Glass Structures

CTU in Prague
ADVANCED DESIGN OF GLASS

STRUCTURES
Lecture L1_ME
Design of glass beams
Martina Eliov
European Erasmus Mundus Master Course
Sustainable Constructions
under Natural Hazards and Catastrophic Events
520121-1-2011-1-CZ-ERA MUNDUS-EMMC
Objectives of the lecture
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Elements subjected to bendings
Lateral torsional
buckling
Lateral torsional buckling
Design methods
Introduction
Experimental
research
Design methods
Practical examples
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Museum of glass - Kingwindford, United Kingdom
structure of extension: length 11,0 m

distance 1,1 m
height of column 3,5 m, depth 200 mm
span of beam 5,7 m, depth 300 mm
columns, beams laminated

glass
snow load 0,75kN/m2
roof, walls: insulated glass
units
Composition of insulated units:
outer layer 10 mm float colourless
solar-control glass
cavity between the panels 10 mm
inner layer: 2 x 6 mm of toughened
safety glass with striped pattern of
baked-on ceramic ink
3
Practical examples
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
CTU in Prague
Connection between beam and

column
three layered glass 3 x 10 mm
bonded on site with casting resin

total thickness 32mm
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Practical examples
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Backdoor to the family

house - Germany
Eating room family house in

London, UK
Practical examples
Objectives
Introduction
CTU in Prague
Canopies Nijmegen, Netherlands 1999
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Cross section
1 clamped steel column HEB300
2 horizontal steel beam HEA300
3 continuous glass beam 3x
10mm, float glass
4 glass roof panels 2x 10mm,
float glass
5 vertical glass panel in gutter
6
Practical examples
Objectives
Introduction
CTU in Prague
Glass canopy at the underground station Tokyo, Japan

1996
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
built-up beam
size 10,6 x 4,8 m
height 4,8 m
length of cantilever 9 m
beam composed from
triangular fins
Practical examples
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
CTU in Prague
Glass canopy at the underground station Tokyo, Japan

1996
panes with length 1,9 2,5 m

toughened glass 2x 15 mm
triangular fins (laminated glass 2x
19 mm + acryl pane 40mm)

acryl panes sufficient capacity in
case of earthquake
from 1 at top to 4 fins at support
with respect to the bending
moment
bolted connection
Practical examples
Objectives
Introduction
CTU in Prague
Glass roof of interior courtyard, commercial building in

Munich, Germany 2003
secondary
beams
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
primary
beams
Design methods
span of main beams 14m in

distance 2,7m; beams
composed of 13 fins with
length 4,5m outer fins 2x
12mm, inner 10+19+10mm
secondary beams in a
distance 2,2m
9
CTU in Prague
ELEMENTS SUBJETED TO BENDING

Objectives
Introduction
Glass roof of interior courtyard, commercial building in

Munich, Germany 2003
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
secondary beams 2x 10mm, heat

strengthened glass
bolted connection subjected by the
shear and bearing
roof double insulated units (2,7 x
2,3m)
high degree of precision assembly
10
Practical examples
Objectives
CTU in Prague
Glass roof for refectory at the TU Dresden, Germany 2006
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
glass roof above interior

courtyard 24 x 30m
11
Practical examples
Objectives
Introduction
CTU in Prague
Glass roof for refectory at the TU Dresden, 2006
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
preparation for installing the roof

panels placing the sealant strips
span of the principal beams
5,75m
secondary beams in
distance of 1,45m
beams depth 350mm, 4x
12mm fully tempered glass
installation of secondary beams
12
CTU in Prague
ELEMENTS SUBJECTED TO BENDING

Objectives
Glass roof for refectory at the TU Dresden, 2006
Introduction
TESTS 1:1
position of loads joints,
eccentricity 120mm
load-bearing capacity
residual capacity of beams
cyclic load, long term load
deflection
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Maximum breaking load 4,5

times higher than design load
13
Practical examples
Objectives
Introduction
CTU in Prague
Glass roof for university of Glasgow, 2002
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
triangular shape of glass roof

maximum span 15,5m = 4x 3,9m,
beams distance of 1,5m
tempered glass 2x 19mm, friction grip
connection
14
Practical examples
Objectives
CTU in Prague
Glass roof for dry dock Bristol, 2005
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
historic passenger liner built from iron special dry dock to protect ship hull
plates 2x 10mm heat-strengthened glass with size 4,35 x 1,5m at waterline
area 1000m2, 50mm of water weighing about 50 t illusion of the dock
the ship expand, contract and bend sideways in response to shifts in
temperature junction between the waterline plate and the ship had to
accommodate movements flexible collar
15
Practical examples
CTU in Prague
Glass roof for dry dock Bristol, 2005
beams: 3x 10mm heat-strengthened laminated glass, supported
on steel beams of trapezoidal cross-section, propped by struts

accidental design case dropping of a hammer from 15m, person
failing from deck, occasional foot traffic on the glass for cleaning
16
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
LTB
Experiments
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
LTB of 3m laminated beam
Belis, 2005 (UGent)
17
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
LTB
Experiments
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Belis, 2005 (UGent)
18
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
LTB
Experiments
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Belis, 2005 (UGent)
19
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
LTB
Experiments
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Belis, 2005 (UGent)

20
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
LTB
Experiments
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Belis, 2005 (UGent)

20
CTU in Prague
Elements subjected to bending

Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
GLASS BEAMS
horizontal elements
simply supported, cantilevering
maximum length:
float glass - 6,0 m
laminated glass - 4,5 m
tempered glass - 3,9 m
GLASS FINS
vertical or sloping beams used to support facades, wind load

simple supported or fully cantilevering
longer than L 8m are usually top-hang shorter are bottom supported
DESIGN METHOD
design according to the elastic stability
finite elements methods
tests 1:1
how the overall structure will behave

how the structure will behave after one or more glass elements
have failed
safety of people at failure - injury by falling glass
21
CTU in Prague
Elements subjected to bending

Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Ultimate limit state

simplified check of lateral and torsional stability based on
M Ed M max
Lateral torsional
buckling
Et 3
6 1
Design methods
Mmax
E
t
maximum unfactored destabilising bending moment

Young's modulus of elasticity
thickness of the glass pane
Poisson's ratio
it is possible to use for checking of buckling for glass fin with free
edges (without intermediate buckling restraint)
22
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

perfect elastic beam without any imperfections with rectangular crosssection is subjected to an increasing load bending moment M
instability (combination of lateral deflection and twisting) occurs
suddenly when a critical load is reached M = MCR, where critical
torsional buckling moment is
MCR
EI y GIt
L
simplified formula without

warping torsion - conservative
for rectangular cross-section including warping torsion
MCR
EI y GI t
L
2 EIw
1 2
L GI t
simply supported beam loaded

by constant bending moment
23
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods

MCR
EI y GIt
L
bending stiffness

MCR
EI y GI t
L
2 EIw
1 2
L GI t

23
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods

MCR
EI y GIt
L
torsional stiffness

MCR
EI y GI t
L
2 EIw
1 2
L GI t

23
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods

MCR
EI y GIt
L

MCR
EI y GI t
L
2 EIw
1 2
L GI t

critical length
23
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Critical torsional buckling moment depends on:

different moment distribution over the beam
boundary conditions
distance between the centre of gravity and the point where the
load is applied
Influence of following aspects on behaviour of glass

beams must be taken into account:
glass thickness
initial deformation float x tempered glass
laminated glass: shear modulus of PVB foil temperature
load duration
damage of glass surface
tensile strength of glass
24
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
RESEARCH BASED ON EXPERIMENTAL TESTS

EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
simple supported beam, concentrated load at mid-span

stress distribution is nonlinear over the beam height
lateral torsional buckling resistance is not limited by the critical
torsional buckling moment
tensile strength of glass is determinant for the buckling resistance
influence of elastic interlayer (PVB foil) on the buckling strength
temperature, load duration, thickness of the glass as well as
thickness of the interlayer
25

Objectives
CTU in Prague
A) Monolithic glass Analytical model
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Critical LTB
GI
L
EI z
2
t
C2 z a 2
C1
C2 z a Moment
2
L
EI z
M CR
Ci, za take into account different boundary conditions, different bending

moment, distance between the centre of gravity and the load point
LTB formulas for steel are valid, e.g. EC3

26

Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
CTU in Prague
B) Laminated glass Analytical model
No homogene, isotropic material
Shear deformation due to lateral

bending & torsion
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Critical LTB
Moment
M CR
Belis, 2005 (UGent)
2 E g I z eff
GI
L
t eff
2
C2 z a 2
C1
C2 z a
2
L
E g I z eff
27

Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
CTU in Prague
No homogene, isotropic material
Shear deformation due to lateral

bending & torsion
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Critical LTB
Moment
M CR
Belis, 2005 (UGent)
2 E g I z eff
GI
L
t eff
2
C2 z a 2
C1
C2 z a
2
L
E g I z eff
27

Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
CTU in Prague

it is possible to use same formula for MCR
lateral bending stiffness EIz and the torsional stiffness GIt are replaced by an
equivalent stiffness (EgIz)eff a (GIt)eff (determined by sandwich theory)
Effective bending stiffness (EgIz)eff

Luible
E I
g z eff
2 1
E g I s
2
1
t g1 t g 2
t g 1t g 2
I s 4
tint
h
2
t g1 t g 2
, same formulas as for compression member
Wlfel
E I
g z eff
E g I z ,lower Bs
Eg
Bs
E g t g tint
1 12
2
Gint 2 L
Wt g t g tint
28

Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
CTU in Prague

Effective torsional stiffness (GIt)eff
GI t eff GI t glass1 GI t glass 2 GI t comp
Luible
Glas
PVB
Glas
Lateral torsional
buckling
GI t comp
Design methods
MT
hB
tanh
2
GI s 1
h
x
y
t1
tg1
Scarpino
Gint t g1 t g 2
G tint t g 1t g 2
t PVB t
2
t
int
tg2
GI t eff
GI t f
6t g3 tint
f
Gint
2
W 2 4tint
6t g tint 3t g2
Gg
Gint
2
t 6t g tint
W
G
g
2
g
29
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Interlayer shear stiffness - Gint
Influence of the shear modulus GPVB on the critical lateral torsional buckling
load Mcr,LT
The curves ratio Mcr,LT / Mcr,LT, without PVB
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
30

Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
CTU in Prague
Stress problem is not solved analytically
C) Non-linear buckling analysis second order calculation
calculation of structure with initial imperfections

too complicated unsuitable for design of beams
Design methods
31

Objectives
Introduction
D) Laminated glass Numerical model
Experimental
research
F/2
Axis of
symmetry
v0
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
CTU in Prague
x
fork
support
Design methods
u
y
z
glass
x
z
Bonding condition:
u=0, y=z=0
Luible, 2004 (EPFL)

32

Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
F/2
PVB (solid element)

elastic or viscoelastic
Axis of
symmetry
=0 t
PVB
v0
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
CTU in Prague
x
fork
support
Design methods
=0
t1
u
y
Equal nodes
glass
(shell element)
with offset t/2
glass
x
z
Bonding condition:
u=0, y=z=0
Luible, 2004 (EPFL)

32
CTU in Prague

Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
F/2
=0 t
PVB
v0
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
PVB (solid element)

elastic or viscoelastic
Axis of
symmetry
=0
x
fork
support
Design methods
u
y
Equal nodes
glass
x
z
Bonding condition:
u=0, y=z=0
glass
(shell element)
with offset t/2
PVB
coupling
11
7
40
y
My
Beam element
Luible, 2004 (EPFL)
t1
t PVB
44
glass
9
5
=0
32
Design methods
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Only existing code:

Australian Standard AS 1288: Glass in Buildings selection and
installation
Appendix C: Buckling of glass fins
M cr
M Ed
1,7
Simple approach
Better design approaches:

Non linear numerical model inlculding all imperfections
Buckling curves
33
Design methods
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
determination of the lateral and torsional buckling

resistance
1) an appropriate FE model: tensile stress on glass surfaces can be

compared to tensile strength - complicated
2) buckling curves
slenderness ratio depends on tensile strength of the glass
Design methods
p ,t
2 p ,t I y
CR
MCR h
where
p,t - tensile strength of glass,
CR - critical lateral torsional buckling stress,
Mcr - elastic critical moment
34
CTU in Prague
Design methods
Objectives
Design buckling curve
Introduction
Experimental
research
LT
Elements
subjected to
bending
DLT
Slenderness
1.2
p ,t
2 p ,t I y
CR
M CR h
D
LT
1.0
p ,t
cr , D
D y
LT
0.8
p ,t
Lateral torsional
buckling
Reduction factor LTB
Design methods
0.6
0.4
LT f LT
0.2
Bending strength taking into

account LTB
M Rd LT p ,t
2I y
z
LT p ,tW y
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
coefficient dlancement
slenderness
au dversement
2.0
2.5
D
LT
Verification
M Rd M Ed
35
CTU in Prague
Design methods
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
LT
Elements
subjected to
bending
DLT
Slenderness
1.2
p ,t
2 p ,t I y
CR
M CR h
D
LT
1.0
p ,t
cr , D
D y
LT
0.8
p ,t
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
0.6
0.4
LT f LT
0.2

account LTB
M Rd LT p ,t
2I y
z
LT p ,tW y
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
slenderness
au dversement
2.0
2.5
D
LT
Verification
M Rd M Ed
35
CTU in Prague
Design methods
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
LT
Elements
subjected to
bending
DLT
Slenderness
1.2
p ,t
2 p ,t I y
CR
M CR h
D
LT
1.0
p ,t
cr , D
D y
LT
0.8
p ,t
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
0.6
0.4
LT f LT
0.2

account LTB
M Rd LT p ,t
Verification
M Rd M Ed
2I y
z
LT p ,tW y
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
slenderness
au dversement
2.0
2.5
D
LT
LTB buckling curves need to

be established for glass
35
CTU in Prague
Design methods
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
for different types of loading, glass geometries, shear modulus of PVB

interlayer and initial deformations it is possible derived different buckling
curves reduction factor
buckling curve (c) from Eurocode may be used as a conservative approach
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
slenderness
LT
36
CTU in Prague
Design methods
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Design methods
Australian standard AS 1288 - 1994: apendix H

1. Beams with intermediate buckling restraints
0 ,5
M CR 1
EI y GJ
Lay
where
MCR
g1
Lay
(EI)y
GJ
J
critical elastic buckling moment

constant from table
distance between effectively rigid buckling restraints
effective rigidity for bending about the minor axis
effective torsional rigidity
torsional moment of inertia
for rectangular cross-section
db 3
b
J
1 0 ,63
3
d
d, b
depth and breadth of the beam

37
CTU in Prague
Design methods
Objectives
Introduction
side view of beam
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
intermediate buckling
restraint
M
z
Lay
y
top view of beam
Design methods
x
Moment parameter
= M1 / M2
1,0
0,5
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
Coefficient g1
free restraint condition fixed restraint condition
6,3
3,1
8,2
4,1
11,1
5,5
14,0
7,3
14,0
8,0
38
CTU in Prague
Design methods
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling

2. Beams without intermediate buckling restraint
0 ,5
0 ,5
MCR g 2
EI y GJ 1 g 3 y h / Lay EI y GJ
Lay
Design methods
where
MCR
g2, g3
Lay
(EI)y
GJ
yh

constants from table
distance between effectively rigid buckling restrains
(span of beam)
height above centroid of the point of load application
39
CTU in Prague
Design methods
Objectives
Introduction
Type of loading
Experimental
research
Bending moment M
wL2ay
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lay
wL2ay
Lateral torsional
buckling
Lay
Design methods
FLay
g2
g3
free
3,6
1,4
fixed
6,1
1,8
free
4,1
4,9
fixed
5,4
5,2
free
4,2
1,7
fixed
6,7
2,6
free
5,3
4,5
fixed
6,5
5,3
free
3,3
1,3
fixed
Lay
F
FLay
8
Lay
Lay
Coefficient
12
F
F/2
Condition of end
restraint against
rotation about y-y
F/2
FLay
8
40
Design methods
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research

3. Continuously restrained beams on tension side
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
MCR
Design methods
where
d
2
2
La EI y y 0 GJ
4
2 y0 y h
MCR
Lay
(EI)y
GJ
d
yh
y0

distance between points of effective rigid rotational
restraints
depth of beam
location above the neutral axis of the loading point,
positive or negative values
distance of the restraints from neutral axis
41
Design methods
CTU in Prague
Objectives
Introduction
Experimental
research
Elements
subjected to
bending
Lateral torsional
buckling
Serviceability limit state

deflection, vibration
simple rule for natural frequency
16
d
5 Hz
Design methods
where
d
f
midspan deflection of beam or tip deflection of cantilever [mm]

first natural frequency [Hz] - foot traffic and wind
Float glass low tension stress levels usually deflection is not

problem
Laminated or tempered glass higher stress levels important
check of deflection
42
References
CTU in Prague
Educational pack of COSTActin TU0905 Structural Glass - Novel design methods and next generation
products
HALDIMANN, Matthias; LUIBLE, Andreas; OVEREND, Mauro.
Structural Use of Glass. Structural Engineering Documents 10 , IABSE, Zrich:2008. ISBN 978-3-85748119-2
THE INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS
Structural use of glass in buildings, London: The institution of Structural Engineers, 1999.
KASPER, Ruth.
Tragverhalten von Glastrgern, RWTH Aachen, Aachen: Shaker Verlag, 2005.
Australian Standard AS 1288.
Glass in Buildings Selection and installation, Appendix C: Basis for determination of fin design to prevent
buckling, 2006.
AMADIO, Claudio; BEDON, Chiara.
Buckling of laminated glass elements in out-of-plane bending, Engineering Structures 32 (2010), 3780
3788.
BELIS, Jan; MOCIBOB, Danijel; LUIBLE, Andreas; VANDEBROEK, Marc.
On the size and shape of initial out-of-plane curvatures in structural glass components, Construction and
Building Materials 25 (2011), 27002712.
LUIBLE, A.
Stabilitt von Tragelementen aus Glas. Dissertation EPFL thse 3014. Lausanne: 2004.
LINDNER, J.; HOLBERNDT, T.
Zum Nachweis von stabilittsgefhrdeten Glastrgern unter Biegebeanspruchung. Stahlbau 75(6) (2006),
488-498.
43
CTU in Prague
Thank you
for your kind attention
44
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CTU in Prague

ADVANCED DESIGN OF GLASS

Objectives of the lecture

Elements subjected to bendings

Lateral torsional buckling

Museum of glass - Kingwindford, United Kingdom

structure of extension: length 11,0 m

columns, beams laminated

Connection between beam and

three layered glass 3 x 10 mm

bonded on site with casting resin

Backdoor to the family

Eating room family house in

Canopies Nijmegen, Netherlands 1999

Glass canopy at the underground station Tokyo, Japan

Glass canopy at the underground station Tokyo, Japan

panes with length 1,9 2,5 m

19 mm + acryl pane 40mm)

Glass roof of interior courtyard, commercial building in

span of main beams 14m in

ELEMENTS SUBJETED TO BENDING

Glass roof of interior courtyard, commercial building in

secondary beams 2x 10mm, heat

Glass roof for refectory at the TU Dresden, Germany 2006

glass roof above interior

Glass roof for refectory at the TU Dresden, 2006

preparation for installing the roof

span of the principal beams

ELEMENTS SUBJECTED TO BENDING

Glass roof for refectory at the TU Dresden, 2006

Maximum breaking load 4,5

Glass roof for university of Glasgow, 2002

triangular shape of glass roof

Glass roof for dry dock Bristol, 2005

Glass roof for dry dock Bristol, 2005

beams: 3x 10mm heat-strengthened laminated glass, supported

on steel beams of trapezoidal cross-section, propped by struts

LTB of 3m laminated beam

Belis, 2005 (UGent)

LTB of 3m laminated beam

Belis, 2005 (UGent)

LTB of 3m laminated beam

Belis, 2005 (UGent)

Belis, 2005 (UGent)

LTB of 3m laminated beam

Belis, 2005 (UGent)

LTB of 3m laminated beam

Elements subjected to bending

vertical or sloping beams used to support facades, wind load

how the overall structure will behave

Elements subjected to bending

Ultimate limit state

maximum unfactored destabilising bending moment

Lateral torsional buckling

LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

simplified formula without

for rectangular cross-section including warping torsion

simply supported beam loaded

Lateral torsional buckling

LINEAR THEORY OF ELASTICITY

simplified formula without

for rectangular cross-section including warping torsion

simply supported beam loaded

Lateral torsional buckling