Running Head: MEDITATION, MYSTICISM, ENTHEOGENS, AND NEUROSCIENCE

Meditation, Mysticism, Entheogens, and Neuroscience

Madeline Martinez
University of Texas at El Paso
Prof. Hernandez
RWS 1302

MEDITATION, MYSTICISM, ENTHEOGENS, AND NEUROSCIENCE

Meditation, Mysticism, Entheogens, and Neuroscience

Progress in the neurosciences raises lots of interesting philosophical and ethical
questions, which inevitably overlap with religious and theological concerns. Entheogens, or
psychedelic drugs, are associated with mystical states of experience. Drug laws currently limit
research, but important new work is underway at major biomedical research facilities shows that
entheogens reliably occasion mystical experiences and thereby allow research into brain states
during these experiences. Powerful innovative tools allow the function of healthy human brains
to be examined and have recently been used to study the brain functions of Buddhist monks,
Catholic nuns, Pentecostals speaking in tongues, and many others. If mystical experiences of
enlightenment can be reduced to neurological processes, does this mean we will invent a way to
stimulate these peak experiences at will? This paper seeks to analyze two genres, a lecture by
William Grassie and journal article by Ron Cole-Turner, in their endeavor to educate on the field
of neuroscience.
Audience and Purpose
The first genre, William Grassies the Neurosciences of Religion: Meditation,
Entheogens, Mysticism, is a lecture with accompanying image published by Metanexus on
August 9, 2011. The purpose of this lecture is to examine the human brain directly to see how
the cognitive neurosciences try to understand and explain religious and spiritual experiences
(Grassie, 2011, para. 2). The second genre, Entheogens, Mysticism, and Neuroscience by Ron
Cole-Turner, is an article in the September 2014 edition of Zygon: Journal of Religion &
Science. This academic article explores the mystical states of experience triggered by entheogens
by highlighting the research of religious scholars and experts in science and religion.

MEDITATION, MYSTICISM, ENTHEOGENS, AND NEUROSCIENCE

The projected audience of the Metanexus article and image is those who enjoy
scientifically rigorous and philosophically open-ended explorations of foundational questions,
as stated on their website. Aware of the intendedly intelligent audience of the first genre, one can
infer that the audience is at least somewhat familiar with some of the advanced topics being
present. For Cole-Turners article, the target audience is obviously professionals in the fields of
science and religion. Both articles are conscious of their readers, and given the nature of their
publishing institutes, they recognize that the articles are intended mostly for interested
individuals. In Grassies lecture, the idea that the human mind was modular, with instinctive
dispositions developing in conjunction with social and environmental factors into various
inference systems in the brain is developed, while religion is said be to understood as a potent
combination of these different inference systems. Unlike the first genre, the second article
focuses on entheogens or psychedelic drugs and their association with mystical states of
experience, as well as evaluating the philosophical and theological presuppositions that
undermine their research.
The genres differ in the amount of time required to read the information, not taking into
account the time used to further comprehend it. Surprisingly enough, the Metanexus lecture is
actually longer in length than the Zygon journal article. Since the first genre is presented as the
second in a series of lectures entitled How the Neurosciences Explain Religion or Not, readers
can expect to expend a greater amount of time with the piece. The article goes quite in depth,
with significant background information relayed independently from that correlating to the
previous lecture. The second genre is presented as the first of a series of articles entitled the
Potential Religious Relevance of Entheogens, envisioned to illuminate all aspects of entheogens.

MEDITATION, MYSTICISM, ENTHEOGENS, AND NEUROSCIENCE

The first genre is more encompassing of all religious interaction with brain functions while the
second genre is concerned primarily with psychoactive stimulants and their effects.
Each genres purpose is to inform its audience of the connection between religion and
science in the brain, however, they each present the information differently. In the lecture, the
purpose of the article is to inform the audience of the neuroscientific properties including the
physical and chemical effects of meditation, entheogens, and mysticism. The purpose of the
journal article is to inform professionals in the fields of science and religion, and also interested
intellectuals, on the researched use of Schedule I drugs in the study neuroscience and their
capabilities. Each genre sculpts its vocabulary to communicate the information effectively, and
as a result, the audience is able to best understand the complex topics being relayed to them.
Since the Metanexus article is a lecture, the language is undoubtedly specialized, holding the
audiences attention for a long period of time with very little aesthetic dynamic is a difficult task.
Grassie maintains focus without becoming auto tone throughout his extensive piece. Without
faltering to discern whether or not the vocabularies being presented are even comprehensible,
Grassie does his best at providing the most in-depth neuroscientific assessment of meditation,
entheogens, and mysticism. The journal article is written in academic English, but in a more
persuasive tone. It does not utilize the same extremely precise terms as in the lecture because it is
meant for a more generalized audience than that of one in a series of neuroscientific specific
reports, aimed at those already familiar with the discipline. The vocabulary used in the
Metanexus article and Cole-Turners piece is specialized, it focuses on the physical, chemical,
and metaphysical aspects as effects on the brain. The terminology in the first genre is associated
with the physical and chemical results of meditation, entheogens, and the overall experience of
mysticism and what it does to the brain; it is the most specific, detailing what cognitive

MEDITATION, MYSTICISM, ENTHEOGENS, AND NEUROSCIENCE

neuroscientists and philosophers have gathered to be a neurological description of the human

brain. Another emphasis is placed on specialized vocabulary such as the Explanatory Gap,
psychotropics, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, and synapses, among many others.
Language present in the first genre is very neutrally detached; every item in the text is
scientifically objectified without hinting favoritism towards one theory or another. The language
features that are present in the second genre are informative, meanwhile being more subjective, if
not persuasive. Both the written version of the lecture and the journal article are presented in the
same clean and simple format, but a visual is only present to accompany the lecture. It shows the
neurological pathways being lit up in the brain as mysticism is experienced. Black and white
were the only visual colors in the pieces and these serve to further emphasize the technical
aspects of these works and their publishers. The titles of the various segments of both articles are
in a bolder font, with the first genre going into further detail with sections ascending numerically.
Rhetorical Appeals
Both genres demonstrate a use of the rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, and logos. The
manner with which they pertained and applied differ.
Ethos
In the first genre, Grassie provides a look inside the brain, furthering his first lecture on
how humans evolved as hunter-gatherers and how their genetic, mental, and behavioral nature
was conditioned by and for this kind of life. The lecture establishes its credibility by presenting
the information via a popular and distinguished source. It is conferrable that the information
offered on the Metanexus website is credible, as it is provided courtesy of the Metanexus
Institute, a not-for-profit organization that supports the exchange of innovative ideas through
conferences, salons, books, and its website. Their online magazine is dedicated to publishing

MEDITATION, MYSTICISM, ENTHEOGENS, AND NEUROSCIENCE

scholars with an ability to synthesize knowledge in constructive and nuanced ways. In the second
genre, Cole-Turner advocated for further research of entheogens such as LSD, commonly known
as acid, and psilocybin, which can found in the psychoactive fungi coined sacred
mushrooms or shrooms. The article was published in Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science, a
peer-reviewed academic journal. Published since 1966, Zygon is dedicated to the manifold
interactions between the sciences and human religious and moral convictions. The journal
addresses ethical issues and analyzes the history of the differentiation between science and
religion and their subsequent aspects, considering a wide range of sciences from both a religious
and non-religious perspective, and lending the article credibility.
Pathos
The lecturer of the first genre does not utilize pathos, or emotional appeal. As Metanexus
literally means transcending connections and transformational networks, the information is
primarily concerned with bestowing evidence that may be used to gather the readers own
connections and conclusions rather than incite a sentimental response. Not a phrase given in the
lecture is openly subjective, or even hints at the possibility. The second genre, on the other hand,
utilizes a subtle amount of pathos. When talking about American-led war on drugs, ColeTurner cites shocking statistics on Americans use of psychedelic drugs despite their extremely
illegal classification. This is done in an attempt to evoke emotions of shock, personal relation,
and discontent with the substances current status since the prohibition is not working very well,
at least not in the United States, according to the author (Cole-Turner, 2014, pg. 2). The piece
serves to advocate for the further research of entheogens on the brain, currently being prevented
by legal restrictions that are unable to curtail illegal use for nonproductive means.
Logos

MEDITATION, MYSTICISM, ENTHEOGENS, AND NEUROSCIENCE

The lecture article used logos through its extensive use of terminology; he maintained the
information be as explicit as possible for the discourse being presented. The evidence appears to
be reliable, all being supplemented by precise citations and an impressive references list. The
journal article is much more favoring of statistics, citing the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use
and Health (NSDUH) multiple times. Overall, the article is obviously favoring one side more
than another, however, the credentials given offered a broad variety of sources and attitudes,
ranging from definitions of magical thinking to studies done by the British Neuroscience
Association.
Structure and Delivery
Given the foremost topics of both genres, the way in which the information was
organized in each field varied slightly. In the first genre, the author began with a statement
connecting his lecture to the previous one in the series talking about how humans have
affectively adapted for their current standing, despite the very different environment of technocultural creation. In the second genre, the abstract provides a vivid glimpse at what the journal
article is particularly about. Both genres begin with the broadest aspect of their topic, narrowing
section by section into the most precise terminology, with conclusions looking to the future as
how research may best be furthered.
Conclusion
Overall, both genres discussed the main topic well. The first genre was more
encompassing of all metaphysical associations of the brain. The second, allowed for a focused
interpretation of the controversial nature of the study of entheogens, due to their target audiences,
while Grassies article served primarily to educate contrasting Cole-Turners desire to advocate.

MEDITATION, MYSTICISM, ENTHEOGENS, AND NEUROSCIENCE

Each genre demonstrated a tremendous knowledge of comprehensive information in the
developing field of meditation, mysticism, entheogens, and neuroscience.

MEDITATION, MYSTICISM, ENTHEOGENS, AND NEUROSCIENCE

References
Cole-Turner, R. (2014). Entheogens, mysticism, and neuroscience. Zygon: Journal of Religion &
Science, 49(3), 642-651.
Grassy, W. (2011). The neurosciences of religion: Meditation, entheogens, mysticism. Retrieved
from http://www.metanexus.net/essay/neurosciences-religion-meditation-entheogensmysticism