NeedsandMotives

Pleasenotethattheinformationinthishandoutcomesfromtwoexcellentreference
sources.Feelfreetoconsultthem ifyouareinterestedinfurtherreading:
Carver,C.S.,&Scheier,M.F.(2004). Perspectivesonpersonality.Boston,MA:
PearsonEducation.(Chapter5)
Larsen,R.J.,&Buss,D.M.(2002).Personalitypsychology:Domainsofknowledge
abouthumannature.Boston,MA:McGrawHill.(Chapter8)

Ingeneral,proponentsof themotiveapproachtopersonalitybelievethatour
needsandmotivesdefinewhowearethatis,ourneedsandmotivesinfluenceour
personality.
TheConceptsofNeeds,Motives,andPress
Weeachhavedifferentneedsatdifferenttimes:Someofusfeelthatweneedto
getandstay inshapesomeofusfeelthatweneedtobeinarelationshipsomeof usfeel
thatweneedtogetstraightAsinourcourses.Inspiteofthesedifferences,though,each
oftheseneedsdriveourthoughts,feelings,andbehaviours.Moreover,thereexist
individualdifferencesinthedegreetowhichwechronicallyhavetheseneeds:Some
peoplearehigh,andothersarelow,ontheneedtostayinshape,tohaverelationships,to
excelinschool.
HenryMurray(18931988)wastheoriginatorofthemotiveapproachto
personality.Hedefinedaneedasaninternalforcethatdirectspeopletoseekoutobjects
orsituationsintheirenvironments.Hedifferentiatedbetweentwotypesofneeds:
primary(biologicallybasedneeds,liketheneedforfood,water,sex)andsecondary,or

psychogenic(needsderivedfromourbiologicalones,liketheneedforpower,
achievement).
Accordingtomotivetheorists,needsdontoperateontheirowntoinfluence
behaviour.Rather,needsoperatethrough motives.Insimpleterms,motivesarethoughts
andfeelingsthatdirectyoutoenactbehavioursthatwillsatiateyourneed.Toputit
anotherway,motivestakeunderlyingneedsandtranslatethemintoasubjective,felt
experiencethatdriveyoutobehave.Forexample,onabiologicallevel,youmayhavea
needforfood,butonasubjectivelevel,youwouldexperienceahungermotive,which
wouldultimatelydirectyoutofindsomethingtoeat.
Theoristsbelievethatinadditiontointernalforces,externalforcesinthe
environmentexertmotivationalinfluence.Murrayusedtheterm presstorefertosuch
externalconditions,whichsimilartoneedscreateadesiretoobtain(oravoid)
something.Soifyouhaveaneedforfood becauseyouskippedbreakfastthismorning,
walkingbyMcDonaldsandcatchingthedelicioussmelloftheirfriesmaycauseyouto
goinandbuysomethingtoeat.

Need
Motive

Behaviour

Press

(adaptedfromCarver&Scheier,2004Larsen&Buss,2002)

IntegratingNeeds,Motives,andPress:MurraysSystemofNeeds
Murraytookthesethreeconceptsneeds,motives,andpressandintegrated
themintoacohesivetheoryofpersonality.Inparticular,hedevelopedacatalogueof
needsthathebelieveddescribepersonalityandthatunderlieimportanthumanbehaviour.
Murraybelievedthatalthoughallpeoplehavetheseneeds,everyonehasadispositional
tendencytowardhavingacertainlevelofeach.Forexample,Janemighthaveachronic
tendencytobehighinneedforachievement,highinneedfordominance,andlowin
needforaffiliation,whereasJohnmighthaveatendencytobehighinneedfor
achievement,lowinneedfordominance,andhighinneedforaffiliation.
ThefollowingisatableofsomeofthefundamentalhumanneedsthatMurray
believedtobeimportant:
NEEDSRELATEDTO:
Ambition:
Achievement
Recognition
Exhibition
Defendingstatus:

Dominance
Counteraction
Defendance

Socialpower:

Autonomy

Aggression
Abasement
Blame
avoidance
Socialaffection:

Affiliation

REPRESENTATIVEBEHAVIOUR
Overcomingobstaclesaccomplishing
difficulttasks
Describingaccomplishmentstoothers
braggingrights
Desiretobeseen/heardattemptingto
shock/thrillpeople
Influencing/directingothersbehaviourby
persuasioncontrollingothers
Makingupforafailurebytryingharder
maintainingpride&selfrespect
Defendingyourselffromcriticism,attack
hiding/justifyingfailures
Standinguptoauthoritybeingfreetoresist
coercionandactingaccordingtoyourown
wishes
Attacking/injuring/punishingothers
Acceptingblame,apologizingfor
wrongdoings,confessing
Avoidinghumiliation,
embarrassment/avoidingactionsduetofear
offailure
Spendingtimewithotherspleasingothers
beingloyaltofriends

Nurturance
Succorance

Exchangeof
information:

Play
Sex
Understanding
Exposition

Takingcareofothers,helping,supporting
others
Receiving/acceptinghelp,support,
protection,lovefromothers
Havingfunwithothers
Formingeroticattachmentswithothers
Enjoyingthinkingbeinginterestedin
questioning,analyzing,generalising
Deliveringinformationto others

(fromLarsen&Buss,2002,pp.230231)
MeasuringMotives:TheThematicApperceptionTest(TAT)
Aswediscussedinlastweekslecture,theoriesandempiricalvalidationofthese
theoriesarevitaltopersonalityresearch.Butwhenitcomestoresearchingtheroleof
motivesinpersonality,theprocessisalittlemoredifficult.Why?Becausepeopledont
alwaysopenlyshowtheirmotives.
BorrowingfromFreudspsychoanalytictheory,Murraysuggestedthatpeople
willprojecttheirhiddenmotivesontoanoutsidestimulus,likeanambiguouspicture.
Thisisprecisely theassumption thatunderliesatestthathedevelopedtoassessmotives
calledtheThematicApperceptionTest(TAT).
HowdoestheTATwork?Therespondentisshownaseriesofambiguousblack
andwhitepicturesandisaskedtomakeupastoryabouteachone. (Seebelowforan
example.)Inparticular,heorsheisaskedtodescribewhattheybelieveishappeningin
thescene,whatthecharacters(ifany)inthepicturearethinkingandfeeling,andwhat
theoutcomeofthesituationwillbe.Apsychologistthencodestheresponsesforthe
presenceofcertainimagesassociatedwiththedifferenttypesofmotives.Theunderlying
premiseoftheTATisthatthethemesthatcomeupinyourstoriesareareflectionof your
hiddenmotives.

AlthoughtheTATiswidelyusedtomeasuremotives,ithasbeencriticizedforcertain
psychometricweaknesses,suchaslowtestretestreliability.

IndividualDifferencesinSpecificNeeds:TheNeedsforAchievement,Power,and
Affiliation
Asmentionedpreviously,peopledifferintheextenttowhichthey haveeach
motiveorneed.Oneneedthathasbeenstudiedinthecontextofindividualdifferencesis
theneedforachievement.Thisneedconcernspeoplesmotivationtodothingswelland
tofeelpleasurein conqueringobstaclesordifficulties.TATresponsesthatreflectthis
needincludereferencestomeetinggoalssuccessfully,overcomingobstaclesblocking
goals,andhavingnegativefeelingsaboutfailure.Researchhasshownthatachievement
motivationinfluencesawidearrayofachievementrelatedoutcomes,includinghow
muchpeoplepersistafterfailure,academicperformance,andeventheeconomicgrowth
ofentirenations.
Anothermotivethatsbeenstudiedistheneedforpower.Thisneedconcernsthe
desiretohavesocial influenceandprestige.TATresponsesreflectingthisneedinclude

imagesdealingwithforcefulactionsandstatusconcerns.Researchfindingshaveshown
thatcomparedtomenwhoscorelowinneedforpower,menwithhighneedforpower
aremorelikely describehisidealwifeasbeingdependentonhimandtohavewiveswho
havenocareersoftheirown.Menwhoarehighinneedforpowerhavealsobeenfound
tobemorelikelytophysicallyabusetheirpartnerscomparedtomen with alowerneed
forpower.
Finally,theneedforaffiliationconcernspeoplesmotivetospendtimewith
others,tobeinrelationships,andtointeractwithotherpeople.ImagesinTATresponses
thatreflectthisneedmightincludeconcernsaboutbeingacceptedbyothersorattempts
toestablishormaintainrelationshipswithpeople.Studieshavefoundthatcomparedto
peoplewithalowneedtoaffiliate,peoplewithahighneedtoaffiliatehaveastronger
preferenceforwarm(vs.withdrawn)interactionpartners,aremorelikelytoinitiate
friendships,andaremoreactivelyengagedinsocialactivities.