3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

handleisattachedattherearofthebodyandtheheadprotrudesfromthefront.Thelineofactionisthelineoftheextendedindexfinger,sothattheheadis
eccentrictothecentralaxisofthebody.Thecentreofmassofthetool,however,isinfrontofthehandle,whilethetorqueissuchastocreateaturning
movementofthebodywhichthehandmustovercome.Consequentlyitwouldbemoreappropriatetoplacetheprimaryhandledirectlyunderthecentreof
massinsuchawaythat,ifnecessary,thebodyjutsoutbehindthehandleaswellasinfront.Alternatively,particularlyinaheavydrill,asecondaryhandlecan
beplacedunderneaththedrillinsuchamannerthatthedrillcanbeoperatedwitheitherhand.Powertoolsarenormallyoperatedbyatriggerincorporatedinto
theupperfrontendofthehandleandoperatedbytheindexfinger.Thetriggershouldbedesignedtobeoperatedbyeitherhandandshouldincorporatean
easilyresetlatchingmechanismtoholdthepoweronwhenrequired.

CONTROLS,INDICATORSANDPANELS
KarlH.E.Kroemer
Inwhatfollows,threeofthemostimportantconcernsofergonomicdesignwillbeexamined:first,thatofcontrols,devicestotransferenergyorsignalsfrom
theoperatortoapieceofmachinerysecond,indicatorsordisplays,whichprovidevisualinformationtotheoperatoraboutthestatusofthemachineryand
third,thecombinationofcontrolsanddisplaysinapanelorconsole.

DesigningfortheSittingOperator
Sittingisamorestableandlessenergyconsumingposturethanstanding,butitrestrictstheworkingspace,particularlyofthefeet,morethanstanding.
However,itismucheasiertooperatefootcontrolswhensitting,ascomparedtostanding,becauselittlebodyweightmustbetransferredbythefeettothe
ground.Furthermore,ifthedirectionoftheforceexertedbythefootispartlyorlargelyforward,provisionofaseatwithabackrestallowstheexertionof
ratherlargeforces.(Atypicalexampleofthisarrangementisthelocationofpedalsinanautomobile,whicharelocatedinfrontofthedriver,moreorless
belowseatheight.)Figure29.38showsschematicallythelocationsinwhichpedalsmaybelocatedforaseatedoperator.Notethatthespecificdimensionsof
thatspacedependontheanthropometryoftheactualoperators.
Figure29.38Preferredandregularworkspaceforfeet(incentimetres)

http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

145/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

Thespaceforthepositioningofhandoperatedcontrolsisprimarilylocatedinfrontofthebody,withinaroughlysphericalcontourthatiscentredateitherthe
elbow,attheshoulder,orsomewherebetweenthosetwobodyjoints.Figure29.39showsschematicallythatspaceforthelocationofcontrols.Ofcourse,the
specificdimensionsdependontheanthropometryoftheoperators.
Figure29.39Preferredandregularworkspaceforhands(incentimetres)

http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

146/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

Thespacefordisplaysandforcontrolsthatmustbelookedatisboundedbytheperipheryofapartialsphereinfrontoftheeyesandcentredattheeyes.Thus,
thereferenceheightforsuchdisplaysandcontrolsdependsontheeyeheightoftheseatedoperatorandonhisorhertrunkandneckpostures.Thepreferred
locationforvisualtargetscloserthanaboutonemetreisdistinctlybelowtheheightoftheeye,anddependsontheclosenessofthetargetandonthepostureof
thehead.Thecloserthetarget,theloweritshouldbelocated,anditshouldbeinornearthemedial(midsagittal)planeoftheoperator.
Itisconvenienttodescribethepostureoftheheadbyusingtheeareyeline(Kroemer1994a)which,inthesideview,runsthroughtherightearholeandthe
junctureofthelidsoftherighteye,whiletheheadisnottiltedtoeitherside(thepupilsareatthesamehorizontallevelinthefrontalview).Oneusuallycalls
theheadpositionerectoruprightwhenthepitchangleP(seefigure29.40)betweentheeareyelineandthehorizonisabout15,withtheeyesabovethe
heightoftheear.Thepreferredlocationforvisualtargetsis2565belowtheeareyeline(LOSEEinfigure29.40),withthelowervaluespreferredbymost
peopleforclosetargetsthatmustbekeptinfocus.Eventhoughtherearelargevariationsinthepreferredanglesofthelineofsight,mostsubjects,particularly
astheybecomeolder,prefertofocusonclosetargetswithlargeLOSEEangles.
Figure29.40Eareyeline

http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

147/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

DesigningfortheStandingOperator
Pedaloperationbyastandingoperatorshouldbeseldomrequired,becauseotherwisethepersonmustspendtoomuchtimestandingononefootwhilethe
otherfootoperatesthecontrol.Obviously,simultaneousoperationoftwopedalsbyastandingoperatorispracticallyimpossible.Whiletheoperatoris
standingstill,theroomforthelocationoffootcontrolsislimitedtoasmallareabelowthetrunkandslightlyinfrontofit.Walkingaboutwouldprovidemore
roomtoplacepedals,butthatishighlyimpracticalinmostcasesbecauseofthewalkingdistancesinvolved.
Thelocationforhandoperatedcontrolsofastandingoperatorincludesaboutthesameareaasforaseatedoperator,roughlyahalfsphereinfrontofthebody,
withitscentreneartheshouldersoftheoperator.Forrepeatedcontroloperations,thepreferredpartofthathalfspherewouldbeitslowersection.Theareafor
thelocationofdisplaysisalsosimilartotheonesuitedtoaseatedoperator,againroughlyahalfspherecentredneartheoperatorseyes,withthepreferred
locationsinthelowersectionofthathalfsphere.Theexactlocationsfordisplays,andalsoforcontrolsthatmustbeseen,dependsonthepostureofthehead,
asdiscussedabove.
Theheightofcontrolsisappropriatelyreferencedtotheheightoftheelbowoftheoperatorwhiletheupperarmishangingfromtheshoulder.Theheightof
displaysandcontrolsthatmustbelookedatisreferredtotheeyeheightoftheoperator.Bothdependontheoperatorsanthropometry,whichmayberather
differentforshortandtallpersons,formenandwomen,andforpeopleofdifferentethnicorigins.

FootoperatedControls
Twokindsofcontrolsshouldbedistinguished:oneisusedtotransferlargeenergyorforcestoapieceofmachinery.Examplesofthisarethepedalsona
bicycleorthebrakepedalinaheaviervehiclethatdoesnothaveapowerassistfeature.Afootoperatedcontrol,suchasanonoffswitch,inwhichacontrol
signalisconveyedtothemachinery,usuallyrequiresonlyasmallquantityofforceorenergy.Whileitisconvenienttoconsiderthesetwoextremesofpedals,
therearevariousintermediateforms,anditisthetaskofthedesignertodeterminewhichofthefollowingdesignrecommendationsapplybestamongthem.
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

148/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

Asmentionedabove,repeatedorcontinualpedaloperationshouldberequiredonlyfromaseatedoperator.Forcontrolsmeanttotransmitlargeenergiesand
forces,thefollowingrulesapply:
Locatepedalsunderneaththebody,slightlyinfront,sothattheycanbeoperatedwiththeleginacomfortableposition.Thetotalhorizontaldisplacement
ofareciprocatingpedalshouldnormallynotexceedabout0.15m.Forrotatingpedals,theradiusshouldalsobeabout0.15m.Thelineardisplacementofa
switchtypepedalmaybeminimalandshouldnotexceedabout0.15m.
Pedalsshouldbesodesignedthatthedirectionoftravelandthefootforceareapproximatelyinthelineextendingfromthehipthroughtheanklejointof
theoperator.
Pedalsthatareoperatedbyflexionandextensionofthefootintheanklejointshouldbesoarrangedthatinthenormalpositiontheanglebetweenthe
lowerlegandthefootisapproximately90duringoperation,thatanglemaybeincreasedtoabout120.
Footoperatedcontrolsthatsimplyprovidesignalstothemachineryshouldnormallyhavetwodiscretepositions,suchasONorOFF.Note,however,that
tactiledistinctionbetweenthetwopositionsmaybedifficultwiththefoot.

SelectionofControls
Selectionamongdifferentsortsofcontrolsmustbemadeaccordingtothefollowingneedsorconditions:
Operationbyhandorfoot
Amountsofenergiesandforcestransmitted
Applyingcontinuousinputs,suchassteeringanautomobile
Performingdiscreteactions,forexample,(a)activatingorshuttingdownequipment,(b)selectingoneofseveraldistinctadjustments,suchasswitching
fromoneTVorradiochanneltoanother,or(c)carryingoutdataentry,aswithakeyboard.
Thefunctionalusefulnessofcontrolsalsodeterminesselectionprocedures.Themaincriteriaareasfollows:
Thecontroltypeshallbecompatiblewithstereotypicalorcommonexpectations(forinstance,usingapushbuttonortoggleswitchtoturnonanelectric
light,notarotaryknob).
Sizeandmotioncharacteristicsofthecontrolshallbecompatiblewithstereotypicalexperienceandpastpractice(forinstance,providingalargesteering
wheelforthetwohandedoperationofanautomobile,notalever).
Thedirectionofoperationofacontrolshallbecompatiblewithstereotypicalorcommonexpectations(forinstance,anONcontrolispushedorpulled,not
turnedtotheleft).
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

149/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

Handoperationisusedforcontrolsthatrequiresmallforceandfineadjustment,whilefootoperationissuitableforgrossadjustmentsandlargeforces
(however,considerthecommonuseofpedals,particularlyacceleratorpedals,inautomobiles,whichdoesnotcomplywiththisprinciple).
Thecontrolshallbesafeinthatitcannotbeoperatedinadvertentlynorinwaysthatareexcessiveorinconsistentwithitsintendedpurpose.
Table29.10andtable29.11helpintheselectionofpropercontrols.However,notethattherearefewnaturalrulesforselectionanddesignofcontrols.Most
currentrecommendationsarepurelyempiricalandapplytoexistingdevicesandWesternstereotypes.
Table29.10Controlmovementsandexpectedeffects
Directionofcontrolmovement
Function

Up

Right

Forward

Clockwise Press,
Squeeze

Down

Left

Rearward Back

Counter
clockwise

Pull1

Push2

On

+3

+3

Off

Right

Left

Raise

Lower

Retract

Extend

Increase

Decrease

Open
Value

Close
Value

Blank:Notapplicable+Mostpreferredlesspreferred.
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

150/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

1Withtriggertypecontrol.2Withpushpullswitch.3UpintheUnitedStates,downinEurope.

Source:ModifiedfromKroemer1995.
Table29.11Controleffectrelationsofcommonhandcontrols
Effect

Key
lock

Toggle
switch

Push
button

Bar
knob

Round Thumbwheel Thumbwheel Crank

knob
discrete
continuous

Rocker Lever Joystick

switch
orball

Legend
switch

Slide1

SelectON/OFF

Select
ON/STANDBY/OFF

Select

OFF/MODE1/MODE2

Selectonefunctionof
severalrelated
functions

Selectoneofthreeor
morediscrete
alternatives

Selectoperating
condition

Engageordisengage

Selectoneof
mutuallyexclusive
functions

Setvalueonscale

Selectvalueindiscrete
steps

Blank:Notapplicable+:Mostpreferred:Lesspreferred=Leastpreferred.
1Estimated(noexperimentsknown).
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

151/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

Source:ModifiedfromKroemer1995.
Figure29.41presentsexamplesofdetentcontrols,characterizedbydiscretedetentsorstopsinwhichthecontrolcomestorest.Italsodepictstypical
continuouscontrolswherethecontroloperationmaytakeplaceanywherewithintheadjustmentrange,withouttheneedtobesetinanygivenposition.
Figure29.41Someexamplesof"detent"and"continuous"controls

Thesizingofcontrolsislargelyamatterofpastexperienceswithvariouscontroltypes,oftenguidedbythedesiretominimizetheneededspaceinacontrol
panel,andeithertoallowsimultaneousoperationsofadjacentcontrolsortoavoidinadvertentconcurrentactivation.Furthermore,thechoiceofdesign
characteristicswillbeinfluencedbysuchconsiderationsaswhetherthecontrolsaretobelocatedoutdoorsorinshelteredenvironments,instationary
equipmentormovingvehicles,ormayinvolvetheuseofbarehandsorofglovesandmittens.Fortheseconditions,consultreadingsattheendofthechapter.
Severaloperationalrulesgovernthearrangementandgroupingofcontrols.Thesearelistedintable29.12.Formoredetails,checkthereferenceslistedatthe
endofthissectionandKroemer,KroemerandKroemerElbert(1994).
Table29.12Rulesforarrangementofcontrols
Locateforthe
easeofoperation

Controlsshallbeorientedwithrespecttotheoperator.If
theoperatorusesdifferentpostures(suchasindrivingand
operatingabackhoe),thecontrolsandtheirassociated

http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

152/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

displaysshallmovewiththeoperatorsothatineach
posturetheirarrangementandoperationisthesameforthe
operator.
Primarycontrols
first

Themostimportantcontrolsshallhavethemost
advantageouslocationstomakeoperationandreaching
easyfortheoperator.

Grouprelated
controlstogether

Controlsthatareoperatedinsequence,thatarerelatedtoa
particularfunction,orthatareoperatedtogether,shallbe
arrangedinfunctionalgroups(togetherwiththeir
associateddisplays).Withineachfunctionalgroup,
controlsanddisplaysshallbearrangedaccordingto
operationalimportanceandsequence.

Arrangefor
sequential
operation

Ifoperationofcontrolsfollowsagivenpattern,controls
shallbearrangedtofacilitatethatsequence.Common
arrangementsarelefttoright(preferred)ortoptobottom,
asinprintedmaterialsoftheWesternworld.

Beconsistent

Thearrangementoffunctionallyidenticalorsimilarcontrols
shallbethesamefrompaneltopanel.

Deadoperator
control

Iftheoperatorbecomesincapacitatedandeitherletsgoof
acontrol,orcontinuestoholdontoit,adeadman
controldesignshallbeutilizedwhicheitherturnsthe
systemtoanoncriticaloperationstateorshutsitdown.

Selectcodes
appropriately

Therearenumerouswaystohelpidentifycontrols,to
indicatetheeffectsoftheoperationandtoshowtheir
status.Majorcodingmeansare:
LocationShapeSizeModeofoperationLabels
ColoursRedundancy

Source:ModifiedfromKroemer,KroemerandKroemerElbert1994.ReproducedbypermissionofPrenticeHall.Allrightsreserved.

PreventingAccidentalOperation
Thefollowingarethemostimportantmeanstoguardagainstinadvertentactivationofcontrols,someofwhichmaybecombined:
Locateandorientthecontrolsothattheoperatorisunlikelytostrikeitormoveitaccidentallyinthenormalsequenceofcontroloperations.
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

153/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

Recess,shieldorsurroundthecontrolbyphysicalbarriers.
Coverthecontrolorguarditbyprovidingapin,alockorothermeansthatmustberemovedorbrokenbeforethecontrolcanbeoperated.
Provideextraresistance(byviscousorcoulombfriction,byspringloadingorbyinertia)sothatanunusualeffortisrequiredforactuation.
Provideadelayingmeanssothatthecontrolmustpassthroughacriticalpositionwithanunusualmovement(suchasinthegearshiftmechanismofan
automobile).
Provideinterlockingbetweencontrolssothatprioroperationofarelatedcontrolisrequiredbeforethecriticalcontrolcanbeactivated.
Notethatthesedesignsusuallyslowtheoperationofcontrols,whichmaybedetrimentalincaseofanemergency.

DataEntryDevices
Nearlyallcontrolscanbeusedtoenterdataonacomputerorotherdatastoragedevice.However,wearemostusedtothepracticeofusingakeyboardwith
pushbuttons.Ontheoriginaltypewriterkeyboard,whichhasbecomethestandardevenforcomputerkeyboards,thekeyswerearrangedinabasically
alphabeticsequence,whichhasbeenmodifiedforvarious,oftenobscure,reasons.Insomecases,letterswhichfrequentlyfolloweachotherincommontext
werespacedapartsothattheoriginalmechanicaltypebarsmightnotentangleifstruckinrapidsequence.Columnsofkeysruninroughlystraightlines,as
dotherowsofkeys.However,thefingertipsarenotalignedinsuchmanners,anddonotmoveinthiswaywhendigitsofthehandareflexedorextended,or
movedsideways.
Manyattemptshavebeenmadeoverthelasthundredyearstoimprovekeyingperformancebychangingthekeyboardlayout.Theseincluderelocatingkeys
withinthestandardlayout,orchangingthekeyboardlayoutaltogether.Thekeyboardhasbeendividedintoseparatesections,andsetsofkeys(suchas
numericalpads)havebeenadded.Arrangementsofadjacentkeysmaybechangedbyalteringspacing,offsetfromeachotherorfromreferencelines.The
keyboardmaybedividedintosectionsfortheleftandrighthand,andthosesectionsmaybelaterallytiltedandslopedandslanted.
Thedynamicsoftheoperationofpushbuttonkeysareimportantfortheuser,butaredifficulttomeasureinoperation.Thus,theforcedisplacement
characteristicsofkeysarecommonlydescribedforstatictesting,whichisnotindicativeofactualoperation.Bycurrentpractise,keysoncomputerkeyboards
havefairlylittledisplacement(about2mm)anddisplayasnapbackresistance,thatis,adecreaseinoperationforceatthepointwhenactuationofthekey
hasbeenachieved.Insteadofseparatesinglekeys,somekeyboardsconsistofamembranewithswitchesunderneathwhich,whenpressedinthecorrect
location,generatethedesiredinputwithlittleornodisplacementfelt.Themajoradvantageofthemembraneisthatdustorfluidscannotpenetrateithowever,
manyusersdislikeit.
Therearealternativestotheonekeyonecharacterprincipleinstead,onecangenerateinputsbyvariouscombinatorymeans.Oneischording,meaning
thattwoormorecontrolsareoperatedsimultaneouslytogenerateonecharacter.Thisposesdemandsonthememorycapabilitiesoftheoperator,butrequires
theuseofonlyveryfewkeys.Otherdevelopmentsutilizecontrolsotherthanthebinarytappedpushbutton,replacingitbylevers,togglesorspecialsensors
(suchasaninstrumentedglove)whichrespondtomovementsofthedigitsofthehand.
Bytradition,typingandcomputerentryhavebeenmadebymechanicalinteractionbetweentheoperatorsfingersandsuchdevicesaskeyboard,mouse,track
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

154/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

ballorlightpen.Yettherearemanyothermeanstogenerateinputs.Voicerecognitionappearsonepromisingtechnique,butothermethodscanbeemployed.
Theymightutilize,forexample,pointing,gestures,facialexpressions,bodymovements,looking(directingonesgaze),movementsofthetongue,breathing
orsignlanguagetotransmitinformationandtogenerateinputstoacomputer.Technicaldevelopmentinthisareaisverymuchinflux,andasthemany
nontraditionalinputdevicesusedforcomputergamesindicate,acceptanceofdevicesotherthanthetraditionalbinarytapdownkeyboardisentirelyfeasible
withinthenearfuture.Discussionsofcurrentkeyboarddeviceshavebeenprovided,forexample,byKroemer(1994b)andMcIntosh(1994).

Displays
Displaysprovideinformationaboutthestatusofequipment.Displaysmayapplytotheoperatorsvisualsense(lights,scales,counters,cathoderaytubes,flat
panelelectronics,etc.),totheauditorysense(bells,horns,recordedvoicemessages,electronicallygeneratedsounds,etc.)ortothesenseoftouch(shaped
controls,Braille,etc.).Labels,writteninstructions,warningsorsymbols(icons)maybeconsideredspecialkindsofdisplays.
Thefourcardinalrulesfordisplaysare:
1.Displayonlythatinformationwhichisessentialforadequatejobperformance.
2.Displayinformationonlyasaccuratelyasisrequiredfortheoperatorsdecisionsandactions.
3.Presentinformationinthemostdirect,simple,understandableandusableform.
4.Presentinformationinsuchawaythatfailureormalfunctionofthedisplayitselfwillbeimmediatelyobvious.
Theselectionofeitheranauditoryorvisualdisplaydependsontheprevailingconditionsandpurposes.Theobjectiveofthedisplaymaybetoprovide:
historicalinformationaboutthepaststateofthesystem,suchasthecourserunbyaship
statusinformationaboutthecurrentstateofthesystem,suchasthetextalreadyinputintoawordprocessororthecurrentpositionofanairplane
predictiveinformation,suchasonthefuturepositionofaship,givencertainsteeringsettings
instructionsorcommandstellingtheoperatorwhattodo,andpossiblyhowtodoit.
Avisualdisplayismostappropriateiftheenvironmentisnoisy,theoperatorstaysinplace,themessageislongandcomplex,andespeciallyifitdealswiththe
spatiallocationofanobject.Anauditorydisplayisappropriateiftheworkplacemustbekeptdark,theoperatormovesaround,andthemessageisshortand
simple,requiresimmediateattention,anddealswitheventsandtime.

VisualDisplays
Therearethreebasictypesofvisualdisplays:(1)Thecheckdisplayindicateswhetherornotagivenconditionexists(forexampleagreenlightindicates
normalfunction).(2)Thequalitativedisplayindicatesthestatusofachangingvariableoritsapproximatevalue,oritstrendofchange(forexample,apointer
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

155/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

moveswithinanormalrange).(3)Thequantitativedisplayshowsexactinformationthatmustbeascertained(forexample,tofindalocationonamap,to
readtextortodrawonacomputermonitor),oritmayindicateanexactnumericalvaluethatmustbereadbytheoperator(forexample,atimeora
temperature).
Designguidelinesforvisualdisplaysare:
Arrangedisplayssothattheoperatorcanlocateandidentifythemeasilywithoutunnecessarysearching.(Thisusuallymeansthatthedisplaysshouldbein
ornearthemedialplaneoftheoperator,andbeloworateyeheight.)
Groupdisplaysfunctionallyorsequentiallysothattheoperatorcanusethemeasily.
Makesurethatalldisplaysareproperlyilluminatedorilluminant,codedandlabelledaccordingtotheirfunction.
Uselights,oftencoloured,toindicatethestatusofasystem(suchasONorOFF)ortoalerttheoperatorthatthesystem,orasubsystem,isinoperativeand
thatspecialactionmustbetaken.Commonmeaningsoflightcoloursarelistedinfigure29.42.Flashingredindicatesanemergencyconditionthatrequires
immediateaction.Anemergencysignalismosteffectivewhenitcombinessoundswithaflashingredlight.
Figure29.42Colourcodingofindicatorlights

Formorecomplexanddetailedinformation,especiallyquantitativeinformation,oneoffourdifferentkindsofdisplaysaretraditionallyused:(1)amoving
pointer(withfixedscale),(2)amovingscale(withfixedpointer),(3)countersor(4)pictorialdisplays,especiallycomputergeneratedonadisplaymonitor.
Figure29.43liststhemajorcharacteristicsofthesedisplaytypes.
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

156/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

Figure29.43Characteristicsofdisplays

http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

157/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

Itisusuallypreferabletouseamovingpointerratherthanamovingscale,withthescaleeitherstraight(horizontallyorverticallyarranged),curvedorcircular.
Scalesshouldbesimpleanduncluttered,withgraduationandnumberingsodesignedthatcorrectreadingscanbetakenquickly.Numeralsshouldbelocated
outsidethescalemarkingssothattheyarenotobscuredbythepointer.Thepointershouldendwithitstipdirectlyatthemarking.Thescaleshouldmark
divisionsonlysofinelyastheoperatormustread.Allmajormarksshouldbenumbered.Progressionsarebestmarkedwithintervalsofone,fiveortenunits
betweenmajormarks.Numbersshouldincreaselefttoright,bottomtotoporclockwise.Fordetailsofdimensionsofscalesrefertostandardssuchasthose
listedbyCushmanandRosenberg1991orKroemer1994a.
Startinginthe1980s,mechanicaldisplayswithpointersandprintedscaleswereincreasinglyreplacedbyelectronicdisplayswithcomputergenerated
images,orsolidstatedevicesusinglightemittingdiodes(seeSnyder1985a).Thedisplayedinformationmaybecodedbythefollowingmeans:
shapes,suchasstraightorcircular
alphanumeric,thatis,letters,numbers,words,abbreviations
figures,pictures,pictorials,icons,symbols,invariouslevelsofabstraction,suchastheoutlineofanairplaneagainstthehorizon
shadesofblack,whiteorgray
colours.
Unfortunately,manyelectronicallygenerateddisplayshavebeenfuzzy,oftenoverlycomplexandcolourful,hardtoread,andrequiredexactfocusingand
closeattention,whichmaydistractfromthemaintask,forexample,drivingacar.Inthesecasesthefirstthreeofthefourcardinalruleslistedabovewere
oftenviolated.Furthermore,manyelectronicallygeneratedpointers,markingsandalphanumericsdidnotcomplywithestablishedergonomicdesign
guidelines,especiallywhengeneratedbylinesegments,scanlinesordotmatrices.Althoughsomeofthesedefectivedesignsweretoleratedbytheusers,rapid
innovationandimprovingdisplaytechniquesallowsmanybettersolutions.However,thesamerapiddevelopmentleadstothefactthatprintedstatements
(evenifcurrentandcomprehensivewhentheyappear)arebecomingobsoletequickly.Therefore,nonearegiveninthistext.Compilationshavebeen
publishedbyCushmanandRosenberg(1991),KinneyandHuey(1990),andWoodson,TillmanandTillman(1991).
Theoverallqualityofelectronicdisplaysisoftenwanting.Onemeasureusedtoassesstheimagequalityisthemodulationtransferfunction(MTF)(Snyder
1985b).Itdescribestheresolutionofthedisplayusingaspecialsinewavetestsignalyet,readershavemanycriteriaregardingthepreferenceofdisplays
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

158/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

(Dillon1992).
Monochromedisplayshaveonlyonecolour,usuallyeithergreen,yellow,amber,orangeorwhite(achromatic).Ifseveralcoloursappearonthesame
chromaticdisplay,theyshouldbeeasilydiscriminated.Itisbesttodisplaynotmorethanthreeorfourcolourssimultaneously(withpreferencebeinggivento
red,green,yellowororange,andcyanorpurple).Allshouldstronglycontrastwiththebackground.Infact,asuitableruleistodesignfirstbycontrast,thatis,
intermsofblackandwhite,andthentoaddcolourssparingly.
Inspiteofthemanyvariablesthat,singlyandinteractingwitheachother,affecttheuseofcomplexcolourdisplay,CushmanandRosenberg(1991)compiled
guidelinesforuseofcolourindisplaysthesearelistedinfigure29.44.
Figure29.44Guidelinesforuseofcoloursindisplays

Othersuggestionsareasfollows:
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

159/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

Blue(preferablydesaturated)isagoodcolourforbackgroundsandlargeshapes.However,blueshouldnotbeusedfortext,thinlinesorsmallshapes.
Thecolourofalphanumericcharactersshouldcontrastwiththatofthebackground.
Whenusingcolour,useshapeasaredundantcue(e.g.,allyellowsymbolsaretriangles,allgreensymbolsarecircles,allredsymbolsaresquares).
Redundantcodingmakesthedisplaymuchmoreacceptableforuserswhohavecolourvisiondeficiencies.
Asthenumberofcoloursisincreased,thesizesofthecolourcodedobjectsshouldalsobeincreased.
Redandgreenshouldnotbeusedforsmallsymbolsandsmallshapesinperipheralareasoflargedisplays.
Usingopponentcolours(redandgreen,yellowandblue)adjacenttooneanotherorinanobject/backgroundrelationshipissometimesbeneficialand
sometimesdetrimental.Nogeneralguidelinescanbegivenasolutionshouldbedeterminedforeachcase.
Avoiddisplayingseveralhighlysaturated,spectrallyextremecoloursatthesametime.

PanelsofControlsandDisplays
Displaysaswellascontrolsshouldbearrangedinpanelssotheyareinfrontoftheoperator,thatis,closetothepersonsmedialplane.Asdiscussedearlier,
controlsshouldbenearelbowheight,anddisplaysbeloworateyeheight,whethertheoperatorissittingorstanding.Infrequentlyoperatedcontrols,orless
importantdisplays,canbelocatedfurthertothesides,orhigher.
Often,informationontheresultofcontroloperationisdisplayedonaninstrument.Inthiscase,thedisplayshouldbelocatedclosetothecontrolsothatthe
controlsettingcanbedonewithouterror,quicklyandconveniently.Theassignmentisusuallyclearestwhenthecontrolisdirectlybelowortotherightofthe
display.Caremustbetakenthatthehanddoesnotcoverthedisplaywhenoperatingthecontrol.
Popularexpectanciesofcontroldisplayrelationsexist,buttheyareoftenlearned,theymaydependontheusersculturalbackgroundandexperience,and
theserelationshipsareoftennotstrong.Expectedmovementrelationshipsareinfluencedbythetypeofcontrolanddisplay.Whenbothareeitherlinearor
rotary,thestereotypicalexpectationisthattheymoveincorrespondingdirections,suchasbothuporbothclockwise.Whenthemovementsareincongruent,in
generalthefollowingrulesapply:
Clockwiseforincrease.Turningthecontrolclockwisecausesanincreaseinthedisplayedvalue.
Warricksgearsliderule.Adisplay(pointer)isexpectedtomoveinthesamedirectionasdoesthesideofthecontrolcloseto(i.e.,gearedwith)the
display.
Theratioofcontrolanddisplaydisplacement(C/DratioorD/Cgain)describeshowmuchacontrolmustbemovedtoadjustadisplay.Ifmuchcontrol
movementproducesonlyasmalldisplaymotion,oncespeaksofahighC/Dratio,andofthecontrolashavinglowsensitivity.Often,twodistinctmovements
areinvolvedinmakingasetting:firstafastprimary(slewing)motiontoanapproximatelocation,thenafineadjustmenttotheexactsetting.Insomecases,
onetakesastheoptimalC/Dratiothatwhichminimizesthesumofthesetwomovements.However,themostsuitableratiodependsonthegiven
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

160/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

circumstancesitmustbedeterminedforeachapplication.

LabelsandWarnings
Labels
Ideally,nolabelshouldberequiredonequipmentoronacontroltoexplainitsuse.Often,however,itisnecessarytouselabelssothatonemaylocate,
identify,readormanipulatecontrols,displaysorotherequipmentitems.Labellingmustbedonesothattheinformationisprovidedaccuratelyandrapidly.For
this,theguidelinesintable29.13apply.
Table29.13Guidelinesforlabels
Orientation

Alabelandtheinformationprintedonitshallbe
orientedhorizontallysothatitcanbereadquicklyand
easily.(Notethatthisappliesiftheoperatorisusedto
readinghorizontally,asinWesterncountries.)

Location

Alabelshallbeplacedonorveryneartheitemthatit
identifies.

Standardization

Placementofalllabelsshallbeconsistentthroughoutthe
equipmentandsystem.

Equipment
functions

Alabelshallprimarilydescribethefunction(whatdoes
itdo)ofthelabelleditem.

Abbreviations

Commonabbreviationsmaybeused.Ifanew
abbreviationisnecessary,itsmeaningshouldbeobvious
tothereader.Thesameabbreviationshallbeusedforall
tensesandforthesingularandpluralformsofaword.
Capitallettersshallbeused,periodsnormallyomitted.

Brevity

Thelabelinscriptionshallbeasconciseaspossible
withoutdistortingtheintendedmeaningorinformation.
Thetextsshallbeunambiguous,redundancyminimized.

Familiarity

Wordsshallbechosen,ifpossible,thatarefamiliarto
theoperator.

Visibilityand
legibility

Theoperatorshallbeabletobereadeasilyand
accuratelyattheanticipatedactualreadingdistances,at

http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

161/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

theanticipatedworstilluminationlevel,andwithinthe
anticipatedvibrationandmotionenvironment.Important
factorsare:contrastbetweentheletteringandits
backgroundtheheight,width,strokewidth,spacingand
styleoflettersandthespecularreflectionofthe
background,coverorothercomponents.
Fontandsize

Typographydeterminesthelegibilityofwritten
informationitreferstostyle,font,arrangementand
appearance.

Source:ModifiedfromKroemer,KroemerandKroemerElbert1994(reproducedbypermissionofPrenticeHallallrightsreserved).
Font(typeface)shouldbesimple,boldandvertical,suchasFutura,Helvetica,Namel,TempoandVega.Notethatmostelectronicallygeneratedfonts(formed
byLED,LCDordotmatrix)aregenerallyinferiortoprintedfontsthus,specialattentionmustbepaidtomakingtheseaslegibleaspossible.
Theheightofcharactersdependsontheviewingdistance:
viewingdistance35cm,suggestedheight22mm
viewingdistance70cm,suggestedheight50mm
viewingdistance1m,suggestedheight70mm
viewingdistance1.5m,suggestedheightatleast1cm.
Theratioofstrokewidthtocharacterheightshouldbebetween1:8to1:6forblacklettersonwhitebackground,and1:10to1:8forwhitelettersonblack
background.
Theratioofcharacterwidthtocharacterheightshouldbeabout3:5.
Thespacebetweenlettersshouldbeatleastonestrokewidth.
Thespacebetweenwordsshouldbeatleastonecharacterwidth.
Forcontinuoustext,mixupperandlowercaselettersforlabels,useuppercaselettersonly.
Warnings
Ideally,alldevicesshouldbesafetouse.Inreality,oftenthiscannotbeachievedthroughdesign.Inthiscase,onemustwarnusersofthedangersassociated
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

162/233

3/9/2016

Chapter29Ergonomics

withproductuseandprovideinstructionsforsafeusetopreventinjuryordamage.
Itispreferabletohaveanactivewarning,usuallyconsistingofasensorthatnoticesinappropriateuse,combinedwithanalertingdevicethatwarnsthe
humanofanimpendingdanger.Yet,inmostcases,passivewarningsareused,usuallyconsistingofalabelattachedtotheproductandofinstructionsfor
safeuseintheusermanual.Suchpassivewarningsrelycompletelyonthehumanusertorecognizeanexistingorpotentialdangeroussituation,toremember
thewarning,andtobehaveprudently.
Labelsandsignsforpassivewarningsmustbecarefullydesignedbyfollowingthemostrecentgovernmentlawsandregulations,nationalandinternational
standards,andthebestapplicablehumanengineeringinformation.Warninglabelsandplacardsmaycontaintext,graphics,andpicturesoftengraphicswith
redundanttext.Graphics,particularlypicturesandpictograms,canbeusedbypersonswithdifferentculturalandlanguagebackgrounds,ifthesedepictionsare
selectedcarefully.However,userswithdifferentages,experiences,andethnicandeducationalbackgrounds,mayhaveratherdifferentperceptionsofdangers
andwarnings.Therefore,designofasafeproductismuchpreferabletoapplyingwarningstoaninferiorproduct.

INFORMATIONPROCESSINGANDDESIGN
AndriesF.Sanders
Indesigningequipmentitisoftheutmostimportancetotakefullaccountofthefactthatahumanoperatorhasbothcapabilitiesandlimitationsinprocessing
information,whichareofavaryingnatureandwhicharefoundonvariouslevels.Performanceinactualworkconditionsstronglydependsontheextentto
whichadesignhaseitherattendedtoorignoredthesepotentialsandtheirlimits.Inthefollowingabriefsketchwillbeofferedofsomeofthechiefissues.
Referencewillbemadetoothercontributionsofthisvolume,whereanissuewillbediscussedingreaterdetail.
Itiscommontodistinguishthreemainlevelsintheanalysisofhumaninformationprocessing,namely,theperceptuallevel,thedecisionlevelandthemotor
level.Theperceptuallevelissubdividedintothreefurtherlevels,relatingtosensoryprocessing,featureextractionandidentificationofthepercept.Onthe
decisionlevel,theoperatorreceivesperceptualinformationandchoosesareactiontoitwhichisfinallyprogrammedandactualizedonthemotorlevel.This
describesonlytheinformationflowinthesimplestcaseofachoicereaction.Itisevident,though,thatperceptualinformationmayaccumulateandbe
combinedanddiagnosedbeforeelicitinganaction.Again,theremayariseaneedforselectinginformationinviewofperceptualoverload.Finally,choosing
anappropriateactionbecomesmoreofaproblemwhenthereareseveraloptionssomeofwhichmaybemoreappropriatethanothers.Inthepresent
discussion,theemphasiswillbeontheperceptualanddecisionalfactorsofinformationprocessing.

PerceptualCapabilitiesandLimits
Sensorylimits
Thefirstcategoryofprocessinglimitsissensory.Theirrelevancetoinformationprocessingisobvioussinceprocessingbecomeslessreliableasinformation
approachesthresholdlimits.Thismayseemafairlytrivialstatement,butnonetheless,sensoryproblemsarenotalwaysclearlyrecognizedindesigns.For
example,alphanumericalcharactersinsignpostingsystemsshouldbesufficientlylargetobelegibleatadistanceconsistentwiththeneedforappropriate
action.Legibility,inturn,dependsnotonlyontheabsolutesizeofthealphanumericalsbutalsooncontrastandinviewoflateralinhibitionalsoonthe
http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt29e.htm

163/233