1

ENERGY BAND THEORY

Semiconductors
Semiconductors conduct electricity more than insulators but less than
conductors. The electrical conductivities of semiconductors are affected by
temperature and presence of impurities. There are two types of semiconductors:
intrinsic & extrinsic semiconductors.
In intrinsic (pure) semiconductors, there are equal numbers of negative and
positive charges (the 2 types of charge carriers).
Extrinsic (impure) semiconductors are semiconductors to which impurities
(e.g arsenic), called dopants, have been added to modify the number and type of
charge carriers. This is called doping.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors: n-type conductors & p-type
conductors. In n-type conductors, there are more negative charges (electrons)
than positive charges (holes) such that the majority charge carriers are electrons
and the minority charge carriers are holes.
In p-type conductors, there are more positive charges (holes) than negative
charges (electrons) such that the majority charge carriers are holes and the
minority charge carriers are electrons.
The Band Theory

The model of the Band Theory is an extension of the model of energy levels in
isolated atoms (e.g low pressure gases). In solids, atoms are so close together
that they interact with each other. This results in the splitting (or spreading) of
energy levels into a very large number of closed spaced energy levels (so close
that they are considered as continuous) by the electric fields of electrons on
neighbouring atoms, forming energy bands with gaps between them. Electrons
cannot take energy values between the bands.

energy b

The highest occupied (filled) energy band is called the valence band. The
lowest unoccupied energy (unfilled) band is called the conduction band. The
gap between the valence band and conduction band is called the forbidden band
which is the range of energies that an electron cannot have OR is the minimum
energy needed by an electron in the valence band to move into the conduction
band. The forbidden band determines the electrical properties of a solid. The
diagrams below show the difference in the forbidden band in insulators,
intrinsic (without impurities) semiconductors and metals
Energy bands of
(a) insulators (b) intrinsic semiconductors
energy

(c) metals

energy
energy

Conduction band
Large forbidden gap Conduction
5 eV
band
Small
forbidden gap 1 eVValence band overlaps conduc

Valence band

Valence band

Insulators
In an insulator, the valence band is fully occupied by electrons, the conduction
band is empty and the forbidden band (gap) is large. Above 0 k, due to the large
forbidden band, only an insignificant number of valence electrons have enough
energy to enter the conduction band. So there is a very few charge carriers in
insulators, hence having a large electrical resistance.
At very high temperatures, some electrons have enough energy to move in the
conduction band, causing the insulator to break down.
Intrinsic (pure) semiconductors
In an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor, e,g silicon and germanium, at 0 K, the
valence band is fully occupied and the conduction band is empty. An electron in
the valence band cannot move by an electric field as there are no unoccupied
states for it to jump into. There are no electrons in the empty conduction band.
So, at 0 K, there are no mobile charge carriers for conduction in a

semiconductor, hence its resistance is said to be very large. Above 0 K, some

energy
electrons in the valence band gain enough energy by
thermal excitation to cross the narrow forbidden
band and move into the conduction band, leaving
behind vacancies or holes (regions where there is an
electron
excess of positive charge) in the valence band. A rise
+
in temperature creates equal numbers of electrons in +
-e
the conduction band and holes in the valence band +
+e
(electron-hole pairs). When an electric field is +
applied by a battery connected across the +
hole
semiconductor, electrons in the conduction band
E-field
move as there are many unoccupied states, and an electron nearby a hole in the
valence band move to the hole, creating a new hole in its old position. Thus the
hole in the valence band appears to move opposite to the valence electron flow
and so acts as a positive charge carrier. The electric current in an intrinsic
semiconductor above 0 K is due to movement of electrons (negative charge
carriers) in the conduction band and holes (positive charge carriers), moving in
the opposite direction in the valence band.
Metals
In a metal the valence band overlaps the conduction band such that there is no
forbidden band. The top of the valence band is above the bottom of the
conduction band. This allows electrons in the valence band to move easily to the
conduction band with a small amount of energy at any temperature. This is why
the electrons in a metal are said to be free or delocalised.
Using band theory to explain the decrease in resistance of an intrinsic
semiconductors with temperature rise
When temperature rises, atoms in the semiconductor vibrate with larger
amplitudes and hinder the flow of charge carriers by making more collisions
with them. At the same time, valence electrons gain more energy and more
electrons in the valence band are able to move into the conduction band, hence
creating more electron-hole pairs, more charge carriers, higher electrical
conductivity. The increase in the number of charge carriers outweighs the effect
of greater thermal lattice vibrations. Overall, the electrical resistance of the pure
conductor decreases with temperature rise.
Using band theory to explain the increase in resistance of a metal with
temperature rise
When the temperature of a metal rises, lattice vibrations increase and the
number of charge carriers stays the same as there is no forbidden gap. The only
effect of the increase in lattice vibrations is to hinder the electron flow by

C.B

V.B

collisions, hence decreasing electric current. Overall, resistance of the metal

increases with temperature rise.
Using band theory to explain the decrease in resistance of an LDR with
increasing light intensity
An LDR is made of a semiconductor. Photons in light transfer energy to valence
electrons so that some have enough energy to enter the conduction band,
producing electron-hole pairs to allow electrical conduction. Increasing the light
intensity increases the rate of incident photons and hence increases the rate of
number of valence electrons promoted to the conduction band. So resistance of
an LDR decreases as light intensity increases.
Band Theory Questions:
1) (a) Describe how the simple model of band theory is used to explain conduction in
intrinsic semiconductors.
(b) Describe how the simple model of band theory is used to explain the temperature
dependence of metals and intrinsic semiconductors.
(c) Describe how the simple model of band theory is used to explain the dependence on light
intensity of the resistance of an LDR.
2) The diagram shows the energy levels of an imaginary atom:
(a) Sketch the energy bands for a solid formed by a lattice of such atoms, if the solid is (i)
insulator, (ii) instrinsic semiconductor, (iii) metal
(b) Using the band theory, explain why metals are good electrical conductors while insulators
are poor electrical conductors.
3) The electrical conductivity of thermistor increases with temperature. Would you expect
thermistors to be made of metals, insulators or intrinsic semiconductors? Explain your answer
using the band theory.
4) A hypothetical semiconductor has a conduction band of width 0.34 eV and a valence band
of width 0.22 eV. The forbidden band is 1.17 eV.
(a) Distinguish between conduction band and valence band
(b) The electrical conductivity of the semiconductor can be increased by firing photons of a
particular range of wavelengths onto the semiconductor. Explain how these incident photons
help to increase the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor.
(c) Determine the range of the wavelengths of the photons that will allow the process
described in (b) to occur. Comment on what will happen if a photon of a wavelength outside
this required range is incident upon the semiconductor.

DOPPLER EFFECT

Observer
Observer
21

The Doppler Effect is the change in observed frequency when there is relative
motion between the source of waves and an observer

v =speed of wave

(independent of v s , dependent on medium in which the

wave travels)
v s=speed of source of wave( v )
f s=frequency of wave emitted by source
s=wavelengthof wave emitted by source
f O =frequency of wave observed by observers 12

(apparent frequency)

O =observed wavelength

Source moving towards stationary observer 1:

Ahead of source, in time t, the waves are squashed in a distance of
fs

waves in a distance of

O =

Using

vtv s t v v s
=
fst
fs

f O=

v
O ,

v v s

v
and using f s= s ,

f O=

v
f
vv s s

O =

vv s
s
v

vtv s t

, i.e

As source approaches, the stationary observer 1 receives waves of frequency

f >f
higher than that emitted by the source ( O s ) .
Source moving away from stationary observer 2:
Behind the source, in time t, the waves are stretched out into a distance of
vt + v s t

O =

Using

, i.e

fs

waves in a distance of

vt +v s t v +v s
=
fst
fs

f O=

v
O

v + vs
v+v

v
s
and using f s= s , O = v s
f O=

v
f
v + vs s

As source recedes, the stationary observer 2 receives waves of frequency lower

f <f
than that emitted by the source ( O s ) .
Doppler Effect with sound
If the source emits sound wave a stationary observer will hear a sound of higher
pitch as the source approaches him. The stationary observer will hear a sound of
lower pitch as the source recedes from him.
Doppler Effect with light
As a light source (e.g star, galaxy) is moving away from a stationary observer,
the light received by the observer has a lower frequency (longer ) than that
emitted by the source (i.e red shifted, light is shifted towards the red of visible
spectrum)
Some applications of Doppler Effect
1) Radar speed traps
2) Measurement of flow of blood cells in an artery
3) Astronomy
Doppler Effect Questions:
Take speed of sound in air = 340 ms-1
1) (a) Describe the Doppler effect.

(b) An observer stands on a bridge above a railway track as a train approaches at

a constant speed of 44 ms-1. The train continuously sounds a whistle which has a
frequency of 880 Hz. Calculate the frequency heard by the observer as the train
(i) approaches, (ii) recedes. (1011 Hz, 779 Hz)
2) (a) A source approaches a stationary observer at 40 ms-1 emitting sound of
frequency 500 Hz. What frequency does the observer hear? (ans: 570 Hz)
(b) A source is moving away from a stationary observer at 32 ms-1 emitting
sound of frequency 480 Hz. What frequency does the observer hear? (440 Hz)
3) A trumpeter plays her trumpet while in a car. The note she plays has a
frequency of 300 Hz but you hear a note with a frequency of 280 Hz.
(a) is she moving towards or away from you? (b) how fast is she moving?
(23.6 ms-1)
4) A galaxy is moving away from the Earth at 26000 kms-1.
Calculate the wavelength and frequency change of a 650 nm line in its
spectrum. (ans: 56.5 nm, 3.7 1013 Hz)
5) An ambulance with a 500 Hz siren approaches and then passes a stationary
observer at a steady speed of 20 ms-1. Calculate the change in frequency of the
sound heard by the observer. (ans: 59 Hz)
6) Find the change in the frequency of a siren from a train that is moving
towards you at 50 ms-1. Assume that the emitted frequency is 400 Hz. (Speed of
sound in air = 330 ms-1, ans: 71.4 Hz)
7) The highest frequency you can hear is 20 000 Hz. If a plane making a sound
of frequency 500 Hz went fast enough, you would not be able to hear it. How
fast would the plane have to go? (ans: 321.8 m s-1)
8) A car travelling at 30 ms-1 emits a sound of frequency 500 Hz. Calculate the
frequency of the sound measured by an observer in front of the car. (550 Hz)
9) A star emits light of wavelength 650 nm. If the light received at the Earth
from this star has a wavelength of 690 nm, how fast is the star moving away
from the Earth? (0.06 c)
10) An atom of hydrogen travelling towards the Earth at 2 106 m s-1 emits light
of wavelength 658 nm. What is the change in wavelength experienced by an
observer on the Earth? (4.38 nm)

11) Consider a source moving away from a stationary observer with speed v . The source
emits waves of speed c

and wavelength

. Explain why the observer will measure a

longer wavelength for the waves received and show that the shift in wavelength
=O s

obeys

v
=
s c

12) The diagram opposite shows wavefronts produced by a stationary wave source S. The
spacing of the wavefronts is equal to the wavelength of the waves. The wavefronts travel with
speed V .

(a) The source S now moves to the right with speed

1
V
. Draw four successive
2

wavefronts to show the pattern of waves produced by the moving source.

(b) Derive the Doppler formula for the observed frequency

f0

of a sound source, as heard

by a stationary observer, when the source approaches the stationary observer with speed
. The speed of sound is V and the frequency of the sound emitted by the source is f.

The Sun rotates about its centre. The light from one edge of the Sun, as seen by a stationary
observer, shows a Doppler shift of 0.004 nm for light of wavelength 600.000 nm.
(c) Assuming that the Doppler formula for sound may be used for light, estimate the linear
speed of a point on the surface of the Sun due to its rotation. (ans: 2000 m s-1)
13) A whistle emitting sound of frequency 512 Hz is whirled in a horizontal circle of radius
0.50 m at a constant rate of 100 revolutions per minute. Taking speed of sound in air as 344

ms-1, calculate the maximum and minimum frequencies heard by a stationary observer
standing some distance away. (ans: 520 Hz, 504 Hz)
14) A star in another galaxy is traveling away from us at a speed of 5.6106 ms-1. It has a
known absorption spectrum line that should be located at 520 nm on an identical stationary
star. Where is this line located on the moving star? (ans: 530 nm)
15) A train with a 500 Hz siren on is moving at a constant speed of 8 ms-1 in a straight line.
An observer is in front of the train and off its line of motion. Sketch a graph to show how the
frequency of sound heard by the observer changes with distance travelled by the train
16) Hydrogen atoms in a distant galaxy emit light of wavelength 658 nm. The light received
on Earth is measured to have a wavelength of 689 nm. State whether the galaxy is
approaching the Earth or moving away, and calculate the speed of the galaxy. (1.4 107 ms-1
away from Earth)
17) The sun rotates about its axis with a period of 27 days, emits monochromatic light of
wavelength 0.5 m and has a radius of about 7 108 m. Calculate the shift in frequency of
the light emitted from the Suns equator and received on Earth. (ans: 3.78 GHz)
18) In a binary star system, two stars orbit a common point and move so that they are always
in diametrically opposite positions. Light from both stars reaches an observer on earth.
Assume that both stars emit light of wavelength 6.58 10-7m.
(a) When the stars are in the position shown in figure 1, the observer on earth measures a
wavelength of light of 6.58 10-7m for both stars. Explain why there is no Doppler shift in
the wavelength

star A

star B

towards the earth

Fig 1
(b) When the stars are in the position shown in figure 2, the earth observer measures two
wavelengths in the received light, 6.50 10-7 m and 6.76 10-7 m. Determine the speed of
each of the stars.
star B

towards the earth

star A
Fig 2

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19) Ultrasound of frequency 5.0 MHz reflected from red blood cells moving in an artery is
found to show a frequency shift of 2.4 kHz. The speed of ultrasound in blood is 1500 ms-1.
(a) Estimate the speed of the blood cells. (b) Suggest why, in practice, a range of frequency
shifts is observed.

MCQ ON DOPPLER EFFECT

1) A railway engine, travelling at a constant speed on a straight level track is sounding its
whistle. The whistle emits a sound of constant frequency. The engine approaches a station
platform and passes an observer O standing on the platform at time t=T.

Which of the following sketch graphs best shows the variation with time t of the frequency f
of the sound heard by O?

2) A stationary source of sound emits waves of wavelength , period T and

speed V. The source now moves with speed v in a straight line away from
a stationary observer.
What are the wavelength and the speed of the wave as detected by the
observer?

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Wavelength

Speed
V +v

vT

A
B

V v

C
D

+vT

3) A police car, sounding its siren, is travelling at constant speed towards

a stationary observer. The sound emitted by the siren is of constant
frequency. The frequency of the sound as heard by the observer is higher
than that heard by the driver of the police car. The reason for this is that
A. the wavefronts received by the observer are closer together than the
wavefronts received by the driver.
B. the speed of the wavefronts is greater as measured by the observer
than by the driver.
C. the speed of the wavefronts is less as measured by the observer than
by the driver.
D. the wavefronts received by the observer are further apart than the
wavefronts received by
the driver.
4) Which of the following is a correct description of the Doppler effect?
A. Change in frequency of light due to motion of the source of light.
B. Change in frequency of light due to relative motion between the source
of light and the
observer.
C. Change in observed frequency of light due to relative motion between
the source of light and the observer.
D. Change in observed frequency of light due to change in velocity of the
source of light.
5) A point source is moving at a constant speed in a straight-line towards
the right and emits sound waves of constant frequency. The speed of the
source is less than the speed of sound. Which of the diagrams correctly
shows the wavefronts emitted by the source?

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6) A source S, moving at constant speed, emits a sound of constant

frequency. The source passes by a stationary observer O, as shown below.

Which one of the following shows the variation with time t of the
frequency f observed at O as the source S approaches and passes by the
observer.

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7) A sound emitting source moves along a straight line with speed v relative to an observer at
rest.

The speed of sound relative to the medium is c. The observer measures the speed of sound
emitted by the source as
A. c.

B. c + v.

C. c v.

D. v c.

8) The diagram below represents the wavefronts spreading out from a moving source of
sound S. The positions of four observers are also shown. If the frequency of the source is f,
which observer hears a sound closest in value to this frequency when the source is at the
position shown?

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9) When a train travels towards you sounding its whistle, the pitch of the sound you hear is
different from when the train is at rest. This is because
A. the sound waves are travelling faster toward you.
B. the wavefronts of the sound reaching you are spaced closer together.
C. the wavefronts of the sound reaching you are spaced further apart.
D. the sound frequency emitted by the whistle changes with the speed of the train.
10) A sample of hydrogen on Earth emits a spectral line that is measured
by an Earth observer to have wavelength 500 nm. The same spectral line
is emitted by a galactic source that is moving away from Earth at speed of
0.1c. What is the wavelength of the galactic spectral line that will be
measured by the Earth observer?
A. 50 nm
B. 450 nm
C. 550 nm
D. 5000 nm