5. Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain (for example, Wernicke, Broca, Gazzaniga and Sperry). m To discover the extent to which the two halves of the brain are able to function independently, as well as the specialization of each side, Method Four tests: examined visval abilities, touch stimulation, visual plus tactical abilities, and auditory ability Results © Visval test: Patients were told to look at a point in the middle of the lights ond describe what they sow when the lights flashed on both sides, They were only able to see the lights on the right side, Then, they were asked to point to the lights and they pointed in both directions, The patients were not able to say they saw the light because the center of speech is located in the left hemisphere, © Tactile test: Potients placed both hands behind their backs and were given objects to identify, When an object was placed in their right hand they could identify it, When it was placed in their left hand, they could not identity it, but could only match it to a.group of objects © Visual plus tactile test: Patients were shown an object to the right hemisphere and could not name it. The patients were able to reach onder the screen with their left hand and able to match the object with other similar objects. This provided evidence that the left hemisphere was completely separate from the right hemisphere in relation to perception and knowledge. © Auditory test: Participants were told to grab items out of a bag without seeing it, They had no trouble with this task which showed that the right hemisphere was comprehending language, Patients were asked to arrange letters into words behind a screen and they were able to do this as welt, bt they could not say the word aloud, demonstrating that the left hemisphere is superior to the right in speech.5. Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. (cont.) Findings © The left hemisphere specializes in speaking, writing, mathematical calculation, reading, and language. The right hemisphere specializes in recognizing faces, solving problems involving spatial relationships, symbolic reasoning and artistic activities. e Helped to identify that the corpus callosum is the line of communication between the two brain hemispheres. © No cultural or gender implications. e This research helped to better treat split-brain patients.6. Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behavior (for example, the effect of noradrenaline on depression). Kosematsu and Hirai (999) him To see how sensory deprivation affects the brain (and how serotonin affects the brain) Method Researchers studied a group of Buddhist monks who went on a.72-hovr pilgrimage to a mountain in Japan. During their stay, they did not speak, consume food, and were exposed to cold, avtomn weather. After 48 hours they began to have hallucinations, researchers took blood ‘samples before the monks ascended the mountain and immediately after monks reported hallecinations Foond that serotoin levels had increased in monk's brains Higher level of serotonin activated the hypothalamus and frontal cortex resulting inthe hallocinations. Conclusion Sensory deprivation triggered release of serotonin, which altered the way that the monks experienced the world, ‘The sample, a small group of Buddhist monks, forthe study is onrepresentative of everyone else. Also, even though there is a correlation between hallocinations and increased serotonin level was established, itis not clear what caused what This study shows that the neorotransmitter serotonin affects the human behavior of increased arousal causing hallucinations (as demonstrated by monks after a spike in serotonin), Serotonin is active in the hypothalamus and the frontal corte, and also regolates sleep, ‘arousal levels and emotion, These levels activated parts of the brain called the hypothalamus and the frontal cortex, resulting in hallocinations. Therefore, the increased presence of serotonin affected the behavior of the monks in terms of the way they experienced the world.18. Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies. Aschema is a mental concept that informs a person about what to expect from a variety of experiences and situations. Schemas are developed based on information provided by life experiences and are then stored in memory for later retrieval. LoFtus & Palmer - Car crash study (Reconstructive memory) Aim The language used to question someone can alter the person's answer Method 45 students watched a video of a.car crash, After watching, the video the participants were asked to describe what they saw, Then, they were asked “About how fast were the cars going when they (smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted) each other?” Er retereed ar el partrtoantetetnrted epercer ON Gan tt metose eT question, Conclusion © Response-bias Factor was found in the participants. They based their answers on the words vsed, Their memory was not necessarily altered, but their response was because of the critical question asked © Memory is altered: The verb that was used changed the person's perception of the accident.18, Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies. (cont) Bartlett (1932). “The War of the Ghosts" Aim Determine if people's memories are influenced by previous knowledge and if it can be reconstructed Method British participants were told an unfamiliar Native American story, "The war of the Ghosts" and were asked to retell it after a short period, then repeatedly over months or years Fi The participants remembered the main idea of the story, but changed some parts to make it more familiar to their culture. As the time increased, the length of the story decreased, Conclusions Memories are not copies of memories, but reconstructions. Thus, the schema theory was developed.19. Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process (for example, Alzheimer's disease, brain damage, sleep deprivation) Cognitive process - memory The molti-store memory model as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1468) Sensory memory Input received by the senses enters its corresponding sensory stores: visual information enters the iconic memory and auditory information enters the echoic memory Sensory memory has unlimited capacity but information stores it will be forgotten unless given attention, Short-term memory Extremely limited capacity which will be lost unless maintained through rehearsal and transferred to LTM, Long-term memory Unlimited capacity and stored information can last a lifetime, Stored information can be recalled through retrieval19. Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process (for example, Alzheimer's disease, brain damage, sleep deprivation).(cont.) Aim To test the serial position effect Method Half the participants were told to recall the list of words immediately after presentation (IFR), and the other half recalled the words after a delay of 30 seconds (DFR) after presentation. The participants in the DFR group had to count backwards in three froma three digit number in order to prevent further rehearsal of the words during the delay. Results The participants in the IFR group showed the serial position effect. The first few items were stored in their LTM as the first few items were given attention. The recency effect was explained by saying that those words were in their STM and could be recalled easily. The participants in the DFR group showed the primary effect but no recency effect.30. Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior. Attribution is the process of interpreting and explaining behavior. Situational factors influence attributions made to external factors. Dispositional factors influence attributions made to internal factors Ex Behavior: the man was late to work. Situational Factor: the man was late to work because another car rear-ended him. Dispositional Factor: the man wos late to work because he is lazy.31 Discuss two errors in attributions (for example, fundamental attribution error, illusory correlation, self-serving bias) Factors ~ Situational factors: explain external factors such as the weather and the environment ~ _ Dispositional factors: attribute the characteristics and personalities of the individual ‘Attribution theory: People are more likely to attribute dispositional factors for others, -> leads to errors in attribution such as the “Fundamental Attribution Error” and "Self-Serving Bias” Fundamental Attribution Error ~ the inclination to over-exaggerate the importance of dispositional factors, (If someone is late, people call them "lazy) - Lecet. al (1977): participants roleplay as a *host® and a television show “contestant.” There was also an audience that was aware of the setup. The host was allowed to make vp their own questions and ask the contestants, After the show, the audience was asked to rate the intelligence of the host and the candidates, The results were consistent, The host was always shown to be more intelligent, even they were allowed to make up their own questions, Here, the audience was seen to make a Fundamental Attribution Errors, because they attributed a dispositional factor (intelligence) to the host, instead of thinking about the situation (role playing)EID ectisel eaofenrorsinter te lau ional ((onfexerrapslet Canelaementall at eric Reet enon cete a eetee eeneele cee) self-serving Bias: - describes the inclination to attribute dispositional factors for one’s achievements and situational factors for one's failures. - Lavand Russel (1980): showed that American football players and coaches were inclined to use the Self-Serving Bias. ‘They would think their achievements as the result of the smart plays and hard work, and blame their failures on weather, foul play, etc. Contradictions in cross-cultural studies: Kashima and Triandis: Eastern cultures were seen to have a modesty bias, or an attribution of dispositional factors for their failures, In other words, they would blame their failures on their lack of intelligence Conclusion: Both the Fundamental Attribution Theory and the Self-Serving Bias are errors in attribution and are misconceptions, created by individoals in the way they perceive the world,45. Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis (for example, cultural variation, stigmatization). © Labeling leads to stigma and prejudice and self-Fulfiling prophecies (stigmatization) © The person diagnosed with an ilness may act according to their diagnosis © Once diagnosed, basic rights con be token away because of the patient's label © Records of mental ilnesses will Follow the patients through society © Diagnosis is based heavily on what the patients report about their symptoms @ An individual's behavior is based on their culture surrounding them (cultural variation) © Different perceptions of different cultures © Diagnosis system originated in the West * Psychiatrists or psychologists may make a diagnosis based on their own culture£8. Dessalbe gpmpliems cmd prewellance of one dhs {irom therm off thhe fallemaintaforompetarstety Ne lec ne MerfeatneiC sorclars Anxiety Disorder: PTSD (Post-traumatic stress disorder) Symptoms: intrusive memories of the traumatic event emotional withdrawal heightened avtonomic arousal decreased interest in others inability to feel positive emotions (anhedonia) Prevalence: e Inthe US, 1-3% of Americans will be affected by this disorder e 5% of men and 10% of women will have a lifetime prevalence e PTSD will affect 15-24% of people who are exposed to a traumatic event£8, Dossalbe samplioms endl pracllanss off cme dhamadhe rom therm of thks (elllszragy qnemgs canadby, clic, on ccthingy dhemadbas. (Gent) Eating disorder: Bulimia Nervosa Symptoms: e Feelings of guilt or shame e Episodes of binge eating, vomiting, dieting to control weight © Negative self-image, poor body image e Swollen salivary glands, erosion of tooth enamel Prevalence: © 2-3% of women and .02-.03% of men have been diagnosed in the US. Symptoms of bulimia have been reported in up to 40% of college women e Bulimia is believed to be more common in industrialized countriesEssay Outline #3 3, #4(Biclogieal) Explain how ONE hormone influences human behavior. Hormones (deFine) © Chemical messengers that transfer information to cells in order to coordinate functions of different parts of the body, Melatonin (explain) © Produced in the Pineal Gland © Regulates sleep-wake cycle, development in puberty, and seasonal adaptation © Concentration increases when there is no light source, causing drowsiness © Light received by the optic nerve in the eye sends a signal to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Then, the SCN sends a signal to the Pineal Gland, causing the release of melatonin - Rosenthal (support) In countries where there are lower levels of sunlight, people have higher concentrations of melatonin Causes seasonal affective disorder (SAD), with symptoms such as depression.Essay Outline #10 10. #H Sociocultural) Outine how ONE principle that defines the Sociocultural level of analysis hos been demonstrated in ONE example of research (2014) Principle 1 — People are social animals that have a need to belong, SI EL oer prema Compliance © Change in behavior without internalizing the opinion or reason Identification ‘© Changes behavior and opinion to identify with the influencing group Internatizing © Changes in behavior or opinion ‘Study - Asch's Paradigm ‘Aim: To determina ifthe participant would conform to the wrong answers given by the confederates, even f they were clearly wrong ‘Method: A participant entered a room with six other confederates. The group was shown cards of different lengths and they were to match a line to another line provided. Results: 757 of participants conformed at least once, 32% conformed in half or more of the trials, and 247 of participants did not conform at all Homans have the need to belong, especially when the grovp is large, Also if only one confederate gave an incorrect answer, conformity ratings decreased, Lastly, confidence and self-esteem play a role in conformity, When a person has low self-esteem or confidence, they will conform to the group so they do not seem like an outsider,Essay Outline #15 5. (Paper |B) Discuss the use of ONE research method (eg experiments, case studies) in the Cognitive level of analysis. e Experiments used to determine the relationship between the IV onthe DV © Type of experiment: Laboratory e Strengths: control over variables, easy to replicate, reliable and valid, can eliminate unwanted outside factors e@ Weaknesses: Lacks ecological validity, unlike a real-life situationEssay Outline #18 24. (Paper 2) Choose From ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY options. Discuss cultural variations in the prevalence of psychological disorders. (2014) e prevalence of major depression could be dve to cultural differences in stress, standards of living, and reporting bias e Inurban areas, stress is increased, e Areas exposed to war have increased risks of developing a mental disorder (PTSD and MDD) ¢ Inindividvalistic cultures, a person is more likely to admit to having a problem (Anxiety). e Inacollectivist culture, people are less likely to seek help because they are supposed to care for society, not themselves, so prevalence rates are decreased in those societies. © Variation of symptoms within different cultures may result in stigmas; they may not seek help because they see it as a weakness and not as a curable disease.