Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chess Player
(formerly titled: Psychoanalytic Observations
on Chess and Chess Masters)
by Reuben Fine
Ernest Jones
Company,
w. c. 2.
Ltd.,
the Psycho
anal)'tic Review.
This edition also contains a revised selection of
of two
CONTE N TS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.........................................................................................
Page 73
ILLUSTRATIONS
Frontispiece
facing page
Reuben Fine
Howard Staunton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
Adolf Anderssen
30
30
Wilhelm Steinitz
Paul Morphy
31
31
Emanuel Lasker
Jose Raul Capablanca ................................
Alexander Alekhinc ..................................
52
52
Max Euwe
53
53
I
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
( 24),
Coriat
( 8),
Menninger
1925,
1)
Memory
a) Memory and grasp
(Aufnahmevermogen)
of
2)
Attention
e) Scope of attention
f ) Ability to concentrate attention on the chess
board
g) Distribution of attention
(ability to
note
( 5)
there
indefinitely.
In 1938, the Dutch psychologist A. de Groot (10), who
is also a chess master, analyzed the thought processes of a num
ber of chess masters and some amateurs. Perhaps his most
useful finding is the confirmation that the chess player in analyz
ing a position, goes through much the same kind of process that
the research worker goes through in solving a problem. The
chess player is in a state of continual tension and uncertainty
until he finds the right move and in many cases cannot be
sure what the right move is.
It would be easy enough for contemporary psychologists
with their mastery of psychometric techniques and factor analy
sis to give a battery of tests to chess experts and factor out those
abilities which correlate well with chess skill. In the absence
of such a study the above findings can only be considered to
be of suggestive value.
2
GENERAL REMARKS ON CHESS
CHESS IS
In many chess clubs there is at least one man who has given
up everything else in life for the game-a man who eats, thinks
and sleeps chess. Sometimes he is a professional and ekes out
a meager living at it ; more often not, but he is always a man
with fanatical devotion.
So enticing is this prospect of abandoning the world for
chess that many men realistically recognize the danger, forsake
the game entirely, and come back to it only when the other
concerns are out of the way.
An unknown ecclesiastic of the 1 7th century has penned
a vivid description of the kind of appeal that chess exerts. He
calls it "The Evils of Chess" ( 20) :
I.
It is a great time-waster. How many precious
hours ( which can never be recalled) have I pro
fusely spent in this game!
II. It hath had with me a fascinating property ;
I have been bewitched by it: when I have begun,
I have not had the power to give over.
III. It hath not done with me, when I have done
with it. It hath followed me into my study, into my
pulpit ; when I have been praying or preaching, I have
( in my thoughts ) been playing at chess ; than I have
had, as it were, a chess-board before my eyes. . . .
IV. It hath caused me to break many solemn
resolutions ; nay, vows and promises. Sometimes I have
obliged myself, in the most solemn manner, to play
but so many mates at a time, or with any one person,
and anon I have broken these obligations and
promises . . . .
V. It hath wounded my conscience and broken
my peace. I have had sad reflections upon it, when
I have been most serious. I find, if I were now to die,
7
Here
reach
the
shah
shah.
All
Fou
Fyerz,
or jester in French,
Lilufer
or runner
in German.
Except for the King chess is a simple logical construction
on the board. There is one piece which moves along diagonals
(the Bishop), one which moves along ranks and files (the Rook),
one piece which moves only forward (the Pawn), and when
it can no longer move forward turns into another piece which
allows it mobility
10
the goal is
the King as
11
12
(promote)
13
14
time limit on
2 Y2
2 Y2
15
16
"Shminkus
thinking.
These various polarities help to clarify the thinking process.
The ego uses intellectual means and fantasies to handle the
conflicts. But it does not allow this process to go too far. Be
cause of the nature of the game the player is always brought
back to reality. Thought replaces action, but action also inter
rupts the unimpeded flow of thought. In this respect the chess
player differs, say, from the day-dreamer or schizoid who is
under no external compulsion to give up his reveries.
The thinking process itself alternates between one which
makes demands of a very high order, comparable in some ways
17
1952,
(9)
in
(21, 22).
18
19
20
21
chess
(6 )
24
25
3
THE WORLD CHAMPIONS
s
i
like Botvinnik, can attack and defend equally well. Others, like
Alekhine, can attack but defend poorly. Still others, like Re
shevsky, can defend but attack badly. Usually masters adhere
to certain openings which fit in with their temperaments.
The outstanding features of Staunton's chess style were its
eclecticism and its placidity. No brilliant games of his have
survived ; he won chiefly because of his ability to exploit his
opponent's mistakes. He avoided the va banque gambits which
were so popular at the time. This ultra-conservatism contrasts
markedly with his outspoken aggression away from the chess
board. Such apparent contradictions are not at all uncommon.
The mild passive man can play brilliant chess, let his aggression
out on the chess board ; the aggressive man can compensate
by playing quiet chess.
2 ) ADOLF ANDERS SEN ( 1 8 1 8- 1 87 9 ) was in many re
spects the opposite of Staunton. He was born in Breslau, spent
several years as a tutor in a private family, then served as in
structor in German and mathematics at a gymnasium in Bres
lau for the remainder of his life. He never married, though
it is said that he could "give a gallant turn" to conversations
with women.
His active chess career began with his victory at the Lon
don 1 85 1 tournament. After that he played whenever and
wherever he could, though he often had to refuse invitations
because of his post as a teacher. But when he was not in a
tournament he played off-hand games. In fact, so far as one
can see, apart from his teaching his only real interest in life was
chess. Because of his devotion to the game, and his extra
ordinary achievements, Brnslau University awarded him an
honorary doctorate in 1 865, a unique recognition by the aca
demic world which has not been duplicated since.
Although he lost to both of his great rivals, Morphy and
Steinitz, Anderssen was never bothered by defeat. He loved to
30
Wilhelm Steinitz
Howard Staunton
A dolf Anderssen
regressive
expression in
words of
what
33
and
41
said
to
the
( "You play
F.
46
and order. His first book on the game ( he only wrote two )
was entitled Com mon Sense in Chess ( 28 ) . In the preface to
his philosophical work, Das Begreifen der Welt he says ( 27 ) :
This book is written for all men. It assumes noth
ing. Nevertheless, in writing it a certain class of reader
has been kept in mind : it appeals preferably to those
educated people who have still kept their simplicity.
If it succeeds with complicated people, it will simplify
them.
The search for clarity would for Lasker be specifically tied
up with the wish to deny or "regulate" his sexual impulses. We
may recall his statement that when he married he became
husband, father and grandfather all in one stroke. It is per
haps no accident that the two opening variations which bear
his name ( the Exchange Variation in the Ruy Lopez and Las
ker's Defense in the Queen's Gambit Declined ) both involve
an unusually early exchange of Queens ; that is, to clarify the
situation he gets rid of women.
6 ) . Jos E RAUL CAPABLANCA ( 1 888- 1 942 ) was the Don
Juan of the chess world. He was born in Havana in 1 888, and,
as is so frequent, learned the moves at the age of five from
his father. In 1 900, when he was only twelve, he defeated
Corzo in a match for the championship of Cuba. His family
was well placed ; one of his brothers was a senator, and others
occupied high positions in the life of that country.
He was sent to New York to study engineering, but after
a brief stay at Columbia University his genius for chess be
came so apparent that he soon left school. In 1 909 he trounced
Marshall in a match, and was recognized as the champion of
the Americas. In 1 9 1 1 he took first place at the international
tournament at San Sebastian, and it was immediately clear
48
A lexander A lekhine
him
( 10) ,
of modem times.
However, many other professions are represented among
the chess masters. While perhaps half come from scientific
fields allied with mathematics, the other half do not. Ruy Lopez
was an ecclesiastic ; Philidor was a musician ; Deschapelles was
a soldier ; Lewis, M'Donnell and Saint-Amant, business men ;
Kolisch a banker; Zukertort and Tarrasch, physicians ; Buckle
a historian ; Tartakower a poet. The young Russian master Tai
manov is a concert pianist. There was a chess master named
Harmonist who danced at the Opera House in Vienna. There
was even one who was a professional strong man. There was
a serf on an Indian estate, Sultan Khan, who was almost illiter
ate ; he comes closest to the chess champion of Stefan Zweig's
novelette The Ro ya/, Game
( 39 ) ,
idiot savant.
The personality structures of the champion show some
marked similarities if we divide them in two groups. In one we
have Morphy, Steinitz, Capablanca and Alekhine, who devoted
59
is
Undemeath
60
came after his defeat by Lasker ; with the others it came after
a series of victories.
In order to accomplish what they did all four had to work
very hard. The grandiose wishes could not be satisfied by simple
daydreaming. Their successes could be achieved only after long
and careful preparation. For this much ego strength is needed,
which again fits in with the theoretical analysis. Some of these
men, like Steinitz and Capablanca would have seemed more
or less normal by customary standards. Only a more refined
analysis serves to bring out the neurotic conflicts which troubled
them.
All four were well endowed men who did not care to use
their abilities outside of chess. Particularly striking is their gift
for languages : Alekhine, Capablanca and Morphy were all
fluent linguists, while Steinitz, although he was born in Prague,
became a master of English prose.
The role which chess played in the lives of these men is
clear enough : it served as a vehicle for the gratification of their
omnipotence fantasies. As time went on, these fantasies, which
were originally under control of the ego, became more and more
libidinized, and suffused an increasing portion of the personality.
In almost every respect, the other group, the non-heroes,
show exactly opposite tendencies. They had no myths built up
about them, although they could easily have done so. Staunton
and Anderssen both could have claimed the title of champion of
the world , but they had other satisfactions in life, and did not
have to do so. When Lasker was alive, the critics liked to say
that he won because he was lucky or because he blew smoke
into the eyes of his opponent. He did not bother to refute these
fairy-tales.
All of these non-heroes, except Anderssen, have substan
tial achievements to their credit outside of chess. Lasker, Euwe
61
is
62
4
PSYCHOSES AMONG CHESS PLAYERS
Now
I WISH TO REVIEW
67
5
SUMMARY : THEORY OF CHESS
E S S IS
CONTEST played by two men which
CHparticularly
well to the conflicts surrounding
A
lends itself
aggression.
The other libidinal drives involved date mainly from the anal
phallic levels of development. Usually it is learned in the pre
puberty and puberty periods, and there forms part of the ego's
struggle for maturity.
The symbolism of the game lends itself particularly well
to these conflicts. Central is the figure of the King, which as
a piece is both all-important and weak, and derives its three
meanings from this combination. The King stands for : the
boy's penis in the phallic stage, the self-image of the man, and
the father cut down to the boy's size. Both technically and
psychologically the King is unique and gives the game its dis
tinctive flavoring.
The ego of the chess player employs many intellectual
defenses. There is an alteration of thought and action, rather
than a simple replacement of action by thought. Real intellectual
abilities are needed to acquire skill, and the ego must be healthy
enough to put these to use. Aggresion is handled by a deep re
pression. Considerable narcissistic gratification may be derived,
both through the individualized combat situation, and through
the symbolism of the King.
In many respects the ego of the chess player is opposite
68
69
6
APPENDIX: TWO LETTERS
BY ERNEST JONES
(like
ERNEST j ONES
DEAR REUBEN FINE,
Many thanks for sending me your brochure on Chess,
71
ERNEST JONES
72
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Untersuchungex, 8,
1 9 30, p. 1 84.
3. Botvinnik, M. "The Soviet School of Chess." The Chess Review, 1 3,
1 945, pp. 7- 1 0.
4. Bousfield, W. A. and H. Barry. "The Visual Imagery of a Lightning
Calculator." American Journal of Psychology, 45, 1 933, pp. 353-358.
Abstract
in
Walter
1 4. Federn,
P.
Ego
Psychology
and
the
Psychoses.
Basic. Books,
New
York, 1952.
15. Fine, R. The World's Great Games of Chess. Crown Publishers, New
York,
1 95 1 .
Press,
New York,
16.
1 966,
as
73
22.
Kris, E. and Loewenstein, R. "Comments on the Formation of Psychic Structure." The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child.
International Universities Press, New York, 1 946. Vol. II, 1 946, pp.
1 1 -38.
The Hogarth
L. Psychoanalytic Explorations in
Art.
International
Uni-
28.
30.
---
1 940 .
3 1 . Menninger, C. F., Knight, R. P. and others. "Recreation and Morale :
A Subjective Symposium." Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 1 6 , 1942,
pp. 6 5 - 1 0 2 .
3 2 . Reti, R. Masters of the
H.
The
Chess
Player's
Handbook.
Porter
and
Coates,
Philadelphia, 1 8 7 0.
3 8 . Steinitz, W. The Modern Chess Instructor. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New
York, 1 889 .
39. Zweig, S. The Royal Game. Viking Press, New York, 1944.
74