geogrid was laid parallel to the
abutment wall and at a distance from the panel. Special bidirectional loops for this
purpose were used and as an additional safety measure panels were anchored with the
abutment through steel strips. Since compaction in this narrow area was an important
task, Strata used coarse grained soil. The design of the walls were carried out using the
Federal Highway Administration National Highway Institute (FHWA-NHI) guidelines and
comprised checks for external, internal and global stability under static and seismic
conditions. The design calculations and construction drawings were proof-checked by
EGIS BCEOM International Ltd.
Post construction structural audit had been carried out by QC team suggests that the
performance of the structure has been impeccable.

Courtesy Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt Ltd.

110

Case Study 2: RS Wall Construction | NH-8 Bhilad to Dahisar

Client: National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)
Contractor: IRB Infrastructure Developers Ltd.
Project Size: 106,366 sqm
Max. Height: 11.5 m
Project type: Construction of Reinforced Soil Walls using Geogrid
Location: Surat Dahisar (NH-8 in the Gujarat section)
System Offered: Geogrid with Block Fascia
Design Consultant: STUP Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
Completion Year: 2011
Duration: 6 months

Project Brief:

The section of National Highway (NH-8), between Dahisar (suburb of Mumbai) and Surat
has been plagued with high-traffic density consisting of heavy vehicles. In order to ease
the traffic, the National Highway Authority of India decided to construct 16 new
structures over chain-age 300 to 375 and widen the road to six laning. Reinforced Soil
Walls were selected for their ease in construction in constrained spaces, cost benefits
and quality assurances. Usage of the Block wall system on the basis of its cost and a
time advantage, amongst other things was proposed.

Challenge:
The biggest challenge was time constraints.
Even though the casting of blocks started on
time, the erection of the structures was delayed
due to the prolonged and erratic monsoon
season in 2010. Thus the hurdle faced, was in
erecting all 16 structures before the next
monsoon season which gave the solution
provider only ten months to complete all the
structures.
Geogrid Solution:
Unique and advanced technology software (called Site Tracker) was custom built for
this project, which recorded the various reports and updates regarding the construction
of the structures. For smooth management and greater efficiency, the erection stages

111

were divided into three independent projects and two separate casting yards were
established.

The Block wall system has been used as they have a built-in slope, are self aligning and
are cast with an inter-locking system. The structures were designed using Federal
Highway Administration National Highway Institute (FHWA-NHI) guidelines and
comprised checks for external, internal and global stability under static and seismic
conditions. To make the structure look aesthetically pleasing corner blocks and
expansion joint blocks were incorporated by the design team.

Courtesy: Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt Ltd

112

Case Study 3 : Strengthening & Widening of Road at Palanpur Swaroopgunj Package on NH-14
Client: National Highway Authority of India
Contractor: L&T, ECC Division, Ahmedabad
Consultant: Aarvee Associates

Closure view of RS wall

Elevation of the road

Salient Features of the Reinforced Soil Walls

Wall Facing Area:

55,349 Sqm

Wall Height:

10m

Soil Reinforcement:

Knitted Geogrids & PVC coated polyester Geogrids

with Tensile Strength
of 40 to 250 KN/m

Facing:
Design Methodology:

Segmental Panel Fascia

BS 8006: 1995 (Static Condition)
FHWA-NHI-00-043 (Seismic Condition)

The Challenge:
Size of the panel was selected by the client, i.e. 1.25m x 0.6m. It has been decided to
use this panel with PET Geogrid with friction / tongue and groove connection. Designs
must be checked for the connection strength for this type of panel-Geogrid
arrangement,
The Solution:
Testing was done at IIT-Madras for the friction based connection for Geogrid-PET with
this panel type. Design has been checked and verified with consideration of test results

113

and ensured the tension in Geogrid is less than the available connection strength at
particular normal pressure.

Property/
Fill

Reinforced
Infill Soil

Isometric view of wall panel

Retained
Soil
Foundation
Soil

Cohesio
n (C)
KN/m2

Angle of
Internal
Friction () Degrees

Unit Weight
() KN/m3

35

20

35

20

30

18

The design of the walls was carried out using the BS 8006: 1995 for Static
Condition & FHWA-NHI-00-043 for Seismic Condition, which comprised checks
for external, internal and global stability under static and seismic conditions.
The project was successfully completed in November 2009.

Courtesy: TechFab (India) Industries Ltd.

114

17. PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS

The prefabricated vertical drain is a long flat tube of
woven or non-woven geotextile with a core inside.
Ground improvement with vertical drains has been
an accepted practice for improving soft clay deposits
and has been widely used over the 60 years. The
time

required

for

the

settlement

to

occur

is

considerably reduced as the length of the drainage

path through soil is reduced. The vertical drains are

PVD

required to have high permeability and sufficiently high drainage capacity so that pore
water escapes in horizontal direction towards the nearest drain. The water then flows
freely vertically along the drain to a drainage blanket placed on the soil surface or to a
highly permeable layer above or below the clay layer.

PVDs are generally installed vertically to the depth of 65m and are placed in triangular
or square configuration of 1 to 1.5m gap. Under excess hydrostatic pressure the water
travel horizontally along the inner core and come
out the soil.
Applications:

Land reclamation projects

Ports and harbour construction

Development of industrial sites.

Mitigation of liquefaction

Construction

of

highways,

railways,

airfields and dykes.

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CASE STUDY: Usage of Prefabricated vertical drains for Essar Pillet Plant,
Orissa.

Client: M/S Essar Limited, Essar Pillet Plant, Paradeep, Orrisa.

Installation
1. PVD Marking and positioning with RIG
2. PVD being inserted with RIG
3. PVD being cut after suitable length is inserted
4. Installed PVDs

Courtesy:
TechFab (India) Industries Ltd.

116

18. MISCELLANEOUS CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1: Doodh-ganga Canal Lining, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Case Study 2: Gabion Gravity Retaining Wall, Lanjigarh, Orissa
Case Study 3: Installation of Geomembrane and Geotextile over the side
slopes and bottom of the Solid waste facility at GACL, Bharuch, Gujarat
Case Study 4: A Flexi Check Dam Made Using Geocomposite for Efficient
Use of Water

117

118

18. MISCELLANEOUS CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1: Doodhganga Canal Lining, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Name of the Client: Doodhganga Canal Division
Year

: 2006 to 2012

A portion of the canal lined with concrete had failed completely leading to seepage
losses upto 30%.

Seepage from the canal was not controlled which has reflected in

water logging of adjoining creek and land areas.

To effectively prevent the seepage losses, geosynthetic lining using 1 mm thick HDPE
geomembrane was proposed. Nonwoven geotextile was used along with geomembrane
at the top and bottom to protect the geomembrane from puncturing. At the top, 75 mm
thick concrete cover of M10 grade was used to prevent damage and vandalism of liners
and for effective performance of the liner in the long run.

After installation of the geosynthetic liner, seepage from the canal was stopped
completely indicating the use of geosynthetic liner to effectively prevent the seepage of
water.

Installation of Liner

Canal after Lining

Courtesy: Garware Wall Ropes Ltd

119

Case Study 2: Gabion Gravity Retaining Wall, Lanjigarh, Orissa

Name of the Client: Vedanta Aluminium Limited
Year

: 2010

A 30.0 m high soil slope was to be retained to safeguard and protect the chimney and
peripheral road adjacent to the slope. For this purpose, gabion gravity retaining wall in
two tier configuration with sloping soil surcharge at the top was proposed. As gabion
structure is porous by nature, geotextile is used as filter material behind the wall to
prevent escape of soil particles.

Two Tier Gabion Gravity Retaining Wall

Courtesy: Garware Wall Ropes Ltd

120

Case Study 3: Installation of Geomembrane and Geotextile over

the side slopes and bottom of the Solid waste facility at GACL,
Bharuch, Gujarat
Material: Geomembrane, NW Geotextile
Year: 2005
Client: Gujarat Alkali Chemicals limited
Geomembranes with geotextiles as protective layer were used at Solid waste facility at
GACL. Following pictures depicts the laying of geotextiles and geomembranes.

Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt Ltd

121

CASE STUDY 4: A Flexi Check Dam Made Using Geocomposite for

Efficient Use of Water
Year: 2010

A flexible check dam can be inflated or deflated according to the water level for control
of flood or drought resulting in optimum use of water. In this innovative project, an
attempt has been made to design and develop rubber-textile composites, fabricating the
same into a flexible check dam and subsequent field evaluation for agricultural
application and easy management of water in watersheds. The work has been carried
out as a subproject under National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) of Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
Initially, a proto has been developed using the rubber-textile composite and evaluated.
Further, five such flexi check dams have been built and installed in Odhisa (India) for
field evaluation. The initial evaluation has shown that control of water flow and timely
storage of water by the rubber dam resulted in increased crop production by 60% in the
kharif (monsoon), and 45% in rabi (winter) seasons. The farmers have opted for
multiple cropping as well as better agricultural inputs because of availability of water
throughout the seasons.

The dam has been functioning well on the principle of inflation and deflation. The
hydrostatic pressure is within 2 kPa. Any eddy current and higher velocity in upstream
do not cause any damage to the flexi check dam. The broken bottles and heavyweight
debris flowing from the upstream over the dam do not cause any damage. In the current
year (2011), the dam is performing well and is functioning according to expectation.
Courtesy: Kusumgar Corporates Pvt Ltd

122

19. INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1: Indian Woven Geotextiles for road construction in new

sub-division development in New-Zealand
Case Study 2: Geotextiles in unpaved roads: A 35-year case history
Case study 3: Use of Geotextiles in Palm Islands, Dubai

123

124

19. INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1: Indian Woven Geotextiles for road construction in
new sub-division development in New-Zealand
A soft sub-grade covered with the appropriate grade woven geo-textile stabilizes the
ground by spreading applied loads over a wider foundation, reducing rut depths and
preventing

aggregate

contamination.

This reduces

maintenance

costs,

improves

roadway life and permits unrestricted flow of traffic.

Laying of Geotextiles

INSTALLATION: The sub-grade was properly compacted, depressions and holes were
filled and large stones, limbs and other debris were removed prior to placement to
prevent fabric damage from tearing or puncturing during stone placement. The woven
geotextiles was rolled out loosely, without wrinkles and folds, and placed in direct
contact with the soil. The geo-textile was covered with approximately 150 to 300 mm of
loosely placed GAP 40 mm aggregate prior to compaction. The aggregate was back
bladed into place to form a slight mount in the middle and to extend out beyond the
fence line. This was then rolled with a vibrating roller before putting 150 mm of concrete
surface layer on to it.

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The separation function of this economical high strength woven geo-textile prevented
the aggregate from becoming contaminated with the sub-grade soils below.
Sr.
No.
1
2

Parameter
Grab Tensile in LBS (ASTM D:4632-91)
Elongation in % (ASTM D:4632-91)

Bursting Strength in PSi (ASTM D:3786-87)

Trapezoidal Tear Strength in LBS (ASTM D:4533-91)

Result(lbf)
WARP

200

WEFT

200

WARP

15

WEFT

15
400

WARP

75

WEFT

75

Index Puncture Resistance in LBS (ASTM D:4833-91)

90

AOS in mm (ASTM D: 4751: 95) *

0.425

Water Permeability in Gal/SF/min (ASTM D: 4491) *

UV Resistance in % per 500Hrs

70

*: Values are Maximum Average Roll Values. These are typical values at the time of
production. Handling and transportation may change these values.

Courtesy: Shri Ambica Polymers Pvt Ltd.

126

Case Study 2: Geotextiles in unpaved roads: A 35-year case

history
By William M. Hawkins
Abstract
This article presents current information on geotextiles installed experimentally in an
unpaved road 35 years ago.
In 1972, geotextiles were largely untested, and the site was set up as an accelerated
field test to determine the comparative performances of several fabrics for use as a
geotextile. But because the site was still accessible 35 years later, it offered an
opportunity to review the ultimate potential lifetime of geotextiles in unpaved roads.
When the fabrics were exhumed in 2007, we learned that they had survived and
continued in service despite 2 factors that had worked against them:
1. The lack of adequate cover (in some cases, less than 6in. of stone) had adversely
affected the fabrics.
2. And, by current standards, an inadequate polymer stabilization package used when
these fabrics were produced.
The unusual opportunity to look at geotextiles this old in situ and the fact that some of
the fabrics survived and continued to perform under the adverse circumstances offers
important information. With current stabilizers, design, and installation procedures,
todays geotextiles perform even better and longer.
Background
The purpose of geotextile separation is to prevent 2 simultaneous mechanisms that tend
to occur in a roadway cross section over time

The first is that the stone base tends to penetrate into the subgrade soil, thereby
compromising its load-bearing capacity. The second is that fine-grained subgrade soil
tends to intrude into the voids of the stone base, thereby compromising the stone bases
drainage capacity. In both cases, when the base intermixes with fine-grained particles

127

from the subgrade soil, the stone base (or the lower portion of it) is no longer effective
for load bearing or drainage. The situation is heightened in areas of freeze/thaw and
wet/dry cycling. Environmental changes such as frost, infiltration, drainage, and
increased loading all adversely challenge the paved or unpaved road base.
It should be noted that many unpaved roads eventually become paved (usually with
asphalt) and, if the stone base is protected from the beginning against subgrade soil
contamination, the paved road design can be done with confidence.
In 1972, nonwoven fabrics were being used in Europe in road support applications on
soft soils and at construction sites. The results appeared to be positive. Recognizing this,
DuPont, an established nonwoven fabric producer, developed a program to produce a
geotextile for use in similar applications. As part of that program, several existing fabrics
were installed in unpaved road test sections for performance evaluations.
The purpose of the performance evaluations was to determine which fabrics would best
perform the required functions of reinforcement, stabilization, and/or separation.
Several materials were installed and evaluated in different geographic locations; the site
near Smyrna, Del., is still functioning and is one of the oldest known existing accessible
geotextile separation applications. In June 2007, this particular site was visited and
samples were exhumed. Reviewed in this article is information about the initial
installation and its current conditions, the field performance, and current status for these
test sections. Through evaluation of physical, mechanical and chemical properties, the
separation performance, survivability and durability properties of the geotextiles were
evaluated and compared.
The Smyrna site and the 1972 design approach
The source of most of the historical information in this section is the original test
evaluation report by Crane and Hutchins (1974) and discussions with its co-author, Dick
Hutchins (2007).
The Smyrna, Del., test section that was created used a farm road built over a sandy clay
soil with a load-bearing capacity of CBR (California Bearing Ratio) &cong; 1.0 when wet,
and a CBR &cong; 6.0 when dry. Unlike the other test sections constructed by DuPont at
the same time, the Smyrna site was completely controlled by the designers.
During the initial testing, the Smyrna road was not repaired.
The test focused on providing useful information on the performance of potential
geotextiles used beneath stone base courses, in order to sell them into the road
construction industry. A number of different commercially available fabrics were

128

available and used at the site. The Smyrna test used a 1000ft (310m) section of road
that was purposely under designed. The idea was to encourage or accelerate failure so
the test geotextiles could be evaluated quickly. Using 40-kN wheel loads above the lowload-bearing soil normally calls for a 15-in. (38-cm) gravel base. However, only 6in.
(15cm) of gravel base (40% of design) was actually used, according to Hutchins in
2007.
The tests were run in 2 stages:
1. A dry run, in which the loaded vehicle transverse while the road was dry and then
samples
2. A wet test, in which loaded vehicles were run after a heavy rain and then samples
were excavated and removed.
The site is in the area of a fill. There is slope of about 0.5% from north to south.

Geotextiles removed after 35 years

The sites climatic conditions can be generally characterized by noting that it is in FHWA
Region 1 and FHWA climatic zone I-A. This means that the site is located in an area with
high potential for moisture.
Normal road construction techniques were used for installation of the geotextiles. Heavy
construction equipment was used to make grade. Laborers spread the geotextiles by
unrolling the materials on the subgrade in advance of a dozer spreading base material.
In addition, a control section was installed where no fabric was placed under the 6-in.
(15-cm) gravel base.
A general description of the road would be a private road through a farmers field. The
number of passes on this road is low.
However, during planting and harvesting season, the loads are heavy and frequent.
From historical records, the CBR of the site before construction was 2 and the field CBR

129

was approximately 8 (dry). The subgrade soil was a silty sand (SM) with 12% passing
the #200 sieve, and the modified base was a well-graded gravel (GW) with thickness of
4-8in. Specifics about the geotextiles and site soils are in Tables 1 and 2.

130

The dry run (142 passes of loaded vehicles) produced no noticeable difference between
the sections where fabric was used and the control section.
After a heavy rain, the wet test was carried out. In the control section (without fabric),
complete failure occurred after 20 passes. At the other end of the longevity spectrum, in
the GT-A (see Table 1) section, after 120 passes only soft spots were observed. From
these initial tests, the GT-A fabric was determined to be the best candidate for these
types of geotextile separation and drainage applications.
It maintained sheet integrity and a conclusion was that this product provided the best
results of all materials used at the Smyrna road project. (After the wet test, all
candidates were excavated and evaluated.) It was concluded that, for heavy-duty
construction stresses such as this, fabrics should be at least equivalent to the GT-A, at
3.5oz/yd2 (136g/m2), and covered with at least 6in. of base material, or significant loss
of properties will occur.
Exhumed after 35 years
In June 2007, 35 years after installation, George Koerner of GSI and the author returned
to the Smyrna site to determine the status of the road and the condition of the
geotextiles. After the various test plots were located, photographs were taken to
characterize the general area conditions as well as the specific plots.
Exhumation of the samples followed. Pick and shovel were required to break up the hard
crust of the unpaved road surface, which was well compacted because the exhumation
was done in the most critical areathe tire tracks. After probing for the location of the
geotextile elevation, which was 4-8in. (10-20cm) below the ground surface, careful
removal of the fill by hand proceeded over an area of approximately 1 m 2. The fabric
was brushed, more photos were taken, and then the samples were removed and stored
in plastic bags.

Geotextiles sample collection

131

Technical evaluation
General observations
Photographs confirm that even though the geotextile was installed 35 years ago and the
project was under-designed, some of the geotextiles endured to effectively perform the
primary function as a permeable separator. In fact, it was obvious where the geotextile
was used because there was no significant rutting at those locations. It was equally
obvious where no geotextile was used, as lateral spreading of the embankment was
noted and rutting was clearly evident.
As observed from Table 3, there are 2 test sections1 (GT-A) and 5 (GT-D) that had
minimum cover (6in. or more) and were still performing well. The others were not
exhumed or were in bad condition. Test Section 7 (GT-E) had inadequate cover (only
3in.) and showed significant physical damage.

132

(e) GT-F

(f) GT-F

Evaluation
As shown in Table 3, 8 different geotextiles (plus a control section with no geotextile)
were used at the site.

Table 1 shows the results of index and performance testing of 6 of the fabrics used at
this site, prior to installation. There were only 2 soils (subgrade and base) used for this
project, and their characteristics are given in Table 2.
The geotextile samples were brought to the lab to compare their current physical
characteristics with those of 1972. Unfortunately, only GT-A at 3.5oz/yd2 (136g/m2)
and GT-D (4.0oz/yd2) could be tested because the other geotextiles were significantly
damaged. Grab tensile results show, on average, a 37% strength retention and a 52%

133

elongation retention compared with historical production data for the GT-A and GT-D
products. Trapezoid tear strength retention was approximately 50% and puncture
strength 93% on average. Note that current testing was very limited. A summary of
results for the 2 geotextiles can be seen in Table 4.

Analysis of the magnified polypropylene filaments showed some degradation. For

photomicrograph analysis of the geotextile polymer, it was necessary to remove as
much soil and other interference as possible. Repeated attempts to clean the soil from
the geotextiles were ineffective, which is why mass per unit area and thickness results
are not reported. As can be seen from the photos, polymeric deterioration was readily
observed in all samples examined. This deterioration was not only observed in the outer
layer of the surface, but some was also apparent in the core of the fibers.
It should be pointed out that the stabilizer package used in 1972 was quite different
from, and much less effective than, todays stabilizer. Currently, for example, the GT-A
and GT-D geotextiles use the latest in hindered amine light stabilizer packages (HALS).
HALS packages act as free radical scavengers no matter what type of free radical
develops.
Nevertheless, one of the goals of the 2007 study was to determine whether the same
amounts of antioxidants and ultraviolet stabilizers are present today as when the

134

material was produced. In pursuing this goal, it became clear that a review of the heat
flow (melting) curve and a review of the thermo oxidative time and temperature as
compared to the 1972 stabilizer package would be of interest.
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was performed on the aged polypropylene
samples and compared to that of un-aged samples.
The oxidative induction temperature of GT-A went from 228 to 212C in 35 years
(Table 5).

However, the oxidative induction times of GT-A and GT-B are near 1 minute. This
indicates that there is a small amount of the original package currently left in these
materials.
Summary and conclusions
This report is unusual in that it documents the use of a geotextile type of fabric and its
performance over a 35-year period.
The initial purpose of the test, 35 years ago, was to determine if and which fabrics would
perform effectively as a geotextile in a separation application under an unpaved road.
(Testing long term durability was not part of the initial purpose.) The 1972 tests showed

135

that GT-A could perform that function very effectively, even though it was not
specifically designed for that use and was installed with inadequate safety factorstoo
little base cover for the extreme loads it was subjected to in wet and saturated
conditions. The loads used in the initial testing would normally require a minimum of
2.5x the base used.
As it turns out, the fabric GT-A has performed the separation function for 35 years and
is still working. Analyses of the fabric after 35 years for survivability and durability
indicate the stabilizers used then are not nearly as effective as those used today. The
fabrics suffered significant mechanical damage as a result of overloading but were still
performing. Indications of inadequate protection of the polymers by stabilizers are not
surprising because that need has been noted in other situations, and that is why the
stabilizers used today last much longer and are more effective.
However, site inspection and samples indicate that, if at least 6in. of gravel remains
over the geotextile, thermally spunbonded nonwoven geotextiles are still performing the
function as originally intended 35 years ago, even though the site was grossly
underdesigned. Unquestionably, good performance is predicated on adequate soil burial.
All geotextiles suffer survivability problems with a gravel thickness less than 6in.
Bill Hawkins, now retired, was a longtime employee at Fiberweb (and, previously,
DuPont) and remains one of the true pioneers in the geosynthetics manufacturing
business.
References
Cedergren, H. R. (1989), Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets, J. Wiley and Sons, New
York, N.Y.
Crane, J. P. and R. D. Hutchins (1974), Typar Road Reinforcement. Report TR434930,
Project 704-236, Notebooks T-3420 and T3320. Textile Fibers Department, E. I.
DuPont De Nemours & Co. Inc.
Hutchins, R. (2007), personal communications.
Koerner, G. R. (1997), Data Base Development for Determination of Long Term
Benefit/Cost of Geotextile Separators, Geosynthetics-1997, NAGS Conference
Proceedings, Long Beach, Calif., pp. 701-713.
Koerner, G. R. (2000), Geotextile Separation Study, Geotechnical Fabrics Report
(GFR), Vol. 18, No. 5, Roseville, Minn., pp. 14-21.
Courtesy: Geosynthetics Magazine ( www.geosyntheticmagazine.com)

136

Case study 3: Use of Geotextiles In Palm Islands, Dubai

Some facts:
1. Palm Islands Dubai which have been called the eighth wonder of the world are
man made islands.
2. Due to its immense scale and unique shape, The Palm, Jumeirah and The Palm,
Jebel Ali are visible from space with the naked eye. !!!
3. The two islands Jebel Ali and Jumeirah comprises of 172m 3 and 90 million m3 of
sand and rocks.
4. The breakwater is 15.5 km and 12 km respectively and is built with Geotextiles.

Palm Islands Dubai

5. Palm Island Jumeirah house 32 luxury hotels and 2,000 villas, in addition to a
marine Park, shopping complexes and cinemas.
6. The basic break water construction was completed in December 2003 and
consists of a 12km long and 200-meter wide protective breakwater construction
in front of 17 fronds, each of which are 75 meters wide and two kilometers long
with the trunk connecting to Dubai.

Pictures of fronds and houses on the fronds Geotextiles usage in fronds of palm island

137

Design Methodology:
Source: Fibertex Geotextiles

The water depth on the site is between eight and eleven meters and the
breakwater is designed to protect against the worst sea conditions. The
breakwater rises four meters above sea level at low tide.

Small rocks of approx. 1 tons were dropped into the ocean. On the outside of
the Crescent lies a layer created from rocks weighing between 1 and 4 tons
that were lifted into place by a floating crane. The rocks were then pushed in
place by underwater excavators assisted by expert divers.

Two layers of armour made from rocks weighing as much as six tons were
placed on top of the layer of smaller rocks and then the geotextile was
installed. It was rolled up on iron bars to prevent it from floating during
installation and the final installation was carried out by divers, with each sheet
overlapped and stitched to avoid any gaps.

Sand and gravel were then pumped in, forcing the geotextile in place. Finally,
sand was pumped up from the sea bottom to create the inner beach of the
crescent.

With the crescent securely in place, 4.8 million cubic meters of rock were
positioned to create the land foundation of the inner island. Dredgers then
began working around the clock to transfer an astonishing 92.2 million cubic
meters of sand to build up the landmass.

138

The geotextile that was used for protection of the crescent was Nonwoven Geotextile, primarily of Polypropylene.

On the 17 fronds of the Palm, Nonwoven Needle punched Polypropylene

Geotextiles were also used for road construction and drainage
applications.

Compiled by: Reliance Industries Ltd

139

140

20. STANDARDS ON GEOTEXTILES

141

142

20. STANDARDS ON GEOTEXTILES

Following standards are available for the usage of various Geosynthetics in the
infrastructure applications

IRC SP 59

Guidelines for Use of Geotextiles in Road

Pavements and Associated Works

MORTH Specification

Specifications for road and Bridge works,

Revision 4 ( Section 700)

HRB S.No 12, 1994

HRB SR.No.16, 1996

State of the Art: Reinforced Soil

Structures Applicable to Road Design &
Construction

AASTHO M 288-06

Standard Specification for Geotextile

Specification for Highway Applications.

State of the Art: Application of

Geotextiles in Highway Engineering

143

144

21. PROPERTIES AND TESTING OF GEOTEXTILES

145

146

21. PROPERTIES AND TESTING OF GEOTEXTILES

Geotextile properties are important since the use areas or applications areas are
dependent on them. As functions and applications of geosynthetics have been identified
and developed, properties and test methods have followed to aid in proper design and
construction. For example, materials used for reinforcement depend heavily on
mechanical properties while filtration and drainage functions depend on hydraulic
properties. Most applications involve transport and storage of materials, construction in
relatively harsh environments and the necessity for a long service life, for which
endurance and durability properties are important.
The properties of geotextile can be grouped under two categories like index properties
and performance properties. Index properties being those obtained from tests on the
geotextile itself as isolated from any surrounding soil, and performance properties being
those determined from tests where the geotextile is in contact with soil.
Index properties are used for the quality assurance or quality control of geotextile and
performance properties are used for design. Table shows the major properties of
geotextile and their respective subtypes.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
Physical properties of geotextile are basic properties related to the composition of the
materials used to fabricate the geotextile and include the type of structure, specific
gravity, and mass per unit area, thickness and stiffness.
Type of structure:
The type of structure of a geotextile describes the physical make-up of the geotextile
resulting from the process used to manufacture the material. The structure of the
geotextile often dictates the application area for which the material is suitable. There are
three basic structures of geotextile and they are woven geotextile, non-woven geotextile
and very rarely used knitted geotextile.
Specific gravity:
The specific gravity of a geotextile is measured on the basic polymeric material or
materials used to form the geotextile. The specific gravity is defined conventionally as

147

the ratio of the materials unit volume weight to that of distilled, de-aerated water at a
standard temperature.
Some typical values of specific gravity of commonly used polymeric materials made into
geotextile are listed below.
Polymer

Specific gravity

Polyester

1.22 to 1.38

Polyamide

1.05 to 1.14

Polyethylene

0.90 to 0.96

Polypropylene

0.91

Mass Per Unit Area:

Mass per unit area describes the mass of a geotextile material per unit area. Generally it
is denoted as gram per square meter. As per the test methods used to determine the
mass per unit area; ASTM D5261 and ISO 9864 the mass is measured to the nearest
0.01% of the total specimen mass, and length and width should be measured under zero
geotextile tension.
Thickness
Thickness of geotextile is measured as the distance between the upper and lower
surface of fabric, at a specified pressure. Measurement is done as per ASTM D5199 and
ISO 9863. ASTM D5199 specifies that thickness of geotextile should be measured to an
accuracy of at least 0.02 mm under a pressure of 2.0 kPa whereas ISO 9863 allows for
the specifier to select the pressure.

Thickness Testing Machine

Stiffness:
The property stiffness refers to the flexibility of the material and it should not be
confused with the modulus which is the initial portion of the stress-versus-strain curve.
The flexibility of a geotextile is determined by allowing the material to bend under its
own weight as it is being slid over the edge of a table. The test method is designated as

148

ASTM D 1388. Stiffness is indicative of the geotextiles capability of providing suitable

working surface for installation.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:
Mechanical properties of geotextile are important when the geotextile is subjected to
loading during its implementation. Geotextile is subjected to loads perpendicular to its
plane which can be introduced as the material is placed on irregular surfaces with soil
compacted on top. These loads can be significant and can often dictate the mechanical
properties specified for the geotextile. Failure to specify appropriate mechanical
properties for the construction conditions may result in physical damage (i.e. punctures,
tears and rips) to the geotextile. Loading can also be applied in the plane of the
geotextile resulting in tension of the material. This type of loading is generally
associated with the function or operation of the constructed facility and where the
mechanical properties of the geotextile are typically used in the design of the facility.
Mechanical properties pertaining to the shearing resistance between the geotextile and
the surrounding soil are also important as this resistance is responsible for transferring
load from the soil into tensile load in the geotextile.
Tensile Strength:
This is very important property of geotextile since it is having implications for design
procedures. Tensile strength is defined as the maximum tensile stress that the test
specimen can sustain at the point of failure. Tensile properties are used for quality
QC/QA and as design parameters for various applications. The tests used for QC and QA
purposes tend to be simpler and less time consuming to perform and interpret than
those used to generate design parameters. There are different types of tensile test like
the grab tensile test as per ASTM D4632, Narrow strip test as per ASTM D751 and widewidth tensile test as per ASTM D4595 and ISO 10319. The photograph shows the tensile
testing machine used to carry out the tensile strength tests.
Compressibility:
The compressibility of geotextile is defined as the relationship between the material
thickness as a function of applied normal stress and is a test most appropriate for
geotextiles that need to maintain a certain thickness to ensure water transmissivity. For
geotextiles, non-woven needle-punched materials tend to be the most compressible,
while woven and non-woven heat bonded materials show small levels of compressibility.

149

Seam Strength:
Geotextiles are manufactured in rolls of a given width and length. Particular site work
requires a coverage area that exceeds the size of the manufactured roll and where
adjoining rolls may be mechanically or chemically jointed either in the field or in the
manufacturing plant. Geotextile may be jointed by sewing, stapling, gluing or melting.
Tensile tests are performed typically on wide-width specimens to assess the tensile
strength of seams. The strength of the seam is compared with the tensile strength of the
geosynthetic itself to arrive at seam strength efficiency. Seam strength is obtained as
per ASTM D4884 and ISO 13426.
Burst strength:
Burst strength tests are performed on geotextiles by
causing a circular piece of material clamped around its
perimeter to stretch into the shape of a hemisphere
by the application of pressure on one side of the
material. The material stretches in tension until
rupture

occurs.

In

the

field,

geotextiles

may

experience this type of loading when used as a

separator

between

soft

subgrade

and

coarse

aggregate. As subgrade is squeezed upwards between

voids of the coarse aggregate, the geotextile takes on
a hemispherical shape similar to that experienced in

Burst strength Testing

the burst strength test. The test is carried out as per ASTM D3786.
Tear strength:
During the installation of geotextiles, stresses may be imposed which cause tears to
initiate and propagate. Several types of tests have been developed to describe the
tearing resistance of geotextiles. The most common test is the trapezoidal tear test
(ASTM D4533). In this test, the specimen is formed in the shape of a trapezoid, as
shown below and a 15-mm cut is made along one end of the specimen. The two nonparallel sides of the specimen are gripped in parallel grips of a tension load frame with
the two grips aligned parallel to the cut made in the material and separated by a
distance of 25 mm. This is accomplished by allowing folds to occur in the material
greater than 25 mm in width. Tension is then applied and the cut in the material
propagates across the specimen as individual strands of the geotextile are torn.

150

Minimum values of tear strength are generally specified to control installation damage of
geotextiles.

Trapezoidal template for Trapezoid tearing strength test

Tongue tear test:

As indicated in ASTM D751, the tongue tear test uses a 75mm by
200 mm geotextile specimen with a 75 mm long initiation cut. The
geotextile is placed in testing machine with the cut ends in the
grips of the machine. An increasing tensile force is applied to
make the geotextile tear along the initiation cut. Photograph
shows the machine used for testing.

Tongue Tear Test

Puncture strength:
In addition to the possibility of tear during installation, geotextiles can experience
punctures from rocks, roots, sticks or other debris. A test as per ASTM D4833 measures
the puncture where a steel rod of 8 mm diameter is used to puncture a geosynthetic
stretched and clamped firmly over a cylinder of 45 mm inside diameter. The force
necessary to cause the rod to puncture through the material is known as the puncture
resistance. Puncture strength is measured by two methods. One is CBR static puncture
resistance test as per ASTM D6241 and ISO 12236 and another one is index puncture
resistance test as per ASTM D4833. Following photographs shows the arrangement used
in two different tests.

151

Index Puncture resistance test setup.

CBR Puncture resistance test setup.

HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES:
Geotextile is permeable material so hydraulic properties of geotextile are important in
applications where the material is used to convey the flow of liquids and gases.
Geotextiles applications include drainage materials behind walls and within slopes,
roadways and landfills, filtration materials within roads and around drainage trenches
etc.
Porosity:
Porosity is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume. The void volume,
however, is difficult to measure, so the porosity has to be calculated from other physical
properties (mass per unit area, density and thickness). As a result, other measures,
including the percentage open area and apparent opening size (AOS), related to the
porosity but more easily measured and more directly related to particular applications
have been developed.
Percentage Open Area:
Property describes the ratio of open area to the total area. This property is measured by
subjecting geotextile to the light and light passing through open area is focused on
screen from which the open area is measured. This test is suitable only for woven
geotextile and not for non woven geotextile since the overlap of the weaves prevents
most light from shining through even though liquid transmission is still very possible.

152

Apparent opening Size:

The AOS test was first developed for woven geotextiles but is now also used for nonwoven materials. The test is described by ASTM D4751 and consists of passing glass
beads of successively larger diameter through the material until only 5% of the beads
pass through. The size of the beads in millimetres at which 5% passes is known as O95.
The corresponding size in the US sieve size is the AOS. The AOS or O95 represents the
largest particle that would effectively pass through the geotextile. The equivalent
opening size (EOS) has the same meaning as the AOS but can be specified for other
percentage passing values, such as O50 or O90. The AOS is typically specified in
conjunction with requirements for filtration, with proper specification providing for soil
retention without pore space clogging.
Permittivity:
Filtration is major function of geotextile. For filtration to take place, water has to flow
through geotextile across its plane. So permittivity is defined as the ability for fluid to
flow across the plane of the geotextile. It is formally defined as the cross-plane
permeability divided by the thickness of the geotextile. ASTM D4491 describes a
constant-head and a falling-head permeability test that is used to define permittivity
under zero normal- stress confinement. These tests are conducted like similar tests on
soils only with the apparatus sized to accommodate the flows associated with
geotextiles. Photograph shows the permeability testing apparatus.

Permeability testing apparatus

Transmissivity:
Drainage is another important major function of geotextile and drainage of fluid takes
place when fluid flows through the plane of geotextile so Transmissivity is described as
ability for fluid to flow within the plane of the material and is defined as the in-plane

153

permeability multiplied by the material thickness. The test method ASTM D4716
describes a constant-head test that can be conducted under varying normal stress
confinement. Fluid is caused to flow one dimensionally in the plane of the material from
one end to another under constant-head conditions.
ENDURANCE PROPERTIES:
Behaviour of geotextile during service condition over design life time is characterised
through endurance properties. Endurance properties of geotextile focus on how shortterm properties are affected by time during the service life of the facility. Issues of
endurance arise as the material is installed, while the load is sustained, and while fluid
flow is experienced. ASTM D5819 and ISO 13429 provide the guidelines for selecting
various endurance test methods.
Installation Damage:
During the installation of geotextile in the field it is subjected to harsh installation
stresses. The deformations and stresses experienced by geotextile during installation
can be more severe than the actual design stresses for the intended application and
arise from the placement and compaction of overlying fill. Damage may occur in the
form of holes, tears and ruptures, which influences the mechanical and hydraulic
properties of the material. Field trials can be performed using the site-specific ground
conditions, construction equipment and procedures with the installed material exhumed
immediately after placement to assess damage.
Creep and Stress relaxation:
Creep is defined as the elongation of a material under a
constant

load.

Stress

relaxation is the reduction in

(relaxation of) stress when a material is loaded and then

held at a constant level of strain. Creep is an important
consideration in design as large levels of creep can lead to
excessive deformation of reinforced structures or possible
creep rupture of geotextile. Stress relaxation can result in
more loads being taken up by the soil, which may produce
unsafe conditions for situations where the soil is close to
failure.

ASTM

D5262

describes

test

method

for

determining elongation due to creep. The test is relatively

154

Creep testing machine

simple to conduct and involves placing hanging weights on a geotextile specimen and
making periodic measurements of elongation.
Abrasion:
The abrasion of geotextile is defined as the wearing a way of any part of a material by
rubbing against another surface. Excessive abrasion can lead to a loss of properties, e.g.
strength, that are needed for proper functioning. The ASTM D1175 is test method for
abrasion resistance for textile fabrics. It covers six procedures: (1) inflated diaphragm,
(2) flexing and abrasion, (3) oscillatory cylinder, (4) rotary platform-double head, (5)
uniform abrasion, and (6) impeller tumble. Results of these tests are reported as the
percent weight loss or strength/elongation retained under particular test. Uniform
abrasion test is carried out as per ASTM D4886 and ISO 13427.
Clogging:
Clogging can occur over the long term as fluid flows through the geotextile carrying with
it suspended particles that become lodged within the material. Physical tests have been
devised and evaluated to match these long-term conditions and using site specific soils.
These tests suffer from the large amount of time that it takes to conduct the test. The
gradient ratio test as per ASTM D5101 has been adopted to reduce the amount of
testing time associated with other more direct physical tests.
DURABILITY PROPERTIES:
Temperature
Temperature has the principal effect of accelerating other degradation mechanisms.
When viewed as a degradation mechanism, temperature is therefore generally
associated with other mechanisms such as those involving oxidation, hydrolysis,
chemical, radioactive, biological and ultraviolet (UV) light processes. For geotextiles, test
method as per ASTM D1388 is used to quantify the behaviour at high temperatures and
ASTM D746 is used to find out the effect of cold temperature on impact strength of
geotextile.
Oxidation
Oxidation is a reactive process by which the elements of a material lose electrons when
exposed to oxygen and its valence is correspondingly increased. In geotextile, this

155

reaction leads to a fundamental change in the polymer and a degradation of the

properties of the material. Polypropylene and polyethylene are generally the most
susceptible polymers to the oxidation process. A test method used for exposing
geotextile to the oxidation process is ASTM D794 specified for plastics. This test method
uses an oven to apply heat with a continuous fresh air flow. The test is carried out to a
point where there is an appreciable change in appearance, weight, dimension or other
specified properties pertinent to the application in question.
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is a process by which a chemical compound decomposes by its reaction with
water. Geotextiles can experience hydrolysis degradation by internal or external yarn
degradation which becomes more significant for polyester materials and for liquids with
a high alkalinity. Polyamides can be affected by liquids with very low PH values. To
evaluate the effect of hydrolysis, simple tests are conducted where a material is
immersed in a liquid having a pH level of interest and at temperatures of 20 C and 50
C. The strength of the material is determined after a certain amount of immersion time
and compared with initial values to detect degradation levels.
Chemical degradation
Chemical degradation involves the change in material properties when the geotextile is
immersed in various chemicals of interest. ASTM D5322 describes a laboratory test
procedure for immersing geosynthetics in chemical liquids. Provisions are given for
controlling the temperature, the pressure and the circulation of the solution. ASTM
D5496 describes a procedure for immersion of field specimens. These tests are most
often used in association with geosynthetics used in landfills and as liners in reservoirs,
ponds and impoundments.
Ultraviolet light
UV light is the component of light from the sun with wavelengths shorter than 400 nm.
Photons of UV light can break down the chemical bonds (bond scission) of the polymer
and lead to degradation of properties. Since most geotextiles are buried in the ground,
the issue of UV degradation is important only during transport, storage and construction.
For situations where it is important to assess the degradation of geotextile to long-term
UV exposure, tests can be carried out by exposing geotextile to natural or artificial
radiation. Sources of artificial radiation include xenon arc lighting and fluorescent

156

lighting. Effect of UV radiation on geotextile is evaluated as per ASTM D4355, in which

geotextile samples are exposed to light for designated time and then tested for its
retained strength and elongation. The results are then compared to the unexposed
geotextile for percent retained values. Photograph shows the machine used to expose
UV light on geotextile specimen.

UV exposer

PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES:
Geotextile is used in geotechnical structures, where it is placed within different soil
conditions for different applications. Performance properties can be defined as properties
which define the behaviour of geotextile with soil around it. And these properties are
evaluated using performance tests such as Asphalt retention, Direct shear, Clogging
potential and Pull out resistance test.
Deteriorating Asphalt Pavements Cracking is the most widespread type of destruction of
asphalt concrete pavements. Maintenance measures to repair cracking include patching,
sealing, milling, re-paving, and overlays. Although overlays are frequently utilized as a
method of repair, reflective cracking, or the propagation of the original cracks into the
new overlay, has been a major stumbling block. Cause of reflective cracking is the
infiltration of water through the cracks, which deteriorates the pavements. Paving
fabrics have the potential, when designed and installed properly, to retard reflective
cracking and provide a moisture barrier that prevents water from penetrating the road
structure both before and after cracking. Paving fabrics effectively control many types of
cracking. Asphalt retention ability of geotextile is measured as per ASTM D6140.
Geotextile is used for filtration and drainage in various applications. In such case,
performance of geotextile is based on the apparent opening size of fabric pores. If the
pore size is not adequate then it may lead to piping or clogging of geotextile-soil

157

structure. So the performance of geotextile-soil together is evaluated by placing the soil

and geotextile in a permeameter, imposing a prescribed seepage regime, and
monitoring any change in the permeability of the soil geotextile interface relative to
that of the undisturbed soil. Interpretation of the results involves comparison of
observed change against a threshold value of acceptability. Soil-geotextile clogging
potential by gradient ratio test is done as per ASTM D5101.
Direct shear test and pull out resistance tests are carried out to evaluate the shear
strength parameters of soil-geotextile system. Geotextile invokes strength at the
interface with a soil through mobilization of a shear resistance that is largely controlled
by friction. Interfacial friction angle between soil and geotextile and shear strength is
measured by direct shear test. The strength required to pull out geotextile out of soil
system is measured by pull out resistance test.

158

Ready reference of test of Geotextiles

Sr.

Test Parameters

ASTM

ISO

IS

Abrasion Resistance of Geotextiles

(Sand Paper/Sliding Block Method)

D4886

13427

14714

Water Permeability of Geotextiles by

Permittivity

D4491

11058

14324

Trapezoid
Geotextiles

of

D4533

14293

Deterioration of Geotextiles by Exposure

to Light, Moisture and Heat in a Xenon
Arc Type Apparatus

D4355

13162

Tensile Properties of Geotextiles by the

Wide-Width Strip Method

D4595

Grab Breaking Load and Elongation of

Geotextiles

D4632

Apparent Opening Size of a Geotextile

D4751

12956

14294

Strength of Sewn or Thermally Bonded

Seams of Geotextiles

D4884

10321

15060

Nominal Thickness of Geosynthetics

D5199

9863-1

13162 -3

10

Tension Creep and Creep

Behavior of Geosynthetics

D5262

13431

14739

11

Cone drop ( Dynamic perforation )

13433
EN 918

13162 -4

12

Mass per Unit Area of Geotextiles

D5261

9864

14716

13

Hydraulic
Transmissivity
of
Geosynthetic Using a Constant Head

D4716

12958

14

Static Puncture Strength of Geotextiles

and Geotextile-Related Products Using a
50-mm Probe

D6241

12236

15

Permittivity of Geotextiles Under Load

D5493

10766

no

Tearing

Strength

Rupture

159

(Part 2)
10319

13162
(Part 5)

16

Hydraulic Conductivity Ratio (HCR)

Testing of Soil/Geotextile Systems

D5567

17

Asphalt Retention of Paving Fabrics Used

in
Asphalt
Paving
for
Full-Width
Applications

D6140

18

Chemical Resistance of Geotextiles to

Liquids

D6389

19

Effects of Temperature on Stability of

Geotextiles

D4594

20

Biological Clogging of Geotextile

D1987

21

Deterioration
of
Outdoor Exposure

from

D5970

22

Determining Filtering Efficiency and Flow

Rate of the Filtration Component of a
Sediment Retention Device Using SiteSpecific Soil

D 5141

23

Measuring the Soil-Geotextile System

Clogging Potential by the Gradient Ratio

D5101

24

Pore Size Characteristics of Geotextiles

by Capillary Flow Test

D6767

25

Installation Damage of Geosynthetics

D5818

26

Geosynthetic Pullout Resistance in Soil

D6706

27

Accelerated Tensile Creep and CreepRupture of Geosynthetic

D6992

14739

28

Determining the Coefficient of Soil and

Geosynthetic
or
Geosynthetic
and
Geosynthetic Friction by the Direct
Shear Method

D5321

12957-1

29

Chemical Resistance of Geosynthetics to

Liquids

D5322

Geotextiles

160

13428

22. PROFILE OF FEW INDIAN GEOTEXTILES

MANUFACTURERS

161

162

22. Profile of few Indian Geotextiles Manufacturers

1. CTM GEOSYNTHETICS
Name of Company

CTM GEO SYNTHETICS ( division of ctm technical

textiles ltd), a chatarbhuj lajpatrai group co.

Head-Office Address

205, new cloth market, ahmedabad - 380 002.

Email Id

Info@ctmgeosynthetics.com

Website

www.ctmgeosynthetics.com

Contact Number

079 - 22165163 / 09327988555

Branches Offices

Hyderabad, Guawhati, kolkata

Year of Establishment
Manufacturing Location

Group established - 1948. Ctm technical textiles ltd. 2005

Ahmedabad.

Products types

Polyester geo grids -

Capacity

15,00,000 sq meter in first phase

In-house testing facilities

All basic testing to be done in house.

2. GARWARE WALL ROPES Ltd

Name of Company

Garware-Wall Ropes Ltd.

Head-Office Address

Garware-Wall Ropes Ltd.,

Plot No. 11, Block D - 1, M.I.D.C , Chinchwad, Pune 411019,
Maharashtra, India.
Phone no. : +91 - 20 - 3078 0000 / 3078 0187
Fax : +91 - 20 - 3078 0350
geo@garwareropes.com
mvoffice@garwareropes.com
www.garwareropes.com

Email Id
Website
Contact Number
Branches Offices

Phone no. : +91 - 20 - 3078 0000 / 3078 0187

Fax : +91 - 20 - 3078 0350
New Delhi, Mumbai , Chennai ,Kolkata,
Vishakhapatnam

Year of Establishment

1976

Manufacturing Location
Products types

Pune & Wai, (Maharashtra)

Polymer rope gabion
Woven geotextile
Steel gabion
Geotextile tube
Geotextile bag and container
Anti-buoyancy geotextile bags
Galvanized steel wire ropenet
Garmat - erosion control mat
HDPE geomembrane
Nonwoven geotextile

163

Accreditations
In-house testing
facilities

Geosynthetic clay liner

Polymer geogrid
Geocell
Geonet and geocomposite
Ancodrain
ISO 9001: 2008
Universal testing machine,
Cone drop testing machione
Mullen burst testing machine,
Water permeability testing apparatus,
Sieve Tester,
Adhesion tester,
FRI tensile tester,
Creep tester, etc

Export

Australia, Srilanka, UAE, etc.

Major customers

Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd., Hindustan Zinc Ltd,

Vedanta Alumina Ltd Binani Zinc Ranbaxy Laboratories
Jubilant Organosys Ltd Hindusthan Zinc Limited
Southern Railway Maharashtra PWD Tamilnadu PWD
Kerala PWD Surat Municipal Corporation CIDCO
MMRDA MIDC Gujarat Electricity Board Chennai Port
Trust Cochin Port Trust Kandla Port Trust Paradip
Port Trust Swaminarayan Sanstha L&T ECC L&T
Hochtief Patel Engineering Delhi Metro Corporation
China Coal Construction Group Corporation ACC Ltd
HCC Ltd Tata Power Company Hindustan Lever Ltd
NCL Essar Projects Gammon India Ltd AFCONS
MSRDC etc.

3. KUSUMGAR CORPORATES PVT LTD

Name of Company

KUSUMGAR CORPORATES PVT. LTD.

Head-Office Address

101/102, MANJUSHREE, V.M. ROAD, CORNER OF

N.S.ROAD NO.5, JVPD SCHEME, VILE PARLE (WEST),
MUMBAI 400 056.

Email Id

info@kusumgar.com

Website

www.kusumgar.com

Contact Number

022-6112 5100

Branches Offices

NIL

Year of Establishment

1970

164

Manufacturing Location

Kusumgar corporates Pvt. Ltd., 2834, GIDC. Area, phase

iii, umbergaon 396 171, dist. Valsad, gujara.t
Kusumgar corporates pvt. Ltd., Vasundhara canning
compound, near pardi rly. Station, killa pardi, dist.
Valsad 396 125, Gujarat.
Kusumgar corporates Pvt. Ltd. Plot 1809, u.u. Road,
GIDC Vapi 396 195 , Gujarat.

Products types

WOVEN GEOTEXTILES

Capacity

10.0 lakh sq m per annum of woven geotextiles

Accreditations

ISO 9001:2008

In-house testing facilities

Tensile strength upto 10 ton , CBR Puncture, Index

puncture, Tear, permeability, AOS.

Major customers

All leading contractors

4. MACCAFERRI ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD

Name of Company
Head-Office Address
Email Id
Website
Contact Number
Branches Offices
Year of Establishment
Manufactiring Location
Products types

Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

402, 4th Floor, Salcon Aurum, Plot No. 04- , Jasola
District Center, New Delhi- 110044
technical@maccaferri-india.com , info@maccaferriindia.com,
www.maccaferri-india.com
Corporate Office -011 43798400
Pune - 020 41001932
Navi Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Chennai, Pune
1998
Factory & Regstd. Office
D 40, MIDC, Ranjangaon, Taluka Shirur, Pune 441220
Tel No. - 02138 393003
1. Geotextile( Woven & Non Woven)
2. Paraweb Polymeric Strips
3. Paragrid & Paralink
4. Gabions, Mattresses & Sack Gabions
5. Terramesh & Green Terramesh
6. Snow Fencing
7. Geomembrane & GCL's
8. Geocomposites
9. Glass Grids
10. Geocells
12. Fabric Form mats
13. Prefabricated Vertical Drains
14. Geo Coir & Geo Jute Products
15. Geobags& Geotubes
16. Rockfall Netting, Steel Grid, HEA Panels & Rockfall
Barrier.

165

Accreditions

ISO 9001

In-house testing facilities

Yes

Export

Yes

5. SHRI AMBICA POLYMERS PVT LTD ( SAPPL)

Name of Company
Head-Office Address

In-house testing facilities

SHRI AMBICA POLYMER PVT LTD.

Safal Profitaire
A/3 First Floor
Nr. Auda Garden, Prahladnagar
Ahmedabad 380 051. Gujarat. India
jyotika@ambicapolymer.com /
anuja@ambicapolymer.com
www.ambicapolymer.com
91-79-65453665 / 9560556651
2005
PLOT NO 503, OPP BHARAT GAS PLANT, HARIYALA,
KHEDA, GUJARAT
WOVEN GEOTEXTILES, GROUND COVERS, SILT FENCE,
MULCHING, NEEDLE PUNCHED NON-WOVEN
4800 MT per annum
Govt. Regocnized export House, ISO 9001:2008, 100%
Export Oriented Unit
All tests pertaining to Geo-textile.

Export

USA , Europe,UK,

Major customers

Bridge & roof, HDC, GR Infra and international stockists

& distributors

Email Id
Website
Contact Number
Year of Establishment
Manufacturing Location
Products types
Capacity
Accreditations

6. SKAPS INDUSTRIES
Name of Company
Head-Office Address
Email Id

Skaps Industries Ltd

1 Darshan Society, Stadium road, Navrangpura,
Ahmedabad 380-009
utkarsha@skaps.com

Website

www.skaps.com

Contact Number

09974042256

Branches Offices

Vadodara

Year of Establishment

2003 ( India Operations)

Manufacturing Location

Ahmedabad and mudra

Products types
Capacity

Woven Geotextiles ( Indian Manufacturing)

Non-Woven Geotextiles and Geocomposites
75 million m2, 10,000 MT

Accreditations

ISO, 9000 ISO-140000 ISO-18000, B&Q Cananda,

In-house testing facilities

Yes ( Available at Factory location)

Export
Major costumers

US
Export Oriented Unit.

166

7. STRATA GEOSYSTEMS (INDIA) PVT LTD

Name of Company

Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt Ltd

Head-Office Address

317, Tantia Jogani Industrial Premises, J. R. Boricha

Marg, Lower Parel (East), Mumbai 400 011

Email Id

info@strataindia.com

Website

www.strataindia.com

Contact Number

+91 22 4063 5100

Branches Offices

Hyderabad

Year of Establishment

2004

Manufacturing Location

Daman

Product types

StrataGrid (Geogrid), StrataWeb (Geocell)

Capacity

6 million square metres per annum

Accreditations

ISO 9001: 2008

In-house testing facilities

For raw materials

Export
Major customers

Egypt
NHAI, IRB, Soma, IL&FS etc

8. TERRAM GEOSYNTHETICS PVT. LTD.

Name of Company

Terram Geosynthetics Pvt. Ltd.

Head-Office Address
Email Id

A-704 Safal Pegasus, Anandnagar Road, Satellite,

Ahmedabad - 380 015
pparekh@terramgeosynthetics.com

Website

www.terramgeosynthetics.com

Contact Number

Year of Establishment

(O) 079-40064529 (FAX) 079-400645 (Mobile No.)

9724302188
Survey No. 141, MITAP, MPSEZ, Village Mundra, Dist.
Kutchh, Gujarat - 370 421.
April-2008

Manufacturing Location

Mundra - Kutchh (MPSEZ)

Products types

Non-Woven Geosynthetics

Capacity

6000 M.T.

In-house testing facilities

R & D Lab is establised for inhouse testing of properties

and quality of the end products

Branches Offices

167

9. TECHFAB INDIA INDUSTRIES LTD

Name of
Company

TechFab India Industries Ltd

Head-Office
Address

711-712 Embassy Centre,Nariman Point, MUMBAI , 400 021.

Email Id

office@techfabindia.com , anant@techfabindia.com ,
p.salvekar@techfabindia.com

Website

www.techfabindia.com

Contact Number

022-22876224 / 25 , 022-22839733, Fax -022-22876218

Branches Offices

Delhi, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru , Kolkata, Chennai

Year of
Establishment

2003

Manufacturing
Location

Khadoli , Silvassa, Daman

Products types

(1) Multifilament polypropylene

woven geotextiles
(2)Woven Polypropylene Geotextile made of Slit Film
(3) woven multifilament polyester geotextile
(4) Copper & Polymer Gabions and Mattresses
(5) knitted and PVC coated polyester geogrids (a)uniaxial knitted
polyester geogrids with a protective polymeric coating (b) High
Performance Biaxial Geogrid
(6) Glass Geogrid
(7) Geocomposites
(8) Non Woven Geotextile
(9) Prefabricated vertical drain
(10) Steel Gabion, Rock fall netting

Capacity

Woven: 2400 T
Nonwoven : 8040 T
Geogrid: 15 million sq. mtrs.
Gabions : 7200 T
1) IRC
2) PWD - Maharashtra,Tamil Nadu,Karnataka,Rajasthan
3) Airport Authorities of India
4) MES
5) PMGSY
6) BBA
7 ) CIDCO
Our labs are equipped with all modern testing equipments to test most
of the parameters

Accreditations

In-house testing
facilities
Export

Techfab (India) Industries Ltd has an Export House Certificate issued by

Government of India

Major customers

Most of the leading contractors in India

168

23. Appendices

169

170

I. Indian Govt. supports covering COEs

1. About BTRA (Bombay Textile Research Association)
COE: Centre of excellence for Geotech
Bombay Textile Research Association is recognised as a Centre of Excellence for Geotech
by the Ministry of Textiles, Government of India. Applications of geosynthetics have
proved their value in civil engineering projects. This new class of material has added
entirely a new dimension to the world of geotechnical engineering. Geosynthetic
materials like Geotextiles, Geogrids, Geonets, Geocell, and Geomembranes are used in
various civil engineering activities. The aim of setting up of Centre of Excellence for
Geotech at BTRA is to create awareness for the use of geosynthetic in all the aspects.
Under the COE scheme, a new geosynthetics test laboratory was inaugurated in May
2009 with funding by the Government of India for testing equipment. This laboratory
have testing facilities for geosynthetic products like Geotextiles, Geomembranes,
Geocomposites, Gabions, Geosynthetic Clay Liner, Geogrids, Prefabricated Vertical Drain
etc. Geotech Laboratory is now accredited by Geosynthetics Institute (GSI), Folsom,
Pensylvania, USA under the GAI LAP Accreditation Programme .It is pertinent to
mention that BTRA is the first institute in India and probably only the third institute
outside USA to get this coveted accreditation.
For any further details or information regarding the Geotextiles please contact:
DIRECTOR

DR. ASHOK N. DESAI

Address:

The Bombay Textile Research Association,

Lal Bahadur Shastri Marg, Ghatkopar(W), Mumbai - 400 086 INDIA

Telephone:

2500 3651/2652/2117/1119/1135/7891/7892/2458

Fax:

91 - 22 - 2500 0459

E-mail:

btra@vsnl.com , btralibrary@yahoo.co.uk

Working
Hours:

9.30 a.m. to 5.15 p.m.

[lunch break 1.00 p.m. - 1.30 p.m.]

Holidays:

2nd & 4th Saturdays, Sundays, National Holidays

LOCATION
LANDMARK:

Bus no. 387 from Ghatkopar (West) Railway Station [Next bus stop
after Damodar Park stop]

171

II.

Associations for Geotextiles

Associations & Trade Groups

Australian Canvas and Synthetic Products Association Incorporated (ACASPA)

http://www.acaspa.com.au/
EPS Molders Association http://www.epsmolders.org/
Geosynthetic Materials Association (GMA) http://gmanow.com/
Geosynthetica.net - on-line technical information http://www.geosynthetica.net/
Landfill Systems & Technologies Research Association of Japan (LSA, NPO)
http://www.npo-lsa.jp/

Research Institutions

Geofoam Research Center http://www.geofoam.syr.edu/

Geosynthetic Institute (GSI) - includes GRI and GAI http://www.geosyntheticinstitute.org/
Manhattan College School of Engineering Center for Geotechnology (CGT) Geofoam http://www.engineering.manhattan.edu/civil/CGT.html
Plastic Pipe Institute (PPI) http://www.plasticpipe.org/
PVC Geosynthetic Institute (PGI) http://www.pvcgeomembrane.com/

Societies

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) http://www.asce.org

International Geosynthetics Society (IGS) http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/
Chapter listing of the IGS http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/chapters.htm
International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE)
http://www.issmge.org/
Society of Plastics Engineering (SPE) http://www.4spe.org/

172

III.

List of Nodal Agencies

S.No

Company

Address

Contact Details

Bombay Textile
Research Association
(BTRA)

L.B.S. Marg,
Ghatkopar (W),
Mumbai- 400086

Tel: 022-2500 3651/ 2652

CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE FOR
GEOTECH
Ministry of textiles,
Government of India

NHAI

Central Road Research

Institute (CRRI)

Central Water & Power

Research Station,
Government of India,
Ministry of Water
Resources

Mob: +91-99690 11046

Email:btra@vsnl.com,
vkp_btra@yahoo.co.in

Office of the Textile

Commissioner, New
CGO building, 1st floor,
Mumbai-20

G-5 & 6, Sector-10,

Dwarka, New Delhi110075

Delhi-Mathura Road,
New Delhi 110020,
India
Res: A-423/19, Noida

Fax: 022-2500 0459

Khadakwasla, Pune411024, India

Res: Flat No. B-303,
Panchawati, Chavan
Nagar, Dhankawadi,
Pune-43

Web: www.btraindia.com
Tel: 022-2230 1508
022-2200 1050
Fax: 022-2200 4693
Mob: +91-98199 94110
Tel: 022-2885 2112(Res)
Email: textile@gmail.com
www.txcindia.com
Tel: 2509 3523, 2507 4100
Extn: 1607
Fax: 2507 4100
Email:
nirmaljitsingh@nhai.org
Tel: 011-2684 2612
0120-2537726 (R)
Fax: 011-2683 0480
Email:
sudhirmathur.crri@nic.in
Tel: 020-2430 9585, 2410
3421, 2410 3200
Fax: 020-2438 1004
Mob: +91-98909 89925
Email:
kudale_md@cwprs.gov.in
Kudale_md@yahoo.co.in

MMRDA

Bandra-Kurla
Complex, Bandra(E),
Mumbai-400051

Tel: 022-2659 0080(O)

022-2659 0001/4000
Fax: 022-2659 4144/1264
Email:
mmrda@giasbm01.vsnl.net.in
http://www.mmrdamumbai.
org

173

Research Designs &

Standards Organization
Ministry of Railways

Manak Nagar,
Lucknow- 226011
(U.P.), India

Tel: 0522-2450 395,

032-42340
Fax: 0522-2465722
Email:
edge@rdso.railnet.gov.in
jagdishparihar@gmail.com
Phone: 011-23738760-70
Fax: 011-23320714,
23721504 Email:
ficci@ficci.com

FICCI

FICCI
Federation House
Tansen Marg
New Delhi 110001

SASMIRA

The Synthetic and Art

Silk Mills' Research
Association
Sasmira, Sasmira
Marg, Worli, Mumbai 400 030.

Phone : +91 - 022 24935351-52 Fax : +91 :022 - 24930225

Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi
Hauz Khas,

Tele: (91) 011-2659 1999,

(91) 011-2659 7135
Fax: (91) 011-2658 2037,
(91) 011-2658 2277
E-mail
:webmaster[at]admin.iitd.ac.in

10

IIT Delhi

New Delhi-110 016,

INDIA

E-mail : sasmira@vsnl.com

11

IIT MUMBAI ( POWAI)

Indian Institute of
Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai
Postcode 400076
Maharashtra, INDIA

. Contact Numbers
T: +91-22-2572-2545
F: +91-22-2572-3480

12

IIT ROORKEE

Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee
Roorkee, Uttarakhand
India - 247667

Contact No. +91-1332285311

Email Id: regis@iitr.ernet.in

13

M. S. University of
Baroda

Textile Engineering
Department, Faculty
of Tech. & Engg.
Kalabhavan, P.B. No51, Baroda

Tel: 0265-2434188 (O) Ext.

209
0265-5582552 (R)
Mob: +91-94284 24645
Email:
aadharmandot@yahoo.com

14

Shri Vaishnav Institute

of Technology &
Science

Gram Baroli, IndoreSanwar Road, PostAlwasa, via-Hatod,

PO- Palia, Dist Indore453 331 (M.P.)

174

Tel: 07321-224375 (O)

Fax: 07321-224371
Mob: +91-94259 00013
Email:
drsaxena3@hotmail.com

15

DKTE Societys Textile

Engineering Institute

Res: 19/160, Kamala

Nehru Colony, Nr.
Modern High School,
Ichalkaranji 416115,
Dist Kolhapur, 02302423 365

Fax: 0230-2432 329

Mob: +91-94220 45539
Email:
pvkadole@hotmail.com,
dktesttextile@gmail.com

16

Man-Made Textiles
Research Association
(MANTRA)

Nr. Market Tele.

Exchange, Ring Road,
Surat- 395002

17

ICRA Management
Consulting Services
Limited

4th floor, Electric

Mansion, Appasaheb
Marathe Marg,
Prabhadevi, Mumbai400025

Tel: 0261-2323211,
2337062
Telefax: 0261-2322500
Email:
director@mantrasurat.org
Web: www.mantrasurat.org
Tel: 022-3047 0047
Direct: 022-3047 8659
Fax: 022-3047 0081
Mob: +91-98331 39212
Email:
priyanka.talreja@imacs.in
Web: www.imacs.in

18

Ahmedabad Textile
Industrys Research
Association (ATIRA)

Dr. Vikram Sarabhai

Road, P.O. Ambawadi
Vistar, Ahmedabad380015, India

19

Veermata Jijabai
Technological Institute
(VJTI)

H.R. Mahajani Marg,

Matunga, Mumbai400019

Tel: 079-2630 7921/22/23

Mob: +91-98253 26966
Fax: 079-2630 4667
Email: safikurr@gmail.com
Web: www.atira-rnd-tex.org
Tel: 022-2419 8255
Mob: +91-98672 06926
Web: www.vjti.ac.in

20

TEXMACH, India

204, Sarita Sagar

Apartment, B/h
Bhulka Bhavan School,

Tel: 0261-2747 753

Mob: +91-98983 74017
Email: jrajmeri@yahoo.co.in

Anand Mahal Road,

Adajan, Surat 395009
21

Pune Municipal
Corporation

Bunglow No- 1,
Parvati Jalkendra,
Sinhagad Road, Pune411030

Tel: 020-2433 5857 (R)

020-2550 1383 (O)
fax: 020-2550 1104

22

Industrial Extension
Bureau (A Govt. of
Gujarat Organization)

Block No 18/2, Udyog

Bhavan, GH-4, Sector11, Gandhinagar- 382
010, Gujarat, India

Tel: 079-2325 0492/93

079-2322 8514 (R)
Fax: 2325 0490
Mob: +91-99784 07604
Email:
chatterjee@indextb.com
Web: www.indextb.com
www.vibrant Gujarat.com

175

IV.

List of NHAI consultants*

S.No

Name of Company

Address of the Company

M/s ICT Pvt. Ltd.

Gherzi Eastern Ltd

A-11, Green Park,

New Delhi-110016
Raheja Points I, Wing 'A',
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Vakola,
Santacruz (E), Mumbai 400 055 India
Fax: +91-22-26673193

Vishal Tower,
Distt. Center Janakpuri.
New Delhi 110018
Site Address :K-Block,
Kidwai Nagar,Kanpur -208023

STUP Consultants Ltd

MEINHARDIT (Singapore) Pvt Ltd

93,Havelock Road,
Singapore 160093
Fax : 065-2740788

M/S SMEC International Pvt Ltd

A-20,Kailash Colony,
New Delhi - 48
Fax : 011-6421515

Louis Berger International Inc

1819,H Street,
NW Washington, D.C 20006
Fax :001-202-2930237

Sheladia Associates & Consultants

SMEC-SPAN Consltants (P) Ltd

M/s DHV Consultant

10

M/s Sheladia - Rites

4,Kuldip Society,Near Ishwar

Bhuwan,Navrangpura,Ahmedabad PIN
380009
Fax No :- 079 -646 5909
Australian-Indian
E-3-5, Second Floor,
Local Shopping Complex,
J-Block Sacket,
New Delhi-17
Fax:6866768
DHV International BV,
LAAN 1994,nr-35,
380 Bj Amersfood
Netherland

176

202,HIG - Sector 4,
MVP Colony,
Vishakhapatanam

11

12

13

Local Address :Oshiwara indl. center,

Opp Goregaon bus depot,
Goregaon,Mumbai

Dorsch Consultant

B-51,Greenwood City
Sector -45
gurgaon
PIN :-122003

M/s Zaidun Leeng

8-2-5 to 20, Ravula Residency,

Punjagutta,
Srinagar Colony,
Hyderabad-500073
Fax: 040-3736277

Arvee Associates

14

Louis Berger International

15

KM International

INC M-122,
First Floor,
Greater Kailash
Part-I,
New Delhi - 110 048
Fax : 6232945

Opp.Priyadarshini Degree College

Buja Buja
Nellore
Pin -524004
Fax:0861-300033
SKLS Building
Sembulivaram Village
Cholavaram
Chennai 600 067
Fax : 044-633 0807/0808

16

Scott Wilson Krikpatrick

17

M/s Dorsch Consultant

18

M/s SNC Lavalin Inc. - Sheladia

Associates &Consultants

19

M/S Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick & Co

Ltd

Local Address:Oshiwara indl. center,

Opp Goregaon bus depot,
Goregaon,Mumbai

177

D-1019,New Friends Colony

New Delhi - 110 065
Tel : 011-6317255/56
Fax : 6820837

20

Plot No .22 A,Sector

19-C,Palm Beach Marg,
Vashi
Navi Mumbai
Pin 400 705
7896241-45
Fax : 7896240

M/S STUP Consultants

Plot No. 1601-1602,

Karnavati Estate Ist Floor,
Vatwa GIDC Phase III
Ahmedabad 382445
Gujarat.
Telfax: 079-5878135

21

M/s CES-Halcrow Association

22

Consulting Engineering Services

India Ltd.

Indian Arunachal,
6th Floor
19, Barakhamba Road
New Delhi-110001
Fax : 3350989

23

RITES

25

M/S Louis Berger International

26

27

57, Nehru Place (5th Floor),

New Delhi-110019
Fax: 6460409, 6281898

7,Factory Road,
Near Safdarjung Hospital
New Delhi - 29
Fax : 6180181
E-3-5,Second Floor,
Local Shopping Complex
J-Block Sacket
New Delhi -17
Fax:6866766
Raheja Points I, Wing 'A',

SPAN Consulatants Pvt Ltd

Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Vakola,

Gherzi Eastern Ltd

Santacruz (E), Mumbai 400 055 India

Fax: +91-22-26673193

Source NHAI Website

178

V.

LIST OF NHAI CONTRACTORS*

S.No

Name of Company

M/S Oriental Structural Engg. Ltd.

M/S China Coal Const Group Corp

M/s Bhageeratha Engg.Ltd

Address of the Company

21 . Commercial Complex
Malcha Marg . Diplomatic Enclave
New Delhi - 21 . India
Fax: 91-11-26114421
M/S Delhi Delta Resources & Services
Pvt. Ltd.F-10, NDSE II Tel
:6261110,Fax
:-6259289
M/S Bhagheertha Engineering Ltd.,
b-3/58,Safdarjung Enclave,
New Delhi - 29
Fax : 011-6193501 Contact Person :
P.O. Box No. 4282,
132, Panamtilli Avenue
Cochin-682036
Fax : 0484-312046

ACC

M/S Somdutt Builders, 58,Community

Centre, East of Kailash,New Delhi110065, Fax:6469445/6236373

M/S Somdutt

Delhi Address:25, Community Centre, 2nd Floor,

Basant Lok, Vasant Vihar Tel:6143647/8 Fax:-6837770

Centrodorstroy, Russia

Palika Bhavan,
Sector-13, R.K. Puram
New Delhi,
Fax: 6885165

M/s IRCON International Ltd.,

M/s Centrodorstroy, Russia

M/s LG Engg. & Construction (Korean)

10

Delhi Address:25, Community Centre, 2nd Floor,

Basant Lok, Vasant Vihar Fax:6837770
537, Namdaemun-Ro 5-Ga, Joong-Gu,
Seoul, Korea
Tel: 008227282384
Fax : 08227282385
M/S Somdutt Builders, 58, Community
Centre East of Kailash,New delhi 65. Fax:6469445/6236373

M/S Somdutt

179

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

M/s HCC Ltd.,102,Tolstoy House,Tolstoy

Marg,New Delhi-110001. Fax:-3358837

HCC

(Indian-Malaysian)
PCL
704,Nilgiri,
9,Barakhamba Road,
New Delhi - 110001

Progressive Const Ltd & Sunway

Const. Ltd

Delhi Office : S-5/3,DLF City,

Phase III ,Gurgaon-122 002
Email

Gamuda Berhad (Malaysian)

Hicom House,
Lal Bahadur Shastri Marg
Vikroli West,
Mumbai-400083
Fax : 022-5777568

M/s HCC Indian

P.O. Box No. 4282,

132, Panamtilli Avenue
Cochin-682036
Fax : 0484-312046

M/s Bhageeratha Engg.Ltd. Indian

H.O : 6-2-913/914,Progressive Towers

5th Khairatabad
Hyderabad-500 004
ph : 040-3307704/3303663/3307831
Fax : 040-3307385
Delhi Office : C-13,Old DLf Colony
Near Sector -14,
Guragaon-122 001

B.Seenaiah Company Ltd

Mount Poonamalli Road

P.O. Box No. 979
Manapakam,
Chennai-60089,
Fax : 044-2342317
Delhi Office : 302,Bhikaji Cama Bhawan
RK Puram
New Delhi - 110 066
Fax : 011-6194463

L&T

Gammon House
Veer Savarkar Marg
Prabhadevi
Mumbai - 400 025
Fax : 022-4300221

Gammon India Ltd

180

19

KMC Constructions Ltd

20

Skanska Cememtation India Ltd

21

22

23

MCH No. 555, Arora Colony, Road No.

3,
Banzara Hills, Hyderabad
1st Floor, Sanrakshan Bhawan, 10,
Bhikaji Cama Place110 066 New
Delhi, ,Fax:- +9111 3910 474
Bumi-Hiway-DDBL ,E-2/20,DLF Qutab
Enclave,Phase -I,Gurgaon. Tele Fax:
0674-521050

Bumi-Hiway-DDBL

M 22/3
RT,Vijaynagar Colony,Hyderabad500057,
Fax:-040-3345004.

IVRCL

You one Building Maharia Resufacing &

Constructions Pvt Ltd ,A-1
,Panchvati,Azadpur,New Delhi-25,Fax:
011-7446205

You One-Maharia

24

Unitech

25

Navayuga Engineering Co. Ltd

26

SEW

JMD Regent Square,Gurgaon - Mehrauli

Road,DLF
Phase II,Gurgaon -122002.Fax:-0214
6355293
48-9-17,Dwarka Nagar,Vishakha
Pattanam
6-3-871,Snehlata Green lands
Road,Begumpet,Hyderabad
500016,Fax:-040 341 3687

27

GMR Consortium

GMR Group Corporate Office ,Skip

House, 25/1, Museum Road, Bangalore
560 025 , Fax:- 91 80-2998118

28

Punj Lloyd Ltd

17- 18, Nehru Place,New Delhi.,110019

Fax: 6200111

29

Limak -Soma

30

IJM-Gayatri

Delhi Office
Limak-Soma
B-4/45,Safdarjung Enclave, Ground
Floor,
New Delhi , Fax: 6165143
B-1 TSR Towers,
6-1-3-1090,
Rajbhawan Road,
Somajiguda,
Hyderabad-500082,
Fax: 040-33010330 040-3398435

181

31

CIDB Malaysia

32

ECSB- JSRC

33

B Seenaiah & Co . Ltd

34

35

36

37

38

39

M/S Swarna Tollway Pvt Ltd

plot No. 646-A,
Road No .36 ,High Tech City Road
Jubliee Hills Hyderabad-500 033
Malaysian -Indian 3415,Second
Cross,Second Stage,Indira
Nagar,Bangalore - 560 038 ,Fax : 0805214099
C-13, Old DLF Colony, Near Sector-14,
Gurgaon-122001
Fax: 6333320
Malaysian -Indian
D-27 East of Kailash New Delhi
110065. Fax:- 011-6476713

Madhucon-Binapuri

7th Floor, Ship Building,Near Municipal

Market, Navarangpura Ahmedabad

Sadhav-Prakash

MCH No.555,
Arora Colony
Road No.3,
Banjara Hills
Hyderabad -34
Fax : 040-3543538

KMC Constt. Ltd

501,Dattashram
Hindu Colony
Lane No 1
Dadar
Mumbai - 400 014
Fax : 022-4144454

Ideal Road Builders Ltd

Indonesian
A-11 Goyal Terrace,
Near Judges Colony,
Vastrapur,
Ahmedabad.Fax: 079-6767249

P.T. Sumber Mitra Jaya

Korean-Indian
First Floor, A-9A,Green Park New Delhi
- 110016

L.G .Engineering & NCC Ltd

182

40

41

42

43

44

45

SKEC

Plot No. 1,
Udyog Nagar Estate,
S.V. Road,
Goregaon (W)
Mumbai-400062
Fax: 022-8758012/13

Dodsal Pvt Ltd

Building No.II ,
Plot No : C7/68/13 Hotel Fortune
Galaxy Compound
GIDC
Vapi - 396 195
Gujarat
Fax : 0260-410 367

M/S Patel Engineering

Jogeswari (West)
Mumbai - 400 102
Fax : 0226781505

Patel Estate

First Floor,
A-9A,green ParkMain
New Delhi 110 016
Fax : 011-650 0960
Fax: 6959045

L.G. Consturctions

Plot No.
,417,418,419 Market Yard Gultikadi
Pune-411037

Ashoka Buildcon Ltd,

46

Satav Constt. Ltd & Dena Rehsaz

47

M/S ShaktiKumar M. Sancheti Ltd.

48

Opp.Vasudhara Dairy,
Near Gandevi Chikhili Road,
Vill Thala
Navsari
Fax :02634-35206

M/S Satav Constt. Ltd & Dena Rehsaz

,C-3,Shree C S Housing
Society,Patrakar
Nagar Off. Senapati Bapat Road,Pune 411 016
267,Ganesh Phandnavis
bhawan,Triangular Park,Dharmapeth
Nagpur-440010, Fax:-712-544039
Maharashtra State Road Development
Corporation Ltd.,Nepean Sea Road,
Priyadarshini Park, Mumbai 400 036,
India , Fax: 91 22 3684943

MSRDC

183

49

Sunway Construction India Private

Limited

Mrurdeshwar Bhavan, 604/B,

Gokul Road, Hubli 580030 Karnataka

50

ESSAR

ESSAR House, 15th Floor,No. 11, K.K

Road, MahaLaxmi,Mumbai.

A.L. Sudershan Co. Ltd.

7-3-739
Rashtrapati Road, Secundrabad-03
Fax:040-7704354

51

52

53

54

207,Ganesh Phadnavis Bhawan,

Near Trikoni Park,
Dharampeth,
Nagpur - 440 010
Faxs : 0712-544039

Shaktikumar M. Sancheti Ltd

Murli Bhawan
10-A,Ashok Marg,
Lucknow - 226 001 Site Office : House
No :302 ,Tamil Nadu Housing Board,
By pass Road,
First Phase
Krishnagiri

Bholasingh Jaiprakash Const. Ltd

Afcons House,
16,Shah Industrial Estate ,
Veera Desai Road,
Azad Nagar,
P.Box No.11978,
Andheri (W),
Mumbai - 400 053.
Tele Fax: 022-6369052

Afcons Infrastructure Ltd

Source NHAI Website

184

24. REFERENCE

1.

Geosynthetics Manufacturing Association www.gmanow.com

2.

Geosynthetics Magazine www.geosyntheticmagazine.com

3.

National highway Authority of India ( NHAI) www.nhai.org

4.

Central Road Research Institute http://www.crridom.gov.in/

5.

Ministry Of Textiles www.ministryoftextiles.gov.in

6.

Textbook Designing with Geosynthetics by Robert M. Koerner

7.

Textbook Geosynthetics in civil engineering Edited by R. W. Sarsby

8.

Bombay Textile Research Association www.btraindia.com

9.

Reliance Industries Ltd www.ril.com

10.Case Studies: Techfab( India ) Industries Ltd www.techfabindia.com

11.Case Studies: Shri Ambica polymers Ltd www.ambicapolymer.com
12.Case Studies: Garware wall Ropes Ltd www.garwareropes.com
13.Case Studies: Kusumgar Corporates www.kusumgar.com
14.Case Studies: Strata Geosystems( India) Pvt Ltd www.strataindia.com

185