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Racheal Colbert
Dr. Vanessa Fonseca
AIST 4990
May 11, 2016

Linguistic Diversity & Self-determination in Virgil Wyacos A Zuni Life

Simon Ortiz, one of the most influential and important Native American poets, wrote in
his book of poetry titled Woven Stone that were all human with the same human feelings and
responses to feelings, we understand and share hurt, love, anger, joy, sadness, elation, a gamut of
emotions (6). Though Ortiz recognizes sameness in humanity, he does not turn a blind eye to
the overtly obvious differences in language across cultures: However, human cultures are
different from each other, and unique, and we have different and unique languages; it is not easy
to translate from one language to another though we egotistically believe we think we can
(Ortiz 6). He sees how the strangeness of language in our world instills a fear that moves us to
provoke change; to provoke uniformity among cultures. Those who have sought after power in
this country have attempted to gain their power by breaking down linguistic diversity and
attempting to create language conformity. In an article titled Struggling with Language:
Indigenous movements for linguistic security and the politics of local community the author,
Robert Lee Nichols, writes, those in a position of dominance have tended to recognize the
power implicated in linguistic barriers and have sought to remove these obstacles to render
colonized peoples more legible to centralized control (37). The colonized people Nichols is
speaking of in his article are the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. It has been estimated that
before the colonization of the Americas there were between 300 and 500 indigenous languages
but now only 200 of those languages are being spoken today (McCarthy, Romero, Zepeda 29). In

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contemporary steps taken by Native American communities to achieve linguistic security, their
communities are attempting to preserve a space for local action and deliberation and protect
linguistic security (Nichols 27). The contemporary steps being taken include the usage of
linguistic diversity, the ability to speak both a Native language and English, to promote selfdetermination. Nichols writes, The capacity of colonized peoples to speak languages that differ
from those of the colonizing forces around them has been used to subvert the logic of
imperialism in very practical ways (37). Indigenous communities realize that linguistics security
can be maintained through their practice of linguistic diversity.
Linguistic diversity positively serves Native communities by helping them involve
themselves in political action and achieve self-determination with the use of communication
barriers. When Native communities hold members that have the ability to speak both their native
language and English, the communities can exclude outsiders from conversation and knowledge
sharing (Nichols 33). The communication barriers create sound power, a term coined by
Donna Bonner in her article titled Garifuna Childrens Language Shame: Ethnic Stereotypes,
National Affiliation, and Transnational Immigration as Factors in Language Choice in Southern
Belize. Bonners idea of sound power helps indigenous people preserve their native languages
by gifting them the power to choose which language to speak in different spaces (Bonner 85).
Another positive attribute of linguistic diversity is that the communication barriers do not allow
flexibility for indigenous peoples to be removed from significant decision-making positions
within their communities (Nichols 34). Linguistic diversity has also been proven to grant
indigenous people with an increased sense of empowerment and capacity to realize their own
agency (Nichols 35). Lastly, communication barriers born from linguistic diversity have the
ability to alter demands that are placed upon indigenous peoples by placing some of the

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intercultural exchange burdens on non-indigenous communities. These benefits of linguistic
diversity create space for political transformation and self-determination within Native
communities when interacting with their oppressors. In a novel writer by Virgil Wyaco and
edited by J.A. Jones titled A Zuni Life, readers are shown, through Wyacos narrative, these
benefits of linguistic diversity discussed in this paragraph. Wyacos opportunity as a child to be
immersed in the English language and Western culture gave him the tools and competitive edge
he needed to achieve political power for his Zuni community. Throughout his life, Wyaco was
able to feel a sense of empowerment and agency, participate in important decision making within
his community, and partake in sound power that lead his tribe to self-determination with the
help of his bilingual traits. The amount of success in his community Wyaco was able to achieve
inspired appreciation among the Zuni youth that makes the future of the Zuni language look
bright. Wyacos story highlights the importance of maintaining native languages but also to
integrate the English language in their education to give indigenous people the political edge
they need to promote change, agency, and freedom.
Wyacoss English learning journey mixed with the life lessons he learned as a Zuni
member and helped him obtain the skills that allowed him to feel a sense of empowerment and
agency in his life. Wyaco was first immersed in an English speaking community when he left his
Zuni day school to attend a boarding school at Black Rock. He speaks of the difficulty linguistic
differences presented for him at school: I didnt know a word of English when I entered first
grade. Communication was difficult, for the teachers made no effort to learn Zuni; the effort was
supposed to be all on our part (Wyaco 13). Being thrown into a space where the only language
he was familiar with was not spoken and was expected to engage with the language forced him
to learn English and to learn it fast. The only way Wyaco would be successful in school and

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comfortable socially at the boarding school was to become bilingual. Not finding instruction of
the English language from the White teachers at the school, Wyaco turned towards the
playground for his English lessons: we all talked English on the playground. I learned more
English there than in the classroom. Our playground language was neither polite nor
grammatical, but I gained a fluency then that has been useful ever since (Wyaco 14). Learning
English in a more casual and interactive way gave Wyaco confidence in speaking English
because he was not just an English student but a socially interactive English speaker. His
confidence inspired him to dream big dreams: I heard about the Indian School in Albuquerque,
one of the BIA boarding schools, and I thought about having a different lifestyle and learning
new things in a big city (Wyaco 17). His newly formed linguistic diversity opened his eyes to
the levels of success he was capable of achieving and because of this he felt worthy and gifted
enough to take on a big city, an environment with opposite settings than his Zuni Pueblo. When
he made the big leap to move into the city to attend school, his self-taught English was
confirmed as successful: I was placed in advanced class for seventh grade, mostly because my
English was better than most of the other students (Wyaco 18).At this moment, Wyacos
confidence in his ability to be linguistically diverse was solidified.
The hardworking mentality instilled in Wyacos nature through the work he did on the
Zuni reservation helped him become linguistically diverse and help his community reach selfdetermination. Simon Ortiz elaborated on, in his collection of poetry Woven Stone, the elements
that encompass Native American languages:
The oral tradition of Native American people is based upon spoken language, but
it is more than that too. Oral tradition is inclusive; it is the actions, behavior,
relationships, practices throughout the whole social, economic, and spiritual life

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process of people. In this respect, the oral tradition is the consciousness of the
people (7).
Part of Wyacos oral tradition then, according to Ortiz, involved his vigorous work done on the
Zuni reservation building fences and farming. Wyaco learned how to persevere through intense
physically straining work which gave him the ability to persevere through mentally straining
work even in uninspiring spaces. Wyaco states that he heard White teachers call Indian children
dirty and stupid because we couldnt speak English well and wore ragged clothes (80). Wyaco
was able to ignore the negativity from the whites and pursue being bilingual to contribute to the
politics of community in his tribe. The practice of oral traditions in the Zuni community is also
another element of Wyacos Zuni heritage that contributed to Wyacos success at becoming
linguistically diverse. When Wyaco was completing a test to determine if he would be a suitable
employee for the post office the practicing of oral traditions in his Zuni community helped him
to succeed. Wyaco describes this scene at the beginning of chapter seven: You got to study half
a page of information for ten minutes and then put down what you could remember of it in the
rest of the hour. It was easy. Zuni boys are trained to recite long, complicated prayers and stories
word for word (65). Wyaco passed the test due to his linguistic diversity. The oral traditions
practiced by the Zuni and Wyacos capability to speak English helped him further his career,
bringing him one step closer to leading his Zuni community to self-determination.
Throughout his life, Wyaco jumps between his Zuni world and the world of the Whites
until he can figure out how to live within both worlds. After Wyaco returned from war and
returned to the University of New Mexico, he began to struggle with his identity due to his
linguistic diversity. At the college level, Wyaco began to struggle with his English course. His
inability to write his own English papers and maintain the rate of success due to his ability to

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speak English in lower level grades created discouragement within Wyaco. Wyaco dropped out
of school to work in a factory but then realized since his search for a better career came to a
standstill, so he returned to Zuni. Returning home did not resolve the discouraging feelings
Wyaco was experiencing. He was struggling with finding work that suited his linguistic diversity.
His ability to speak English was not good enough to succeed at the University of New Mexico
but still instilled a sort of entitlement that created a belief within him that Zuni work would not
satisfy his plans for his future. Wyaco believed that If I (he) am ever to be useful to my people it
will have to be in this secular world (54). He realized here that his linguistic diversity would
only help bring about self-determination in the Zuni community us he knew a lot more about
the White world (54). At this time in his life, Wyaco served as the bookkeeper for his tribe.
Believing that his job as the tribes bookkeeper would only be able to serve a higher purpose for
his tribal community if he were able to gain more skills from the white world, tells us that
linguistic diversity is necessary for Wyacos community to participate in the politics that exists
between their world and the white world.
While involved in the white, secular world, Wyaco was able to succeed in not only
learning about the white ways of living but acquiring and apply those traits to his way of life. In
doing so, Wyaco was able to return to the Zuni reservation and lead his community to the
political stage with confidence. During his time spent in the white world, Wyaco learned how
white people lived and that living a white life wasnt any easier than being an Indian (56-7).
While Wyaco was working as an Equal Employment officer in Ft. Knox, Indiana, he found the
inspiration to be a great officer in his desire to help create self-determination in his tribal
community. Wyaco reflected on his job performance and the inspiration that helped him do his
job well in this quote: If you looked at my behavior on the job, you would think I was turning

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into a first-class white man. I wanted to be able to do anything a white man could do, and do it
better (61). Wyaco did not want to be a white man; he wanted to gain the skills through his
work that would help him beat the white man on a political stage. He left the white world and
returned to his tribe when his linguistic skills and knowledge of the Western world were
polished. His Zuni tribe appointed him to head the Zuni Education Department and to act as the
liaison between the Housing Authority and the white world. Wyaco expressed his excitement of
being able to successfully serve his community when staying, I was finally doing what I
dreamed of doing all my life: being useful to my people and Id found a white mans job in my
own home pueblo. Maybe now I could start thinking like an Indian again (73-4). Eventually,
Wyaco became the chairman of his tribes government and was able to lead his tribe to selfdetermination. In 1973, Zuni parents spoke up and declared their desire to have more of a say in
what their children were taught in schools. Wyaco, due to his linguistic diversity, was able to be a
voice for Zuni parents and file a lawsuit when the Indian Polytechnic Institute in Albuquerque
was being threatened to be shut down. He fought against the whites by using his language skills
to make them understand the importance of educating Zuni children separately from the white
world. Wyaco told those threatening to shut the organization down that Indians need education
to survive in a world dominated by Whites (84). Wyacos linguistically diverse voice prevented
the organization from being shut down. His voices power has what gifted his community selfdetermination and political say within the white world. Wyacos achievements in his community
were able to inspire the Zuni youth. The benefits of Wyacos work instilled a new pride of Indian
heritage in the youth.
Wyaco was able to participate in the two worlds because his linguistic diversity gifted
him the power of sound. His sound power abled him to communicate with both worlds but also

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to keep hidden elements of his Zuni community which gave him a significant edge in the
political fight about education that is featured at the end of the novel. To open his story, Wyaco
tells his white readers:
You Whites hear the word Snow and think of slippery streets; you hear the word
rain and think of canceled gold dates. Its not like that white the Zuni. Another
Zuni or Hopi would know what Im saying; maybe even a Navajo. You have to
listen to my words. I want to tell you the story of my life so it can be written down
for young Zuni to read, but you have to listen (1).
In this quote, Wyaco is hoping to explain to his white audience that the Zuni language and its
themes should be perceived and understood differently than the English language is perceived
and understood. While he does not exercise his sound power on his readers since he clues us
into the practice of sound power in this quote, he clearly exercises his power throughout his
life. Later in the novel, Wyaco explains the communication barrier which produces the sound
power that exists between the whites and the Zuni peoples he introduces us to. Wyaco writes:
I know what anthropologists know about the Zuni. Where I have personal
knowledge, the facts are mostly right, but the essence is mostly wrong. To
understand, you have to speak the language, because so much is contained in the
way Zuni think. They express their perceptions of reality differently than English
speakers do (52).
Being linguistically diverse allowed Wyaco to approach different life scenarios from different
cultural viewpoints which, again, gave him the power of sound. Wyaco discusses a time when his
white friends collect, what they had called, Indian arrowheads which are a name foreign to the
Zuni language. Though Wyaco understands what the people are referring to, his white friends

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would not be able to understand the spiritual nature of those objects. Wyaco states that
sometimes I find it impossible to explain things in English (99). The impossibility for a white
man to understand an element of Zuni language and Zuni life gives Wyaco his sound power.' He
can keep in and hide information from whites because of their inability to comprehend the Zuni
language and the themes it contains.
Though Wyaco exercises sound power against whites and preaches for an education
separate from the white world for the Zuni youth, Wyaco expresses to his readers that he enjoys
and respects the English language. At the end of his novel, Wyaco reflects on the time he spent
emerged in the white world and expressed a sentimental feeling of longingness: Although I can
think in either Zuni or English, depending on what Im doing, I have much less occasion to think
in English now and regret it little (95). Wyaco tells his readers:
When I was young, I was told that I should pick the best from both cultures, the
White mans and the Indians, and make them part of my life. Thinking back to
when I was a small boy, I can see that some things available to Whites are worth
having (95).
Wyaco explains that though he emerged himself into the white world only to create success for
his tribal community, there were true moments during his time spent in the white world that he
enjoyed. Simon Ortiz comments on the white worlds ability to attract indigenous peoples in his
quote which reads:
You cant help but be persuaded by attitudes, values, viewpoints to a major extent,
no matter how loyal you are to your heritage, no matter if Native American elders
remind you constantly that you belong to your people. Just as it claimed land and
sovereignty, American society and culture can claim your soul (Ortiz 20).

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American societys claim on Wyacos soul shows how being linguistically diverse is unnatural
for Indigenous people as English is a language forced upon them. Though it may be unnatural,
linguistic diversity does promote self-determination which may help loosen American society's
claim on Native Americans souls.
There is a poem written by Luci Tapahonso, a Navajo poet, which beautifully depicts the
work of Wyaco and the blessings he brought to his Zuni tribe. Her poem, which is titled A
Blessing, discusses the directions we take in our lives and how those actions affect you
community or the ones who believe in you. A section of her poem reads:
May we fulfill the lives envisioned for us at birth. May we realize
That our actions affect all people and the earth. May we live in the way
Of beauty and help others in need. May we always remember that
We were created as people who believe in one another (Tapahonso 47).
This lines written by Tapahonso, show us that Wyacos journey to becoming linguistically
diverse was beautiful because it helped his community which was in need of his help. I think her
poem also serves as a reminder that though paths chosen may seem unclear at times or unworthy
of praise but that we must have faith in those we love. The Zunis confidence in Wyaco, though
he left his community many times, is what gave them the opportunity to have self-determination.

Works Cited

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Bonner, Donna. "Garifuna Childrens Language Shame: Ethnic Stereotypes, National Affilitaion,
and Transnational Immigration as Factors in Language Choice in Southern Belize."
Language in Society (2001): 81-96. Print .
Nichols, Robert Lee. "Struggling with language: Indigenous movements for linguistic security
and the politics of local community ." Ethnicities (2006): 27-51. Print.
Ortiz, Simon J. Woven Stone. University of Arizona Press, 1992. Book .
Tapahonso, Luci. "A Blessing ." Tapahonso, Luci. a radiant curve . The University of Arizona
Press, 2008. 45-7. Book .
Teresa L. McCarthy, Mary Eunice Romero, Ofelia Zepeda. "Reclaming the Gift: Indigenous
Youth Counter-Narratives on Native Language Loss and Revitalization ." American
Indian Quarterly (2006): 28-48. Print .
Wyaco, Virgil. A Zuni Life. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press , 1998. Book .