TEAM04

SOLARANDWASTEHEATPOWEREDSTIRLINGENGINE

FINALREPORT
TheLittleEnginethatCouldandDid!
Thegoalofteam04wastodesignandbuildaworkingStirlingenginesuitable
forclassroomdemonstration.Asanaddedchallengethegroupisplanningto
havetheenginerunentirelyfromsolarenergyaswellasotherheatsources.

AndrewMcMurray
B00406524

AlexMorash
B00410812

BryanNeary
B00401625

KristianRichards
B00411178

SubmissionDate:
SubmittedTo:

April9th
Dr.Militzer
Dr.Groulx

TABLEOFCONTENTS
LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS................................................................................................................................iv
LISTOFTABLES..............................................................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................................vi
1.

INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................1

2.

BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................................................2
2.1.

IdealStirlingEngineCycle.............................................................................................................2

2.2.

RealStirlingEngineCycle..............................................................................................................3

3.

DESIGNREQUIREMENTS.......................................................................................................................6

4.

DESIGNSELECTION................................................................................................................................7

5.

6.

7.

8.

4.1.

RotaryStirlingEngine....................................................................................................................8

4.2.

GammaStirlingEngine..................................................................................................................8

4.3.

AlphaStirlingEngine90Arrangement......................................................................................9

COMPONENTDESIGN,FABRICATIONANDBUILDPROCESS...............................................................10
5.1.

Frame..........................................................................................................................................10

5.2.

CylindersandCylinderHeads.....................................................................................................11

5.3.

Pistons.........................................................................................................................................12

5.4.

Cranks..........................................................................................................................................12

5.5.

FlywheelandCollars...................................................................................................................13

5.6.

PistonRodsandBrassConnectionFittings.................................................................................14

5.7.

FresnelSpotLens........................................................................................................................14

DESIGNANALYSISANDREVISEDCALCULATIONS...............................................................................16
6.1.

SchmidtAnalysisofIdealIsothermalModel...............................................................................16

6.2.

FinHeatTransfer.........................................................................................................................18

INITIALTESTING..................................................................................................................................19
7.1.

TestingObservations...................................................................................................................19

7.2.

DesignSolutions..........................................................................................................................20

DESIGNREFINEMENTS&PERFORMANCEIMPROVEMENTS..............................................................21
8.1.

DesignRefinements....................................................................................................................21

8.1.1.

FrameHeatDissipation.......................................................................................................21

8.1.2.

CompressionReduction......................................................................................................22

8.1.3.

TransferTube......................................................................................................................23

8.2.

PERFORMANCEIMPROVEMENTS...............................................................................................24
ii

9.

8.2.1.

InternalFins........................................................................................................................24

8.2.2.

Regenerator........................................................................................................................25

TestingandTroubleshooting..............................................................................................................27
9.1.

FresnelLensTesting....................................................................................................................27

9.1.1.

Test#1GeneralTestingResultsJanuary23rd(2pm)......................................................27

9.1.2.

Test#2TemperatureMeasurementsApril1st(12:40to1:10pm)..................................28

9.1.3.

Test#3SolarEnergyInputtoGammaWindmillStirlingEngineApril1st.....................30

9.2.

IterativeTestingandTroubleshootingProcedure......................................................................30

9.3.

TemperatureDataAcquisition....................................................................................................33

9.3.1.

Thermocouples...................................................................................................................33

9.3.2.

BenchtopDigitalDisplay.....................................................................................................34

9.3.3.

Thermocouplearrangement...............................................................................................35

9.4.

StirlingEngineOptimization........................................................................................................35

9.4.1.

Test#1March30th,2009..................................................................................................36

9.4.2.

Test#2April1st,2009.......................................................................................................37

9.4.3.

Test#3RunAApril4th,2009..........................................................................................39

9.4.4.

Test#3RunBApril4th,2009...........................................................................................42

9.4.5.

Test#3RunCApril4th,2009...........................................................................................43

9.5.

RepeatabilityandComparisontoTheory...................................................................................44

10. BUDGET...............................................................................................................................................45
11. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................................46
11.1.

DesignRequirementsFulfillment............................................................................................46

11.2.

OptimalSystemOperatingCondition.....................................................................................47

12. REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................48

APPENDIXAGanttChart
APPENDIXBIdealIsothermalAnalysis
APPENDIXCHeatTransferCalculations
APPENDIXDEngineeringDrawings

iii

LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS
Figure1SolarEnergyProjectProposalofSolarArraysitedinCaliforniaMojaveDesertusing
SunCatcherTMTechnologiesfromSESStirlingEnergySystems.....................................................................1
Figure2IdealStirlingCyclePvandTsDiagrams......................................................................................2
Figure3RealStirlingCyclePvDiagramApproximation............................................................................4
Figure4RotaryStirlingEngine....................................................................................................................8
Figure5GammaStirlingEngine..................................................................................................................9
Figure6AlphaStirlingEngine90Arrangement.....................................................................................9
Figure7FinalConcepttoBuildComparison.............................................................................................10
Figure8AssembledFrameandNewBearingSeat...................................................................................11
Figure9HotandColdCylindersandCylinderHeads...............................................................................12
Figure10PistonManufacturingandFinalProduct..................................................................................12
Figure11CrankDesignShowingForceCoupleandStrokeLength..........................................................13
Figure12StirlingCycleFlywheelDependance.........................................................................................14
Figure13BrassFittingsandConnectingRods..........................................................................................14
Figure14FresnelLensandFrame............................................................................................................15
Figure15SimplifiedIsothermalAlphaStirlingEngine..............................................................................16
Figure16SinusoidalVolumeDependenceonCrankAngle......................................................................17
Figure17HeatTransferandFinEfficiency...............................................................................................18
Figure18InitialTestingSetup..................................................................................................................19
Figure19HeatDamagetoTemporaryTransferTube..............................................................................20
Figure20HotCylinderInsulation.............................................................................................................21
Figure21ThermalImage..........................................................................................................................22
Figure22StrokeLengthReduction...........................................................................................................23
Figure23HeatDamagedTransferTube...................................................................................................23
Figure24SteelTransferTube...................................................................................................................24
Figure25InternalFinsFabricationProcess..............................................................................................25
Figure26InternalFinPlacement..............................................................................................................25
Figure27RegeneratorComponents.........................................................................................................26
Figure28InstalledRegeneratorwithIceWaterBath..............................................................................26
Figure29FresnelLensandInfraredThermometerReadings..................................................................27
Figure30VariousObjectsHeldundertheFresnelLens...........................................................................28
Figure32TemperatureIncreaseofSteelStockvs.Time..........................................................................29
Figure31CylindricalSteelObject.............................................................................................................29
Figure33Gamma'Windmill'StirlingEngine............................................................................................30
Figure34SurfaceThermocouple..............................................................................................................33
Figure35ProbeThermocoupleSetup......................................................................................................34
Figure36OmegaMDSSi8DigitalThermometer.......................................................................................34
Figure37ThermocoupleSetup.................................................................................................................35
Figure38OptimizationTest#1Setup......................................................................................................36
Figure39OptimizationTest#2SetupwithRegenerator.........................................................................37
iv

Figure40OptimizationTest#2HotCylinderTemperatures....................................................................38
Figure41OptimizationTest#2ColdCylinderTemperatures...................................................................38
Figure42OptimizationTest#2ClampandRegeneratorTemperatures..................................................39
Figure43OptimizationTest#3RunAHotCylinderTemperatures.....................................................40
Figure44OptimizationTest#3RunAColdCylinderTemperatures....................................................40
Figure45OptimizationTest#3RunAClampandRegenTemperatures.............................................41
Figure46OptimizationTest#3RunARPMandPower.......................................................................42
Figure47OptimizationTest#3RunBRPMandPower.......................................................................43
Figure48SchmidtAnalysisResultsforDecemberDesign..........................................................................4
Figure49SchmidtAnalysisResultsforJanuaryRevisedDesign.................................................................5
Figure50SchmidtAnalysisResultsUsingActualResultsfromAprilOptimizations..................................5

LISTOFTABLES
Table1:IdealStirlingCycleProcessSummary.............................................................................................3
Table2:DesignRequirements.....................................................................................................................6
Table3:DesignSelectionMatrix..................................................................................................................7
Table4:ResultsofSchmidtAnalysisofIdealIsothermalModel...............................................................17
Table5:TroubleshootingParameters........................................................................................................31
Table6:SuccessiveIterativeTestingProcess............................................................................................32
Table7:OptimizationTest#1Results.........................................................................................................36
Table8:TheoryandTestingResults..........................................................................................................44
Table9:Team04Budget...........................................................................................................................45
Table10:DesignRequirementStatus........................................................................................................46
Table11:OptimalEngineConditions.........................................................................................................47

ABSTRACT
Team4wasresponsiblefordesigninganddeliveringaworkingsolarpoweredStirlingenginetothe
DalhousieMechanicalEngineeringDepartmentinApril2009.AStirlingengineistheclosestrealengine
toapproximatethetheoreticalCarnotcycleengineandconsistsofrapidlyheatingandcoolingagas
withinapiston/cylinderdevice.Thegasisfullycontainedmeaningthereisnoexhaustorintakeand
thereforetheStirlingengineisconsideredanexternalcombustionengineastheheatisapplied
externally.Team4intendedtoutilizethepowerofthesuntoprovidethenecessaryenergytothe
systeminsteadofburningconventionalfuels.Themainpurposeoftheprojectservedtopromotethe
useofStirlingenginesingreenenergyapplications.DuetothehightheoreticalefficienciesofStirling
enginestheyareaprimecandidateforfuturesolarenergygenerationresearch.SolarpoweredStirling
enginesarenowcommerciallyavailableupto25kWofgeneratingcapacity.
Thefinalprototypeconsistsofatwocylinderinlinealphaarrangement.Theprojecthasbeencompleted
withamultitudeoftestingandtroubleshootingphases.Theteamwassuccessfulingettingtheengineto
runwithahandheldheatsourceandgivemoretime,feelsconfidentthattheenginecouldrunonsolar
power.Adetailedsectionoftestingisprovidedinthisreportandsummarizesthestepstakento
developaworkingstirlingengine.
Thefollowingreportpresentsthedesignselectionprocess,finaldesignwithinclusiveengineering
drawings,theassociatedengineeringdesigncalculations,definerequirements,testinganalysis,a
finalizedbudget,andaconclusionsummarizingtheoptimaloperatingconditionsofourengine.

vi

1. INTR
RODUCTIION
Intherecentgreenen
nergymovem
menttheStirlingcyclehasreceivedrenewedinteresstintheareaof
solarenerrgygeneratio
on,anditisth
heintentiono
ofteam04tohelpraiseaw
warenessandpromote
renewableenergiesbyydemonstratingthepoten
ntialoftheStiirlingengine.
Stirlingen
nginesarekno
ownforhavin
ngahightherrmodynamicefficiency.Id
deally,aStirlin
ngcycleengin
ne
canbedeesignedtoapp
proximatetheetheoreticalCarnotcycleengine.Foreexample,StirrlingEnergy
Systems,Inc(SES),aco
ompanybasedinCalifornia,USAspeciaalizinginsolarrenergygeneerationequipment
dforholdingttheworldreccordforsolartogridconveersionefficien
ncyof31.25%
%
iscurrentlyrecognized
TM
T
1
withtheirrSunCatcher solarpoweeredStirlingeengineandmiirroreddishccollector. SeeFigure1forra
pictureoffaproposedaarrayofSunC
CatcherTMunitts.SEShasproposedtobu
uild70,000oftheseunitsin
theCalifornianMojave
eDesertandIImperialValleeythatwillyieldacombinedgeneratinggcapacityof
1,750MW
Wofelectricity.Team04aaccreditsthesseSESprojecttsaswellaso
otherprojectssofsimilar
aspiration
nsforinspiringtheteamto
odesignandbuildaworkingStirlingen
nginetofulfilltherequirem
ments
ofDalhou
usieDesignPrroject2008/0
09.

Figure1SSolarEnergyPro
ojectProposalo
ofSolarArraysittedinCaliforniaMojaveDesertusingSunCatch
herTMTechnologgies
2
fromSESSStirlingEnergySystems

ThereporrtwilloutlineabackgroundoftheidealStirlingcyclee,summarizethedesignseelectionprocess,
presentth
hefinaldesignandindividualcomponeents,discusstthecalculationsandtechnicalengineering
decisionsmadetorefin
nethefinaldesign,presen
ntdesignrefin
nementsandtestingproceedures.Thetteam
esentedasweellasadetaileedconclusion
noutliningtheedesignrequ
uirements
budgetwillalsobepre
establisheedinfirstsem
mester.Thefiinalengineeringdrawingsareattached
dintheAppen
ndixD.

th
StirlingEnergySystems,SES.(2008a).NewWoorldRecordforSolaartoGridConverssionEfficiency.AcccessedonSeptem
mber20 ,2008fro
om

http://www.sstirlingenergy.com
m/downloads/12FFebruary2008SESSStirlingEnergyandSandiaNationalLaboratoriesseetNewWorldReccord.pdf
2

StirlingEneergySystems,SEES.(2008b).Sola
arTwo.Accessed
donNovember15th,2008from
http://www
w.stirlingenergy.ccom/projects/deefault.asp

2. BACKGROUND
ThefollowingsectionsareintendedtoprovideabriefoverviewoftheidealStirlingcycle
thermodynamicsandassumptionsmadeintheanalysisofarealStirlingengine.Itisveryimportantto
notethattherealStirlingcycleisverycomplexandreliesonacombinationofdesignapproximations
andexperimentalteststosuccessfullydesignandbuildaworkingStirlingengine.Sincetheanalyses
developedfordesigningStirlingenginesareinaccurateandbecauseexperimentationisexpensivethe
acceptedcourseforbuildingaStirlingengineistomodeloffofexistingenginesusingexperimental
scalingparameters.Unfortunately,forthedesignofthisprojectthereisalackofreferencematerial
thatcouldbeusedforscalingpurposes.Hence,theteamhasreliedheavilyonscalingthedesignfroma
knownworkinggammatypeStirlingengine,propertyofDalhousie.Byusingtheseapproximationswith
idealStirlingcycletheoryandanalysestheteamisconfidentthattheprojectwillbesuccessfulgiventhe
timeallottedfortestingandrefinementin2009.Theprojecthasbeendesignedtoallowforrefinement
andadjustmentswhichiscriticalgiventhelackofknowntheory.

2.1. IdealStirlingEngineCycle
TheidealStirlingcycleisrepresentedinFigure2andconsistsoffourprocesseswhichcombinetoforma
closedcycle:twoisothermalandtwoisochoricprocesses.Theprocessesareshownonbothapressure
volume(Pv)diagramandatemperatureentropy(Ts)diagramasperFigure2.Theareaunderthe
processpathofthePvdiagramistheworkandtheareaundertheprocesspathoftheTsdiagramis
theheat.Dependingonthedirectionofintegrationtheworkandheatwilleitherbeaddedtoor
subtractedfromthesystem.Workisproducedbythecycleonlyduringtheisothermalprocesses.To
facilitatetheexchangeofworktoandfromthesystemaflywheelmustbeintegratedintothedesign
whichservesasanenergyexchangehuborstoragedevice.Heatmustbetransferredduringall
processes.SeeTable1foradescriptionofthe4processesoftheidealStirlingcycle(Borgnakkeetal.,
2003).

Figure2IdealStirlingCyclePvandTsDiagrams3

3
PowerfromtheSun.(2008a).PowerCyclesforElectricityGeneration.AccessedonOctober12th,2008from
http://www.powerfromthesun.net/chapter12/Chapter12new.htm#12.3.1%20%20%20%20%20Stirling%20Engines

ThenetworkproducedbytheclosedidealStirlingcycleisrepresentedbythearea1234onthePv
diagram.Fromthefirstlawofthermodynamicsthenetworkoutputmustequalthenetheatinput
representedbythearea1234ontheTsdiagram.TheStirlingcyclecanbestapproximatetheCarnot
cycleoutofallgaspoweredenginecyclesbyintegratingaregeneratorintothedesign.Theregenerator
canbeusedtotakeheatfromtheworkinggasinprocess41andreturntheheatinprocess23.Recall
thattheCarnotcyclerepresentsthemaximumtheoreticalefficiencyofathermodynamiccycle.Cycle
efficiencyisofprimeimportanceforasolarpoweredengineforreasonsthatthesizeofthesolar
collectorcanbereducedandthusthecosttopoweroutputratiocanbedecreased.
Table1:IdealStirlingCycleProcessSummary

Process12:Isothermalcompression

Heatrejectiontolowtemperatureheatsink
1Q2=area12baonTsdiagram
Workisdoneontheworkingfluid(energyexchangefromflywheel)
1W2=area12baonPvdiagram

Process23:Isochoricheataddition

Heataddition(energyexchangefromregenerator)
2Q3=area23cbonTsdiagram
Noworkisdone
2W3=0

Process34:Isothermalexpansion

Heatadditionfromhightemperatureheatsink
3Q4=area34dconTsdiagram
Workisdonebytheworkingfluid(energyexchangetoflywheel)
3W4=area34abonPvdiagram

Process41:Isochoricheatrejection

Heatrejection(energyexchangetoregenerator)
4Q1=area14daonTsdiagram
Noworkisdone
4W1=0

2.2. RealStirlingEngineCycle
TherealStirlingenginecycleisrepresentedinFigure3below.Ascanbeseenthereisworkbeingdone
duringprocesses23and41unlikethepredictionofzeroworkintheidealcycle.Oneofthemajor
causesforinefficiencyoftherealStirlingcycleinvolvestheregenerator.Theadditionofaregenerator
addsfrictiontotheflowoftheworkinggas.InorderfortherealcycletoapproximatetheCarnotcycle
theregeneratorwouldhavetoreachthetemperatureofthehightemperaturethermalsinksothat
TR=TH.AmeasureoftheregeneratoreffectivenessisgivenbyEquation1,withthevalueofe=1being
ideal.

Figure3RealStirlingCyclePvDiagramApproximation4

(1)

TH=Temperatureofhighthermalsink
TL=Temperatureoflowthermalsink
TR=Massaveragedgastemperatureofregeneratorleavingduringheating
TheCarnotefficiencyisdenotedbyEquation2andtherealcycleefficiencywithregeneratorisdenoted
byEquation3.ThoughregenerationisnotrequiredforaStirlingcycle,itsinclusioncanhelpimprove
theefficiencyifappliedproperly.Notehowtheregeneratorefficiencydoesnottendtozeroasthe
regeneratoreffectivenesstendstozero.

... (2)

(3)

... (4)

PowerfromtheSun.(2008b).PowerCyclesforElectricityGeneration.AccessedonOctober12th,2008from

http://www.powerfromthesun.net/chapter12/Chapter12new.htm#12.3.1%20%20%20%20%20Stirling%20Engines

AnothermajorcauseforinefficienciesoftherealStirlingcycleengineisthatnotalloftheworkinggas
participatesinthecycle,i.e.deadvolume.Thedeadvolumeinvolvesthevolumethatdoesnot
participateinthesweptvolumeofthepistonstroke.Martini(2004)statesthattherelationship
betweenthepercentageofdeadvolumeinthesystemtothedecreaseinworkdonepercycleislinear.
Therefore,iftheenginehas20%deadvolumethenthepoweroutputwouldbe80%ofthepowerthat
wouldbeproducedwithzerodeadvolume.Inactuality,deadspacewillalwaysbepresentbecausethe
additionofinternalheatexchangers,clearances,transfertubes,andregeneratorsarerequiredto
enhancetheheatexchangeoftherealsystem.
ThoughtheidealStirlingcyclecanbeanalyzedusingknownthermodynamicprinciples,theanalysis
existsasanapproximationoftherealStirlingengine.Team4tookthisintoconsiderationinthefinal
designoftheStirlingenginesothatcertaindesignparameterssuchasthestrokelength,temperature
differential,andflywheelmasscouldbealteredduringthetestingphasetooptimizetheStirlingengine.

3. DESIGNREQUIREMENTS
ThefollowingdesignrequirementsofTable2summarizethescopeoftheproject,thefinalgoals,and
objectivesteam04intendedtoachieve.
Table2:DesignRequirements

Design&OperationalElements

Mustbeabletooperateusingasolarheatsource.
Mustbeabletooperateusingacompactheatsourcethatissafeforindooruse.
Mustbeabletooperateunassistedafterstartingforaminimumof5minutes(exceptfora
controllingheatsource).
Mustbebuilttoastandardwhichdeliversaminimumservicelifeexpectancyof5years,if
properlymaintained.

Size,WeightandComplexity

Totalenginesizeandweighttobesuchthatsafeandeasytransportationispossibleby1
person.
Mustbemountedonacompactsupportstructureforstabilityandsafety.
Willbedesignedforeaseofmaintenanceandassembly.

Aesthetics&Safety

Hightemperatureregionsmustbeclearlyindicated.
Enginecylindermustbeequippedwitharemovablefittingforpistoninspectionandpressure
release.

Documentation

Supportingdocumentationanduserinstructionstobeprovidedforlaterusagewithinthe
MechanicalEngineeringdepartmentofDalhousieUniversity.

Cost&Materials

Pendingtheusageofmachiningtimeandsalvagedcomponents,theprototypeisestimatedto
costlessthan$3500.
Constructionmaterialsforthesupportframeandenginewillconsistmainlyofsteelor
aluminum,dependingoncost,availability,andcomponentpurpose.
Precisioncomponentssuchaspistons,pistonrings,andbearingsmaybepurchasedofftheshelf
orsalvaged.

4. DESIGNSELECTION
Inordertoensurethebestdesignwaschosenthedesignselectionprocesswasevaluatedwithrespect
to8designcriteria.Optionswerebrainstormedandresearchedwithineachcategorytoweighteach
designselectionbasedonascaleofimportance.Weighteddesignselectionchartswereassembledwith
allimportantconsiderationstodeterminethebestchoice.Thecategoriesare:Poweroutput,friction
losses,simplicity,thermalisolation,availableliterature,temperaturedifferential,efficiency,andvisual
aesthetics.Thesecategoriesareweightedfrommostimportant(x5)toleastimportant(x1)whichacts
asamultiplier.Table3showsthedesignselectionmatrix.

Table3:DesignSelectionMatrix

Eachdesignconceptisratedfrombest(x5)toworst(x1)withrespecttothedesigncriteria.Team04
prioritizedthesecriterionswithpowergenerationandvisualaestheticsforclassroomdemonstrationas
themostimportant.Theothercriterionswerechosenbasedoncleardifferencesbetweenthedesign
conceptsandnecessarydesigncomponents.ThemajorissuestoovercomewhenbuildingaStirling
enginearefrictionlosses,maintainingahightemperaturedifferentialandthermalisolation.Each
criterionwasweightedbasedonhoweasytheissueistoovercome.Theavailableliteratureforeach
conceptwasratedleastimportantbecauseithaslittletodowithdesign.Anyavailableliteraturemay
however,aidinthermodynamiccalculationsforthechosenconcept.FromTable3theteamconcluded
thattheInlineAlphaStirlingEnginewasthebestdesignconceptforthisproject.

4.1. RotaryStirlingEngine
Figure4displaystheRotaryStirlingEngineinitsfourmainpositions.Itisclearthattherotarydesignhas
fewmovingpartsandthereforehastheleastamountoflossesduetofriction.Asshowninthedesign
selectionmatrix,theRotaryStirlingEngineperformspoorlyinthecategoriesof:poweroutput,thermal
isolation,availableliterature,temperaturedifferentialandefficiency.Thispoorperformanceultimately
causedtherotaryconcepttofailtheteamsselectionprocess.

Figure4RotaryStirlingEngine5

a) Theairisinthecoldlowerportion,contracting,anddrawingthepistonupwards.
b) Theinertiaoftheflywheelcontinuesrotationinthisneutralphase.
c) Theairisinthehotupperportion,expanding,andpushingthepistondownwards.
d) Theinertiaoftheflywheelcontinuesrotationinthisneutralphase.

4.2. GammaStirlingEngine
TheGammaStirlingEngineappearstobeapopulardesignforworkingmodels.Themaindifferencein
thismodelistheuseoftwocylindricalpistonsasperFigure5.Themotionofthedisplacerpistoninthe
gammaconceptisreciprocatingasopposedtorotationalintherotarydesign.Asoutlinedinthedesign
selectionmatrix,thegammaconceptshowsanincreaseinfrictionlosseswhencomparedtotherotary
design.Thiswouldbearesultofanincreaseinmovingpartsandanincreaseincomplexityofdesign.
Thermalisolationandmaintainingatemperaturedifferentialbecomeeasierwiththegammamodelas
thisdesignusestwoisolatedpistons.

Lewis,Jim.(2001).NewSimplifiedHeatEngine.Modifiedfromhttp://www.emachineshop.com
/engine/animation.htm

Figure5G
GammaStirlingEEngine

4.3. Alp
phaStirlinggEngine90Arranggement
The90arrangemento
oftheAlphaSStirlingEngineeshowninFigure6featurrestwosealed
dpistonswith
ha
transfertubeandoptio
onalregeneraatorbetween
nthetwocylin
nders.When
ncomparedto
otherotaryaand
gammaco
onceptsinthe
eselectionm
matrix,thealphaarrangementisthemo
ostefficientandproducesthe
mostpow
wer.Howeverr,duetothe9
90orientatio
onthisconcepthasthepo
otentialtocreeatemorefricction.
Alignmentoftheshafttswouldbecrrucialandanyyerrorwould
daddtothessystemfriction:ultimately
whetherorno
otthedesignsucceeds.
decidingw

Figure6AlphaStirrlingEngine90
0Arrangement

a) ExpanssionMostoffthegasisinthehotcylinderandbegin
nstoexpanddrivingbothpistonsinward.
Workiisoutputduriingtheonsettofthisproceess.
b) TransfeerColdpisto
onisforcedd
downwardallo
owingtheheatedgastob
betransfertothecoldcylin
nder.
c) ContractionExpan
ndedgasisinthecoldcylin
nderandconttractsdrawingbothpiston
nsoutward.
nthecoldcylinder.Workisinputintotthesystembyythe
d) TransfeerThecontrractedgasissstilllocatedin
inertiaalenergyofth
heflywheelw
whichcarriestthecrankthro
ough90,transferringthegasbacktotthe
hotcylinder,andco
ompletingtheecycle.
9

5. COMPONENTDESIGN,FABRICATIONANDBUILDPROCESS
FollowingthedesignselectionprocesstheInlineAlphaStirlingEngineArrangementshowninFigure7
waschosenforthefinaldesign.Thisdesignexcelledinthecategoriesofpoweroutput,thermal
isolation,temperaturedifferentialandvisualaesthetics.

Figure7FinalConcepttoBuildComparison

Thedesignofourenginewasbasedoneaseofassemblyanddisassembly.Becauseofthis,all
componentsarefastenedtogetherusingeithernutsandboltsorcapheadmachinescrews.Thiswas
beneficialforourteamasitallowedforquickenginecomponentmodifications,suchassizeofstroke
lengthandpistonrodlength.Theentirefabricationprocesstookapproximatelyonemonth.Thiswas
duetothelargenumberofpartsandhighlevelofprecisionrequired.Thefollowingsubsectionswill
outlinethedesignmethodsofvariouscomponentsaswellasdiscussanymodificationsmadetothe
initialdesigns.

5.1. Frame
AsdepictedinFigure8,theframewillbeusedtosupportthepistoncylindersandflywheelrotating
assembly.Theframewasconstructedof6061AluminumPlatebecauseitislightweight,durableand
easytomachine.Themajorityoftheframemanufacturingwascompletedusingamillingmachine,with
theexceptionofpartsthatrequireaprecisioncircularhole(i.e.flywheelsupportsandcylinderclamps).
Thebearingseatsinthesupportsfortheflywheelwereslightlychangedduringthefabricationprocess.
Foracleanerlook,insteadofhavingthebearingflushwiththeoutsideedgeoftheframe,thebearing
waspushedfurtherintothestandandaninternalretainingringwasusedtoholditinplace(Figure8).

10


Figure8AssembledFrameandNewBearingSeat

5.2. CylindersandCylinderHeads
Tomaximizetheheattransferbetweenthecoldcylinderandthesurroundingwaterbaththeteam
designedasimplearrayofannularfinstoincreasetheexternalsurfaceareaofthecylinder.Heat
transfercalculationsforsteelandbrass,availableinAppendixC,showanapproximate320400%
increaseinheattransferwiththeadditionofafin15mminlength.Basedonthesecalculationsthe
teamselectedbrassasthecoldcylindermaterialasitenabledalargerheattransferwhencomparedto
steel.Otherbenefitsofchoosingbrassoversteelarethatitwillnotrustintheicebathandithas
improveddryfrictionalcharacteristicswithsteel(i.e.brassisaselflubricatingmetal).
Theteamchosealargenumberoffinswithaspacing2.5timesthethicknesstoensuremaximum
surfacearea.Becausethesysteminvolvesfreeconvectionitwasimportanttochooselargefinspacing.
Byincreasingthewatervolumebetweenthefinstheresultiseffectivelyanincreaseintheengine
efficiency.Alargervolumeofwaterbetweenfinswilltakelongertoheatup,thusmaintainingahigher
temperaturedifferentialforanextendedperiodoftime.
Theoriginalcylinderdesignwasaonepiececylinderandcylinderhead.Aftersomebrainstormingand
discussionswithourtechnician,ourteamdecideditwasbesttoconstructthecylinderandcylinderhead
intwopieces.Thiswouldallowforamoreprecisefinishontheinsideboreofthecylindersaswellas
allowforeasyassemblyandtroubleshootingifrequired.Themanufacturingprocesswascarriedout
usingalathe.ThefinalizedcylinderscanbeseeninFigure9.

11


Figure9HotandColdCylindersandCylinderHeads

5.3. Pistons
Tohelpreducefrictionandincreasedurability,groovedpistonsareusedinoursystem.Thegrooves
aroundthepistonserveasapressuresealwhenthepistonandcylinderaremachinedtolowtolerances.
Thepistonwasoriginallygoingtobeconstructedofcoldrolledsteeltoensureconsistencyinthermal
expansionforthehotcylinderassembly.However,ourtechniciansupplieduswithasimilarmaterial
thatwaseasiertomachineandfinish.Thiswasconsideredtobeimportantduetothehightolerances
betweenthepistonandcylinderwalls.Thebetterthesurfacefinishthelowerthefrictiongenerated.
Thebrassonsteelinteractionbetweenthecoldcylinderandpistonwillnotposeanissueforthermal
expansionduetothelowtemperaturegradientacrossthecoldcylinderassemblyasdesigned.The
interactionofbrassandsteelhaslowslidingfrictionalproperties.Figure10displaysthemanufacturing
processofoneofthepistonsonthelatheaswellasthefinishedproduct.

Figure10PistonManufacturingandFinalProduct

5.4. Cranks
Thedesignofthecrankshadtoincorporatetwothings,strokelengthandthegenerationofaforce
couple.Thestrokelengthofoursystemistwicethedistancefromthecenterofrotationofthecrankto

12

thelocationwherethepistonrodisconnected.Thestrokelengthcouldbeeasilylengthenedor
shortenedbychangingthelocationoftheholeaccordingly.
Inadditiontostrokelength,theothergoverningfactoronthedesignofthecrankwastheneedto
createaforcecouplethatwouldcancelthelineartranslationalforceexertedonthesystemduetothe
massofthepistonacceleratingoveritsstrokelength.Asthepistonreachestopandbottomdead
centerinitsstroke,theaccelerationofthepistonmasschangingdirectionsgeneratesasinusoidalforce
onthesystemwhichhasthepotentialtoproduceundesiredanddamagingvibrations.Inordertocancel
thissinusoidalforcecausedbythepistonmass,thecrankistypicallydesignedasaneccentricmassthat
createsabalancingforce.Figure11showstheinitialdesignofthecrankwiththeforcecoupleindicated.
HereFCdefinesthebalancingforceoftheeccentriccrankandFPistheforceduetothesinusoidal
motionofthepiston.

StrokeLength

Fp

Fc

Figure11CrankDesignShowingForceCoupleandStrokeLength

5.5. FlywheelandCollars
Oneofthemajorcomponentsofourdesignistheflywheel;amechanicaldevicedesignedtohavea
significantrotationalmomentofinertia.Flywheelsareusedasrotationalenergystoragedevicesto
resistchangesinrotationalspeed,thusaidinginmaintainingsmoothshaftrotation.Inadditiontothis,
flywheelsassistindrivingthesystemoverthedurationofacycleinwhichnonetpowerisbeing
produced.Duringtheseperiodstheflywheelusesitsstoredenergytopowerthesystemthroughthe
portionofthecyclewherenopowerisproduced.Thisfeatureisveryimportantinthedesignofa
StirlingEnginebecause25%ofthecycleisflywheeldependant(bothpistonsarecompressingthe
workingfluid);henceworkisrequiredbythesystem.Another50%ofthecycledoesnotinvolveany
workinputoroutput;heretheflywheelisrequiredtoprovidethepowernecessarytosmoothly
overcomeanyfrictionalforcesinthesystem.ThisconceptispresentedinFigure12.Thestatesofthe
cyclecanbereferencedasperFigure2,Figure3andFigure16.Itwasmanufacturedfromsteelusinga
lathe.

13


Figure12StirlingCycleFlywheelDependance

5.6. PistonRodsandBrassConnectionFittings
Thefittingsusedtoconnectthepistonrodstothepistonsandcranksweremadeofbrassduetoitslow
slidingfrictionalproperties.Duringthemanufacturingprocessaslightmodificationwasmadetooneof
thebrassfittings.Thelengthofthepiececlosesttothepistonwasincreasedfrom0.875to1.125to
allowformorethreadsforthemachinescrewholdingthepistoninplace.Asaresulttheoriginalpiston
rodlengthwasshortenedby0.250.Team04madesuretomakebrassfittingdesignsimpletointer
changepistonrodlengthasitmightbenecessaryduringthetestingphaseoftheproject.Thepistonrod
andbrassfittingsetupcanbeseeninFigure13.

Figure13BrassFittingsandConnectingRods

5.7. FresnelSpotLens
ForthesolaraspectofourdesignprojectourteamselectedaFresnelSpotLens.Aspotlenswaschosen
foritsconcentratedbeamshapeandadjustabilityinfocusingtheincidentsolarradiationontothehot
cylinderhead.TheLenswaspurchasedonlineandmeasures27x36.Ourteamconstructedaframe
forthelensthatallowsforverticaladjustmentsaswellas360rotationaboutthehorizontalaxis.This

14

wascrucialasitallowedfortrackingofthesunwhichisrequiredtomaintainspottemperatureintensity.
Figure14displaystheFresnellensandframe.

Figure14FresnelLensandFrame

15

6. DESIGNANALYSISANDREVISEDCALCULATIONS
Thefollowingsectionssummarizetheresultsofintensiveengineeringcalculationsconcernedprimarily
withtheexternalheattransferandthermodynamicsoftheworkingfluid.Therawdataandcalculations
canbefoundintheAppendices.Thecalculationshavebeenredonetoreflectthechangesmadetothe
designinJanuaryandthefinaloptimizedconfigurationasofApril2009.

6.1. SchmidtAnalysisofIdealIsothermalModel
Todeterminethetheoreticalenergyoutputanidealisothermalanalysiswasperformedonasimplified
modelofthefinalenginedesign.Theidealisothermalanalysisisincapableofpredictingresultsforthe
realcyclebutcanbeusedasaguidefordesignrefinementpurposesandtogaugethemaximum
theoreticalcapabilitiesoftheengine.Theassumptionsofanidealisothermalmodelaredefinedbelow:
Temperatureofcompressionspace/coldcylinderisatthelowerlimitofthecoldsink
Temperatureofexpansionspace/hotcylinderisattheupperlimitofthehotsink
Heatexchangersare100%effective
Regeneratoris100%effective
Volumeoftheworkingspacesvarysinusoidallywithcrankangle

RefertoFigure15forarepresentationoftheisothermalalphaStirlingengine.Theissuewiththe
isothermalanalysisisthattheheattransferfromtheinternalheatexchangersiszerobecausethereis
notemperaturedifferentialtofacilitatetheflowofheat.Thenetheatexchangebetweenthe
compressionandexpansionspaceswiththesurroundingsisequaltothenetwork.Amoreaccurate
modelwouldinvolveanadiabaticanalysis;however,thesolutionismuchmorecomplicatedand
requiresaniterativesolver.Thesolutiontotheadiabaticanalysisisstillanapproximationanditcould
notbejustifiedforthisdesign.

Figure15SimplifiedIsothermalAlphaStirlingEngine6

Urieli,Israel.(2002a).IsothermalAnalysisofAlphaStirlingEngine.AccessedonNovember1st,2008from
http://www.sesusa.org/DrIz/isothermal/isothermal.html

16

TheidealisothermalapproximationoftheStirlingcyclewasusedtogeneratealistofequations
describingthethermodynamicprocess.TheSchmidtanalysiswasthenusedtosolvetheseequations
forpressure,temperatureandenergytransferbyassumingthatvolumevariessinusoidallywiththe
crankangleasperFigure16.Thestatesofthecyclefrom14arelabeledasperFigure2andFigure3as
perSection2.PleaserefertoAppendixBforthederivationandsolutionoftheisothermalSchmidt
analysis.

Figure16SinusoidalVolumeDependenceonCrankAngle7

TheanalysiswasperformedusingtheoriginaldesignspecifiedinDecember,therefineddesignspecified
bythefinalbuildreportinJanuary,andbyusingthetestresultsandconfigurationoftheoptimized
designspecifiedatthebeginningofApril.TheresultsarepresentedinTable4.Theoptimizeddesignis
discussedinmoredetailinSection9.InSection9theresultsfromAprilwillbeusedinacomparisonof
theorytoexperimentalresultstodeterminetheoverallperformanceoftheengineandtheaccuracyof
theSchmidtanalysis.

Table4:ResultsofSchmidtAnalysisofIdealIsothermalModel

Results
PMEAN(kPa)
PMAX(kPa)
PMIN(kPa)
QOUTPUT(J)
QINPUT(J)
WNET(J)
RPM
Power(W)
Efficiency(%)

December
299
715
125
25.94
54.45
28.51
assume200
95
52

January
306
747
125
17.07
35.82
18.75
assume200
94
52

April
177
201
156
0.6338
1.424
0.7906
measured384
5
56

Urieli,Israel.(2002b).SchmidtAnalysis.AccessedonNovember1st,2008fromhttp://www.sesusa.org/DrIz/isothermal/Schmidt.html

17

6.2. FinHeatTransfer
Toprovetheeffectivenessofaddingexternalfinstothecoldcylinderaheattransferanalysiswas
carriedout.Calculationswerecarriedoutforbothsteelandbrass.TheresultsareshowninFigure17.
Asaresultofthisanalysistheinitialfinlengthof10mmwasincreasedto15mmasresultsshowa
considerableincreaseinheattransfer.Thefinlength,intheory,shouldhavebeenincreasedto30mm
formaximumheattransferinsteel.Whenusingbrassforthecylindermaterialtheheattransfer
continuestoincreasewithfinlength;thisisduetoitshighthermalconductivity.However;duetoframe
clearanceissuesandeaseofmachiningafinlengthof15mmwaschosen.Withthisfinlengththereisan
approximate320%increaseinheattransferforsteeland400%forbrasswhencomparedtousingno
fins.Thecalculationresultsfor10mmand15mmaredepictedinAppendixC.

HeatTransferandFinEfficiencywithVaryingFinLength
120

1
0.9
0.8
0.7

80

HeatTransferWithoutFins

0.6

SteelFins
BrassFins

60

0.5

SteelFinEfficiency

0.4

BrassFinEfficiency

40

FinEfficiency

HeatTransfer(W)

100

0.3
0.2

20

0.1
0

0
0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

FinLength(m)

Figure17HeatTransferandFinEfficiency

18

7. INITIALTESTING
Followingthecompletionofenginecomponentfabricationandassemblyapreliminarytestwas
performedtoevaluateengineperformance.Thetestwasperformedwiththeengineconfigurationas
seeninFigure18.Thetestconsistedofapplyingapropyleneheatsourcetothehotcylinderheadwith
noicewatercoolingappliedtothecoldcylinder.Thetestwasperformedwithallenginecomponents
beingunmodifiedexceptfortheuseofarubbertransfertubeasprocurementofadditionalmaterials
wasrequired.

Figure18InitialTestingSetup

7.1. TestingObservations
Afterapplyingtheheatsourceandachievingtemperaturesofapproximately350Conthehotcylinder
head,operationoftheenginewasunsuccessful.Inadditiontounsatisfactoryperformancemany
undesiredconditionswerewitnessed.Followingtheinitialtestingfailure,itbecameimmediately
apparentthatanumberofissueswouldhavetobeaddressed:1)theflexibletransfertubewithlow
meltingpointwouldhavetobereplacedforamorepermanentandrobustconnection,2)asexpected,
themetaltometalcontactoftheframewiththehotcylinderactedasathermalshortthatwouldneed
tobeisolated/insulatedtopreventlargeheattransferlossestotheframeandforsafetyreasons,and3)
highbendingstressesanddeflectionsfromthelargecompressionratiosweresignificantandwouldhave
tobereduced.Maximumsystempressurewasfoundtobe10psiwithsinglecylinderpressurescapable
ofreaching20psi.Figure19illustratesthedamagetotherubbertransfertubeasaresultofheat
transfertothebrasspushonconnections.

19

HeatDamage

Figure19HeatDamagetoTemporaryTransferTube

7.2. DesignSolutions
Initialtestingprovidedusefulinformationregardingengineperformanceandhighlightedundesirable
conditions.Solutionstotheseissueswereaddressedduringthedesignrefinementprocessandinclude
reducingstrokelengthtodecreasecompression,insulatinghotcylinderfromtheframe,replacingthe
rubbertransfertubewithametalpipe,andpromotingheattransfertotheworkinggas.

20

8. DESIGNREFINEMENTS&PERFORMANCEIMPROVEMENTS
Toaddresstheproblemsidentifiedduringourinitialtesting,arigorousdesignrefinementwas
undertaken.BecausetheartofdesigningaStirlingengineisnotahardenedscience,thedesign
refinementprocessisnotassimpleasselectinganewelectricmotorfromacatalogue,orpickingupa
newpieceofhardwarefromasupplier.Thismeantthatoftenseveraliterationswererequiredinorder
toseeanimprovementinperformance.Manyperformancesolutionsweredesignedandtestedin
sequencewithincreasingsuccess.Thefollowingsubsectionswilldiscussindetailthemajordesign
refinementsandperformanceimprovementsundertaken.ItisinSection9thattheiterativetestingand
troubleshootingprocedureisdemonstratedalongwiththetestingresults.

8.1. DesignRefinements
8.1.1. FrameHeatDissipation
Followingourinitialapplicationofheattotheengine,itwasapparentthattherewasasignificant
amountofheatbeingdissipatedfromthehotcylinderthroughthealuminumframe.Thiscausedthe
entireengineassemblytobecomehottothetouchandtransferredsignificantamountsofheattothe
cylinderbeingcooled.Thishoweverwasexpectedandasolutiontotheproblemwasreadilyavailable.
Topreventheatfromtransferringtotheframefromthehotcylinder,aninsulatinglayerofmaterialwas
requiredattheirpointofcontact.Inordertoaccommodatealayerofinsulationbetweenthecylinder
andtheframe,modificationswererequiredonthehotsideofthecylinderclamps.1/8wasremoved
fromthecylinderclampssothatthehotcylinderfloatedfreely.TwolayersofTeflonwrapinadditionto
Fiberglasspaperinsulationwasthentightlywrappedaroundthehotcylindertofillthe1/8gap
betweenthecylinderandframeclamps,seeFigure20.Aftertheinsulationwassecuredandtheclamps
adjusted,heatwasagainappliedtothecylinder.Asignificantimprovementwasachievedwithminimal
heatbeingtransferredtotheframe.Withthecylinderheadbeingupwardsof550C,theregionofthe
frameincontactwiththeinsulationwouldreachamaximumtemperatureof65C,safeenoughto
touch.Figure21isathermalimagetakenoftheengineafterbeingheatedandillustratesthe
temperaturedifferenceachievedbetweenthecylinderheadandtheframe.

Figure20HotCylinderInsulation

21

Figure21ThermalImage

8.1.2. CompressionReduction
Itwasevidentfromtheinitialtestthatthecylindercompressionwastoohighforthescaleofour
application.Thepressuresachievedinthecylinderswereenoughtocausesignificantvibrationand
bendingoftheframeitself.Highcompression,however,isthemaincharacteristicoftheAlphatype
Stirlingengineduetotherebeingtwosealedpistonsandcylinders.Suitablecompressionratiosfor
thesetypesofenginesarenotwelldocumentedthereforeaniterativedesignrefinementwasrequired
whentryingtoachieveacompressionratiothatprovidedasignificantperformanceincrease.
Toreducethecompression,twooptionswereavailable.Onewastodecreasethestrokelengthwhich
wouldreducethevolumeofairbeingcompressed;thesecondwastoreducetheconnectingrodlength
whichwouldincreasetheminimumvolumeofthesystemtherebydecreasingtheamountof
compression.
Thestrokelengthwasfirstreducedbybydrillingnewholesinthecranks.Thissignificantlyreduced
thecompressionandprovidedthefirstnoteworthyperformancegains.Aftertestingthisstrokelength
withvarioussizesofconnectingrods,thestrokewasagainreducedby5/8,seeFigure22.After
machiningseveralnewsizesofconnectingrods,itwaspossibletosignificantlydecreasethe
compressionofthesystem.Themotorexhibitedsignsoflifeandwouldattempttomaintainitselfin
operation.

22

Figure22StrokeLengthReduction

8.1.3. TransferTube
Theoriginaltransfertube,whichwasonlyselectedforinitialtesting,hadamaximumtemperature
ratingthatwasmuchlessthantheapplicationrequired.Heatquicklyconductedthroughthebrass
fittingonthecylinderhead,elevatingthetemperatureofthehosebeyonditsmeltingpoint.Sufficient
testingwasunabletobeperformeduntilasuitablereplacementtransferconnectionwasfound.
Severalattemptsweremadetobuildatransfertubeusingcopperpipe;however,solderingthejoints
wasnotanoptionasmostsolderhasameltingtemperatureofaround190Cwhichisbelowthe
operatingtemperatureofthehotcylinder.Thebrassfittingonthecylinderheadhadthepotentialto
meltthesolder.AnalternativetosolderingthejointswastheuseofJBweld.Thisprovidedinitial
successhoweversufficienttemperaturescausedtheJBweldtocrack,reducingtheintegrityofthe
transfertube,seeFigure23.Finallytheuseofthreadedsteelfittingsprovidedanadequatesolutionthat
withstoodrepeatedtestswithoutdiminishedresults,seeFigure24.

Figure23HeatDamagedTransferTube

23

Figure24SteelTransferTube

8.2. PERFORMANCEIMPROVEMENTS
Followingseveraliterationsofdesignrefinements,manyoftheinitialcomplicationswereovercome.In
anefforttoimprovetheperformanceandefficiencyoftheengine,severalengineeringimprovements
weremade.Duetotheextensiveamountoftimededicatedtodesignandthehighqualityofmachining,
theenginehadahighmechanicalefficiency.Frictionallosseswerenotamajorfactorlimiting
performance;however,itwasevidentthatimprovementswererequiredtoincreasethethermal
efficiencyofthesystem.

8.2.1. InternalFins
Earlyinthedesignprocessinitialbrainstormingbeganonaninternalfinarraythatwouldincreaseheat
transfertoandfromtheworkinggas.Thisconceptwasnotfinalizedbeforefabricationoftheenginehad
commencedandtheideawasputonhold.Aftertheinitialtestingprovidedinsightintothethermal
efficiencyoftheengine,itwasdecidedthatinternalfinsmightprovideincreasedengineperformance.
Theinternalfinarraywastobeseatedagainstthecylinderhead(bothhotandcold)andinthedirect
pathofthegasflowtomaximizeheattransfer.Thefinsofanaluminumvehicleradiatorprovidedan
idealsolutionwithrelativelyminimalfabricationrequired.Ausedradiatorwassalvagedfromanauto
shopandaportionofthefinstructurewasremoved.Acircularpatternequaltotheinternaldiameterof
thecylinderswasthenappliedtothesectionofradiatorwhereitwasthencutwithabandsawand
sandedsmooth,seeFigure25.Aluminumsleevesweremachinedtoencasethecircularfinsandto
protectthecylinderwallsfromscratching.Inadditiontoprovidingprotection,thealuminumsleeves
ensureanintimatecontactwiththecylinderwallsfortheefficientheattransfer.Figure26showsthe
completedfinssituatedinthecylinder.Theinternalfinsprovedeffectiveatassistingheattransferand
providedanotableperformanceincrease.

24

Figure25InternalFinsFabricationProcess

Figure26InternalFinPlacement

8.2.2. Regenerator
Inanefforttofurtherincreasethethermalefficiencyoftheenginetheuseofaregeneratorwas
selected.Theinitialenginedesigncalledfortheuseofaregenerator,however,ourlimited
understandingofregeneratordesignandthedifficultieswehadalreadyincurredduetotroublesome
transfertubes,madeusreluctanttobeginfurthermodifications.
Theeffectofincludingaregeneratorinthetransfertubehadalreadybeenexaminedduringthedesign
selectionprocessandoperatesmuchlikeaneconomizersituatedinthegasflowbetweenthehotand
coldcylinders.Theregeneratordesignconsistedofasectionofsteelpipewithflangesweldedon
eachend,seeFigure27.Theflangedpipewasfittedbetweenthecylindersandreplacedtheexisting
transfertube,seeFigure28.Steelwoolwasinsertedinthepipetoprovideadensethermalmassto
exchangeheatwiththegasflowbetweencylinders.Thelargesurfaceareaofthesteelwoolprovided
25

efficientheattransfertostripheatfromthegasasitflowedintothecoldcylinderandreturnthatheat
tothecooledgasasittraveledbackintothehotcylinder.Theadditionoftheregeneratorprovideda
significantperformanceincreaseandallowedforsustainedoperationoftheengine.

Figure27RegeneratorComponents

Figure28InstalledRegeneratorwithIceWaterBath

26

9. TestingandTroubleshooting
ThefollowingsectionswilldescribethevarioustestsperformedonthesolarcollectorandStirlingengine
fromJanuarytoApril2009.Ofcriticalimportanceistheiterativetestingproceduredevelopedbythe
teamtoprogressivelyandsuccessfullyoptimizeengineperformance.Thisprocedurewasnecessaryas
therearemanyparametersthatmustbeconsideredwhendesigningaStirlingenginewhicharenot
easilydeterminedandoftenrequirefinetuningandmodificationoftheconstructedengine.Thisproved
tobeagambleastheteamwouldonlygetoneshottobuildanengine,sotheteamdesignedanengine
thatcouldbeeasilymodifiedtomeetawiderangeofoperatingconditionsandassemblyconfigurations.
Itisforthesereasonsthatteam4plannedinadvanceanextendedtestingperiod.

9.1. FresnelLensTesting
ThesolarcollectorusedinthefollowingtestsisreferredtoasaFresnellens.Thelensisalightweight
acrylicfilmfixedinarectangularwoodenframeofdimensions36x27foratotalareaof0.627m2.
Usingadailyaveragesolarinsolationof~500W/m2forthemonthofMarchascitedbyEnvironment
Canada,themaximumsolarinputusingthelenswouldbe~314W.Thisnumberisaconservative
estimateandrealisticheatratesweredeterminedindirectlythroughexperimentalmeasurementsin
Test#2below.Propersafetyprecautionswerestrictlypracticedwhenusingthelens:1)weldgoggles
wereusedbytheindividualwhenrequiredforrecordingtemperatures,2)thelenswastiltedawayfrom
thesunwhentransportingandleftunattended,3)thefocalpointwastrackedandlocatedusingalong
pieceofwood,and4)fireextinguishersand/orwaterwascloseathandincaseoffire.

9.1.1. Test#1GeneralTestingResultsJanuary23rd(2pm)
FollowingtheconstructionofthewoodenframedepictedinFigure29requiredtosupporttheFresnel
lens,team4conductednumerousqualitativeandquantitativetestswhichinvolvedsimplyholdinga
varietyofobjectsunderthefocalpointofthelens.Thesetestshelpedserveasabasisfor
understandingtheeffectsofsurfaceconditionsandtypesofmaterialsonheatgenerationratesand
temperaturedistributions.

Figure29FresnelLensandInfraredThermometerReadings

27

Figure30depictssomeofthevariousobjectsusedtodemonstratetheconcentratingpowerofthe
Fresnellens.Thefirstobjectisofanaluminumcanthatwasheldunderthefocalpointfor
approximately10seconds.Aluminumhasameltingtemperatureof660C.Eventhoughaluminum
hasahighthermalconductivityandreflectivesurfacethelenswasstillabletoconcentrateenough
energyfastenoughtomeltthealuminum.Theamountofheatingcouldbeincreasedbyinsulating
theobjectfromtheenvironmentandbypaintingthesurfaceadullblacktominimizereflectivity.
Thelenswasalsocapableofcreatingmoltenasphalt.Itwasalsodemonstratedthatthelenscould
setfiretowoodinstantaneously.

Figure30VariousObjectsHeldundertheFresnelLens

9.1.2. Test#2TemperatureMeasurementsApril1st(12:40to1:10pm)
Theintentofthistestwastodeterminetherateofheatabsorptionofacylindricalsteelobjectof
dimensions3Dx21/8L.Thesurfaceoftheobjectwaspaintedblackandthesidesandbasewere
insulated.AdigitalpictureofthecylindricalsteelobjectisshowninFigure31.Theambient
temperaturewas5Conaclear,sunnyday.Thetemperaturewasreadatadepthofthreequartersthe
lengthusinganinfraredthermometerandrecordedevery30secondsforatotalof30minutes.The
resultsaredisplayedinFigure32below.Thetemperatureincreasesovertimeinanexponential
relationshipasexpectedfromtheory(asthesurfacetemperatureincreasesthelossesduetoconvection
andradiationincreasesoalevelingoffoccurs).Temperaturesjustabove310Cwereachievedatthe30
minutemark.
Thetestwasrepeatedwiththepropylenetorchwhichistheheatsourceusedduringtesting.Theidea
hereistocomparetherelativeheattransferratesofthetorchandlens.Figure32showsthatittook
thetorchhalfthetimetoreachtemperaturesabove310C,soaverycrudeapproximationsuggeststhat
thetorchhasdoubletheheatingpotentialincomparisontothelens.Notethattheperformanceofthe
lensdependsonthetimeofyear,weather,time,andambientairconditions,aswellasothernumerous
factorssoitispossibletoimproveonthis.Itisveryimportanttoconsiderthetestingresultsfrom
Section9.4.5whichrequiredtheteamtoapplythetorchonly40to50%oftheoperatingtimetosustain
peakRPMabove300.Fromtheseresults,itisnotdifficulttosaythatitisverypossiblefortheengineto
operatewiththeFresnellensaloneundertherightconditions.

28

Figure31 CylindricalSteelObject

Test#4 FresnelLensTesting
350

Temperature(C)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

10

FresnelLensHeatSource

15

20

25

30

Time(min)
PropyleneTorchHeatSource

Figure32TemperatureIncreaseofSteelStockvs.Time

Byusingthetemperaturedataofheatingthesteelspecimenoverthe30minutesarough
estimateoftheaveragenetsolarheatingwascalculatedas147W.Consideringanidealsolar
inputof314W,theoverallsolarcollectionefficiencyisabout47%dependingonambient
conditions.SincetheheatingratesofthetorchareaboutdoublethatoftheFresnellens,a
conservativeestimatefortheamountofnetheatinputfromthetorchwouldbeabout300W.
Thesepowerratesarenotabsolute,butresemblethedifferencebetweeninputandlossesand
wouldequaltozerooncethetemperaturereachessteadystate.
29

9.1.3. Test#3SolarEnergyInputtoGammaWindmillStirlingEngineApril1st
April1stwouldprovetobethelastavailabledaytotestthesolarcollectorbeforetheprojectdeadline
onApril9thduetolackofpermittingweatherconditions.Thus,theteamwasnotabletodemonstrate
thattheenginecouldbepoweredsolelybysolarradiation.Thoughthetestwasneverperformedon
theoptimizedandverymuchcapableengine,theresultsfromthelenstestingshowthatitisvery
possibletogettheenginerunningfromsolarradiationaloneusingtheexistingsolarcollector(ifnotit
wouldbeasimplematterofbuyingaslightlybiggerlens!).
Inspiteofthelackofsolartestingresults,theteamwasabletogetthemodelgammadisplacertype
StirlingenginetorunfromsolarradiationaloneasdepictedinFigure33.Thistestitselfdemonstrates
thatitispossibletopoweraStirlingengineusingtheexistingsolarcollector.Itisimportanttonotethat
theteamsenginewascapableofoperatingmuchfaster,longerandmoreefficientlythanthegamma
enginewhenusingthesamepropylenetorchasaheatsource.Thescalabilityoftheteamsalpha
enginetothegammaenginearesimilargeometrically(sweptvolume,pistondiameter,etc.)whichalso
helpstovalidatethepotentialfortheenginetobesolarpowered.

Figure33Gamma'Windmill'StirlingEngine

9.2. IterativeTestingandTroubleshootingProcedure
TestingoftheStirlingenginebeganonFebruary25thandwasunsuccessful.Theinitialassemblyis
depictedinFigure18andrevealstheincompleteframe.Sincetheinitialfailure,multipleengine
configurationshavebeentestedbymanipulatingthevariousdesignparameters.Inthebeginningitwas
extremelydifficulttodiagnosewhytheenginerefusedtorunbecausethereweremanyparametersto
consider,manyofwhichweremultidependentoneachother(i.e.dependingontheconfiguration,a
changeinoneparametermightimprovetheengineperformanceinsomerespectbutnegatively
influenceotherparameterssoastounexpectedlyrendertheengineinaworseconditionorresultinno
effectatall).
Throughtrialanderrorteam4begantodevelopagreaterunderstandingoftheserelationshipswhicharesummarizedin
aresummarizedinTable5below.Followingacomplicatedbutintelligentiterativetestingandtroubleshootingprocessteam

30

4wasabletosuccessfullyoptimizeengineperformance.Therestofthissectionwilldescribethevarioustestsperformed
anddemonstratethesuccessiveiterationprocesssummarizedin

31

Table6.
AsperTable5,alistofpotentialactionsisprovidedasaguideformakingadjustmentsandfor
troubleshootingsuspectedpoorperformanceareas.Apositiveeffectwillbedefinedasaneffectthat
hastheresultofimprovingtheoverallefficiencyorimprovingtheconditionsofoperationfromthe
contextofnecessity,i.e.efficiencyisreducedbutthechangeisnecessaryfortheenginetorunas
intended.Anegativeeffectwillbedefinedasanythingotherthanapositiveeffect.Asindicatedbythe
results,eachactionhasbothnegativeandpositiveeffectsonengineperformancewhichnecessitates
theneedforastructurediterativetestingprocess.
Table5:TroubleshootingParameters

ID

Action

EffectsofChangingParameter

Reducestroke
length

Compressionratioisdecreased
Reducedpotentialforfrictionandbinding(slowerpistontravelandlessseverecrankangle)
Reducedsweptvolume(reducedtheoreticalpoweroutputforenginesizescale)

Increasedead
space

Compressionratioisdecreased(greatesteffect)
Reducesheattransferandefficiency

InternalHeat
Exchangers

Improveheattransferbetweencylinderwallsandworkinggas(air)byincreasingsurfacearea
Increasesdeadspace(see2willbeconsiderednegativeasdeadspaceaddedisnotanoption)
Increasessystemflowfriction

Nolubrication
(dryrunning)

Reducedfrictioncomparedtoliquidlube(forhotcylinderoiliscooked,andcoldcylinderoilthickens)
Thelackoflubricationreducesthepressuresealingabilityofpistons

Solidgraphite
lubrication

Excellentfrictionreduction(canresisthighhotcylindertemperaturesofmaximum550C)
Suitablealternativetooillubricationbutstilllackshighpressuresealingabilities

Increaseflywheel
size

Increasesstoredenergyofthesystem(allowsmoreconsistentoperationathighcompressionratios)
Longerrevuptime(actualenergyoutputislow,thereforesloweracceleration)

Metaltransfer
tubevs.Flexible
rubber

ThreadedNPTconnectionsprovidetighterpressureseals
Metalcanwithstandthehigheroperationaltemperatures
Undesirableheattransfertocoldcylinderisincreasedsignificantly

Addorincrease
sizeof
regenerator

Heliuminjection

Heliumhasahigherheatcapacity(5xmorethanair)andthermalconductivity(6xmorethanair)
Heliumhasalowerdensity(7xlessthanair),forthesamepressurethisisnegative

10

Usehigher
heatingvaluefuel

Increasesheattransferratesintothesystem
Cancauseextremelocalizedtemperatures(warping,hotspots,addedfrictionetc.)

11

Improveheat
distribution

Willhelpinheattransferlag
Couldcausehotspotsorheatunwantedareasasaccesstohotcylinderislimitedatendandside

12

Insulationofhot
cylinder

Improvestheperformancebylimitingheattransferlosses
Potentialalignmentissuesduetononrigidclampingsurfaces

Improveefficiency
Reducetheheattransferrequirementsfromthethermalreservoirstotheworkinggas
Increasessystemflowfriction
Increasesdeadspace(see2willbeconsiderednegativeasdeadspaceaddedisnotanoption)

Result

X
X

X
X

32

Table6:SuccessiveIterativeTestingProcess

Test

Date/Configuration

#1

February25thFailuretorun
Largestrokelength(2.5)
Minimumcylinderdeadspace
Flexiblerubbertransfertube
Propanetorchheatsource

#2

March9thFailuretorun
Addressedinsulationofhot
cylinderbyaddinglayerof
insulationbetweenclamps

#3

March16thFailuretorun
Reducedrodlength1/4
Icewaterbathinstalled

#4

March17thFailuretorun
Reducedstrokelength(1.75)
Acetylenetorchheatsource

#5

March20 Failuretorun
Internalheatexchangers
Metaltransfertube
Nolubricationinhotcylinder
Backtopropaneheatsource

#6

March23thFailuretorun
Reducedstrokelength(1.125)
PropanetoPropylenefuelsource

#7

March25 Failuretorun
Reducedrodlengthtoshortest
Maximumcylinderdeadspace
Nolubricationinbothcylinders

#8

March26 Failuretorun
Sameconfigurationasbefore
Combinedsolarandtorchheat
source

th

th

th

Results
Extremecompressionratios(possiblesolutions:1,2,6)
20psisinglecylinder,10psisystempressure
Significantframebendingofbasealuminumplate
Transfertubemelting(possiblesolutions:7)
Tubeusedwasonlyfortestingpurposesuntilamorepermanentfixture
couldbefabricateduponfinalresults(tubelength,diameter)
Transferofheatthroughclampsandframe(possiblesolutions:12)
Significantimpactonperformanceandefficiency
Safetyhazard(mustbeaddressedimmediately)
Transferofheatthroughclampsandframe(resolved)
Maxhotcylindertemperatureof260C
Clampsarewarmbutsafetothetouch
Shouldinstallicewaterbathoncoldcylinder
Transfertubemelting(possiblesolutions:7)
Extremecompressionratios(possiblesolutions:1,2,6)
Reductionofcompressionratio(possiblesolutions:1,2,6)
Improvement:flywheelcarriestheenginethroughmorecycles
Reductioninframeflexure
Transfertubemelting(possiblesolutions:7)
Potentialheattransferissue(possiblesolutions:3,8,9,10,11)
Reductionofcompressionratio(possiblesolutions:1,2,6)
Improvement:flywheelcarriestheenginethroughmorecycles
Reductioninframeflexure
Transfertubemelting(possiblesolutions:7)
Potentialheattransferissue(possiblesolutions:3,8,9,10,11)
Externalheatgood,suspectinternaltransfertothegasisinsufficient
Lubrication(possiblesolutions:4,5)

Oilbreakingdowninhotcylinder
Compressionratiostilltoohigh(possiblesolutions:1,2,6)
Transfertubemelting(resolved)
Potentialheattransferissue(possiblesolutions:,8,9,10,11)

Installedaluminuminternalheatexchangerinsertsmadefromradiator

Noticeableimprovementhintsatheattransferissuesfromprior
Reductionofcompressionratio(possiblesolutions:2)

Needtoattemptmaximumdeadspaceconfiguration

Atminimumstrokeflywheelissufficientforsmoothcycleoperation

Minimumstroke,noticeableimprovementinsmoothnessofrotations
Lubrication(possiblesolutions:4,5)

Coldcylinderlubricationiscoldandaddsviscousfriction
Reductionofcompressionratio(resolved)

Maximumdeadspaceandstrokelength
Frictionandbindingofconnections(possiblesolutions:5)

Notsignificant,butpoweroutputisminimal
Lackofenergytransfer(possiblesolutions:8,9,11)
Lackofenergytransfer(possiblesolutions:8,9)

Externalheatinputandinternalheatexchangersnotsufficient

Mustchangethermodynamicpropertiesbyloweringheatrequirement
(regenerator)orchanginggas(helium)
Frictionandbindingofconnections(possiblesolutions:5)

Action

12

1,10

3,4,7

1,10

2,4

8,11

5,8,9

Throughouttheiterativedesignprocesstheteamwasabletomanipulatethedesignparametersand
makegradualimprovementsandprogresstothepointthattheengineneededonlytobeoptimizedto
operatecontinuously.Inordertogothroughwithoptimization,itwasnecessarytogathermore
detailedtemperaturereadingsoftheentiresystemusingadataacquisitionsystemdescribedbelow.
33

9.3. TemperatureDataAcquisition
Actualtemperaturemeasurementcanbeachievedwiththermocouples.Dependingontheapplication
differenttypesofthermocouplescanbeused.Choosingthecorrectthermocouplerequireslookingata
numberoffactors.Themostimportantfactorsincludethermocoupletypeandjunctiontype.
Thermocoupletypeisimportantbecauseitincorporatestemperatureranges,accuracy,andcost.
Junctiontypeisimportantwhenlookingatprobethermocouplesbecausethisdependsonthe
atmosphereoftheintendedapplication,intendedlifespanofthethermocouple,theprocessbeing
measured,andresponsetime.

9.3.1. Thermocouples
TypeK(CHROMEGAALOMEGA)thermocoupleswerechosenbasedonanumberofpositive
attributes.Thefirstwastheirhightemperaturedifferentialcapabilityof270to1372C.Thiswas
positivebecauseoftheextremetemperaturesofthealphaStirlingcycle.AlsotypeKthermocouplesare
reasonablepriced,mechanicallystrong,andisresistanttochemicalattack.Surfaceandworkingfluid
temperaturemeasurementsweredesiredforthesystemthereforesurfaceandprobethermocouple
arrangementswereused.
TomeasurethesurfacetemperaturesatypeKsurfacethermocouplewithselfadhesivebackingwas
chosen.Figure34isapictureofanewSA1Kthermocouple.Thisisnotaprobetypethermocoupleso
thejunctiontypeisalwaysexposeddirectlytotheappliedsurface.ThewireisTefloncoatedtoprotect
againstheatdamage.

AdhesiveBacking

Surface
thermocouplewires

Figure34SurfaceThermocouple

Tomeasuretheworkingfluidtemperatureamorecomplicatedpressuretightthermocouplesetupwas
needed.AtypeKprobethermocouplewithexposedjunctionswaschosenforthisapplication.Aprobe
thermocouplewasneededforthismeasurementbecauseitwouldbelocatedinsideaclosedsystem.To
34

keepsystempressureacompressionfittingwasmatchedtotheprobediameterandthreadedintoeach
cylinderhead.Inanexposedjunctionthewiresareweldedtogetherandtheinsulationissealedagainst
penetrationbyliquidorgas.Thistypeofthermocoupleofferstheleastprotectionhoweverwasdesired
foraccurateambientworkingfluidtemperatureandfastresponsetime.Figure35showsanew
KMTSS-010E-6 Omega thermocoupleandcompressionfittingsetup.

BrassCompressionFitting

ExposedJunction

Figure35ProbeThermocoupleSetup

9.3.2. BenchtopDigitalDisplay
ThedepartmentofMechanicalEngineeringsuppliedanewdigitaldisplaythermometerunit,Omega
MDSSi8,fortesting.ThisPortableandRuggedMetalBenchtopEnclosurewasperfectfortesting.This
instrumentallowedforeasythermocouplesetupandthecapabilitytomonitortenindividual
thermocouplesviaadialasseeninFigure36.Allexposedwiresslideintoscrewdownconnectionsat
thebackfortheunit.Eachwireterminalcorrespondstothevalueonthedialatthefront.Theteam
usedjunctions5through10fortestingmeasurements.

Figure36OmegaMDSSi8DigitalThermometer

35

9.3.3. Thermocouplearrangement
Toaccuratelymeasuretemperaturedistributionthroughoutthesystem,sixthermocoupleswere
strategicallypositionedontheStirlingengine,accordingtoFigure37.Infraredimageswerealsousedto
seetemperaturedistributionandarediscussedinprevioussection.Thermocoupleswereplacedon
multiplelocationsofinterest:(1)HotCylinderWall,(2)HotSideCylinderClamp,(3)HotCylinderHead
Fluid,(4)Regenerator,(5)ColdCylinderHeadFluid,and(6)ColdCylinderHead.Systemfluid
temperatureswerealsoneededforengineeringcalculations:(5)ColdCylinderHeadFluid.Theextreme
hotheadsurfacehadtobemeasuredusinganinfraredthermometerwithamaximum500Coutput.
Thehotheadwaspaintedblackwithaflatmattefinishtoimprovetheinfraredthermometeraccuracy
whichassumesanirradianceemissivityof1.0(blackbodyradiation).

Figure37ThermocoupleSetup

9.4. StirlingEngineOptimization
Afterattainingmoderatesuccessinpreliminarytestingandtroubleshootinganeffortwasmadeto
recordandmonitortheconditionsofoperationtoagreaterdetailsothatfurtheroptimizationcouldbe
achieved.Thefollowingtestswereconductedundercontrolledconditionstodeterminethe
temperaturesthroughouttheengineduringstaticpriminganddynamicoperation.
Pressuregagesofrange0to60psigwereusedbutdidnotgenerateusableresultsasthetestable
engineconfigurationwasoflowcompressionratio.Maximumpressureswerenotexpectedtoexceed1
psig,thoughpressuresinexcessof20psighavealreadybeenrealizedinhighcompressionratiotesting
configurations,soleakagewasnotconsideredtobeanissue.

36

9.4.1. Test#1March30th,2009
TestingusingthethermocoupledisplaybeganonMarch30thandtheinitialsetupisdisplayedinFigure
38.Theconfigurationconsistedofastrokelengthof1.125,maximumdeadspace,nolubrication,anda
cruderegeneratorwhichwasmadebysimplystuffingsteelribbonmaterialintotheexistingtransfer
tube.Byusingthethermaldisplaytheteamwasabletomonitorthetemperaturesthroughoutthe
systemandsafelyruntheengineathighertemperatures.Indoingsotheengineachievedatotal
operatingtimeof30secondswhichwasahugeimprovementfrombefore.Thetestresultsare
summarizedinTable7.Theonlynoticeabledifferencesbetweenthestaticandoperatingconditionsare
thatthemeancoldairtemperatureincreaseswhilethehotairtemperaturedecreasesbutless
significantly.Thisisbecausethehotheadwherethetemperatureisbeingmeasuredisbeingheated
directlywhilethemajorcoolinginthecoldcylinderoccursmostlydeeperinsidethecylinderwherethe
externalfinsproject.

Figure38OptimizationTest#1Setup

Table7:OptimizationTest#1Results

Reading(C)
HotAir
ColdAir
HotHead
HotCylinder
ColdHead
TransferTube
Clamp

StaticPriming
453
14.5
446
228
14.8
115
53

Operating
450
51
480
244.6
17.8
115.4
56

37

9.4.2. Test#2April1st,2009
Followingthemoderatesuccessoftheprevioustesttheteamdecidedtodesignandinstallatrue
regeneratorwithalargercapacityforsteelribbontoparticipateinheatexchange.Thedeadspacewas
alsoreducedtoaminimumbyswappinginlongerrods.TheinstalledregeneratorcanbeseeninFigure
39.Thetestingwasasuccessandtheoperatingtimewasincreasedtoapproximately60seconds.

Figure39OptimizationTest#2SetupwithRegenerator

Theteamtookthefollowingtemperaturereadingsusingasamplingtimeof60seconds,whereeachof
the6temperaturereadingswouldbemeasuredevery10seconds.Thetotalprimingtime(heating
understaticconditions)wassetfor30minutes.InFigure40thehotairtemperatureisseenincreasing
anddecreasing.Thiswastheresultoftheheatsourcebeingturnedonandofftotryandmaintainthe
hotairtemperaturearound400to450C.Thereasonfordoingthiswasbecausethecylinderhead
heatsupatamuchhigherratethanthesideofthehotcylinderwhichwasverypronounced.This
worriedtheteamasthisisanindicationofheattransferlagandcouldbedetrimentaltothedesignif
theheatrequiredbytheworkinggastooperatetheStirlingcyclewasgreaterthanthatbeingsupplied.
ThecoldcylindertemperaturereadingsaredepictedinFigure41andareverycloselyrelated.Thecold
airtemperatureonlyexceedsthecoldheadwhenthesystemisoperating.TheresultsfromFigure42
showthattheclampsnearthehotheadonlyincreasetoatemperatureofabout60to70Cwhichissafe
tothetouchandindicatethattheinsulationisworking.Thetemperatureoftheregeneratorclimbsto
about120C.Thetypicaloperatingrangerecommendedatthispointwouldbewhenthehotairreaches
atemperatureofabout500Candthehotcylindersideatabout260C.Thenexttestattemptsto
recordtheRPMandpotentialpoweroutputaswellasprimetheengineinashorterperiodoftime.

38

Test#2 HotCylinderTemperatures
600

Temperature(C)

500
400
300
200
100
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Time(min)
HotAir

HotCylinderSide

Figure40OptimizationTest#2HotCylinderTemperatures

Test#2 ColdCylinderTemperatures
25

Temperature(C)

20
15
10
5
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Time(min)
ColdAir

ColdHeadSurface

Figure41OptimizationTest#2ColdCylinderTemperatures

39

Test#2 ClampandRegeneratorTemperatures
140

Temperature(C)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Time(min)
Clamp(Hot)

Regenerator

Figure42OptimizationTest#2ClampandRegeneratorTemperatures

9.4.3. Test#3RunAApril4th,2009
ForthethirdtestingarrangementtheteamranthreeseparateRunsA,B,andC,andrecordedthe
results.Priortotesting,frictioninthepistonandcylinderswasreducedbyusinggraphitelubricant.
Also,thecompressionratiowasreducedfurtherbyincreasingthedeadspacetoamaximum.The
regeneratorwasalsopackedmoredenselywithsteelribbon.Followingtheresultsfromthepriortest,
theenginewasprimedtoabout260Conthehotcylindersidebeforeinitializingthecyclearoundthe20
minutemark.ThehotcylindertemperaturesofFigure43appearsmootherbecausetheheatwas
appliedmoreconsistently.Theremainingresultsforthecoldcylinderandregeneratorandclampsof
Figure44andFigure45areconsistentwiththeprevioustest.
Theenginerancontinuouslyfor11minutesand12seconds,reachingapeakspeedof192RPM.The
enginecouldhavecontinuedrunningbuttheteamremovedtheheatsourceat9minutesandthe
enginewasabletorunoffstoredenergyfor2minutesand12seconds.
Theenginewentthroughcyclesofslowingdownandthenspeedingbackup.Thiscouldbeexplainedby
thevariabilityoffrictionasitdoesnotrequiremuchfrictionlosstobringtheenginetoahalt,andsubtle
changesinthealignmentandbearingsurfacesduringoperationcanoccur.Itwasobservedthatthe
engineworksbestinatemperaturerangebetween260Cto300C,whichmightimplythatthehotter
temperaturesaffectthesystemnegatively.Itisunknownwhetherthehightemperaturesimpose
constrictionsonheattransferorcausemechanicalbinding/friction.
40

Test#3 RunA HotCylinderTemperatures

Temperature(C)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

Time(min)
HotAir

HotCylinderSide

Figure43OptimizationTest#3RunAHotCylinderTemperatures

Temperature(C)

Test#3 RunA ColdCylinderTemperatures

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

Time(min)
ColdHeadSurface
Figure44OptimizationTest#3RunAColdCylinderTemperatures

41

Test#3 RunA ClampandRegenerator

Temperatures
Temperature(C)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

Time(min)
Renenerator

Clamp(Hot)

Figure45OptimizationTest#3RunAClampandRegenTemperatures

Byreplayingthevideooftheengineinslowmotionfollowingtheinitialenergyinputtothe
flywheelagraphofRPMandPowervs.timewasproducedasperFigure46.Todeterminethe
RPM,thenumberofrotationsin5secondswastakenstartingfromevery10secondinterval
intothecycletodeterminethe5secondforwarddifferenceaverage.Fromhereatrendline
wasfittedtotheexperimentalresultsandthepowerwasthuscalculated.Theflywheeland
cranksweretreatedasequivalentrotationaldisksofsizes6.5Dx1.25Tand3Dx0.5T,
respectively.Thetranslationofthepistonscanbeignoredbecausetheydonotgainenergyas
theycontinuouslydecelerateandaccelerate.Thetotalmassmomentofinertiawascalculated
tobe0.01872kgm2.
TheaveragenetpowerfromstarttopeakRPMof69mWwascalculatedbyfindingthe
differenceinrotationalkineticenergyanddividingbythetimeinterval.Theinstantaneousnet
powerwasfoundbytakingthederivativeofthekineticenergyequationandusingtheRPM
trendline.Themaximumpotentialpoweroutputshouldageneratorbeconnectedwouldbe
about108mWatabout130RPM.

42

Test #3 - Run A - RPM and Power

200

Power (mW) and RPM

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

10

20
RPM

t (sec)

30

40

50

Power Output

Figure46OptimizationTest#3RunARPMandPower

9.4.4. Test#3RunBApril4th,2009
FollowingasimilarprocessinRunA,thepeakRPMof312wasachievedatabout70seconds
intothecycle.Theaveragenetpoweroutputwasdeterminedas118mWandthemaximum
powerpotentialwascalculatedas162mWatabout256RPM.Itisinterestingtonotethe
differenceinthepoweroutputandRPMbetweenRunsAandB,however,itwasobserved
thattheengineexperiencescyclicvariationsofbothheattransferandfriction.Theresultsare
displayedinFigure47.

43

Test #3 - Run B - RPM and Power

350

Power (mW) and RPM

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

20

t (sec)
RPM

40

60

80

Power Output

Figure47OptimizationTest#3RunBRPMandPower

9.4.5. Test#3RunCApril4th,2009
VideofootageofthelastrundidnotrecordthetransientaccelerationsoafigureoftheRPMandpower
couldnotbereproduced.However,thefastestspeedswereachievedinthisrunwithamaximumRPM
ofabout384.Assuspected,towardstheendofthevideoatabout4minutesintothecycle,thesounds
ofrubbingcouldbeheard.Thishadbeendealtwithbeforeandtheteamquicklyidentifiedthefrictional
rubbingtobefromthepinandpistonrodconnectioninthehotcylinder.Thisconnectionwas
lubricatedwithoilandonceitwasheatedforprolongedperiodstheoilevaporatedandanincreasein
frictionsufficienttoslowtheenginewasrealized.Thiswasovercomebylubricatingallbearingand
frictionalsurfaceswithdrygraphitelubrication.

44

9.5. RepeatabilityandComparisontoTheory
Theresultsoftestingrevealthattheoperationandperformanceoftheengineisrepeatable.The
variationsoffrictionandheattransfermakeitdifficulttogettheenginetorunconsistentlyat
prescribedconditions,however,theenginecanbeprimedandoperatedtorunattheoptimized
temperatures.ThefollowingTable8summarizesandcomparesthetestingresultstotheoretical
predictions.Thenetpoweroutputpredictedbytheorydoesnotconsiderthesystemfrictionlosses.
Theremainingvaluescorrelatebetteranexpectedtothegrossapproximationsmadebytheisothermal
analysis.Thisisperhapsduetothefactthattheactualheatrequirementofthecycleismuchlower
thanthetotalstoredenergy.Also,thehotcylindercontinuedtoheatupastheenginewasoperating
whichindicatesthattherewassufficientheattransferinputtokeeptheenginerunning.
Table8:TheoryandTestingResults

Parameter
MeanPressure(psig)
RPM
HotTemp(C)
ColdTemp(C)
NetPowerOutput(mW)

TheoryApril
5.17
384
372
0
5000

Test3A
<1
192
260500
17
108

Test3B
<1
312
280500
20
162

Test3C
<1
384
280500
20
n/a

45

10. BUDGET
Table9:Team04Budget

PartName
Piston/Cylinder
ColdCylinder
HotCylinder
Pistons
ConnectingRods
RodEnds

RotatingAssembly
PistonCounterweight
Shaft
Flywheel
Bearings

Frame
FrameAngle
FrameBase
FrameCylinder
FrameShaft
CylinderClamps
Cylinderinsulation
NutsandBolts
IceWaterBath

MeasurementTools
PressureGauge
PressureSnubber
Thermocouples
Thermocouples
CompressionFittings
ThermocoupleDAQBlock

SolarPowerCollector
Fresnellens
Stand

Miscellaneous
ShippingCosts
StationaryCost
Lubrication/Consumables
TransferTube

Description

Vendor/Supplier Qty Subtotal

$223.50

$199.00

YellowBrassRoundstock4x7"
SteelRoundstock2.75x7"
SteelRoundstock2.25x2.5"
SteelRoundstock0.25x7"

Metals'R'US
Metals'R'US
Metals'R'US
Metals'R'US

BrassRoundstock1x2"

SteelPlate1x1x1/4"(ft.)
SteelRoundstock3/8x8"
SteelPlate1x1x3/4"(ft.)
LowFrictionBallBearings

Metals'R'US

Metals'R'US
Metals'R'US
Metals'R'US
Kinecor

$3.50
$132.90
$41.57

2
1
2
2

AluminumAngleStock1x1x0.25"x2'L
AluminumPlate6.5x12.25x0.5"
AluminumPlate6x6x0.5
AluminumPlate7x13x0.5"
AluminumPlate12x10x0.5

Metals'R'US
Metals'R'US
Metals'R'US
Metals'R'US

$18.90
$6.15
$9.00
$0.00
$55.00
$29.90
$50.00
$5.52
$467.80
$202.04

1
1
1
2

Semiridgedhightempwoolinsulation
Various
PlexusGlassSheet1x0.125x4'L

AnalogGauge(1/4MPT)
PS4G
SA1K(surface)
KMTSS125E6
BRLL1814,SSLK1814
MechanicalEngineeringLab

47x35"Lens
Wood2x4"12ft.

Various

Copper,RubberHose,SteelTube

Todate

1
1
2
2

$182.00
$19.00
$15.00
$4.00

$172.00
$13.90
$8.45
$0.00

$5.00
$43.80
$30.00
$135.00

$4.65

$2.70
$115.00
^included
^included

MetalsRUS
McMasterCarr
Various
HomeDepot

Omega
Omega
Omega
Omega
Omega

1
1
1
1

Lab

Ebay/Greenpower
HomeDepot

$0.00
$0.00
$260.00
$117.73

1
3

$200.00
$102.16
$60.00
$15.57
$255.00
$124.18

Various
Various
Various
Various

1
2
5
3
3

$80.00
^included
$35.00
$47.74
$100.00
$36.60
$39.00
$0.00
$240.00
$284.50
$100.00
$0.00
$0.00
$140.00
$0.00

$50.00
$32.00
$75.00
$90.00
$37.50

$100.00
$50.00
$75.00
$30.00

$23.00
$38.19
$31.18
$31.81

NetCost
Tax13%

$1,579.20
$205.90

$969.02
$125.97

TotalCost

$1,784.50

$1094.99

$1,784.50

$1094.99

SupervisorSignature

_______________________________

46

11. CONCLUSION
11.1. DesignRequirementsFulfillment
Followingcompletionoftestingallbutoneoftheoriginaldesignrequirementswerefulfilled.Theengine
designallowsforeaseofassemblyandprovidestheuserwiththeabilitytochangeoperating
parametersincludingcompressionratioandcylindervolume.Theenginecansustainoperationinexcess
15minuteswhichisidealfordemonstrationpurposes.Includedwiththeenginearemultiple
thermocouplestomonitorinternalandexternaltemperaturesacrossthesystem.
Lenstestingpriortoenginecompletionprovidedexceptionalresultswithtemperaturesofatargetsteel
massreaching310C.SustainedoperationofthedepartmentownedgammaStirlingenginewas
achievedwithuseoftheFresnellens.However,finaldesignrefinementstoourenginewerenot
completedatthetimeofsolartesting.Followingthecompletionofthedesignrefinementsand
performanceimprovements,weatherconditionsdidnotprovidedadequatesolarexposurefortesting.
Althoughweatherconditionsdidnotpermitourgrouptooperateourengineusingthesolarlens,weare
confidentthatwewouldachievesuccessgiventheextensivelensandenginetestingthatwas
performed.
Table10providesasummaryoftheprojectdesignrequirementsandtheirfulfillmentstatus.
Table10:DesignRequirementStatus

DesignRequirement
Mustbeabletooperateona
solarheatsource.

Status
Pending

Comment
Weatheruncooperative.Unable
totestwithcompletedengine
duringsunnyday.
Propane,Butane,Propylene

Mustbeabletooperateusinga
compactheatsourceforindoor
use.
Mustbeabletooperate
unassistedafterstartingfora
minimumof5minutes.
Mustbebuilttoastandard
whichdeliversaminimum
servicelifeexpectancy
of5years,ifproperly
maintained.
Safelytransportableby1person.

Mustbemountedonacompact
supportstructureforstability
andsafety.

Enginecapableof15min+
demonstrations.

Excellentdesignandfabrication
quality.Routinemaintenance
required.

9
9

Engineweighs35lb
Compactaluminumframe
providesstabilityandsafety.

47

Willbedesignedforeaseof
maintenanceandassembly.

Hightemperatureregionsmust
beclearlyindicated.
Enginecylindermustbe
equippedwitharemovable
fitting.
Supportingdocumentationand
userinstructionstobeprovided.
Totalcosttobelessthan$3500.
Framematerialconsistsofsteel
andaluminumforlowcostbuild.
Precisionmaterialsincluding
bearingsmaybepurchased.

Enginecanbedisassembledand
reassembledwithease.

9
9

9
9
9
9

Hotcylinderheadlabeledand
painted.
Fittingslocatedinbothcylinder
headsandusedforpressure
sensorsandthermocouples.
Maintenanceandoperation
manualprovided.
Finalcostofmaterialsand
sensors:$1095
Frameconstructedfrom
aluminum.
Bearingspurchased.

11.2. OptimalSystemOperatingCondition
Concludingtheextensivetestingperioditwasdeterminedthatoptimalsystemconditionsandengine
configurationsexisted.Maximumengineperformancewasexperiencedwithanengineconfiguration
andtemperatureconditionssummarizedinTable11.
Table11:OptimalEngineConditions

Parameter
StrokeLength
ConnectingRodLength
PerformanceImprovements
Lubricant

HotCylinderHead
HotCylinderBody
TemperaturePrimingTime
ColdCylinderHead
ColdCylinderBody

OptimalCondition
EngineConfiguration
1.125(minimumcompression)
Smallest(maxvolume)
InternalFins
Regeneratorwithdurlon8400gaskets
Graphitedrylubricantinbothcylinders

TemperatureConditions
500C
260C
~20Minutes
17C
010C(IceWaterBath)

48

12. REFERENCES
Bergman,T.L.,Dewitt,D.P.,Incropera,F.P.,&Lavine,A.S.(2007).IntroductiontoHeatTransfer.5thed.
JohnWiley&Sons.
Borgnakke,C.,Sonntag,R.E.,&Wylen,G.V.(2003).FundamentalsofThermodynamics.6thed.John
Wiley&Sons.
Hibbeler,R.C.(2005).MechanicsofMaterials.6thed.PublishedbyPearson:PrenticeHall.
Martini,W.R.(2004).StirlingEngineDesignManual.PublishedbyUniversityPRofthePacific.
StirlingEngineSociety,SESUSA.(2006).IdealIsothermalAnalysis.AccessedonOctober5th,2008from
http://www.sesusa.org/DrIz/isothermal/isothermal.html

49

APPENDIXAGanttChart

50

51

APPENDIXBIdealIsothermalAnalysis

IdealIsothermalAnalysisSchmidtAnalysis
TheforegoinganalysisisreferencedfromSESUSA(2006).

Assumptions

Temperatureofcompressionspace(coldcylinder)atlowerlimitofcoldsink(TL=Tc=Tk=0C)
Temperatureofexpansionspace(hotcylinder)atupperlimitofthehotsink(TH=Th=Te=300C)
Heatexchangersare100%effective
Volumeofworkingspacesvariessinusoidally

EquationFormulation
1.

(TotalMass)

(IdealGasLaw)

(Substitution1and2)

2.

3.

4.

(EffectiveRegeneratorTemperatureAssumingLinearProfile)

5.

(Substituation3and4)

Note:Equation5depictspressureasafunctionofVcandVe(allotherpartialvolumesare
constant)

6.

(CyclicWorkIntegral)

7.

Note:FromtheidealStirlingcyclewecandetermineintuitivelythefollowingheattransfer
results:

8. Qc = Wc=
9. Qe = We=

Qk = 0 (notemperaturedifference,noheattransfer)
Qh = 0(notemperaturedifference,noheattransfer)
Qr = 0(internalheattransferdoesnotresultinachangeinenergyofthesystem)

Thezeroheattransferintheheatexchangersectionsisaparadoxwhichresultsfromtheisothermal
assumptionandisnotrealisticforrealStirlingenginesystems.Amoreappropriateanalysiswillemploy
theidealadiabaticassumption;however,theresultsfromthisanalysisarestillusefulforqualitative
analysisandthesolutionismuchsimpler.Thisisagoodstartingpoint.

Solution
Thefollowingderivationsusetheequationsformulatedfrombasicisothermaltheoryabove.

Volume
Note:forvolumedependenceoncrankangle seethechartprovidedinreferencesection.
10.

11.

12.

cos

/2

13.

/2

sin

Vcl=clearancevolume
Vsw=swept(stroke)volume
=crankangle
=phaseangle(
/2

Pressure
14.
,

15.

16.

18.
19.

17.

20.

when

360 (n=0,1,2)

21.

when

180

1,3,5

22.

Energy
,

23. Qc = Wc =

24. Qe = We =
Integratedsolution:
25.

where

where

26.

sin

NumericalResults

Figure48SchmidtAnalysisResultsforDecemberDesign


Figure49SchmidtAnalysisResultsforJanuaryRevisedDesign

Figure50SchmidtAnalysisResultsUsingActualResultsfromAprilOptimizations

APPENDIXCHeatTransferCalculations

APPENDIXDEngineeringDrawings

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

PartName
FrameBase
FrameCylinderSupport
FrameShaftSupport
AngleCylinderSupport
AngleShaftSupport
ClampCylinder
Regenerator
CylinderHot
CylinderCold
Piston
ConnectorPiston
ConnectorRod
Crank/CounterWeight
Shaft
Flywheel
Bearings
FresnelLens
FrameFresnelLens
IceWaterBathColdCylinder
InsulationHotCylinder
Fasteners

Material
Aluminum
Aluminum
Aluminum
Aluminum
Aluminum
Aluminum
Steel
Steel
Brass
Steel
Brass
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Acrylic
Pine
Plexusglass
MineralWoolFiber
Steel

Qty
1
1
2
2
2
4
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

BuildGroup
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
AngusMacPherson
Buyout
Buyout
Team04
Team04
Buyout
Buyout