Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Group members
Danushka D.G.
050069L
Gunasekara D.T.
050137U
050254B
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
PREFACE
This report gives a narrative of our final year comprehensive design project, which is the
production of Soda ash from the sea water and lime stone mines exist in number of places in the
country. The project is the part of curriculum of the final year B.Sc. Engineering Degree program of
the University of Moratuwa and in essence it consists of basic description of such attempt made by
five undergraduate students of Chemical and process Engineering Department, University of
Moratuwa. The content of this report are outlined here.
Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction to the report and the finding from literature survey is given
in chapter 2. This was conducted to study about the soda ash production. It gives general information
about soda ash, how it began, history of the production, the types of production, uses in industrial
sectors, etc.
Designing of compatible, large scale industry in a developing country like Sri Lanka is a big
task. Especially with matching technology and feasibility to the project in such situation is a heavy
work. Chapter 3 consists of the evaluation of the complete feasibility study under technical
economical, market.sectors.
Under chapter 4, we discussed the how we select most appropriate process for the Sri Lanka
through the various operate processes in the world considering the pros and cons of several models.
Chapter 5 is focused on the process description. It begins with the feed selection; and mainly this
chapter contents based on each and every unit operation of the selected process. Equipment layout is
enlightened at the end of this chapter.
The site selection and the plant layout are given in chapter 6. Chapter 7 contains the particulars
of the environmental impact assessment. This contains the major environmental impact from the
sodium bicarbonate process plant and the how to carry out processes of the effluent management.
Full details of the safety measures intended for the plant is given on chapter 8. After that the
safety aspects considering equipment is expressed in detail.
Material balance and energy/ heat balance done on behalf of each unit operation selected is
discussed in next two episodes chapter 9, 10. The overall material and energy flow sheets arranged for
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
the plant is summarized within too. The detailed calculations as well as the assumptions made have
been appended.
The final chapter is presenting the conclusion of this report a summing up of the whole project
with the benefits of the selected process and technologies are imparted in this chapter, as well how it
helped us improve our skill and knowledge. A list of abbreviations and the list of references are
appended at the end of the report.
28/10/2008
ii
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
When doing our Final year Comprehensive Design Project, we had to face many hardships and
challenges. It was with the help of many people that we were able to complete this project. We would
like to express our heartiest gratitude to all those people.
First of all we would like to grant our heartiest gratitude to our project coordinator, Dr. Padma
Amarasinghe, (lecturer- Chemical & Process Engineering department, University of Moratuwa) for all
the valuable advice, guidance, support and encouragement given through out the time. Dear Madam,
Thank you very much for spending your precious time to share your priceless knowledge with us, we
owe you a lot.
Then we express our gratitude to the department of Chemical and Process Engineering , all the
staff members of Chemical & Process Engineering department, including Dr. Jagath Premachandra
(head of the department), for all the assistance and big hearted support given toward while doing many
activities of this project and for including a design project in the final year syllabus. Thereby providing
us with a valuable opportunity to improve our knowledge and experience on doing a project, this will
come very useful when we go out to the industry as Chemical and Process Engineers.
We appreciate the support given by all the non academic staff of the Department of Chemical
and Process Engineering, especially the people who were in charge of the department of CAPD center,
for keeping it open at all hours so we could continue our work without interruption.
Then we would like to thank the staff of the Ceylon Glass Limited and the Holcim Lanka
limited for giving us permission to visit the glass plant and provide us necessary experience and
relevant data regarding this project.
Finally we thank all our colleagues of the department of Chemical and Process Engineering for
their help stimulating suggestions and encouragement.
Thanking You.
Group Members
Danushka D.G.
: 050069L
Gunasekara D.T
: 050137U
Jayakody J.R.U.C
: 050166G
Madurika B.N.
: 050254B
Weerasinghe.D.T.
: 050472P
iii
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
CONTENTS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iii
CONTENTS
iv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
4
5
2.2.6. Textiles
10
10
12
12
14
15
15
15
16
2.6.1.1.
Trona Products
17
2.6.1.2.
Monohydrate Process
18
2.6.1.3.
Sesquicarbonate Process
19
2.6.1.4.
20
22
iv
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
22
23
24
25
27
30
31
33
35
36
37
40
41
42
44
44
5.2.2. Calcinations of limestone in kilns and the production of CO2 and milk of lime
45
46
5.2.4. Carbonation of the ammoniated brine with CO2 to produce sodium bicarbonate
46
47
48
49
49
50
50
5.4.1. Brine
50
5.4.2. Limestone
51
51
5.4.4. Ammonia
52
52
5.5. Utilities
53
5.5.1. Steam
53
53
53
5.5.4. Electricity
54
54
v
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
55
55
57
58
60
65
66
67
67
67
68
68
7.1.5. Ammonia
68
69
69
69
70
70
70
71
71
72
73
73
7.4.1.1.
Total Dispersion
74
7.4.1.2.
74
75
76
76
76
76
59
60
77
vi
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
77
78
79
79
80
81
81
82
82
82
8.4.5. Drier
83
84
8.4.6.1.
Ammonia
84
8.4.6.2.
Soda ash
84
8.4.6.3.
Baking soda
84
8.4.6.4.
84
8.4.7. Pipelines
85
85
85
86
88
91
92
92
93
95
96
97
9.7. Filter
99
100
100
101
103
9.10.
104
vii
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
9.11.
Gas Cooler
107
9.12.
108
9.13.
Dryer
109
9.14.
111
CHAPTER 10:
ENERGY BALANCE
112
10.1.
113
10.2.
115
10.3.
116
10.4.
CaCO3 Preheated
119
10.5.
120
10.6.
122
10.7.
Slaking of Lime
123
10.8.
126
127
128
10.9.
CHAPTER 11:
CONCLUSION
133
REFERENCE
135
CD CONTENTS
Excel Spreadsheets
Soft Copy Of Report
130
viii
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
11
16
17
40
51
52
56
Table 7.1: Rough concentrations of the waste water from the distillation column
71
72
92
92
99
113
114
114
115
116
119
123
124
18
ix
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
19
21
25
26
42
46
57
63
64
65
93
95
96
97
99
101
103
104
107
108
109
113
115
117
119
120
COMPREHENSIVEDESIGNPROJECT
122
124
126
130
xi
Chapter1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION
Chapter1
INTRODUCTION
In developed areas of the world mainly in the western European countries and in North
America the annual dollar value of industrial mineral production has surpassed that for metals and
continues to grow rapidly. This is due to the fact of high income levels per capita consumption of
industrial mineral products in developed Countries exceeds that in developing countries. While in
developed countries industrial minerals and rocks provide inputs in many industrial processes, in some
developing countries with little industrial infrastructure significant portions of their foreign exchange
derive from exports of industrial minerals like Sri Lanka. Thus, industrial minerals are of great
economic value to developed and developing economies alike.
When we consider the Sri Lankan perspective as one of the developing countries the scenario
mentioned above applies without much deviation. Sri Lanka is a country which is rich in minerals and
natural resources, but these have not been utilized to an extent where they will contribute to the
country production and hence to its development. Sri Lanka as a county can capitalize on its exports if
it were to manufacture value added products from the existing resources instead of an economy based
on export of raw materials to industries in other countries.
Soda ash, the common name for sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ), has significant economic
importance because of its applications in manufacturing glass, chemicals, detergents metals and
mining, paper and pulp, textiles industries and many other products. There are many evidences to show
that people have been using soda ash extracted from earth in crude form, in glass manufacturing
industries since ancient times. But the production of soda ash as an industry itself, emerged only
during the late 18th century.
Raw materials for the manufacturing of sodium carbonate are readily available and
inexpensive. Main raw materials can be obtained from sea water and lime stone mines exist in number
of places in Sri Lanka. So the purpose of our final year comprehensive design project is production of
sodium carbonate from brine and lime stone. The comprehensive design project is done as per the
requirement for the award of the B.Sc. (Honors) Engineering degree.
The literature survey that was conducted as part of the project included a thorough study on
several soda ash consuming and lime stone consuming industries in Sri Lanka. Since the Holcim
Cement plant in Palavi will have a considerable amount of relation to the proposed plant, as explained
in later chapters a brief study on its operations was also carried out.
The results of the design project for the commercial production of soda ash are presented. The
project has been performed in two stages. The first part concerns the feasibility of the project, literature
survey and the second part presents the detailed material and energy balances.
Chapter1
INTRODUCTION
From the investigation into project feasibility, it is proposed to construct a plant using the
Solvay process for the production of soda ash and will deliver 50 tons per day of 99.5(wt) Na 2 CO 3 . It
is envisaged that this soda ash production facility will be located in Karadipuval near Puttalam. The
process has been tailor-made and designed to utilize limestone available locally at the North-Western
area of the country. Saturated brine from the adjacent lagoon is the other raw material utilized for the
proposed soda ash plant. Coke for the combustion of limestone in order to produce CO 2 for the process
will have to be imported. It is hoped that this project makes a contribution to further the cause of
national development by provision of a viable, cost-effective, and environmental friendly solution.
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
CHAPTER 02
LITRETURE SURVEY
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
Soda ash
Carbonate acid.
Disodium salt
Dry alkali
Molecular formula:
Na 2 CO 3
Specific Gravity
: 2.53
Melting Point
: 851.0C
Boiling Point
: 11.5
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
Commonly called sal soda or washing soda which usually forms large transparent crystals
containing 37.06 % Na 2 CO 3 and 62.94 % water. It may be crystallized from saturated aqueous
solutions below 32.0 C and above -2.1C or by wetting soda ash with the calculated quantity of water
in this temperature range. The crystals readily effloresce in dry air, forming a residue of lower
hydrates, principally the monohydrate.
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
Chemical composition
Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)
99.8 %
58.4 %
0.10 %
0.03 %
Iron (Fe)
0.0005% ( 5 ppm)
Bulk density
(0.96-1.04 g/cm3)
Particle size
The distribution of soda ash by end use in 2007 was glass, 49%; chemicals, 27%; soap and
detergents, 10%; distributors, 5%; miscellaneous uses, 4%; flue gas desulfurization and pulp and
paper, 2% each; and water treatment, 1%.
2.2.1 Glass Industry
Soda ash is used in the manufacturing of flat and container glass. When mixed in proportion
with sand and calcium carbonate, heated to the right temperature and then cooled quickly, the end
result will be a glass that has an excellent level of durability and clarity. Na2CO3 as a network
modifier or fluxing agent, it allows lowering the melting temperature of sand and therefore reduces the
energy consumption.
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
Soda ash reduces the viscosity and acts as a fluxing agent in glass melting [soda-lime glass (flat
and container glass), fiber-glass, specialty glass (e.g. borosilicate glass)].
Na 2 SO 3 + CO 2
CO 2 + Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 O
2NaHCO 3
2Na 2 CO 3 + SO 2 + H 2 O
Na 2 SO 3 + 2NaHCO 3
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
enameling industry
Petroleum industry
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
Animal feeds to balance their diets to compensate for seasonal variations and meet specific
biological and rearing needs
Plastic foaming
Water treatment
Leather treatment
Detergent and cleaning products such as washing powders and liquids, dishwashing products,
etc
Human food products and domestic uses: baking soda, effervescent drinks, toothpaste, fruit
cleaning, personal hygiene, etc.
10
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
Competition between both processes lasted many years, but relative simplicity, reduced
operating costs and, above all, reduced environmental impact of the Solvay process ensured its
success. From 1885 on, Leblanc production took a downward curve as did soda ash price and by the
First World War, Leblanc soda ash production practically disappeared. Since then, the only production
process used in Western Europe as well as in main part of the world is the Solvay process.
In the meantime and mainly since the twenties, several deposits of minerals containing
sodium carbonate or bicarbonate have been discovered. Nevertheless the ore purity and the location of
these deposits, as well as the mining conditions of these minerals, have limited the effective number of
plants put into operation.
Worldwide capacity of soda ash manufacture
11
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
Monohydrate Process
Sesquicarbonate Process
Carbonation Process
NaSO 4
Na 2 S + CaCO 3
Na2SO4 + 2HCL
NaS + 4CO
Na 2 CO 3 + CaS
A mixture of equivalent quantities of salt and concentrated sulphuric acid is heated in cast iron
salt cake furnance. Hydrochloric acid gas is given off and sodium hydrogen sulphate is formed. The
gas is dissolved in water and the mixture is raked and transferred to the muffle bed reverbratory
furnance where it is subjected to stronger heat. Here sodium sulphate called salt cake is formed.
The cake is broken, mixed with coke and limestone and charged into black ash furnace. The
mass is heated and a porous grey mass know as black ash is withdrawn.
12
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
The black ash is cursed and leached with water in the absence of air in a series of tanks. The
extract containing sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide and many other impurities, is sprayed from the
top of a tower counter current to the flow of hot gases from the black-ash furnace.
This converts sodium hydroxide, aluminate, silicate, cyanate to sodium carbonate. The liquor is
concentrated in open pans until the solution is concentrated in open pans until the solution is
concentrated enough to precipitate sodium carbonate on cooling.
The product is calcined to get crude soda ash which is purified by recrystallisation. The liquor
remaining after removal of first crop of soda crystals is purified to remove iron and causticised with
lime to produce caustic soda. The mud remaining in the leaching tanks containing calcium sulphide is
suspended in water and lime kiln gas is passed through it. The following reaction occurs.
CaS + H 2 O + CO 2
CaCO 3 + H 2 S
The lean gas containing hydrogen sulphide is passed through another tank containing
suspension of calcium sulphide.
CaS + H 2 S
Ca(SH) 2
This solution is again treated with lime kiln gas liberating a gas rich in hydrogen sulphide.
Ca(SH) 2 + CO 2 + H 2 O
CaCO 3 + 2H 2 S
The hydrogen sulphide is burnt in limited supply of air in a special furnace in presence of
hydrated iron oxide as a catalyst to obtain sulphur.
H 2 S + 1/2O 2
H2O + S
This sulphur is sublimed and collected.The hydrochloric acid produced by the Leblanc process
was a major source of air pollution, and the calcium sulfide byproduct also presented waste disposal
issues. However, it remained the major production method for sodium carbonate until the late 1880s.
13
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
14
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
cooled from 40 C to 10 C by evaporation under vacuum to separate ammonium chloride. The slurry
containing ammonium chloride is centrifuged and dried. The product is 98% pure and is marked as
ammonium chloride fertilizer with nitrogen content of 25%.
The mother liquor obtained after the separation of ammonium chloride crystals is recycled to
the carbonation vessels placed in series. Carbon dioxide obtained from ammonia plant and the calciner
section of soda ash plant is injected in the carbonation vessels. There is provision of cooling coils in
the lower carbonation vessels. Sodium bicarbonate is formed. The growth of crystals, of sodium
bicarbonate is controlled by the supply of cooling water to cooling water to cooling coils in
carbonation vessels. Sodium bicarbonate is thickened in a thickener and centrifuged. The sodium bi
carbonate is calcined to soda ash.
15
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
Chemical Name
Chemical Composition
Trona
Na 2 CO 3 .NaHCO 3 .2H 2 O
Nahcolite
Bredeyit
Natural sodium
sesquicarbonate
Natural sodium bicarbonate
Natural sodium bicarbonate
Gaylusitte
% Na 2 CO 3
content
70.3
NaHCO 3
63.1
47.1
Na 2 CO 3 .CaCO 3 .5H 2 O
35.8
Pirrsonite
Na 2 CO 3 .CaCO 3 .2H 2 O
43.8
Thermonatrite
Na 2 CO 3 .H 2 O
85.5
Na 2 CO 3 .10H 2 O
37.1
Burkeit
Sodium carbonate
monohydrate
Sodium carbonate
decahydrate
-
Na 2 CO 3 .2Na 2 SO 4
27.2
Dawsonit
NaAl(CO 3 )(OH)
35.8
Hankcite
Na 2 CO 3 .9Na 2 SO 4 .KCl
13.5
Sortite
Na 2 CO 3 .2CaCO 3
34.6
Natron
Only Trona and Nahcolite are the minerals those commercial interest. These Na 2 CO 3
containing minerals were formed from the original rock by the erosive action of, air, water, heat, and
pressure, followed by chemical changes caused by the action of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The
carbonate containing salts formed were leached by water and then concentrated and crystallized by
evaporation.
16
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
First Trona has to be mined by the room and pillar or long wall method mechanically.
Next, calcined Trona is dissolved, the solution is settled and filtered to remove impurities
(insoluble and organics), and the purified liquor is sent to evaporators where sodium monohydrate
crystals precipitate.
The monohydrate slurry is concentrated in centrifuges before drying and transformation into dense
soda ash.
Deposits from Trona lakes and solution mined Trona are processed as follows:
Carbonation of the solution in order to precipitate sodium bicarbonate filtration of the slurry and
Calcination of the bicarbonate to get light soda ash , recycling of the carbon dioxide to the
carbonation
Formula
Carbonate
Anhydrous sodium carbonate
Na2CO3
Na2CO3. H2O
Na2CO3 .7H2O
Na2CO3 .10H2O
Caustic Soda
( NaOH )
Sodium Bicarbonate
( NaHCO3)
Sodium Derivatives
17
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
Crushed Trona is calcined in a rotary kiln to dissociate the ore and drive off the carbon dioxide
and water by the following reaction:
2 (Na 2 CO 3. NaHCO 3 .2H 2 O) (s) .
3 Na 2 CO 3 (s) + 5 H 2 O + CO 2
The calcined material is combined with water to dissolve the soda ash and to allow separating
and discarding of the insoluble material such as shale or shortite by settling and /or filtration. The
resulting clear liquid is concentrated as necessary by triple-effect evaporators, and the dissolved soda
ash precipitates as crystals of sodium carbonate monohydrate, Na 2 CO 3 .H 2 O. Other dissolved
impurities, such as sodium chloride or sodium sulfate, remain in solution.
The crystals and liquor are separated by centrifugation. The sodium carbonate monohydrate
crystals are calcined a second time to remove water of crystallization. The resultant finished product is
cooled, screened.
18
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
19
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
2 Na 2 CO 3 + 3 H 2 O
The solution at 30 C was filtered and the pregnant carbonate solution is heated, sufficient
water is evaporated to form slurry of sodium carbonate monohydrate crystals and aqueous sodium
carbonate. The slurry was filtered and the mother liquor was recycled to dissolve raw mineral. The
regeneration was done by adding sodium hydroxide to the mother liquor.
The monohydrate crystals were dried and calcined. The most important parameters in alkaline
extraction process are; the dissolution temperature, concentration of sodium hydroxide and evaporative
crystallization temperature. The appropriate temperatures for the dissolution and evaporative
crystallization are 30 C and 100 C respectively. The flow diagram of alkali extraction process is
shown in following figure.
20
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
In a trona bed, the effect of water on the solubility of sodium carbonate will decrease due to the
precipitated bicarbonate. In the conventional mining technique, bicarbonate can be converted to
carbonate with a pre-calcination stage. The problem associated with the presence of sodium
bicarbonate in trona deposits can be solved by applying of sodium hydroxide solution. The required
amount of sodium hydroxide is the stochiometric amount that is necessary to convert all of the
bicarbonate to carbonate. The aqueous sodium hydroxide solvent preferably contains 1-15 wt% NaOH.
Using an excess of sodium hydroxide causes unreacted NaOH to remain in the solution and this effect
decreases the solubility of sodium carbonate.
21
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
By solution mining (wells, with injection of hot mother liquor returned from the surface facilities),
Nahcolite is separated.
The hot solution is decarbonated by heating. Then the solution is sent to settling and filtration.
Next, the purified liquor is sent to evaporators where sodium monohydrate precipitates.
The slurry is concentrated by centrifugation and the monohydrate crystals transformed to soda ash
by drying. The mother liquor is sent back to the solution mining
The basic process for the manufacturer of soda ash has not undergone much change since last
130 years. Developments however are taking place in the following areas:
Process technology
Operation technology
Improvement of quality
22
Chapter2
LITRETURESURVEY
23
Chapter3
FEASIBILITYSTUDY
CHAPTER 03
FEASIBILITY STUDY
24
Chapter3
FEASIBILITYSTUDY
Country
Bulgaria
China
India
India
Iran
Japan
Kenya
Malaysia
Pakistan
Romania
Singapore
Taiwan
Turkey
U.K.
Ukraine
Total
Avg price of 1kg of imported Na 2 CO 3
(Rs)
Average consumption per day
Value Rs.
619000
975407
4089598
83284
1
792000
1
100000
440000
725350
78
36000
469
175000
8,036,188
17120020
28721920
9342
101802615
2643973
4282
15948728
9510
3496878
13901583
19914608
26244
960489
824657
3573407
208958256
26.00
22016.95342
22.01695342
kg
MT
When we consider the total soda consumption based on the amount imported to the country it can be
clearly seen from the above graph (figure 3.1)that an average of almost 40 MT (2008)is consumed
daily. Also a considerable increase in the amount demanded per year is depicted in the figure 3.2.
Therefore a daily production capacity of 50 MT on a continuous basis is justifiable.
25
Chapter3
FEASIBILITYSTUDY
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
year
The present average imported price per kg of soda ash is `23`1. The cost incurred for the
production of a single kg based on the raw material costs, maintenance and operation costs and other
overheads will be far less than the importing price because of the availability of CaCO3 deposits in Sri
Lanka at a considerable degree of purity, availability of skilled workers at considerably lower wage
rates and mainly due to the avoidance of cost for freight services. But the lower price in itself doesnt
justify the high capital cost that has to be incurred for the implementation and construction of soda ash
plant based on the Solvay process. A further in-depth analysis with considerations of strength of export
market, pay back period, etc has to be taken into account.
When we consider the importing scenario there are considerable fluctuations in the demand for
soda ash and related products. It was noted that most of the soda ash imported to the country is in the
form of high dense soda ash. This is because high dense soda ash is one of the main raw materials of
the glass industry and most of the soda ash imported to the country is consumed by the same industry.
A main factor for the increased price of the imported soda ash in to the country is because of the fact
that different local companies import soda separately in small amounts and because of the cost
incurred for the freight services. Also as mentioned above the unstructured importing from various
suppliers and the unavailability of an agent to handle the soda import has led to higher prices. Another
factor that would lead to higher prices when importing is because of levies and taxes that has been
imposed on imported products and charges at the customs. Since soda is being imported to the country
at a higher price the related industries face restrictions in implementation and expansion because they
have a huge problem ofthe market share because of the high final cost.
26
Chapter3
FEASIBILITYSTUDY
The main raw materials for the production of soda ash from the Solvay process are Brine and
Calcium Carbonate. When we consider the availability of these raw materials in Sri Lanka, brine is
present in the form of sea water all around the country and Calcium Carbonate can be obtained from
sand stone or Dolomite reserves present throughout the country. Pure Miocene sand stone can be found
in the land strip stretching from Puttalam to the Jaffna peninsula. Dolomite reserves are present to the
middle of the country. Areas well known in this aspect is present in the Matale district. Also Calcium
Carbonate can be found in the form of coral reefs in various parts of the costal belt in Sri Lanka though
this is not an environmental friendly and feasible option. Also sea shells that is present in the costal
areas is a good form of Calcium Carbonate but this is not a viable and secure raw material source for a
soda ash production facility of the proposed scale. Therefore it can be concluded with confidence that
a local soda ash production plant will be able to get the essential raw materials easily. Therefore based
on this preliminary feasibility analysis it can be said that building a soda ash plant in Sri Lanka would
be profitable.
In addition to the facts highlighted and discussed above, the feasibility has been further divided
and analyzed as economical, legal and administrative; market feasibility as part of the initial
evaluations and technical, social and environmental feasibilities have been analyzed as a measure of
viability when work is in progress.
Impact on local industry- Soda ash is one of the most important raw materials for the
manufacturing as well as process industry. It can be used as a raw material for the production
of glass, polymers, etc. Also it is extensively used in the process industry as a raw material in
the production of various chemicals, fertilizers, etc. When soda ash is available locally at a
lower price and most importantly in form of a continuous, secure supply there would be a
considerable boom in the above mentioned industries. Also since the there would be
developments in industries that are in parallel with this industry. For example saturated brine is
required as a raw material in the Solvay process. Hence a salt production facility in the area can
be utilized to provide saturated brine.
Impact on economy of area- As studied and evaluated under chapter 5 the location of the soda
ash plant is designated as Karadipuval site in Puttalam. The Holcim Lanka cement plant and its
quarry is located in the puttalam district. The Aruwakkaru Limestone Quarry site of Holcim
Lanka Ltd is used to extract limestone to produce cement in Palavi plant of Holcim Lanka (pvt)
27
Chapter3
FEASIBILITYSTUDY
capital city Colombo of Sri Lanka. Other than few industries the area presently can be
considered as remote or rural. With the establishment of the soda ash plant and the completion
of Norochcholai coal power plant the area will comprise of 3 main industries and would be
similar to an industrial zone. The Norochcholai coal power plant already has many
infrastructure developments which include the development of a port. The development of such
industries will lead to considerable development of the facilities, economy and availability of
jobs in the area.
Reduction of Imports- When we consider in a macro scale there will be considerable amount
of savings when the production of Sri Lanka is increased. This in tern will benefit the country
as a whole because of increase in GDP, reduction of unemployment, drop of inflation, increase
of local currency.
Opportunity for export- There are several industries that consumes soda ash as a raw
material. Also there is a high demand for soda ash in neighboring India and other south Asian
countries. Though India is one of the major producers of soda ash in the world it utilizes the
Dual purpose method to cater the fertilizer demand in the country and most of the plants are
sited north of the country. Also the dual purpose method leads to higher cost for the soda ash
because NH3 used in the process is of high cost. Therefore there would be considerable market
for soda ash produced in Sri Lanka in the south Indian region. Also there would be
considerable demand for end products like glass that is made from soda ash throughout the
south Asian region.
Increase of production- The availability of locally produced soda ash will lead to a boom in
the soda related industries. This would lead to the possibility of expanding local industries and
emerging of new ones. Such an increase of production, production capacity and availability of
raw materials would make Sri Lanka attractive to investors.
Production costs- As mentioned earlier the availability of raw materials locally for the
production of soda ash in Sri Lanka itself will lead to reduction production cost. Also the
availability of skilled workers and manpower at a relatively lower wage rates comparative to
that of other soda ash producing European counterparts will lead to reduced cost. But it needs
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to be noted that the other overhead costs in Sri Lanka would be somewhat higher because of
high electricity tariffs and condition of infrastructure.
Incentives and levies imposed on the industry- Presently there are various levies and taxes
imposed on imported goods. But Ceylon glass which is involved with importing most of the
soda ash into the country for its production activities has a considerable concession as part of
the agreement with the government when it was taken over by an Indian company. Even
though this is the case if soda ash is produced locally the government would impose taxes on
imported soda ash to promote the local producer.
Government support- Since a soda ash production plant is a huge production facility and it
would be involved with providing jobs for considerable amount of people the government is
likely to act in favor of the local soda ash producer. Government support at a considerable
degree would be required because purchasing of land in the proposed area under Chapter 6,
establishment of infrastructure support, environmental impact mitigations, obtaining quarrying
rights for limestone, provision of security from terrorist threats etc would require government
intervention and support.
Security- As discussed later in Chapter 5 the most suitable location for the proposed soda ash
plant is at Karadipuval in Puttalam. Though more pure Miocene Limestone deposits are
available in the Jaffna Peninsula, it will not be a likely option because of the terrorist activities
present in the area and the on-going war effort. When we consider the site at Puttalam a secure
security situation has been prevailing for several years. Also a tight security parameter
presently has been set in the area which would be further strengthened once the Norochcholai
coal power plant has been commissioned. Therefore it can be said that the security threat or
risk is minimum.
Inflation and its impact- The present inflation rate of the country is very high. Therefore this
would negatively impact on the project at the construction and maintenance phases because
most of the equipment would have to be imported. But once the plant is running the soda
produced and sold locally would not be severely affected. But the competitive edge of soda ash
that is to be exported would be lost.
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Regional impact- A major administrative and management issue that would affect the
functioning of the plant is the environmental concerns and waste management. When the plant
has necessary control measure in-place, which is used successfully in other parts of the world,
this threat can be avoided.
Impact from other main industries in the area (Holcim) - An administrative issue that the
company involved will have to face is when obtaining quarrying rights to the limestone quarry.
At present Holcim Lanka is involved with quarrying activities at Aruwakkaru. Since this site
has already been reserved by the cement company obtaining quarrying rights and reserving of
limestone deposits would be necessary.
When we consider the economical evaluation as a whole after considering lagal and
administrative issues the implications are positive. But since this is a preliminary feasibility
analysis of the project in-depth cost and benefit analysis are not possible. But when viewing the
above facts and considering the economical parameters, it can be said with certainty that the
expected outcome would be positive.
Market trends Presently there is considerable market trend towards the development of soda
and salt related industries in Sri Lanka. This will result in a huge demand for soda ash which is
being used as raw material. Also there is tremendous potential for the development of the glass
industry. For instance Ceylon Glass moved from their conventional plant at Ratmalana and
built a new one at Horana to cater the increasing demand. Therefore it can be said with
confidence that there would be considerable demand for locally produced soda ash with the
expected boost in industry.
Allowance for expansion- As mentioned in the economic feasibility and later on in the site
layout selection there is considerable potential for expansion. The present demand for soda ash
is about 40 MT/day. The proposed plant has a capacity of 50MT/day with an allowance of 10
MT/day. In the event of a huge increase in the market a new plant or an expansion of the plant
itself would be required. The land selected under the latter chapter of site selection has
allowance for such an expansion.
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Sales generation- As highlighted above the current market price for soda ash is around Rs 25.
According to the present economic evaluation it can be said that a kg of soda ash can be
produced from a cost of around Rs 8 which means that the gross profit is considerably high.
Pay back- As mentioned above the gross profit per kg of soda ash sold is high. Therefore it can
be said that the payback would be less event though a thorough evaluation with a detailed
financial statements would be required for in order to estimate the payback accurately.
Sales and marketing concerns- At present there wont be any marketing concerns because
there are no other players in this industry. The only competitor would be soda ash importers.
But there are no big importers that have specialized in this business, currently in Sri Lanka.
Also since the government is biased towards the development of the local industry there would
be restrictions on imports once the plant has commenced production. Also since the no of
consumers if Soda ash is less a highly costly marketing campaign would be meaningless.
Distribution network As mentioned above since the consumers of soda ash is less the ideal
distribution network would be a one-to-one system. For example when soda ash for the glass
company can be sold to the Ceylon glass (pvt) ltd directly without the involvement of
intermediates and complex sales networks. This would benefit the producer as well as the
consumer because of simplicity and high profitability.
Infrastructure requirement- The proposed plant with a capacity of 50 MT/day would require
considerable amount of infrastructure and utility processes. Normally Solvay process plants are
considered to be some of the biggest plants in the world. The plant would require a road
network, railroad or durable road to transport limestone from the quarry, uninterrupted
electricity, basic water supply and process water, etc. The producers would have to build the
internal road network as required. In the event of building a rail network for the transportation
of limestone from the quarry the company would require the assistance of the governments.
The case would-be the same if the plan to transport limestone from the quarry to the plant in
Lorries and vehicles because a road with reinforced layer would be required. The plant could
fulfill its power requirement by means of electricity from the National grid and power
generated from steam/cogeneration at the plant. The plant can fulfill its domestic water
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requirement from the National water supply lines. But the process would require extensive
amounts of process water. Since the use of treated and purified salt water for this purpose
would not be feasible the need will have to be met by water from dug wells or stream/river.
Geological aspects- A process plant of this scale would require a strong foundation. Therefore
the stability of the bedrock on which the plant is sited, is of importance. The land of Puttalam
area consists of hard, moisture free soil. It has already been proved that the bedrock in the
Puttalam area is one of the best to locate process plants by the survey done for the
Norochcholai coal power plant. This is a positive aspect. But the soil in the area, especially in
places near the lagoon and the salt production plants the soil consist of salts which might be
harmful to the plant. By adopting necessary coatings on surfaces and having corrosion
allowances this problem can be solved.
Availability of skilled workers and professionals for maintenance of plant- At present the
district of Puttalm doesnt comprise of a considerable skilled and professional workforce.
Hence the human force requirement will have to be met by resident workers from other areas of
the country. But it is possible to obtain unskilled laborers from the area for the plant
construction activities and maintenance when the plant has been commissioned.
Availability of expert consultancy firms- At present there are companies that have extensive
amounts of technical expertise regarding the Solvay process. Some of them are given below.
Solvay and Cie SA, Belgium
AKZO-ZOUT Chemie BV, Netherlands
Asahi Chemical Industry, Japan
Polimex Cheepok, Poland
The technical assistance of such a consultancy provider will be required to oversee the
construction activities and provide process consultancy when the plant has been commissioned.
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Fabrication concerns- Presently Sri Lanka has the capacity for fabricating most of the process
vessels required for the plant. Other equipment that cannot be produced locally will have to be
imported or fabricated and shipped to Sri Lanka.
Imported equipment transportation- The port that has been built at Norochcholai is to be
used as a transportation channel for the imported equipment of the Norochcholai Coal Power
Plant. The same port can be used when bringing Heavy process equipment or vessels for the
proposed soda ash plant.
Social condition of people- The living standard of an average resident in the area is low. Most
of the population is farmers. The proposed plant will not have a huge impact on the residents of
the area since not much farming is done or vegetation is present in the chosen area. It cannot be
said that the plant will be involved to a great extent in uplifting the living standards of these
people, but there are certain direct and indirect means related to the activities of the plant
through which the local population can thrive and earn an extra income.
Resettlement and rehabilitation- This will not be a problem because the land chosen is a
piece of bare land. Therefore no concern of this matter would be required. But in the event of
placing rail lines from the existing one from the Holcim factory to the quarry, acquiring of
certain land plots from the residents will be required. But even in this case resettlement or
rehabilitation will not be a concern because this project will not need land from a process of
nationalization.
Social resistance- The construction of the plant will definitely have to face public pressure and
cultural resistance, as quite evident from other projects of this sort. The pressure would mainly
be based on environmental issues, pollution and waste disposal. These resistances can be
subdued to a certain degree by implementation of the best available pollution control
techniques and waste management principles and increasing public awareness regarding them.
This scenario as whole will not affect the decision of implementation of the plant.
Health and safety concerns- As mentioned above with the implementation of the best
available practices and by designing process vessels according to standards the risk of a
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disaster occurring due to failure can be avoided. By having a good training programme in-place
and by recruiting skilled and experienced workers there would not be a risk of health and
safety. Then it would not be a concern in the feasibility concern.
Employment- One of the positive implications of the plant on the surrounding community is
the increase in job opportunities. These jobs can be in the form direct or indirect means. For
instance with the start of construction activities of the plant many laborers (both skilled and
unskilled), will be recruited from the area. Once the plant is complete and has been
commissioned people across a diverse range will get job opportunities. In recruiting of
recruiting such people the priority will be given to the locals in the area because the company
will then not have to bear accommodation and transport costs. Also with the establishment of a
new plant various businesses would come into being, whose activities are not directly related to
the operation of the plant. For example many new shops and stores would be established by
external people to cater the needs of the employees, suppliers, etc. This would result in the
provision of employment as well as flow of money into the area. But on the plants perspective
relying on employees from the adjacent areas alone, will not be sufficient because the lack of
skilled workers and professionals in the area will affect the operations of the plant. Therefore
the company will have to provide transport and accommodation to a certain degree to attract
employees with the necessary traits from other parts of the country.
Local industry- At present in the Puttalam district, there are industries and commercial entities
that will directly benefit from the proposed soda ash plant at Karadipuval. For instance the
heavily spread saltern industries in the area discharge the Mother Liquor from the tanks after
salt has crystallized. But since this mother liquor with saturated Sodium Chloride is a raw
material for the soda ash industry the salterns can earn an income from their effluent. Also the
Holcim cement factory can benefit immensely by leasing out their assets like the quarry, rail
carriages, kiln for hazardous waste disposal, etc. Also the jetty/port that is being built in the
area can benefit from the activities of the plant. Other than these industries small commercial
entities like suppliers, caterers, transporters, etc also will get a new market onto which they can
expand their business.
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CHAPTER 04
PROCESS SELECTION
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4.1 Introduction
The stepping stone for the chemical revolution begun in Europe with the introduction of the
Leblanc process for the production of Soda by Leblanc in 1790. This industry used as raw materials,
salt, sulfur, limestone, saltpeter, coal, air, and water; its products were the alkalis, sodium carbonate
and sodium hydroxide. Cheap alkalis brought to the ordinary citizen those luxuries which had formerly
been enjoyed only by the rich and powerful: glass for bringing light into dark places, paper for
bringing the printed word into proletarian homes, and soap for bringing sanitation into cities oppressed
by filth and disease.
A highlight of the developments in the soda ash industry was witnessed when the Belgian
industrial chemist Ernest Solvay (in 1861), developed a method to convert sodium chloride to sodium
carbonate using ammonia. Other than the Leblanc and Solvay process there have been various
developments in the soda ash industry during the last 100 years. The processes that are present used for
the production of soda ash are given below.
Leblanc Process
Solvay Process
Dual Process
Also Trona and nahcolite based process are used in different countries but this is not an option
in the Sri Lankan context because the island does not have soda ash reserves which can be mined and
processed under these methods to yield soda ash for consumption. In other words Trona and Nahcolite
processes are used for processing soda ash reserves to remove impurities within them. Also there are
some plants operating under the Nepheline syenite process and Carbonation of caustic soda
method. But it is not possible to obtain soda ash of good quality from the Nepheline syenite process
and this would lead to additional cost for purification processes as demanded by soda ash consuming
industries. Also carbonization of caustic soda is not feasible for Sri Lanka at present because it is
dependent on imports to fulfill caustic soda requirements.
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While the construction of a Solvay plant would be more expensive than a comparable Leblanc
plant, it would require fewer raw materials; thus capital investment is higher but operating costs will
be less. With lower operating costs, the Solvay process will be able to drop the price of soda produced.
It can be said that the Solvay process is cleaner and more efficient where else Leblanc process is
crippled by pollution and waste. Also the Solvay process has a distinct advantage over its Leblanc
counterpart because of the continuous developments being carried on it, in other parts of the world
where else soda production from Leblanc process is one of the diminishing technologies. It is evident
from the fact that world production of soda in 1863 had been 150,000 tons, all produced in Leblanc
plants. By 1902 world production of soda was at 1,760,000 tons, where over 90% of the amount was
be produced using Solvay plants.
A very recent development in the soda ash industry has enabled the co production of vinyl
chloride monomer (for production of Poly Vinyl Chloride) and soda ash. Akzo Zoul Chemie
Nederland has succeeded in producing (on a small scale) vinyl chloride with soda ash as a co-product.
The process uses medium pressure steam and carbon-dioxide instead of more expensive electrical
energy (for the electrolytic production of production of chlorine). The overall energy consumption of
the new process is about one half that of the conventional method when caustic soda is the co-product.
Here soda ash is produced from the reaction of salt with a concentrated aqueous trimethylamminecarbon doxide solution obtained downstream in the vinyl chloride process.
Even though the advantages of the Akzo Zoul Chemie process are attractive, as evident from
the above process description soda ash would be a by-product in this process. This would mean that
the amount of soda- ash produced would be dependent on the demand for vinyl chloride monomer.
That would imply that the soda ash output would be governed by the demand for PVC in the market.
Also the capital cost that needs to be incurred for a plant involved with the cogeneration of both soda
ash and PVC would be relatively higher than that for a plant involved with only the production of soda
ash only. Also this is a relatively new technology which is still being developed and the rights for this
plant are restricted by the patent company. Therefore additional administrative charges and royalty
from the revenue needs to be bared.
The Dual purpose plant came into being because of the concerns associated with the discharge
of solid waste. The dual purpose is a modification of the existing Solvay process. It was developed by
a Chinese chemist Hou Debang in 1930s. It is the same as the Solvay process in the first few steps.
But, instead of treating the remaining solution with lime, carbon dioxide and ammonia is pumped into
the solution, and sodium chloride is added until it is saturated at 40 C. Then the solution is cooled
down to 10 C. Ammonium chloride precipitates and is removed by filtration, the solution is recycled
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to produce more sodium bicarbonate. Hou's Process eliminates the production of calcium chloride and
the byproduct ammonium chloride can be used as a fertilizer. The constraints of Dual process are facts
that it has to depend on the availability of carbon dioxide gas and ammonia from fertilizer unit and the
production of soda ash will be restricted depending on the demand for ammonium chloride in the
market.
The New Asahi process in a relatively new modification of the Dual purpose process. This
process came into being owing to the developments in the Japanese soda ash industry. The Japanese
soda ash industry was based on high cost imported salt. Therefore this new NA process was developed
which is essentially dual purpose process on a large scale. Many new modifications were made to
incorporate a more efficient and less raw material utilizing process. These modifications include
changes in the Carbonation section, cooling system used for cooling the mother liquor from
centrifuges, adoption of Ammonium chloride distillation unit, system of raw salt crushing, etc. It also
bears the same constraints of the conventional dual purpose process. In addition the initial investment
is very high for New Asahi (NA) process. This is because the New Asahi process requires more
investment to be made in the lime burning/lime slaking, ammonia recovery and ammonium chloride
crystallization sections.
It can be said that the effluent generation from Solvay plants is more compared to other process
plants. Owing to the requirement of placing Solvay plants with proximity to the sea, the effluent from
process are discharged into sea after some minor treatment which does not affect the ecological
balance because the composition of effluent compares favorably with sea-body composition.
Generally, a costal soda ash plant should go for the Solvay process whereas inland plant should opt for
Dual process near a fertilizer unit.
As discussed above the most likely option for the soda ash production plant is the conventional
Solvay process and the Dual purpose method. A comparison of the two processes is given below.
Solvay Process
Uses Brine, limestone and coke as raw
materials
Uses small amounts of ammonia and carbon
dioxide as makeup gases, while the bulk of the
gases are recycled
Soda ash is obtained as product
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PROCESSDESCRIPTION
CHAPTER 05
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
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PROCESSDESCRIPTION
The Solvay process relative to the production of soda ash could be summarized by this
equation involving the two main components: sodium chloride and calcium carbonate.
2 NaCl + CaCO 3 Na 2 CO 3 + CaCl 2
In practice this direct way is not possible and it needs the participation of other substances and
many different process steps to get the final product, soda ash.
First reactions occur in salt solution (brine). First of all, ammonia is absorbed (equation 1) and
then, the ammoniated brine is reacted with carbon dioxide to form successive intermediate compounds:
ammonium carbonate (Equation 2) then ammonium bicarbonate (Equation 3). By continuing carbon
dioxide injection and cooling the solution, precipitation of sodium bicarbonate is achieved and
ammonium chloride is formed (equation 4).
---------------(1)
2 NH 4 OH + CO 2 (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 + H 2 O
--------------- (2)
(NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O 2 NH 4 HCO 3
--------------- (3)
--------------- (4)
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Sodium bicarbonate crystals are separated from the mother liquor by filtration, then sodium
bicarbonate is decomposed thermally into sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide (Equation 5).
2 NaHCO 3 Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2
--------------- (5)
CO 2 is recovered in the carbonation step (Equations 2 and 3). Mother liquor is treated to
recover ammonia. The ammonium chloride filtrate (Equation 4) is reacted with alkali, generally milk
of lime (Equation 6), followed by steam stripping to recover free gaseous ammonia.
2 NH 4 Cl + Ca(OH) 2 CaCl 2 + 2 NH 3 + 2 H 2 O
--------------- (6)
NH 3 is recycled to the absorption step (Equation 1). Carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide
originate from limestone calcination (Equation 7) followed by calcium oxide hydration (Equation 8).
CaCO 3 CaO + CO 2
--------------- (7)
CaO + H 2 O Ca(OH) 2
--------------- (8)
Brine (NaCl) has to be treated before the input in the process to remove impurities like calcium
and magnesium. If not removed they would react with alkali and carbon dioxide to produce insoluble
salts contributing to scale formation inside equipment. Brine purification reactions are described in the
following equations.
2+
2-
Ca + CO 3 CaCO 3
2+
--------------- (9)
Mg + 2 OH Mg(OH) 2
--------------- (10)
Sodium carbonate formed (Equation 5) is called light soda ash because its bulk density is
approximately 0.5 t/m3. A subsequent operation called densification enables this value to be doubled
by crystallization into sodium monohydrate, by adding water (Equation 11) then followed by drying
(equation 12). Final product is dense soda.
Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 O Na 2 CO 3 .H 2 O
--------------- (11)
Na 2 CO 3 .H 2 O Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 O
--------------- (12)
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Brine purification
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5.2.2 Calcination of limestone in kilns and the production of CO 2 and milk of lime
Theoretically, in the soda ash process, the CO 2 balance is stoichiometrically neutral. However,
a CO 2 excess is needed to compensate the non complete absorption of CO 2 in the carbonation stage, in
the different washers and losses in the treatment of the mother liquid in the distillation. This excess is
generated by combustion of normally coke which provides an energy source used for limestone
decomposition, as well as the additional CO 2.
Burning of the limestone (natural form of CaCO 3 ) is carried out in a temperature range of 950
to 1100C. The operating conditions for a lime kiln fitted to soda ash production are critically different
from those used for lime production, because of the need to produce a gas with the maximum
concentration of carbon dioxide for its subsequent use in the process. This is done to the detriment of
produced lime purity, which will be less than that necessary in the lime industry. To improve particle
sizing of limestone loaded in lime kiln, screening is carried out prior to kiln charging.
In the case of soda ash plants, considering the quantities of limestone to be burned and the
necessary CO 2 concentration, the energy contribution is generally provided by means of solid high
carbon fuels such as coke, coal or lignite. Use of gaseous fuel leads to too low a CO 2 concentration in
the gas produced making its subsequent use impossible without an expensive reconcentration unit.
Raw burnt lime produced by lime kilns associated with a soda ash plant contains approximately
75 to 90% of CaO. Its direct use in the solid form is uncommon because of the difficulty in controlling
an adequate feed rate of a material in which the active constituent, CaO, is not constant. By hydrating
the CaO to milk of lime a better control of the alkali addition is achieved during the ammonia recovery
step.
Hydration of the raw lime is carried out in slakers (dissolvers) where raw lime and water flows
are regulated to ensure that the alkali content of milk of lime produced is as constant as possible. This
reaction is a highly exothermic. A part of the heat generated vaporizes some water which is released
from the slaker vent. During the hydration, fine inert materials contained in limestone (sulfates, silica,
clay, silico-alumina compounds, unburned limestone and others) can mainly be found in milk of lime.
Larger particles are separated by screening, then washed and recycled or released out of the process.
The unburned pieces of limestone are recycled.
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There two sources of CO 2 . One is the lime stone kiln which furnishes gas containing 35 to 40
percent CO 2 the rest mainly Nitrogen, and other source is the furnace in which the sodium bicarbonate
is calcined. it gets may be as high as 95 percent of CO 2 .This second portion of the gas maybe
considered as circulating. In some plants these two gases are combined to in the pump house and no
distinction is made.
When separate flows are used at the first stage absorbs 40 vol% CO 2 gas from the kilns into the
ammoniated brine stream from the absorbers, and proceeds to the point where most of the CO 2 in the
solution exists as carbonate ions. Sodium Carbonate at the second stage of carbonation occurs in the
Solvay towers. More kiln gas, and a recycled stream of up to 90 vol% CO 2 , are used to convert
carbonate ions to bicarbonate ions. More heat is liberated, and cooling of the tower contents is
necessary to assist absorption and to control crystallization of sodium bicarbonate. At the bottom of the
Solvay towers, where the stronger CO2 stream enters, the pressure is approximately three atmospheres,
giving maximum CO2 absorption.
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distillation is required to thoroughly strip carbon dioxide to avoid waste o flame and achieve nearly
0
complete ammonia recovery. The hot (56 C) mixture of wet ammonia and carbon dioxide leaving the
top of the distiller is cooled to remove water vapor before being sent to the absorber.
One of the major achievements of the Solvay process is the high efficiency of the ammonia
recycle loop. This loop circulates roughly 500 to 550 kg NH 3 /t soda ash from which the ammonia loss
is less than 0.5 % of this flow rate. The purpose of this important process distillation is to recover
ammonia from the ammonium chloride containing mother liquors recovered from the bicarbonate
filters , centrifuges.
After pre heating with outlet gas from the distiller, supported by the injection of steam at the
bottom of the NH 3 stripping column, the mother liquor releases almost all its CO 2 content. Addition of
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alkali normally in the form of milk of lime decomposes NH 4 Cl into NH 3 which is stripped from the
solution by injected low pressure steam at the bottom of the distillation column. The outlet solution
contains calcium chloride together with all the residual solid materials. Ammonia recovery yield is
controlled according to the permitted ammonia concentration in the released liquid. The lower the
permitted value, the higher the quantity of stripping steam and therefore the global energy
consumption, and the higher the cost of the ammonia recovery. This control can only be applied to a
theoretical minimum ammonia level.
After cooling and condensation of steam, the gaseous phase containing recovered CO 2 and NH 3
is returned to the absorption area for reuse.
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5.4.1 Brine
Sodium chloride (common salt) is extracted by evaporation of sea water. In several cases
mother liquor from salt production process can be used as raw material to partially replace brine when
the mother liquor has a suitable composition for the soda ash.
So for our plant, we decided to brought brine or mother liquor from Puttalama soltern. In the
Solvay process, the sodium chloride reacts in liquid phase (brine) which contains as much sodium
chloride as possible (around 300 g NaCl/l) and is virtually saturated. This brine also contains
impurities, mainly magnesium, calcium and sulfate.
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The raw and purified brine can be stored in open tanks made of mild steel, polymers, or in open lined
reservoirs.
5.4.2 Limestone
Basically, a high content of CaCO 3 in the limestone is an important parameter to avoid
difficulties related to the limestone calcination and improves production efficiency. The cost to
transport the inert part of the limestone from the quarry to the plant is also minimized. A limestone
rich in CaCO 3 will not only reduce solid matters in the effluent of the distillation unit but will also, for
those soda ash plants that have settling, reduce the volume of solids to be treated.
Particle size distribution of the limestone from quarries is generally between 40 and 200 mm.
The more homogeneous it is, the better the lime kiln will work but the greater the amount of limestone
fine by-product produced at the quarry. We decided to take lime stone from Puttalam, Aruwakkalu,
Eluwamkulam quarry.
5.4.3 Carbon for the Lime Kiln
Coke, and rarely coal, is used in lime kilns for soda ash production due to the necessity to
obtain the highest CO 2 concentration. Other type of fuels, natural gas or fuel oil, would result in a too
low CO 2 concentration in the kiln gas. This is important because the kiln gas is used further in the
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process for its CO 2 contents. Higher CO 2 concentration enables reduction of the equipment size and
ammonia losses.
The particle size distribution of the solid fuel has to be appropriate in order to get a
homogeneous distribution within the kiln.
Constituents
H 2 O [kg/t]
Volatiles [kg/t]
Fix carbon [kg/t]
Ashes [kg/t]
Net calorific value [GJ/t]
Coke
40 - 70
0 - 30
800 - 890
60 - 110
26.6 - 29.6
For the storage of coke requires no specific precaution other than normally adopted, that is
open ground storage.
5.4.4 Ammonia
The Solvay process for soda ash requires an input of ammonia to compensate for the inherent
losses from the process. The input is generally carried out as aqueous ammonia solution (10 to 35%),
or direct injection of anhydrous gaseous ammonia or by the use of an aqueous solution of ammonium
bisulfide. Ammonia addition may also be achieved by the use of ammoniacal liquor from coal gas
plants.
Storage of the aqueous ammonia solution in achieved in steel tanks. Specific precautions have
to be taken during works on the equipment, because some mixtures of air and NH3 are explosive when
in contact with a heat source or flame. When liquefied NH3 is stored, additional specific preventive
measures are required for safety.
5.4.5 Various additives
In addition to the major raw materials there are a number of miscellaneous raw materials which
may be added to the process for their various physical attributes: compounds to aid gas absorption,
compounds to avoid scaling, corrosion inhibitors, settling aids. These all may have minor potential
environmental
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5.5 Utilities
5.5.1 Steam
Steam is an important energy vector in the manufacture of soda ash by the Solvay process both
because of its mechanical capability (to drive a range of machinery including turbo generators, gas
compressors, vacuum machines,etc) and as a thermal energy carrier for distillation and drying. A
range of pressures and temperatures are therefore required to meet the process needs and to maximize
the energy efficiency of the process. LP steam is primarily used for ammonia distillation. The steam
process consumptions lie in the range of: 1300 to 2400 kg/t soda ash for recovery of ammonia
(depending of the applied process): The correctness of those values can be checked by material
balance calculations.
53
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PROCESSDESCRIPTION
Carbonation towers
CO2 compression
Distillation
Absorption
Calcination
5.5.4 Electricity
The gas compressors can be driven by either electrical motors or steam turbines, leading to a
range of electrical consumption between 50 and 130 kWh/t soda ash. The necessary consumption for
compression is also linked to CO2 concentration. Cooling water consumption is minimized by
managing different cross flow heat exchangers.
Heat recovery
Minimization of consumption.
54
Chapter5
PROCESSDESCRIPTION
Pre heat the air before enter in to the kiln by using the heated CaO to reduce the coke
consumption.
Use kiln flue gas for calcinations of Sodium bicarbonate in the dryer, further the CaCO3 feed
also pre heated by using this remaining heat flow.
The inlet stream in to the kiln is heated by using exit stream from the striping column.
The heat absorbed cooling water is used for the shaking of the lime.
Mother liquor from the filtration to the recovery of ammonia by the distillation off gas.
Careful control of the burning of limestone and a good choice of the raw materials allow a
reduction of the primary energy necessary for the operation.
55
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PROCESSDESCRIPTION
56
Compressor
Purified brine
Waste gas
CO2 from dissociation
Water
Flue gas
Gas Cooler
Waste gas
C
on
d
w en
at s
er ed
Recovered gas
Drier
CaCO3
Cyclone
Brine
Preheated CaCO3
Ammonia
recovery unit
Makeup NH3
NH3 Absorption
Unit
Lime Kiln
Coke
Carbonator
Unit
End Product
Preheated Air
Air preheater
NaHCO3 Solution
Hot Air
Cool Air
Pump
Cooled CaO
Centrifugal fan
Waste water
Filter
Ammoniated brine water
Filtrate
pump
shaking of lime
Vaporizes water
Excess water
Chapter6
SITESELECTION&PLANTLAYOUT
CHAPTER 06
Chapter6
SITESELECTION&PLANTLAYOUT
6.1 Introduction
The basis for the site of the proposed soda ash plant, according to the feasibility study of
Chapter 2 can be taken as availability of raw materials, geology, market, infrastructure, water
resources, cultural /social impact, ease of waste discharge and the impact on the adjacent ecological
systems. Also the process selected plays a major role in the location of the plant. The suitable location
for the proposed plant has been selected as a piece of bare land in Karadipuval near Puttalam (Figure
6.2). The facts that had led to the selection of this particular site for the proposed soda ash plant are
considered in the next section.
6.2 Site Selection Considerations
The process has been selected as Solvay process which uses concentrated brine and limestone
to produce soda ash. Therefore the availability of these raw materials is important in the site
selection. Brine is present all around the country. Since saturated brine is required the ideal
option is to place the plant close to a saltern. Presently salterns are present at Puttalam,
Muturagawela and Hambantota. Makeup ammonia for the plant will have to be imported. CO2
can be generated onsite by burning limestone. Limestone is available in Sri Lanka in 4 forms.
Miocene limestone is present in the land strip stretching from Puttalam to the Jaffna peninsula.
Dolomite reserves are present to the middle of the country. Areas well known in this aspect is
present in the Matale district. Also Calcium Carbonate can be found in the form of coral reefs
in various parts of the costal belt in Sri Lanka though this is not an environmental friendly and
feasible option. Also sea shells that is present in the coastal areas is a good form of Calcium
Carbonate but this is not a viable and secure raw material source for a soda ash production
facility of the proposed scale. The distribution of the limestone resources in Sri Lanka can be
seen in Figure 6.1. Therefore according to the availability of raw materials placing the plant at
Puttalam or Mutragawela is suitable. But Mutragawela is not an option because of the present
security threat.
When we consider the market availability in the Puttalam area no huge demand exists for soda
ash. But there is considerable potential that many industries will be built in the near future in
this area because of land availability and climate.
The population density of the area is very low. This has its advantages as well as
disadvantages. There amount of people affected by the plant would be less because of less
population while there would be difficulties in finding manpower for the construction phase
and the maintenance of the plant. But this problem can be dealt with by recruiting workforce
from other areas and developing a residential workforce.
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SITESELECTION&PLANTLAYOUT
The dry and sunny condition that is present throughout the year in this area is extremely
suitable for a process plant because loss of heat by cooling of process due to rain is avoided.
This also saves energy and makes it possible to obtain consistent product quality.
The geology and topology of the area has been assessed as being suitable for process plants
because of the solid soil condition. From the feasibility study done to assess the feasibility of
Norchcholai coal power plant it has shown that the area around Puttalam is one of the ideal
areas to construct huge plants and factories.
The possibility of a natural disaster like an earthquake, flood, etc occurring in this area is very
low. This is great advantage because the consequences of such an event will be very disastrous
for the plant.
When we consider the site at Puttalam a secure security situation has been prevailing for
several years. Also a tight security parameter presently has been set in the area because of the
presence of the Palavi air force base, and the security would be further strengthened once the
Norochcholai coal power plant has been commissioned. Therefore it can be said that the
security threat or risk is minimum.
There is a considerable amount of infrastructure development in the area. The port that is been
developed to assist the Norchcholai power plant will be of assistance in the process of
constructing the soda ash plant at the proposed site.
There is a sound network of roads in the area. These roads have withstood the constant
movement of container loads of cement and raw materials to and from the Holcim Cement
plant, salt laden trucks and food containers moving to the North.
The Puttalam lagoon has been naturally sited to assist a network of salt water canals. Most of
these canals lead to the salterns in the area. The white salt piles can be seen in close proximity
to the proposed land in figure 6.2. Also a canal network has been highlighted in light blue in
the diagram. The tanks with the mother liquor is just south of the proposed area.
Other infrastructure requirements like municipal water for general activities are available in the
area. Once the Norochcholai coal power plant is complete high tension lines from the plant will
Chapter6
SITESELECTION&PLANTLAYOUT
pass near these areas and connect to the National grid. Hence the capital cost that has to be
incurred in the event of power line erection in the construction phase will be less.
The plant will require a constant supply of limestone from a quarry at the North. The most
viable option would be to transport limestone via rail. Limestone for the Holcim cement factory
is brought through by rail carriages through a network of railroads from its quarry at
Aruwakkaru. Since the cement factory is present farther to the south of the proposed land as
seen the figure 6.2, the rail line from the quarry can be used to transport limestone to the soda
ash plant from a quarry at the north.
As mentioned in the technical feasibility the plant will require a source of process water. There
are several water streams flowing through the area which can be utilized. But the proposed site
has the option of using on-site water from the water pond that has been highlighted in figure
6.2 by a red circle.
Another great advantage of the selected site at Karadipuval is the availability of land for
expansion. There are several pieces of bare land across the main road to the west and adjacent
to the North and eastern boundaries of the proposed land. Also the availability of land can be
used to aid in the establishment of an effective waste disposal system.
Because the area is gradually transforming into an industrial area rather than an attractive
residential area the cost of land is low. Therefore the initial investment and cost for land in the
event of an expansion is low.
The proposed land has a main road on the western perimeter while it has remote roads on the
northern and the eastern boundaries. This is of great advantage because the access to the plant
will not be restricted.
A positive aspect of the proposed site is that it is not situated close to vegetation or agricultural
land. This is important because the impact on environment in the event of an unforeseen
incident is low.
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SITESELECTION&PLANTLAYOUT
Chapter6
SITESELECTION&PLANTLAYOUT
Chapter6
SITESELECTION&PLANTLAYOUT
Security Post
Office Area
Security Post
NH4 Recovery Unit
Gas Cooler
Gas washing
with brine
NH4 Storage
Filter
Carbonator Unit
Cooling Tower
Na2CO3 Storage
Slaker of CaO
Product packing
Product Storage
Dryer
Boiler Room
CaCO3 Miller
Kiln
CaCO3 Crusher
Water Source
Security Post
CaCO3 Unload
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
CHAPTER 07
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
limestone conversion in kilns, but in limited quantities or during abnormal operation since
all the gas is collected to a washing cooling step and thereafter is used in the carbonation
stage in a liquid solution
handling of soda ash and densification of light ash (hydration and dehydration) to produce
dense ash
It is common to use bag filters or wet scrubbers which significantly reduce the levels of dust
emitted to atmosphere. Roughly the dust emitted is around 0.10-0.15 kg of dust/t soda ash, and
represents a typical quantity of 50-75 t/year.
The composition of the dust reflects the composition of material handled, those are,
C from coke
Na 2 CO 3 and NaHCO 3 from soda ash and sodium bicarbonate production and transport
The most stringent environmental regulations in western countries require limit values of 40
or 50 mg/Nm3 for atmospheric emission of dust.
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
reintroduce these components back into the process, while CO2, CO and other inert gases pass out to
atmosphere.
7.1.3 Nitrogen oxides
NOx are produced inside the kiln by oxidation of nitrogen during the combustion. Since the
temperature inside the kiln are moderate (up to 1100C), the formation of NO x is rather limited.
Measurements in some plants indicate concentration after washing less than 500 mg NOx/m3.
7.1.4 Sulfur oxides
SOx are produced by the oxidation of sulfur containing compounds in the limestone and coke.
7.1.5 Ammonia
The soda ash production emissions of NH 3 represent only 0.2- 0.4 % of all emissions. The
main atmospheric emissions containing ammonia originate from the bicarbonate precipitation and
filtration stages of the process.
In addition they are a number of diffuse losses of ammonia from filters, bicarbonate
conveyors and from the handling and processing of the distillation effluent.
Performance of the stripping columns and operating parameters control (height, steam
injection, temperature control, monitoring of outlet concentrations)
Normally the emitted gaseous load is on average of 0.55kg NH 3 /t soda ash but the spread can
be very large, from 0.09 up to a typical range of 0.6 to 1.5 kgNH 3 /t soda ash from the production unit,
representing a release into the environment of 30 to 750 t/year for a 500 kt/year soda ash unit.
Considering the turnover in the process, the loss rate of ammonia in the process is therefore very low.
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
CO gas is virtually inert through the process. All CO produced must therefore be vented to
the atmosphere either at the kilns or through the carbonation tower after gas scrubbers.
Furthermore, provided the dispersion of CO and CO 2 is adequate and the stack construct
according to the standard conditions, no local impact on the environment or health are
expected or experienced.
Atmospheric emissions of SO 2 from the lime kilns are low. Because the concentration of
sulfur in the fuel (coke) and the limestone employed is very low.
The formations of SO x are limited due to low sulfur content of fuels used and some auto
purification reactions in the lime kilns. The small amount of SO 2 produced tends to be
fixed by CaO and CaCO 3 as CaSO 4 furthermore ,SO x in the kiln gas sent to the process
are absorbed.
Before discharge to the atmosphere, kiln gas may be cleaned and generally cooled at the
same time by washing towers.
Considering the type of release the very low persistence of ammonia into the atmosphere
due to its high solubility in rainwater and its rapid turnover into the ecosystems by
biological nitrification/ denitrification mechanisms, the local or regional environmental
impact trouble is to be considered as very low
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
Alternatively, gas cleaning systems (normally bag filters) can also be used to collect the
dust as dry material. If dry cleaning is used, residual material is made of fine particulates
containing limestone, lime, coke. This can be collected separately and may be disposed
without further treatment. However this type of gas cleaning is difficult to operate because
the lime kiln gas may be too hot for the filtering media.
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
Table 7.1: Rough concentrations of the waste water from the distillation column
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
Some additional low quantities of calcium sulfate (CaSO4), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) and
trace elements are also present. Traces of heavy metal originating naturally from raw materials are
related to limestone, coke and salt composition; the process in itself does not add heavy metals. Given
the alkaline nature of wastewater emissions, metals are in major part insoluble and are included as part
of suspended solids. According to its composition, the suspended solids are classified as nonhazardous.
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
Brine purification
Ammonia recovery
In most soda ash production plants, brine purification effluent is discharged jointly with
effluent originating from the distillation unit. The typical composition varies according to raw
materials quality.
However different treatment schemes have been developed according to geographical location
of the production plants and the requirements of the local regulatory authorities.
Direct discharge of raw effluent, with or without partial removal of some fraction of the
solids, and with or without preliminary pH adjustment
Indirect discharge of waste water after removal of suspended solids and with or without
preliminary pH adjustment
Total dispersion
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
Settling ponds
The clarification by liquid/solid separation large quantities of suspended solids in aqueous
effluents is usually achieved in settling ponds. Fines of lime stones or solid particles settled in the
basin can be used to build up the walls as the deposit in the basin accumulates
The aqueous outfall is collected at several points through separators and drainage pipes to a
secondary channel collecting all outfalls of drainage.
Landscape impact.
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
Adjustment of pH
The typical value of pH of raw effluent is higher than 11.5 due to the alkalinity of OH ions
from Ca(OH)2. Theoretically the pH adjustment of such an effluent can be achieved by,
Mixing, in open channels or basins, with natural or raw waters containing dissolved
bicarbonate.
In practice, the pH adjustment of soda ash wastewater is usually achieved by mixing with
natural water according to the following mechanism:
Ca(OH) 2 + Ca(HCO3) 2
2 CaCO 3 .+ 2 H 2 O
Wastewater is mixed with available natural water (cooling waters after use or surface waters:
river, channel, lake, sea or underground water,) in a typical ratio natural water/wastewater at 5 to 10:1.
The formed CaCO3 particles are discharged or settled in ponds.
Appropriate hydraulic retention time for settling in quiescent waters is usually 6 to 8 hours.
Periodic removal of settled particles is achieved. This method offers numerous advantages: pH
adjustment mechanism is efficient and reliable; no consumption of supplementary reactants is needed.
The settled particles are inert.
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
Fines of limestone
Chapter7
ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTASSESSMENT
Calcium chloride
Sodium bicarbonate
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
CHAPTER 08
SAFETY MEASURES
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
Considering safety practices spaces between different areas and equipments need to be taken in
to account when deciding the layout.
Access points, walking ways and emergency exits need to be clearly indicated.
As lime kiln handle a temperature around 1000C it should be positioned away from the other
equipments.
Common safety measures for the plant are as following.
Visual indicators should be used in appropriate places in order to express information,
directions and warnings. Each equipment including vessels, pumps, heat exchangers, distillation
columns, furnaces, valves ect. And sub components of those) should be labeled and coded in order to
identify easily. There should be isolation valves for equipments in order to use in maintenance or
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
emergency and safety valves should be used so that accidents due to pressure increment can be
avoided. Identified risky areas and hazarders areas should be isolated and indicated through standard
indicators (warning signs). If any maintenance is going on or if there any special tests going on (ex: Xray test) those areas also need to be indicated with warning signs. In maintenance standard safety
procedures should be followed. Rotating equipments and sharp edges should be covered appropriately
in order to prevent accidents. Hot surfaces should be labeled with warning signs.
All the parameters which related to safety (vibrations, noise, efficiency of equipment, and
compositions of air, pressures in pipelines & vessels ect.) of the plant should be recorded as practical
and analyzed to identify trends. Measuring instruments should be standardized time to time in order to
maintain the accuracy. Measuring equipments should have proper positioning and lighting in order to
get the reading easily and accurately. Rotating equipments and moving parts should get a special care.
Those should be lubricated and tested regularly to make sure the long life of the equipment and safety.
Inspections should be done time to time in order to identify material and energy leaks and should take
corrective actions. Electrical wires should have a proper and full insulation.
Automated alarm system should be implemented in the plant which activate out of the given
safe region, so that it announce hazards situations when they occur, that may help to reduce the
damage. Automated alarm system can be integrated with isolation valves and safety valves to assure
more safety in the plant. Those equipments should be standardized time to time in order to keep the
accuracy.
Proper drainage system is important for safety in disposing materials. To avoid static electricity
all electrical equipment and metal components should be earthed. Buildings, structures, supporters and
equipments should have a proper strength to barer its load at work. High platforms, staircases and
ladders should be in the standards and should be properly maintained. Highly toxic or flammable or
radioactive materials should be stored in special areas. Special areas inside the plant should be
separated by appropriate arrangement, if those areas need special authentication to enter, doors/gates
and fences can be used. Whole plant or the land should be protected by appropriate fences and security
system.
Emergency showers and eye wash bottles should be provided. Instructions about personal
protective equipments should be worn in each area should be displayed. Mobile phones, lighters and
smoking will be prohibited in the plant area to reduce the risk of accident.
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
Lime Kiln
The Kiln handles high temperature and high amount of heat in its operation. Because of the
high temperatures, firing a kiln also does release volatiles into the air, many of which are toxic. The
kiln should have a proper insulation system which reduces heat transfer to the environment. It may
help to improve the kiln efficiency and reduce the adverse effect on environment. Even when the kiln
has more than adequate insulation, its outer surface can become hot enough to seriously burn someone
if touched or brushed against with bare skin.
Kiln mitts or gloves should be worn when handling any part of a kiln (other than a control
panel) while it is firing or cooling. Even after power or fuel has been turned off, kilns will
remain hot for hours. Do not open or touch until fully cooled.
Dark glasses from a safety supply house are recommended when looking into kiln spy holes.
These protect your eyes from the radiant heat. (Please note that regular sunglasses are
inadequate for this purpose and may actually melt.) Protective glasses may also allow you to
see your cone packs more clearly.
The kiln should properly vent to the outside. Every firing releases gases which will be irritating
to the body; they may also be toxic or even lethal if safety measures are not followed.
Follow the kiln manufacturer's instructions and use a licensed heating, ventilation and airconditioning (HAC) contractor for proper installation.
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
HAC contractors have equipment to accurately test the adequacy of the systems ventilation.
Light a match in front of the kiln's hood. If the system is working properly, the hood draw
should blow the match out.
Always turn on your kiln hood or vent prior to loading to prevent ceramic glaze dust exposure.
Gases given off by kilns when firing can cause respiration problems. This is possibility is
Carbon dioxide is given off during any fuel-burning firing. Overexposure leads to blood
oxygen levels falling, a decrease in hearing and pulse rate, and a rise in blood pressure.
Carbon monoxide is released during reduction firing. Exposure can lead to headache, dizziness,
fatigue, and drowsiness. Carbon monoxide can be lethal.
Sulfur dioxide can be released when firing soluble metal salts; it is a strong lung irritant.
8.4.2
As the ammonia absorbing tower handles brine ammonia and carbon dioxide, which create
favorable condition to corrosion, the contact surfaces should have the property of corrosion resistant.
Sprinklers and the tower should be able to withstand the load and safety valves should be fixed in
order the act in pressure increment. There should be a proper drainage system to remove the liquid in
order to empty the column. Column should be washed and purged with steam before entering for
inspection or repair.
Ammonia reacts corrosively with all body tissues so it is dangerous to allow contaminate air
with ammonia. Even liquid output of the Ammonia absorption unit can release ammonia to the air
when in expose to the environment.
Before entering to the area gas tight chemical goggles or full-face piece respirator, gloves made
of any suitable material should be worn.
Level C respiratory protection with full face piece or self-contained breathing apparatus should
be available for emergency use. Air purifying respirators must be equipped with suitable
cartridges.
As ammonia has a flammable property the tower should be separated from high temperature
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
8.4.3
Carbonator Unit
A safety aspect for the carbonator unit is much similar to the NH 3 absorbing unit because both
units handle similar chemicals and similar operations.
Carbonator unit has a cooling system which improves the efficiency of absorption. If the
cooling water fails to supply the operation in the carbonator should be stopped in order to prevent over
heating due to exothermic carbonization reaction.
8.4.4
Same as the NH 4 absorption unit and carbonator unit, the NH 4 recovery unit handles similar set
of chemicals. Unlike absorption in NH 4 absorption unit desorption occur here. So the safety aspects for
the units are also similar.
NH 4 recovery unit has a heating unit which directly injects steam in to the column to provide
required temperature to carry its operation. Safety steps should be followed in handling steam.
8.4.5
Drier
Dryer handles high temperature level (around 200C) in its operation which can lead to instant
fire if supply oxygen level goes up. So oxygen level should be monitored and CO 2 purging should be
fixed to use in an emergency. It will be very helpful if CO 2 purging is automated with oxygen set
level.
Air streams flow in the dryer is in high temperature and very low (theoretically zero) in oxygen
so it is dangerous to directly contact the flow. Appropriate actions should be taken to prevent such
situations. Workers should be trained to deal with dryer. Dryer room should have proper ventilation.
Pressure protections should be there to withstand pressure fluctuations inside the dryer.
As the dryer handles high temperature in its inside, so there should be a proper insulation
system. But although there is insulation the outer surface will be hot, workers should be informed not
to contact outer surface of dryer and bare skin.
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
8.4.6
Storage Vessels
8.4.6.1
Ammonia
If Ammonia store in insulated tanks those should be refrigerated and stored in low-pressure
tanks. Generally structure should be fire resistant, separated from work areas. It is important to keep
storage area dry and cool and away from steam pipes, heating devices, and tanks containing flammable
liquids.
If Ammonia stored outside in an uninsulated tank must be painted with reflective paint, which
controls rust or corrosion, and helps keep the temperature and internal pressure lower during hot
weather.
8.4.6.2
Soda ash
Bag Storage Soda ash tends to cake when exposed to moisture or the atmosphere for a long
time. Dense soda ash does not cake as readily as lighter density products. Typically, the soda ash layer
at the bag surface will begin to dissolve in a bag exposed to adverse conditions. Caking occurs because
not enough water is present to dissolve the soda ash completely. Because caked soda ash has less
surface area than the powdered product, the caked product does dissolve readily.
Normal warehouse storage of soda ash seldom presents caking problems, especially if the
oldest stock is used first. For best results, soda ash should not store in a damp or humid place or where
there is excessive air circulation.
Warehouse floors should be dry, smooth, free of breaks and able to support concentrated loads,
especially when bags are tiered or handled with forklift trucks (nearly the entire weight of a loaded
forklift falls on the two front wheels). Table 6-1 lists approximate floor areas, space requirements and
floor loadings for warehousing soda ash in bags.
8.4.6.3
Baking soda
In between Carbonator and filter there is a NaHCO 3 storage tank. NaHCO 3 is in sludge state in
the storage. When baking soda is stored as slurry, it may be convenient to store it in a tank.
8.4.6.4
Calcium Carbonate and Calcium Oxide can be stored in dry sheltered open yards. But material
should not be subjected to humidity or rain, especially Calcium Oxide (it react with water). if there is a
risk of contaminating with water it is better to store I store rooms.
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
8.4.7
Pipelines
All the pipelines should be inspected continuously for leaks, damages ect. If any of these
failures noticed proper actions should be taken to correct it. There should be a proper insulation to
reduce energy loss to environment and avoid hot and cold surfaces. Dangerous surfaces should be
indicated with slandered sign.
Hazard Identification
Solid carbon dioxide is white and when in direct contact with the skin will cause acute cold
damage to skin cold burn.
Skin/eye contact:
Ingestion:
Below 30C only use low temperature carbon steel, austenitic stainless steels, aluminum,
copper and their alloys.
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
If carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, particularly at elevated pressures and in the presence of
oxygen, use materials resistant to carbonic acid, e.g. stainless steel or Monel.
Disposal Considerations
Do not discharge into any place where its accumulation could be dangerous. Discharge to
atmosphere in large quantities should be avoided.
Toxicological Information
Symptoms are headache, nausea and vomiting, which may lead to unconsciousness.
Positive pressure air line with full-face mask and escape bottle or self-contained breathing
apparatus should be available for emergency use.
8.5.2
Ammonia (NH 3 )
Hazard Identification
Slightly flammable.
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
Corrosive and irritating to the upper respiratory system and all mucous type tissue. Depending
on the concentration inhaled, it may cause burning sensations, coughing, wheezing, shortness
of breath, headache, nausea, with eventual collapse.
Inhalation of excessive amounts affects the upper airway (larynx and bronchi) by causing
caustic-like burning resulting in edema and chemical pneumonitis. If it enters the deep lung,
pulmonary edema will result. Pulmonary edema and chemical pneumonitis are potentially fatal
conditions.
Conscious persons should be assisted to an uncontaminated area and inhale fresh air. Quick
removal from the contaminated area is most important. Unconscious persons should be moved
to an uncontaminated area, given mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and supplemental oxygen.
Keep victim warm and quiet. Assure that mucus or vomited material does not obstruct the
airway by positional drainage.
Skin/eye contact:
Mild concentrations of product will cause conjunctivitis. Contact with higher concentrations of
product will cause swelling of the eyes and lesions with a possible loss of vision.
Mild concentrations of product will cause dermatitis or conjunctivitis. Contact with higher
concentrations of product will cause caustic-like dermal burns and inflammation. Toxic level
exposure may cause skin lesions resulting in early necrosis and scarring.
If contact eye(s) flush contaminated eye(s) with copious quantities of water. Part eyelids to
assure complete flushing. Continue for a minimum of 15 minutes.
Remove contaminated clothing as rapidly as possible. Flush affected area with copious
quantities of water. In cases of frostbite or cryogenic "burns" flush area with lukewarm water.
Ingestion:
Do not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder movement.
Use a pressure regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<500 psig) piping or
systems. Do not heat cylinder by any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the
cylinder.
Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from heavily trafficked areas and emergency exits.
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
Unstable
Disposal Considerations
Toxicological Information
Toxic effects to the respiratory system, senses, liver, kidneys and bladder observed in
mammalian species from prolonged inhalation exposures at above 100 ppm.
Level C respiratory protection with full face piece or self-contained breathing apparatus should
be available for emergency use. Air purifying respirators must be equipped with suitable
cartridges.
8.5.3
Hazard Identification
Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation
(lung irritant).
Inhalation of excessive amounts affects the upper airway (larynx and bronchi) by causing
caustic-like burning resulting in edema and chemical pneumonitis. If it enters the deep lung,
pulmonary edema will result. Pulmonary edema and chemical pneumonitis are potentially fatal
conditions.
Conscious persons should be assisted to an uncontaminated area and inhale fresh air. Quick
removal from the contaminated area is most important. Unconscious persons should be moved
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated skin with an
emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Cold water may be used. Wash clothing
before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical attention.
Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with
plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used.
Ingestion:
Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything
by mouth to an unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or
waistband. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.
Do not ingest. Do not breathe dust. Wear suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient
ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately
and show the container or the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from
incompatibles such as acids.
Hygroscopic. Keep container tightly closed. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Do
not store above 24C (75.2F). Hygroscopic
Disposal Considerations
Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental control
regulations.
Toxicological Information
Effects on Humans: May cause damage to the following organs: upper respiratory tract, skin,
eyes.
Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation (lung irritant).
Chapter8
SAFETYMEASURES
LDL (Lowest Published Lethal Dose) [Man] - Route: Oral; Dose: 714 mg/kg
Splash goggles. Lab coat. Dust respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator or
equivalent. Gloves.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Splash goggles. Full suit. Dust respirator.
Boots. Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the
product. Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE
handling this product.
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
CHAPTER 09
MATERIAL BALANCE
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
This chapter contains the material balance for the process we designed. There are number of
assumptions and those are described in appropriate places. Some values are extracted from literature
and those are mentioned in reference.
This calculation based on 50Mg (tons) of product (Na 2 CO 3 ) output per day. All the rates are given in
daily basis and havent mention in calculations. Most of the flow rates are calculated in mole.
9.1 Product Specification
Ingredients
Na 2 CO 3
Na 2 SO 3
Moisture and impurities
Percentage
99.5%
0.004%
0.495%
Production rate
= 50000kg/day
/
.
= 473.6375kmol/day
Note: We used Microsoft Excel in our calculation and its goal seek function was used to do the calculation
targeting above calculated flow rate by varying total NH 3 input to the NH 3 Absorption Unit. Microsoft Excel
worksheet was attached at the end of the chapter.
9.2 Components in Purified Brine
NaCl
Na 2 SO 4
Other Na/Ca/Mg salts
H2O
Salt (Total)
5.07
0.05
0.009
45.42
50.549
kmol/m3
kmol/m3
kmol/m3
kmol/m3
kmol/m3
Density of brine
= 1122 kg/m3
By calculating we found that amount of NaCl we need for our process is 1477.31kmol. Using above
concentrations the Flow rate of purified brine was calculated.
Flow rate of purified brine
.
.
= 291.38m3
Flow rate of purified brine (mole)
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
= 14.57kmol
Flow rate of Other Na/Ca/Mg salts (mole)
= 291.38m3 0.009kmol/m3
= 2.62kmol
= 291.38m3 45.42kmol/m3
= 13234.56kmol
NaCl
Na 2 SO 4
Other Na/Ca/Mg salts
H2O
NH 3 OH
Brine
1477.31
14.57
2.62
13057.79
176.77
Waste gas
126.2654
29.67
kmole
kmole
NH3 Absorption
Unit
NH 3
CO 2
Makeup ammonia
+
Gas from ammonia
recovery unit
H2O
NH 3 OH
NaCl
Na 2 SO 4
13055.16
1136.389
1477.305
14.56909
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
CO 2
NH 3
32.28992
1085.883
kmol
kmol
kmol
kmol
kmol
kmol
kmol
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
2+
(aq)
2+
Mg
+ CO 3
2(aq)
2(aq)
+ 2H
----------- (2)
(aq)
CaCO 3 (s)
----------- (3)
(aq)
----------- (1)
----------- (4)
CO 2
Assume reacted amount of carbon dioxide with salt is equal (mostly salt contains Ca2+, Mg2+ which
react 1:1 with CO 3 2+) to the salt amount (mole).
Carbon dioxide output
NaCl
No reaction on NaCl, So Input is equal to output.
Output
= 1477.31 kmol
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
Na 2 SO 4
No reaction on Na 2 SO 4 , So Input is equal to output.
Output
= 14.57 kmol
= 2.62kmol
H 2 O (Water)
Water removed with the salt
= 13051.47kmol
Amount of water exit from the unit = Water enter to the unit - Water removed with the salt
= 13048.85kmol
Makeup Ammonia
NH 3
6.410432
CO 2
NH 3
CO 2
NH 3
kmol
kmol
Air mixture
To NH3 absorption unit
kmole
32.28992
1079.472
32.28992
1085.883
kmole
kmole
Air mixture has two input streams; both get mixed and go to the NH 3 Absorption Unit.
CO 2
No two inputs of carbon dioxide and output stream equal to the input. 32.28992kmol.
NH 4
Output Ammonia Amount
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
Purified brine
Waste gas
CO 2
N2
NH 3
NaCl
Na2SO4
Other Na/Ca/Mg salts
H2O
1477.31
14.57
2.62
13234.56
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
423.78
1604.452
6.313271
kmole
kmole
kmole
NH 3
CO 2
56.81944
394.1129
kmole
kmole
NaCl
Na 2 SO 4
Other Na/Ca/Mg salts
H2O
NH 3 OH
1477.31
14.57
2.62
13057.79
176.77
kmol
kmol
kmol
kmol
kmol
NH 3
CO 2
126.2654
29.67
N2
Assume Nitrogen does not dissolve in brine.
Output Nitrogen amount
kmole
kmole
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
NH 3
CO 2
N2
57
394
1,604
kmole
kmole
kmole
Ammoniated brine
H2O
NH 4 OH
NaCl
Na 2 SO 4
13054
1136
1477
15
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
Carbonation tower
CO2, N2 mixture
Cooling System
H2O
NaHCO 3
NaCl
NH 4 Cl
NH 4 HCO 3
Na 2 SO 4
13,359
1,047
430
1,047
32
15
1,604
1,474
305
N2
CO 2
H2O
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
NaHCO3 Solution
----------- (5)
----------- (6)
----------- (7)
----------- (8)
+ 2 NH 4 Cl (aq)
= NH 4 OH input 5%
= 1136 5%
= 126.25kmol
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
CO 2
Reacted amount (mole) of carbon dioxide in the column is equal to NaHCO 3 , NH 4 HCO 3 amount
produce. Carbone dioxide enters only from the gas stream from the gas cooler.
Carbon dioxide output
= NH 4 OH input decomposes to NH 3
= 1136.388 kmol - 56.819 kmol
= 1079.569kmol
NH 4 HCO 3
This is an intermediate product in reaction chain and amount is inversely proportional to the efficiency.
Generation of NaHCO 3 amount (mole)
= Effective NH 4 OH amount 3%
= 1079.569kmol 3%
= 32.387kmol
NaCl
Sodium spent to generate NaHCO 3 .
Sodium Chloride output from the carbonator
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
NH 4 Cl
Ammonium chloride generated in the reaction is equal to NaHCO 3 generated in the reaction.
Ammonium chloride output
= 1047.182kmol
Na 2 SO 4
No reaction on Na 2 SO 4 , So Input is equal to output.
Na 2 SO 4 output
= 14.57kmol
H 2 O (Water)
Water amount exits from the unit is equal to the water enters to the system.
= Water from NH 3 Adsorption unit + Gas Cooler
= 13054.34kmol + 304.9075kmol
= 13359.25kmol
9.7 Filter
13,359
1,047
430
1,047
32
15
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
H2O
NaHCO 3
NaCl
NH 4 Cl
NH 4 HCO 3
Na 2 SO 4
Residue solid
Filter
H2O
NaCl
NH 4 Cl
NaHCO 3
NH 4 HCO 3
Na 2 SO 4
13,123.9
430.1
1,047.2
104.7
32.4
14.5
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
Permeate
NaHCO 3
H2O
Na 2 SO 4
942.464
235.3804
0.02
kmole
kmole
kmole
Percentage
80%
19.98%
0.02%
And the filter assumed to have 90% efficiency (based on NaHCO 3 ). As NaHCO 3 is our main product
this calculation is based on NaHCO 3 .
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
9.7.1.
NaHCO 3
NaHCO 3 in residue solid
= 235.38kmol
Na 2 SO 4
Although Na 2 SO 4 is not a solid in this condition, considering End Product composition it assumed
some amount of Na 2 SO 4 remain in the residue solid. So Na 2 SO 4 amount remain in the residue solid
equal to the Na 2 SO 4 in the End Product. Calculations are shown in dryer calculations.
Na 2 SO 4 in the residue solid
9.7.2.
= 0.02kmol
NaHCO 3
NaHCO 3 in permeate
H2O
Water in permeate
Na 2 SO 4
Na 2 SO 4 in permeate
= 14.5kmol
NaCl
It assumed that total NaCl amount is filtrate through the filter. So amount is equal to input of the filter.
NaCl in permeate
= 430.1kmol
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
NH 4 Cl
It assumed that total NH 4 Cl amount is goes through the filter. So amount is equal to input of the filter.
NH 4 Cl in permeate
= 1,047.2kmol
NH 4 HCO 3
It assumed that total NH 4 HCO 3 amount is goes through the filter. So amount is equal to input of the
filter.
NH 4 HCO 3 in permeate
= 32.4kmol
N2
CO 2
1604.45
1002.45
kmole
kmole
Heated CaCO3
Coke
Coal
426.50
CaCO 3
kiln
kmole
575.95
kmole
Heated Ari
O2
N2
426.50
1604.45
kmole
kmole
Calculation for the Lime Kiln has done considering material requirements (CO 2 , CaO) and energy
requirements. Main base for the calculation was the CO 2 output from the Kiln.
----------- (9)
----------- (10)
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
N2
Before calculating N 2 , it needs to calculate air consumption for the kiln. In literature we found that the
kiln is supplied no excess air.
C reacted
= 426.50kmol
= 426.50kmol
= 1604.45kmol
Air amount
= 575.95kmol
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
17068 kmole/day
575.95 kmole/day
Cold CaO
Excess water
extra water
Ca(OH)2 Solution
1417.2 kmole/day
Slaker
Ca(OH)2
H2O
weight of solution
Temperature
576kmole/day
13,418 kmole/day
284,135 kg/day
60 0C
Vaporizes water
----------- (11)
= Amount of CaO
= 575.95kmol
H2O
Water input amount
= 575.95kmol
= 1657.4kmol
Excess water
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
9.10
CO 2
NH 3
32.28992 kmole/day
1079.472 kmole/day
Condensed water
H2O
1061.655 kmole/day
H2O
NaCl
NH 4 Cl
NaHCO 3
NH 4 HCO 3
Na 2 SO4
H2O
CO 2
NH 3
13,123.9
430.1
1,047.2
104.7
32.4
14.5
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
1061.655 kmole/day
32.28992 kmole/day
1079.472 kmole/day
Ammonia
recovery unit
shaking of lime
Ca(OH) 2
H2O
575.95 kmole/day
13417.51 kmole/day
Steam
NaCl
CaCl 2
NaHCO 3
NH 4 OH
Ca(OH) 2
Na 2 SO 4
H2O
430.12
523.59
104.72
0.10
52.36
14.55
25,479.72
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
Waste water
----------- (12)
-----------
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
= NH 4 HCO 3 99.7%
= 32.4kmol 99.7%
= 32.289kmol
NH 4
Considering 100% efficiency for (12) reaction and considering 99.7% efficiency for (13) reaction,
Ammonia output
= 430.1kmol
NaHCO3
NaHCO3 involves with no reaction through the Ammonia recovery column.
NaHCO3 output
= 104.72kmol
NH 4 HCO 3
Considering 99.7% efficiency for (13) reaction,
NH 4 HCO 3 output
= NH 4 HCO 3 0.3%
= 32.4kmol 0.3%
= 0.10kmol
Na 2 SO 4
Na 2 SO 4 involves with no reaction through the Ammonia recovery column.
Na 2 SO 4 output
= 14.55kmol
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
CaCl 2
According to the reaction (12). (Stoichiometric relation is 2:1)
CaCl 2 at outlet
= NH 4 Cl
= 1,047.2
= 523.59 kmol
Ca(OH) 2
Ca(OH) 2 amount is 110% of the actual Ca(OH) 2 requirement CaCO 3 to the kiln is back calculated
from here.
Ca(OH) 2 at the outlet
= Ca(OH) 2 10%
= 523.59 10%
= 52.36kmol
H2O
Water involve no reaction in the Ammonia recovery column and it is assume that no water vapor in
gaseous output.
Water output amount
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
9.11
Gas Cooler
N2
CO 2
H2O
(g)
1604.452381 kmole/day
1473.682222 kmole/day
304.9074568 kmole/day
Gas out
Water In
300 m3/day
H2O
Cooler
16669 Kmole/day
Gas mixer
H 2 O condense
N2
CO 2
H2O
(g)
1604.45238 kmole/day
1473.68222 kmole/day]
704.26438 kmole/day]
H2O
17068 Kmole/day
N2
Nitrogen output
= Nitrogen input
= 1604.45kmol
H2O
The gaseous outlet assumed to be saturated with water at its temperature.
Water in gaseous outlet
399kmole/day
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
9.12
N2
CO 2
H2O
1604.452381
1473.682222
704.264384
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
CO 2
H2O
471.232
704.264384
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
AirMixer
N2
CO 2
1604.452381
1002.450222
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
Air mixture has two input streams; both get mixed and go to the Gas Cooler.
CO 2
CO 2 in outlet
H2O
Water in outlet
N2
Nitrogen output
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
9.13
Dryer
CO2
H2O
N2
CO2
1604.452381
1002.450222
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
471.232
704.264384
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
NaCO3 Product
NaHCO3 Solution
NaHCO3
H2O
Na2SO4
Flow rate
942.464
235.3804
0.02
1177.844
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
kmole/day
N2
CO2
Calcinations NaHCO3
Flue gas in
1000 C
1604.45
1002.45
Na 2 CO3
471.232
Kmole/day
H2O
Na2SO4
Total
2.348
0.02
473.6
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
Kmole/day
----------- (14)
H2O
H 2 O at outlet
Chapter9
MATERIALBALANCE
Na 2 SO 4
Na 2 SO 4 amount in the product assume to be .02kmol.
H2O
H 2 O amount calculated assuming only material in the product is H 2 O except Na 2 CO 3 and Na 2 SO 4 .
Chapter9
9.14
MATERIALBALANCE
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
CHAPTER 10
ENERGY BALANCE
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
Coal
426.50
Temperature 30 C
kmole/day
kmole/day
CaCO 3
575.95
Temperature 566 C
kmole/day
O2
426.50
N2
1604.45
Temperature 900 C
kmole/day
kmole/day
Assumption
This calculation is down by using trial and error method using excel
C p = a + b T c /T2
Component
Co2
O2
N2
CaO
a
10.34
8.27
6.5
10
b
0.00274
0.000258
0.001
0.05
c
195500
187700
0
108000
kmole/day
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
Object
Fine the coke requirement for the kiln
Energy balance
Enthalpy of inlet material + Heat of combustion = Enthalpy of outlet material + Dissociation enthalpy of CaCO3 + Loss
Enthalpy(kJ/Day)
19,356,702.5
46,267,593.3
78,329.2
65,702,625.0
( H) =177 kJ/mole
Enthalpy(kJ/Day)
51,185,108.3
51,713,104.7
42,380.3
102,940,593.4
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
percentage
=24566400 kJ/day
Substituting this value in to the energy balance equation satisfied both side. Coke requirement is
satisfies
10.2 Energy Balance for Air Preheated
CaO
575.95 kmole/day
Hot CaO
1000 C
Hot Air
900 C
Cool air
25 C
Air flow
rate
O2
N2
Cool CaO
TC
Assumption
Pressure is constant inside unit. Enthalpy change can calculated as follows
H c 0 =
C p = a + b T c /T2
Enthalpy Change
(kJ/kmole)
26974.06
31969.88
Total Enthalpy
Flow rate
kmole/day
1604.45
426.50
Enthalpy Change
(kJ/day)
43278598.8
13635151.83
56,913,751
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
Enthalpy Change
(kJ/kmole)
111218.35
mole Flow
rate(kmole/day)
575.95
Total Enthalpy
Heat loss
Heat loss to the environment is 11% of the heat gain by cooling of the CaO
Heat loss to the surrounding
= 7,117,359.28 kJ/day
This equation is satisfies. So air is heated up to 900 C before feed to the kiln.
Assumption
Pressure is constant inside unit. Enthalpy change can calculated as follows
H c 0 =
C p = a + b T c /T2
10 % Heat is lost from indirect dryer which is supply from flue gas
Specific heat capacity of pure substance is get from parry hand book
NaHCO3
96kJ/kmole K
H2O
75.6kJ/kmole K
Na2CO3
121.38kJ/kmole K
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
N2
CO 2
Temperature
1604.452381
1002.450222
622
CO 2
H2O
Temperature
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
471.232
704.264384
200
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
NaCO3 Product
NaHCO3 Solution
NaHCO 3
H2O
Na 2 SO 4
Flow rate
Temperature
942.464
235.3804
0.02
1177.844
30
Calcinations NaHCO3
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
Flue gas in
1000 C
N2
CO 2
Temparature
Na 2 CO 3
H2O
Na 2 SO 4
Total
Temperature
1604.45
1002.45
1000
471.232
2.348
0.02
473.6
200
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
= Cp
mole fraction + C p
NaHCO3
fraction
H2O
mole
= 91.9 kJ/kmole
= C p mixture Flow rate
= 32,806,204.21kJ/Day
Outlet Enthalpy of the Na 2 CO 3
Enthalpy of Out let Material of Na 2 CO 3 = C p Na2CO3 Flow rate
=27,190,673.66kJ/Day
Outlet CO 2 , H 2 O mixture Enthalpy
During thermal decomposition of the NaHCO 3 , H 2 O & CO 2 mixture is relished .Assume the
temperature is 200 C
H 2 O g enthalpy from steam table
H 2 O g Total energy
= 2876kJ/kg
= 2876 18 704.2
=36,455,025.6 kJ/kmole
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
CO 2 Enthalpy
=45.2kJ/kmole
Total energy CO 2
=45.2
kJ/day
=21,298.24 kJ/day
Total Enthalpy of the Exit mixture
=36,479,658.89kJ/Day
N 2 Enthalpy
=
=24,535,963.06kJ/day
Na 2 CO 3 s + H 2 O g + CO 2g
= 9.24
kJ/day
= 8,708,367.36kJ/Day
Heat loss
Heat loss from indirect dryer 10 % supply from flue gas =4399368.303kJ/Day
Energy equation
Enthalpy change of flue gas = Hot product out (NaCO 3(s) ) + CO 2 , H 2 O mixture out + Reaction energy
+ heat loss to environment -Enthalpy of NaHCO 3 in
Substituting the all calculated value to this equation is satisfies. This calculation is down by using trial
and error method.
So flue gas exit temperature is 622 C
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
H c 0 =
C p = a + b T c /T2
136 J/mole
N2
CO 2
N2
CO 2
1604.452 kmole/day
1002.45 kmole/day
1604.452 kmole/day
1002.45 kmole/day
CaCO 3
Temperature
575.95 kmole/day
566 C
Energy Equation
Heat IN = Heat Out + Loss
Enthalpy Change of Flue Gas = Enthalpy Change CaCo3 + Losses
Flue Gas Enthalpy Change mixture of flue gas is cooled 622C to 210 C
CO 2 enthalpy
N 2 Enthalpy
Total enthalpy change
20,913,120.69 kJ/Day
26,177,959.30 kJ/Day
47,091,079.98 kJ/Day
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
42,376,113.55 kJ/Day
4,709,108.00 kJ/Day
Energy balance equation is satisfied using these values. Using cyclone CaCO 3 is heated up to 566C.
This Calculation is done by using trial and error method.
C p = a + b T c /T2
N2
CO 2
H2O
Temperature
Stream 3
1604.452381
1473.682222
704.264384
T
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
CO 2
H2O
Temperature
Stream 2
471.232
704.264384
200
AirMixer
N2
CO 2
Temperature
Stream 1
1604.452381
1002.450222
210
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
= 36,479,658.89 kJ/day
Stream 1 energy
= CO 2 energy + N 2 energy
CO 2 energy change =
N 2 energy change =
Temperature of the mixture is 200 C
Steam 1 energy = 92,634.44 kJ/kmole
kJ/day
= 34,947,288.97 kJ/day
Gas carrying energy can calculated same as steam 1.if out let temperature is 140 C
Gas carrying energy =110,493.69 kJ/day
Total energy of steam 3 = 36,520,674.39 kJ/day
Energy equation
Stream 1 energy + Stream 2 energy = Stream 3 energy + loss
Substituting values to the energy equation is satisfies so out let temperature is 140 C
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
Assumption
Cooling water system used is ones through system having 30 0C temperature of inlet water.
Out let gas stream is saturated with water vapor and quantity of energy carries with the steam is
neglected.
N2
CO 2
H2O g
Temperature
1604.452381 kmole/day
1473.682222 kmole/day
304.9074568 kmole/day
40 0C
Gas out
H2O
Temperature
N2
CO 2
H2O g
Temperature
1604.45238 kmole/day
1473.68222 kmole/day]
704.26438 kmole/day]
140 0C
300 m3/day
16669 kmole/day
30 0C
Water In
Cooler
Gas mixer
H 2 O condense
Hot Water Out
H2O
Temperature
17068 kmole/day
50 0C
Heat given by the hot stream = Heat taken by the cold stream
Enthalpy change H R 0 =
C p = a + b T c /T2
H R 0 = a T + b T2 c /T
399 kmole/day
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
Component
CO 2
O2
N2
a
b
10.34 0.00274
8.27 0.000258
6.5
0.001
c
195500
187700
0
= 35,057,783 kJ/day
Heat loss to the surrounding is 10 %from the energy due to the reaction enthalpy.
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
CaO solid
Temperature
575.95 kmole/day
154 0C
17068 kmole/day
50 0C
Excess water
extra water
temperature
Ca(OH)2 Solution
1417.2 kmole/day
50 0C
Slaker
Ca(OH) 2
H2O
weight of solution
Temperature
576
kmole/day
13,418 kmole/day
284,135 kg/day
60 0C
Vaporizes water
1657.4kmole/day
= m Cp T
Component
CaO
a
10
b
0.05
c
108000
C p = a + b T c /T2
Energy with the inlet CaO stream = (10+0.05 (154+273) 108,000/(154+273) 2) 4.2 575.95
=
74,402.4 kJ/day
= m C water T
= 15,650.9184.2 (273+50)
= 382,175,186 kJ/day
Total Heat in = Energy with the inlet CaO stream + Amount of the input energy of the water from the cooler
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
Reaction Enthalpy:
CaO + H 2 O
Ca(OH) 2
H= - 65 kJ/mole
= 3,743,675 kJ/day
Energy with water vapor = Heat in+ Heat generated due to reaction - Heat out with Ca(OH) 2 - loss.
= 73,589,615/(4.2 (100-50)+2256.7)
= 29,833 kg/day
=1,657.4 kmole/day
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
CO 2
NH 3
Temperature
Boundary line
32.28992
1079.472
T
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
H2O
1061.655
kmole/day
HE
Condensed water
H2O
CO 2
NH 3
Temperature
1061.655
32.28992
1079.472
70
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
H2O
NaCl
NH 4 Cl
NaHCO 3
NH 4 HCO 3
Na 2 SO 4
Temperature
Flow rate
molecular weight
13,123.9
430.1
1,047.2
104.7
32.4
14.5
30
14,752.8
22.42532
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
kmole/day
kg/kmole
Ammonia
recovery unit
shaking of lime
Ca(OH) 2
H2O
Temperature
weight of solution
Cp
575.95
13417.51
60
284135.4
3.6183
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
Kg/day
kJ/kgK
Steam
Bottom T
low pressure steam
Waste water
NaCl
CaCl 2
NaHCO 3
NH 4 OH
Ca(OH) 2
Na 2 SO 4
H2O
T
Total Flow rate
molecular weight
430.12
523.59
104.72
0.10
52.36
14.55
25,479.72
105
26,605.16
20.84993
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
kmole/day
C
kmole/day
kg/kmole
Objective
105
2
C
bar
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
C p = a + b T c /T2
Total Energy
= 44,968,368 kJ/day
=
=34,737,885 kJ/day
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
0.2
= 8,993,674 kJ/day
Substituting this value to the energy equation it satisfies. So assume temperature is Correct
Quantity of Energy supply to the column = Energy out from boundary- Energy in through boundary
temperature
=12,696,681.8 kJ/day
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
=
=284135.4*3.6183*(60+273)
=342,353,062 kJ/day
=135,632,833.6/2211.6
=61,328 kg/day
= 2.555330108 t/hour
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
NH 3
CO 2
N2
57
394
1,604
kmole
kmole
kmole
H2O
NH 4 OH
NaCl
Na 2 SO 4
Temperature
flow rate
mole weight
13054
1136
1477
15
36
15,683
23.0302373
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
C
kmole/day
kg/kmole
Ammoniated brine
N2
CO 2
H2O
Carbonation tower
Cooling Water
Cooling water
Flow rate
22
1666.8
C
m3/day
45
Cooling System
CO2, N2 mixture
C
NaHCO3 Solution
Temperature
H2O
NaHCO 3
NaCl
NH 4 Cl
NH 4 HCO 3
Na 2 SO 4
flow rate
mole weight
28
13,359
1,047
430
1,047
32
15
15,931
25.71239
C
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole
kmole/day
kg/kmole
1,604
1,474
305
40
kmole
kmole
kmole
C
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
Objective
C p = a + b T c /T2
NaHCO 3
(s)
+ NH 4 Cl (aq)
Formation energy
NH 4 OH (aq) -367.08 kJ/mole
NaCl (aq)
-408.74 kJ/mole
CO 2 (g)
-395.0 kJ/mole
NaHCO 3
-949.2 kJ/mole
(s)
NH4Cl (aq)
Reaction energy
-299.04 kJ/mole
=
=
-77.3976kJ/mole
= Flow Rate
Cp
Chapter10
ENERGYBALANCE
= 6,057,972 kJ/day
Total Reaction relies energy = reacted mole
= 81,049,391 kJ/day
Energy input from ammoniated brine solution = Mole flow rate heat capacity Avarage molecular
weight
T
= 429,670,827 kJ/day
Cp
=32,197,304 kJ/day
Heat loss to the surrounding = (reaction energy relies + CO 2 mixture energy) 0.01
= 11,324,669 kJ/day
From the above energy equation, substituting this value
Cooling water enthalpy change = 131,751,455 kJ/day
Cooling water quantity = 131,751,455/(4.2
=1,363,886.7 kg/day
=1,363.9 m3/day
(45-22)) kg/day
Chapter11
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSION
This diagram shows the comparison of parameters calculated for the proposed plant with those obtained from literature for a plant of similar capacity. It
can be clearly seen that the calculated values are very much similar to those obtained from existing plants.
Data extracted from similar existing
process plant
INPUT
Main raw material
1050 - 1600
Limestone
Raw brine
1476.8
6538.6
NH 3 make up
0.8 - 2.1
0.1
Water
Process(1)
Cooling
2.5 - 3.6
50 -100
Energy
2.2 - 2.8
out put
kg/t soda ash
Gaseous emissions
CO 2
200 - 400
372.9
NH 3
< 1.5
1.9
kg/t soda ash
850 - 1100
340 - 400
160 - 220
1-11
0.3 - 2
90 - 700
1051
461
259
28
0.035
176
Liquid emissions
-
Cl
Ca2+
Na+
SO4-2
NH4+
Suspended solids
REFERENCE
PERRY'S CHEMICAL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK,byROBERT H. PERRY, DON W. GREEN
RICHARDSON, J.F., HARKER, J.H., BACKHURST, J.R. Coulson and Richardsons CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING VOLUME 2. 5th ed. 2002.
RICHARDSON, J.F., HARKER, J.H., BACKHURST, J.R. Coulson and Richardsons CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING VOLUME 6. 5th ed. 2002.
RULE OF THUMB FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERS A manual of quick, accurate solutions to every
day process engineering problems. By CARL BRANAN.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN PROJECT, A case study approach BY MARTYN S.RAY and
DAVID W.JOHNSTON
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN PROJECT, A case study approach, Second edition By
MARTYN S.RAY and MARTIN G. SNEESBY.
A TEXT BOOK OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY Volume 1 BY S.D. SHUKLA and G.N.PENDAY
Note: These references from internet were observed in July October 2008
www.laxmi-group.com/kiln.html
www.amazon.co.uk/Small-scale-Vertical-Shaft-Lime-Kiln
www.massbalance.org/projects
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/soda_ash/soda_myb05.pdf
http://www.webcitation.org/5WGM2f75m
http://www.webcitation.org/5W0IxdohY
http://www.cavemanchemistry.com/cavebook/chammonia.html
http://www.businessknowledgesource.com/manufacturing/daily_safety_measures_for_manufac
turing_plants_025095.html
http://www.imec.org/imec.nsf/All/Solutions_Source_Implement_a_Safety_Plan?OpenDocume
nt
http://pottery.about.com/od/safetyinceramics/tp/kilnsafe.htm
135
Software Resources
Microsoft Office
Microsoft Office Visio Professional 2003
Google Earth Version 4.0.2737
Microsoft Paint
Microsoft picture manager
PhysProps Version 1.6.1
136