Orthogonal Frequency Division

Modulation (OFDM)

OFDM diagram
Inter Symbol Interference
Packet detection and synchronization
Related works

Motivation
Signal over wireless channel

y[n] = Hx[n]

Work only for narrow-band channels, but

not for wide-band channels

e.g., 20 MHz for 802.11

20MHz

Capacity = BW * log(1+SNR)

frequency
2.45GHz (Central frequency)

OFDM is a special
case isofaFrequency
Multiplex
(FDM).
As an
OFDM
special caseDivision
of Frequency
Division
Multiplex
(F
a faucet,
in contrast
the in
OFDM
signal
is like sig
as
likeofwater
flow out
of a faucet,
contrast
the OFDM
(a) is like water flowisout
(b)
water comes in(b)one
bigcomes
stream
be sub-divided.
showO
water
in and
one cannot
big stream
and cannot beOFDM
sub-divided.
Fig. 1little
(a) streams.
A Regular-FDM
single
carrier
A whole
bunch of water coming
all in one strea
little
streams.
Wide-band
channel
Multiple
narrow-band
channels

Basic Concept of OFDM

(a)

Fig. 1 (a)Orthogonal-FDM
A Regular-FDM single
carrier
A whole
bunchcoming
of waterfrom
coming
allof
insmall
one stream.
(b)
Same
amount
of water
a lot
streams.
Orthogonal-FDM Same amount of water coming from a lot of small streams.

Think about what the advantage might be of one over the other? One obvious one is tha

Think about what the advantage might be of one over the other? One obvious one is that if I put
my thumb over the faucet hole, I can stop the water flow but I cannot do the same for th
my thumb over the faucet hole, I can stop the water flow but I cannot do the same for the shower.
So both
although
the they
samerespond
thing, differently
they respond
differently to interference.
So although
do theboth
samedo
thing,
to interference.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

Fig. 1 (a) A Regular-FDM single carrier A whole bunch o

Fig. 1 (a) A Regular-FDM
single carrier
A whole
bunch
of water
comin
Orthogonal-FDM
Same amount
of water
coming
from
a lot

Orthogonal-FDM Same amount of water coming from a lot of small strea

Think about what the advantage might be of one over the o
Fig. 2 All cargo on one truck vs. splitting the shipment into more than one.
Fig. 2Think
All cargo
onwhat
one my
truck
vs.
splitting
the
shipment
than
one.
about
thethumb
advantage
might
behole,
ofinto
one
over
thethe
other?
over the
faucet
Imore
can
stop
waterOne
flowob
bu
over isthe
hole,
can
stop
thething,
water
flow
but I cannot
do
So
although
bothIofdo
the
same
respond
differentl
Another way tomy
see thumb
this intuitively
to faucet
use
the analogy
making
a shipment
viathey
a truck.

Another
way
tohire
see athis
is to of
use
the analogy
of making
acarry
shipment
via a truc
We have two
options,
one
big intuitively
truck
or asame
bunch
smaller
ones.respond
Both
methods
the to interfere
So although
both
do the
thing,
they
differently
We
have of
two
options,
big truckonly
or a1/4bunch
ofon
smaller
ones.trucking
Both methods car
exact same
amount
data.
But in one
case hire
of anaaccident,
of data
the OFDM
exact same amount of data. But in case of an accident, only 1/4 of data on the OFDM tr
will suffer.
will suffer.
Send
a sample using
the entire band
Copyright 2004 Charan Langton

Send samples concurrently using

multiple orthogonal sub-channels
www.complextoreal.com

Why OFDM is better?

0
Wide-band

1 0

1
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 ........
Narrow-band

Multiple sub-channels (sub-carriers) carry

samples sent at a lower rate

Almost same bandwidth with wide-band channel

Only some of the sub-channels are

affected by interferers or multi-path
effect

Importance of Orthogonality
Why not just use FDM (frequency division
multiplexing)

Not orthogonal

Individual sub-channel

Leakage interference from

adjacent sub-channels

f
guard band

Guard bands protect

leakage interference

Need guard bands between adjacent frequency

bands extra overhead and lower throughput

Difference between FDM and OFDM

guard band
(b) Guard bands protect leakage from adjacent frequencies
f
Figure 9: Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing

Orthogonal sub-carriers in OFDM

Dont need guard bands
Figure 10: Sub-carriers in OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation

rd bands protect leakage from adjacent frequencies

ure 9: Frequency Division Multiplexing

rs

* x[1]

Symbol: 2 periods of f0

* xTransmit
[2] transmit

IFFT

* x[3]

Symbol: 4 periods of f0

Data c10:
oded
in frequency
domain TransformaNon to Nme domain:
Figure
Sub-carriers
in OFDM
each frequency is a sine wave
In Nme, all added up

Symbol: 8 periods of f0

efrequency
sub-carriers domain
are orthogonal,
i.e. they do not interfere
each
Transformation
to timewith
domain:
N/2 1

receive
t= N/2

j2

k
t
N

j2

each frequency is a sine wave

p
t in time, all added up.
N = 0 (p = k)
(6)

ram

Channel frequency
response
Decode each subcarrier
separately

FFT

al eciency without causing interference between the sub-carriers.

Channel frequency
response

Decode each frequency

bin separately

n input - a stream of Dtime

bits. Suppose we have nfft sub-carriers.
Time
d
omain
s
ignal
fsignal
fft = nsym symbols, where each symbol hasFrequency
nfft bits.domain
Here we

dnfft
the stream
is numbers
serializedto
and
output.
basic outline
of this
complex
produce
theAsymbol.
The bits
are
and
Receiver
d the OFDM
stream is Transmitter
serialized and output.
A basic
outline of this

Figure 11: Basic view of the OFDM Transmitter and Receive

Figure 11: Basic view of the OFDM Transmitter and Receive

Orthogonality of Sub-carriers
IFFT

Encode: frequency-domain samples time-domain sample

N 21

x(t) =

X[k]e j 2 kt

k=N 2

Time-domain

Frequency-domain
N 21

1
j 2 kt
X[k] =
x(t)e

N t=N 2

FFT

Decode: time-domain samples frequency-domain sample

N 21

Orthogonality of any two bins :

t=N 2

e j 2 kt N e j 2 pt

= 0, p k

Example

Say we use BPSK and 4 sub-carriers to transmit

g. 7 A bit stream that will be modulated using a 4 carrier OFDM.
a stream of samples

st few bits are 1, 1, -1, -1, 1, 1, 1, -1, 1, -1, -1, -1, -1, 1, -1, -1, -1, 1,

Serial to parallel conversion of samples

ts now write these bits in rows of fours, since this demonstration will use only four subFrequency-domain signal
Time-domain signal
rriers. We have effectively done a serial to parallel conversion.

c1 c2 c3 c4
IFFT
0 2 - 2i 0 2 + 2i
symbol1 1 1 -1 -1
ble I Serial
to parallel conversion of data bits.
2 0 - 2i 2 0 + 2i
symbol2 1 1 1 -1
c1 symbol3
c2 1 -c3
-2 2 2 2
1 -1 -1 c4
1 symbol4
1 -1 -1
-2 0 - 2i -2 0 + 2i
1 -1 -1 -1
0 -2 - 2i 0 -2 + 2i
1 symbol5
1 -1 11 1 -1 -1
0 -2 + 2i 0 -2 - 2i
1 1 1-1

1 symbol6
-1 -1 --1

-1
1
-1
-1

Parallel to serial conversion, and transmit time-1

1
1
-1
samples
-1 domain
-1
1
1
0, 2 - 2i, 0, 2 + 2i, 2, 0 - 2i, 2, 0 + 2i, -2, 2, 2, 2, -2, 0 - 2i, -2,
0 + 2i, 0, -2 - 2i, 0, -2 + 2i, 0, -2 + 2i, 0, -2 - 2i,

Fig. 8 Sub-carrier 1 and the bits it is modulating (the first column of Table I)

t1

t2

t3

t4

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) Tutorial

t5

t6

Carrier 2 - The next carrier is of frequency 2 Hz. It is the next orthogonal/harmonic to frequency
of the first carrier of 1 Hz. Now take the bits in the second column, marked c2, 1, 1, -1, 1, 1, -1
and modulate this carrier with these bits as shown in Fig.

bin1

Fig. 8 Sub-carrier 1 and the bits it is modulating (the first column of Table I)

Carrier 2 - The next carrier is of frequency 2 Hz. It is the next orthogonal/harmonic to frequency
of the first carrier of 1 Hz. Now take the bits in the second column, marked c2, 1, 1, -1, 1, 1, -1
and modulate this carrier with these bits as shown in Fig.

Fig. 8 Sub-carrier 1 and the bits it is modulating (the first column of Table I)

symbol1 1 1 -1 -1
symbol2 1 1 1 -1
symbol3 1 -1 -1 -1
symbol4 -1 1 -1 -1
symbol5 -1 1 1 -1
symbol6 -1 -1 1 1

Carrier 2 - The next carrier is of frequency 2 Hz. It is the next orthogonal/harmonic to frequency
Fig.
Sub-carrier
bitstake
thatthe
it isbits
modulating
(the 2nd
column
of Table
of
the9 first
carrier of21and
Hz.the
Now
in the second
column,
marked
c2, I)1, 1, -1, 1, 1, -1
and modulate this carrier with these bits as shown in Fig.
Carrier 3 Carrier 3 frequency is equal to 3 Hz and fourth carrier has a frequency of 4 Hz. The
third carrier is modulated with -1, 1, 1, -1, -1, 1 and the fourth with -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, 1 from
Table I.

bin2

Fig. 9 Sub-carrier 2 and the bits that it is modulating (the 2nd column of Table I)

Carrier 3 Carrier 3 frequency is equal to 3 Hz and fourth carrier has a frequency of 4 Hz. The
third carrier is modulated with -1, 1, 1, -1, -1, 1 and the fourth with -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, 1 from
Table I.

bin3

Fig. 9 Sub-carrier 2 and the bits that it is modulating (the 2nd column of Table I)

Carrier 3 Carrier 3 frequency is equal to 3 Hz and fourth carrier has a frequency of 4 Hz. The
third carrier is modulated with -1, 1, 1, -1, -1, 1 and the fourth with -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, 1 from
Table I.

bin4

Fig. 10 Sub-carrier 3 and 4 and the bits that they modulating (the 3rd and 4th columns of Table I)

If the path from the transmitter to the receiver either has reflections or obstructions
fading effects. In this case, the signal reaches the receiver from many different rou
copy of the original. Each of these rays has a slightly different delay and slightly d
The time delays result in phase shifts which added to main signal component (assu
one.) causes the signal to be degraded.

Multi-Path Effect
Faded path

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) Tutorial

0
0

Path delay

Secondary path delay

Reflected multipath

k
k

13 Secondary path gain

Tree
Line of sight path gain

Secondary path gain

Secondary path delay

Fig. 19 Reflected signals arrive at a delayed time period and interfere with the main line of sight
signal, if there is one. In pure Raleigh fading, we have no Kmain
signal, all components are reflected.
1

hc (t )
k (t
k)
k 0main signal and cause either gains in
In fading, the reflected signals that are delayed add to the
the signal strength or deep fades. And by deep fades,
we mean
thegain
signal is nearly wiped out.
Compl
exthat
p ath
k
The signal level is so small that the receiver can not decide what was there.
Normalized path delay relative to LOS
0

y(t) = h(0)x(t) + h(1)x(t 1) + h(2)x(t 2) +

= h()x(t ) = h(t) x(t)

Y ( f ) = H ( f )X( f )

in path
time
The maximum
time delay that occurs is called thek delay
of the signal
in that
environment.
k spread
0 difference

This delay spread can be short so that it is less than symbol time or larger. Both cases,
cause
frequency-domain
time-domain
different types of degradations to the signal.
delay spread
of a signal
thesignal is lost and demodulation must
Fig. 18The
Fading
is big problem
forchanges
signals.asThe
environment is changing as all cell phone
userswith
know.
dealing
it. Fading is particular problem when the link path is changing, such as

Current symbol + delayed-version symbol

Signals are deconstructive in only certain frequencies

Orthogonal
Frequency
Division
Multiplex
(OFDM)
Tutorial
Orthogonal
Frequency
Division
Multiplex
(OFDM)
Tutorial

Frequency Selective Fading

14 14

Fig. 20 (a) The

signal we want
to send andO
the
channel
frequency
response are well matched.
A
Frequency
selecNve
fading:
nly
some
sub-carriers
get a(b)
ected
fading channel has frequencies that do not allow anything to pass. Data is lost sporadically. (c) With
OFDM, where we have many little sub-carriers, only a small sub-set of the data is lost due to fading.

Symbol

Symbol

Increase distance from car in front to avoid splash. The reach of splash is same as
Fig. of
21asignal.
Delay Fig.
spread
like the
splash
you might
get from the
car sa
spread
22aisshows
theundesired
symbol and
its splash.
In composite,
these
fading,
the front
similarly
a splash
backwards
which we wish to
noise
and affect
thesymbol
beginning
of the throws
next symbol
as shown
in (b).

Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)

The delayed version of a symbol overlaps

with the adjacent symbol

Increase distance from car in front to avoid splash. The reach of splash is same
spread of a signal. Fig. 22a shows the symbol and its splash. In composite, these
noise and affect the beginning of the next symbol as shown in (b).

Fig. 21 The PSK symbol and its delayed version.

(a) The delayed, attenuated signal and (b) composite interference.

To mitigate
this noise at theto
front avoid
of the symbol,
we willis
move
One simple
solution
this
toour symbol further
region
as shown
below.
A little
bit of blank space has been added
Fig. of
21 delay
The spread
PSK symbol
and its
delayed
version.
(a) a
Thetoguard-band
delayed,
attenuated
signal and (b) composite interference.
symbols
catch the
delay spread.
introduce

To mitigate this noise at the front of the symbol, we will move our symbol furth
region of delay spread as shown below. A little bit of blank space has been adde
symbols to catch the delay spread.

and symbol back so the arriving delayed signal peters out in the gray r
Fig 22Guard
Movebthe
interference to the next symbol!

Cyclic Prefix (CP)

However, we dont know the delay spread
exactly

The hardware doesnt allow blank space because it needs

to send out signals continuously

Solution: Cyclic Prefix

Make the symbol period longer by copying the tail and

glue it in the front

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) Tutorial

Symbol 2

Symbol 1

Copy this part at front

Copy this part at front

In 802.11,
CP:data = 1:4

Portion added in
the front

Original symbol

Extension

Original symbol

17

not want the start of the symbol to fall in this region, so lets just sli
that the start of the original symbol lands at the outside of this zone
something.

Cyclic Prefix (CP)

Fig. of
24 the
If weusage
move the
just put
in convenient filler
Because
ofsymbol
FFT, back
the and
signal
is periodic

have a continuous signal but one that can get corrupted and we dont
anyway before demodulating.

FFT(










)


=



e
xp(-2j
f)*FFT(









)

Slide the symbol to start at the edge of the delay spread time and th
copy
ofvwhat
symbol.
delayed
ersion turns out to be tail end of theoriginal
signal

wanttime
the start
of the symbol
to be out of the
Delay1.inWethe
domain
corresponds
to delay spread zon
2. We start the signal at the new boundary such that the actual sym
rotation
in the frequency domain
zone.

Can still obtain the correct signal in the frequency

We will
extending the symbol
so it is 1.25 times as long, to do t
domain
bybe
compensating
this rotation

symbol and glue it in the front. In reality, the symbol source is cont

Cyclic Prefix (CP)

w/o mulNpath y(t) FFT( ) Y[k] = H[k]X[k]
original signal

w mulNpath y(t) FFT( ) Y[k] = (1+exp(-2jk))*X[k]

= H[k]X[k]

original signal + delayed-version signal

Lump the phase shid in H

We extend the symbol into the empty space, so the actual symbol i

Side Benefit of CP

But now the start of the symbol is still in the danger zone, and this
our symbol
the slicereven
needs if
it inthe
order to make a d
Allowthing
theabout
signal
to be since
decoded
not want the start of the symbol to fall in this region, so lets just sli
packet
is detected after some delay
that the start of the original symbol lands at the outside of this zone
something.

Fig. 24undecodable
Ifdecodable
we move the symbol back and just put in convenient filler
have a continuous signal but one that can get corrupted and we dont
anyway before demodulating.

Slide the symbol to start at the edge of the delay spread time and th
copy of what turns out to be tail end of the symbol.

OFDM Diagram
Modulation

Transmitter
S/P

IFFT

Insert
CP

P/S

D/A

channel

De-mod

+
P/S

FFT

remove
CP

Receiver

S/P

A/D

noise

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) Tutorial

Unoccupied Subcarriers

Edge sub-carriers are more vulnerable to

errors under discrete FFT

Frequency might be shifted due to noise or multi-path

Leave them unused

In 802.11, only 48 of 64 bins are occupied bins

Is it really worth to use OFDM when it costs so

many overheads (CP, unoccupied bins)?

Packet Detection
Packet Packet Packet
An
Mn=An/Bn

Bn
threshold

Double sliding window packet detection

Optimal threshold depends on the receiving
power

Packet Detection
preamble preamble
An

Bn
threshold

Use cross-correlation to detect the

preamble

Synchronization
DAC (Tx)

ADC (Rx)

DAC (at Tx) and ADC (at Rx) never have

exactly the sampling period

A slow shift of the symbol timing point, which

rotates subcarriers
Intercarrier interference (ICI), which causes loss
of the orthogonality of the subcarriers

Carrier Frequency Offset (CFO)

ftx
DAC (Tx)
frx
ADC (Rx)

The oscillators of Tx and Rx are not typically

tuned to identical frequencies

Up-convert baseband signal sn to passband signal

yn=sn*ej2ftxnTs
Down-convert passband signal yn back to
rn=sn*ej2ftxnTs*e-j2frxnTs=sn*ej2fnTs
Error accumulates

Correct CFO in Time Domain

rn=sn*ej2fnT rn+N=sn+N*ej2f(n+N)T
s

Sn+N

sn

Symbol 2

Symbol 1

*
z = rn rn+N
n=1
L

*
n n+N

rr

= sn e

j 2 f nTs *
j 2 f (n+N )Ts
n+N

=e

j 2 f NTs

=e

j 2 f NTs

*
n n+N

ss
sn

*
= e j 2 f NTs sn sn+N
n=1
L

=e

j 2 f NTs

n=1

1
f =
z
2 NTs

Sampling Frequency Offset (SFO)

DAC (Tx)

ADC (Rx)
t

The transmitter and receiver may sample the

signal at slightly different offset

Rotate the signal

Yi=HiXi * ej2tiNs/Nfft
All subcarriers experience the same sampling
delay, but have different frequencies

Sample Rotation due to SFO

xx x
x x x x
x

Symbol 3

Symbol 2
Symbol 1

x x
x x
x x x
x

x xx x
x xx x

x x x
x x
x x x

Ideal BPSK signals (No rotaNon)

Signals keep rotaNng

Correct SFO in Frequency Domain

1

2tNs/Nn (SFO)

2fTs (Residual CFO)

Change in phase between Tx and Rx ader CFO correcNon

SFO: slop; residual CFO: intersection of y-axis

Data-aided Phase Tracking

x
x

x
x

2tNs/Nn (SFO)

2fTs (Residual CFO)

regression

Change in phase between Tx and Rx ader CFO correcNon

Using pilot bits (known samples) to compute

Hi*ej2tiNs/N =Yi/Xi
fft

Find the phase change experienced by the pilot bits using

regression
Update HI = Hi*ej2tiNs/N for every symbol
fft

After Phase Tracking

Q
Symbol 2
x x x
x x
x x x

Ader correcNon

x x
x x
x x x
x

Symbol 1
I

Nondata-aided Phase Tracking

Q
Symbol 1
x x x
x x
x x x

x x
x x
x x x
x

OFDM Diagram
Modulation

Transmitter
S/P

IFFT

Insert
CP

P/S

D/A

channel

FFT

remove
CP

Receiver

S/P

Correct CFO

P/S

Phase track

De-mod

+
A/D

noise