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PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS AGAINST

DAMPNESS
PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS AGAINST DAMPNESS
One of the requirements of the building is that it should be dry. Dampness in
a building may occur due to bad design, faulty construction and use of poor
quality of materials. Dampness not only affects the life of the building but
also creates unhygienic conditions of the important items of work in the
construction of a building. The treatment given to prevent leakage of water
from roof is generally termed as water proofing whereas the treatment
given to keep the walls, floors and basement dry is termed as damp
proofing.

DEFECTS OF DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS:

The various defects caused by dampness to building may be summarized as
under:
1.

It causes efflorescence which may ultimately result in disintegration of

bricks, stones, tiles etc.

2.

It may result in softening and crumbling of plaster.

3.

It may cause bleaching and flaking of paint with the formation of

coloured patches.

4.

It may result in the warping, buckling and rotting of timber.

5.

It may lead to the corrosion of metals.

6.

It may cause deterioration to electrical fittings.

7.

It promotes growth of termites.

8.

It creates unhealthy living conditions for the occupants.

CAUSES OF DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS

Absorption of moisture by the building materials is one of the chief causes of
dampness. On acoount of granular nature of materials, moisture finds an
easy access through the voids and this aided by capillary action assists the
moisture to travel in different directions. Thus, either on account of faulty
design of structure or bad workmanship or by use of defective structures or
by use of defective materials, moisture may find its way on the interior of the
building either through the wall, floor or roof.

SOURCES OF DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS

The important sources of dampness may be summarized as below:
1.

Dampness rising through the foundation walling. Moisture from wet

ground may rise well above the ground level on account of capillary
action.

2.

Splashing rain water which rebounds after hitting the wall surface may
also cause dampness.

3.

Penetration of rain water through unprotected tops of walls, parapet,

compound walls, etc may cause dampness.

4.

In case of sloped roofs, rain water may percolate through defective

roof covering. In addition faulty eaves course and eave or valley gutters
may allow the rain water to descend through the top supporting wall and
cause dampness.

5.

In case of flat roofs, inadequate roof slopes, improper rain water pipe
connections, and defective junction between roof slab and parapet wall
may prove to be the source of dampness.

METHODS OF DAMP PROOFING

Following methods are generally adopted to prevent the defect of dampness
in a structure:

1.

Membrane damp proofing

2.

Integral damp proofing

3.

Surface treatment

4.

Guniting

5.

Cavity wall construction

(1) Membrane Damp Proofing:

This consists in providing layers of membrane of water repellant material
between the source of dampness and the part of the structure adjacent to it.
This type of layer is commonly known as dam proof course (or DPC) and
it may comprise of materials like bituminous felts, mastic, asphalt, plastic or
polythene sheets, cement concrete, etc. Depending upon the source of
dampness, DPC may be provided horizontally or vertically in floors, walls,
etc. Provision of DPC in basement is normally termed as tanking.
General principles to be observed while laying DPC are:
1.

The DPC should cover full thickness of walls excluding rendering.

2.

The mortar bed upon which the DPC is to be laid should be made level,
even and free from projections. Uneven base is likely to cause damage to
DPC.

3.

When a horizontal DPC is to be continued up a vertical face a

cement concrete fillet 75mm in radius should be provided at the junction
prior to the treatment.

4.

Each DPC should be placed in correct relation to other DPC so as to

ensure complete and continuous barrier to the passage of water from
floors, walls or roof.

(2) Integral Damp Proofing:

This consists in adding certain water proofing compounds with the concrete
mix to increase its impermeability. Such compounds are available in market
in powdered as well as in liquid forms.

The compounds made from clay, sand or lime (chalk, fullers earth, etc) help
to fill the voids in concrete and make it water proof.
Another form of compounds like alkaline silicates, aluminium sulphates,
calcium chlorides, etc react chemically when mixed with concrete to produce
water proof concrete.
Pudlo, Imperno, Siks, etc. are some of the many commercially made
preparation of water proofing compounds commonly used. The quantity of
water proofing compounds to be added to cement depends upon
manufacturers recommendations. In general, one kg of water proofing
compound is added with one bag of cement to render the mortar or concrete
water proof.
(3) Surface Treatment:
As described earlier, the moisture finds its way through the pores of materials
used in finishing. In order to check the entry of the moisture into the pores,
they must be filled up. Surface treatment consists in filling up the pores of
the surfaces subjected to dampness. The use of water repellant metallic
soaps such as calcium and aluminium oleates and stearates is such effective
in protecting the building against the ravages of heavy rain. Bituminous
solution, cement coating, transparent coatings, paints, varnishes fall
under this category. In addition to other surface treatment given to walls, the
one economically used is lime cement plaster. The walls plastered with
cement, lime and sand in proportion of 1:3:6 is found to serve the purpose of
preventing dampness in wall due to rain effectively.
(4) Guniting:
This consists in depositing an impervious layer of rich cement mortar over
the surface to be water proofed. The operation is carried out by use of a
machine known as cement gun. The assembly broadly consists of a machine
having arrangements for mixing materials and a compressor for forcing the
mixture under pressure through a 50mm diameter flexible hose pipe. The
hose pipe has nozzle at its free end to which water is supplied under pressure
through a separate connection.
The surface to be treated is first thoroughly cleaned of dirt, dust, grease or
loose particles and wetted properly. Cement and sand (or fine aggregates)

usually taken in proportion of 1:3 to 1:4 are then fed into the machine. This
mixture is finally shot on the prepared surface under a pressure of 2 to 3 kg
per square cm by holding the nozzle of the cement gun at the distance of 75
to 90 cm from the working surface. The quantity of water in the mix can be
controlled by means of regulating valve provided in the water supply hose
attachment. Since the material is applied under pressure, it ensures dense
compaction and better adhesion of the rich cement mortar and hence treated
surface becomes water proof.
(5) Cavity Wall Construction;
This consists in shielding the main wall of the building by an outer skin wall
leaving a cavity in between the two. The cavity prevents the moisture from
traveling from the outer to the inner wall.

ANALYSIS OF RATES FOR BUILDING

WORKS
Analysis of rates for building works is the process of separation of works into
components/elements (Viz. Labour, materials, machinery,transport,
overheads and profit) of work and pricing them.

Analysis of rates is required for:

Insertion in a tender (i.e.) as a lump sum, item rates

To check reasonability of rates inserted by tenderers

To assess various quantities of labour, materials, machinery, money

and to effect economy by using alternatives and to optimize the resources

To assess the rates payable for deviations, extra items of work to the
builder

To compare the costs with sanctioned amount and to take action for
regularization of excess/ less cost

To workout the budget and cash flows at various stages of the work
and arranging interim/ final payments

To detect irrational rates quoted by tenderers

To serve as basic data in case of disputes that may arise at a later
stage

Analysis of rates consists of rates of following elements:

a) Material cost inclusive of wastage
b) Labour cost
c) Plant & machinery owning and operating charges
d) Water charges
e) Taxes
f) Insurance/ risk coverage charges
g) Contractors overheads and profit

Following points are considered while preparing analysis of

rates:
1. Percentage profits & overhead charges:
Element of profit normally varies from 5 to 10%. Overheads vary from 3 to 7
%. The total element of overheads and profit shall not normally exceed 17

% on estimated rates. This should be restricted to 10% if paid bills/ days

work is considered.
2. Cement constants:
The cement constants for various items of work including wastage of 2 %.
These constants are based on observations made by CBRI
Roorkie, concrete association of India, CPWD, MES and
other construction organizations. The constants are shown in Appendix A.
3. Material constants:
Cost of materials includes the suppliers price, transportation, loading/
unloading, haulage to site, handling for incorporation into the work,
wastages/breakage/pilferage, storage charges, deterioration on storage,
returning of empty bags/ cases and taxes and other incidentals. The
constants in use in various departments and organizations is as per Appendix
B.
4. Labour output constants:
Some of the labour output constants are covered in IS 7272. The constants
given by NBO, CPWD, MES, State governments are also considered and given
in Appendix C.
5. Specification of various building materials:
Generally the building materials shall conform to the relevant Indian
standards. Where no such standards exist the relevant British/ American
standards in so far as they are applicable could be followed. The materials of
local origin (Within 40 km or distance as specified) shall be best available
and approved by competent authority.
6. Basic costs: Cost of materials, labour, machinery, tools & plant
(depreciated cost), and direct overheads connected to the particular project.
7. Indirect costs: Not directly related to the project but otherwise involved.
The corporate office expenses, consultant charges, outsourced costs etc.

8. Daily wages: Wages which the builder is bound to pay to labour which
will not be less than statutory wages.
9. All in rates: Wages + proportionate element of terminal benefits such as
bonus, gratuity.
10. Standing charges: Includes element of depreciation, interest whereas
running charges include cost of operation of plant, POL, operator &
supporting staff.
11. Fixed/ variable overheads: fixed overheads are those incurred only
once like construction of site office, where as variable overheads are salaries
paid and other expenses as per employment of labour hours every month.
12. Standard schedule of rates: Many organizations/ departments shall
have schedule of rates of materials/ items of works. These schedules contain
specifications for materials & methods giving references to relevant Indian
standards. The schedules are revised at periodic intervals of 3 to 5 years or
yearly. In certain cases certain percentage addition/ deduction is specified to
bring them in line with market rates.
13. Derived rates: The rates derived by interpolation/ extrapolation of rates
inserted in the contract. For e.g. The rate for PCC 1:3:6 can be derived
from quoted rate for PCC 1:4:8. The rate for M-20 can be derived from
quoted rate for M- 25 concrete.
14. Star rates/ Market rates: The rates worked out based on market
enquiry/ quotations and applying the percentage above/ below for similar
quoted trade items plus overheads and profit. Alternately rates worked out
for material/ labour based on paid bills/ vouchers produced by contractor
plus profit.

BUILDING ORIENTATION FOR HOT &

DRY CLIMATE
Orientation of building should be done for the climatic zone in which the
building is situated. The purpose of orientation is to provide residents a
comfortable living space throughout the year even under severe undesirable

weather conditions. Here we will discuss about orientation of building for

maximum comfort under hot and dry climatic conditions.
Hot and dry climatic zones: Hot and dry climatic zones generally occur at
This climatic condition generally occurs at latitude between 15 degrees to 30
degrees on both the hemispheres. Maximum day time summer temperature
goes as high as 45 degree centigrade and relative humidity as low up to 20
%. This type of climate is experienced in areas far from sea coasts and do
not receive heavy rainfall. Thus, the humidity is very low. So, the buildings in
this climatic zone should be orientated based on solar point of view so that
the building receives maximum solar radiation during winter season and
minimum radiation during summer season.
Desirable features of buildings in hot and dry climatic zones are:
1. Orientation of building: Orientation of building in this climatic zone
should be such that non-habitat rooms can be located on outer faces to act
as thermal barrier. Longer walls of building should face North & South so that
the building gets minimum solar exposure. Preferably the kitchen should be
located on leeward side of the building to avoid circulation of hot air and
smell from the kitchen.

2. Windows and Openings in Walls: Windows and large openings in walls

with heavy shutters should be provided on northern and western faces as
light coming from north is always diffused and indirect. Also direction of
breeze, which is from west at most of the places, enters from opening on

west side. Windows area should be 15 to 20 percent of floor area. Internal

courtyard caters for cross ventilation & thermal buffer. Suitable radiation
barriers in the form of canopies, Chhajjas, long verandahs etc. should be
provided on the West side of the building. Sufficient number of ventilators
close to the bottom of slab should be provided for hot air to escape the room.
3. Orientation of Walls: Thickness of wall plays an important role in heat
insulation of building. Thicker outer walls are preferred as it behaves as an
insulating barrier. Painting of walls from outside also plays an important role.
Walls with light and shining paints on outer surface have good reflective
quality and do not absorb heat. The surface of walls should be smooth and
non-dust catching type.
Walls constructed with hollow blocks / bricks and Cavity Walls can also be
provided as they provide very good thermal insulation.
4. Insulation of Roofs: Roofs should be built up with good insulating
material having slope in windward direction and which reflects the radiation
and does not absorb heat. False ceiling can be used to improve thermal
performance of building. Terracing should be provided on the flat roof with
mud phuska, lime concrete, foamed concrete or burnt clay block paving over
roof slab. Top roof surface should be made reflective by providing
whitewashing or any reflective paint.
5. Growing of Vegetation: Large shady trees whose roots do not strain
foundation and basement should be planted near external walls to provide
shade.
6. Special Building Orientation Requirements: Outdoor sleeping area for
summer nights preferably is provided. Desert coolers and fans can be used
during summer months. Therefore, proper space to provide coolers should be
planned in the building.

REPAIR OF POST CONCRETING

DEFECTS IN STRUCTURES
The four essential features of a successful repair are:
1. Expediency: The longer the repair is left, the more work has to be done,
and the less likely that the repair will blend in.

2. Cleanliness: when repairing concrete, care must be taken to remove any

dirt or dust that will prevent the repair concrete bonding with the parent
concrete.

3. Correct technique: The correct technique and the correct tools are
essential for repairing damaged concrete.

4. The repair material must be durable as the parent concrete.

The repairs should be done while the concrete is still very young, so that the
repairs are much the same as the parent concrete. All areas to be repaired
should be free from loose dirt or dust so that no attempt is being made to
bond the repair of particles of dust.
Individuals assigned to complete repairs should know what action is required,
i.e. they should have been trained in the appropriate tasks, because repairing
concrete requires greater skill than placing concrete first time around.

Materials for Repairing Post Concrete Defects:

Before commencing the repair, the operative must have all the necessary
materials and equipment. The materials normally used for patch repairs are:

Portland cement and white Portland cement: Repairs are tend to be

made with a high concentration of cement which will make the finished repair
appear darker than the parent concrete. White Portland cement helps to
lighten the colour.

Aggregate and sand: Preferably the same as used in the original mix,
together with limestone fines (which also helps to lighten the colour).
Gauging liquid: this is generally water with a polymeric material such as
styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), polyvinyl acetate (PVA) or an acrylic
material. These improve the cohesion and adhesion of the repair to the
parent concrete, and also give better physical properties to the hardened
concrete, such as imperviousness and elasticity.
When repairing cracks the above materials can be used but sometimes an
epoxy or polyester resin will sometimes be required, depending on the width
of the crack.

Equipment for repairs of concrete:

The below fig. shows the general equipments required for concrete repairs.

If the repair is extensive, then the formwork, formwork ties or clamps and
string-backs may be needed. All repairs should be cured, so plastic sheeting
and tape to adhere it to the concrete should be available.

Repairing of Honeycombed Concrete:

The technique used in repairing honeycombed concrete are common to other

defects and involve replacing mortar loss close to the surface. The step by
step process of repairing honeycombed concrete is as follows:
1. Using the hammer and chisel remove the honeycombed concrete and so
on until it has all be removed.
2. The area should then be brushed out to remove any dust.

3. Now prepare the replacement concrete. A rule of thumb for this is to use a
1:2 combination of cement and limestone fines with the cement comprising
of an equal mixture of Portland and white cement. Gauging liquid can contain
equal amounts of water and polymer, although on low maturity repairs water
on its own should suffice.
4. Gauging liquid should be added such that the mixture is just moist. A low
slump mix specially necessary on a vertical surface so that it does not slump
out of position.
5. The replacement concrete is then placed into the cavity using a trowel.
6. In a repair this small, the use of vibrator is impractical, so a rod is used to
compact the concrete, which is then smoothed again using the trowel.
7. The concrete repair is then cured by placing some plastic sheeting over it
and securing it with adhesive tape.

Structural repairs post concreting:

If the honeycombing is deep or as occasionally happens, passes through a
section, the concrete will need to be removed and the whole section recast.
Before starting this exercise the column or section above the repair area will
need supporting by an appropriate form of propping. The defective area can
then be broken out. This will usually need more than a hammer and chisel,
such as Pneumatic hammer as shown in figure below.

With the honeycombed concrete removed and the area removed of dust, the
formwork can be erected. The formwork will need a special hole cut into it

(sometimes called a letterbox or birds mouth) so that the concrete can be

placed whilst the formwork is in place.

The concrete mix for the repair can be the same as the mix used in the
original pour. The concrete can be placed through the opening and vibrated
using a small vibrating poker. The repair may also need some external
vibration as well. Care must be taken when placing the last of the concrete
as to ensure that all the void is filled.
The formwork should be left in place for 24 hours and then removed.

Repair of blow holes in concrete structure:

A technique called Bagging in: is used to repair excessive blow holes in the
surface of concrete. This technique involves using a hessian pad to rub a
cement paste into the holes. No other vibration or compaction is required.

The repair mix is normally made from a 1:4 mix of cement and fine grade
sand (silver sand is often used) with sufficient water to make a very stiff
paste, so that it holds together when squeezed, but no water escapes.
The treatment is most effective if done as soon as the formwork is struck,
preferably the day after casting. A carborundum stone should be used to
scour the surface and to expose any other blow holes close to the surface.
The grinding of the surface will also expose more unhydrated cement
particles that can bond with the repair work.

A hessian pad is filled with the mix and rubbed over the concrete surface in
an overlapping circular motion, filling the holes and coating the surface with
a fine cement paste.

Repair of cracks in post concrete structures:

Cracks should always be reported to the relevant supervising authority. A
small degree of cracking is quite common in most concrete structures, and
can sometimes be ignored depending on how prevalent they are. Of course
cracks can also indicate that there is something wrong.

Since the main function of concrete in the cover zone is to protect the steel
reinforcement from corrosion, cracks in floor slabs can generally be filled with
a cement paste. This is particularly satisfactory if the slab is to have a
surface topping, which will hide the crack and provide extra protection.
Cracks in walls or other places where this method can not be used, need to
be repaired by other means.
Firstly the cracks must be analysed and determined if they are live or not. A
live crack indicates that it is likely to grow over time, and a flexible joint
needs to be formed. Dead cracks can be injected with a resin.

FIRE PROTECTION OF HIGH RISE

BUILDINGS
High-rise buildings have unique challenges related to fire protection such as
longer egress times and distance, evacuation strategies, fire department
accessibility, smoke movement and fire control. The numbers of persons
living on high-rise buildings are high compared to low-rise buildings, and only
evacuation method in case of fire is the staircase. So, the fire protections of
high rise buildings have gained significant attention worldwide.

Thus, in case of high rise buildings, the following provision should be made
for safety of buildings from fire:
(i) National building code should be followed for fire-safety requirement
of high rise structuresand at least one lift should be designed as fire-lift as
defined in the Code and be installed.
(ii) At least one stair-case shall be provided as a fire staircase as defined in
the National Building Code. Provided that this shall not be applicable if any
two sides of a staircase are kept totally open to external open air space.
(iii) Water Supply: Underground tank of the capacity of one lakh liters and
two lakh liters for the buildings situated within the municipal limit and
outside of the municipal limit respectively be invariably provided in all the
high rise buildings. Water in the normal use tank should come only through
the overflow of fire tank so provided.
(iv) In high rise buildings, the internal fire hydrants shall be installed as
provided in the National Building Code or as prescribed in the Indian
Standard Code of practice for installation of internal fire hydrants in high rise
buildings. The detailed plan showing the arrangement of pipe lines, booster
pumps and water-tanks at various levels shall be submitted for approval of
the concerned authority along with the plans and sections of the buildings.

(v) In case of high rise buildings, an external fire hydrant shall be provided
within the confines of the site of the building and shall be connected with
Municipal Water mains not less than 4 in diameter. In addition, fire hydrant
shall be connected with Booster Pump from the static supply maintained on
site.
(vi) In case of high rise buildings separate electric circuits for lift installation,
lighting of passages, corridors and stairs and for internal fire hydrant system
shall be provided.
(vii) All the requirements under the above regulations shall be clearly
indicated on plans duly signed by the owner and the person who has
prepared the plans. The Competent Authority may direct the owner to submit
such further drawings as may be necessary to clarify the implementation of
the provisions of the above regulations.
(viii) Every building having a height of more than 25 Mts. shall be provided
with diesel generators which can be utilized in case of failure of the
electricity.
(ix) The standard of National Building Code must be adopted fully in
providing stair-case and alarm system.
(x) There should be Provision of dry-powder fire extinguisher to the extent of
two on each floor with a capacity of 5 kgs, in all the high rise buildings.

BUILDING CRACKS- CAUSES &

REMEDIES
Causes of Cracks in concretestructures:
The principal causes of occurrence of cracks in a building are as follows:

1. Permeability of concrete.

As deterioration process in concrete begins with penetration of various

aggressive agents, low permeability is the key to its durability. Concrete
permeability is controlled by factors like water-cement ratio, degree of
hydration/curing, air voids due to deficient compaction, micro-cracks due to
loading and cyclic exposure to thermal variations. The first three are allied to
the concrete strength as well. The permeability of cement paste is a function
of water-cement ratio given good quality materials, satisfactory proportioning
and good construction practice; the permeability of the concrete is a direct
function of the porosity and interconnection of pores of the cement paste.

2. Thermal movement:

Thermal movement is one of the most potent causes of cracking in buildings.

All materials more or less expand on heating and contract on cooling. The
thermal movement in a component depends on a number of factors such as
temperature variations, dimensions, coefficient of thermal expansion and
some other physical properties of materials. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of brickwork in the vertical direction is fifty percent greater than
that in the horizontal direction, because there is no restraint to movement in
the vertical direction.
Thermal variations in the internal walls and intermediate floors are not much
and thus do not cause cracking. It is mainly the external walls especially thin
walls exposed to direct solar radiation and the roof which are subject to
substantial thermal variation that are liable to cracking.

Remedial Measures:

Thermal joints can be avoided by introducing expansion joints, control joints

and slip joints. In structures having rigid frames or shell roofs where
provision of movement joints is not structurally feasible, thermal stresses

have to be taken into account in the structural design itself to enable the
structure to withstand thermal stresses without developing any undesirable
cracks.

3. Creep

Concrete when subjected to sustained loading exhibits a gradual and slow

time dependant deformation known as creep. Creep increases with increase
in water and cement content, water cement ratio and temperature. It
decreases with increase in humidity of surrounding atmosphere and age of
material at the time of loading. Use of admixtures and pozzolonas in concrete
increases creep. Amount of creep in steel increases with rise in temperature.

4. Corrosion of Reinforcement
A properly designed and constructed concrete is initially water-tight and the
reinforcement steel within it is well protected by a physical barrier of
concrete cover which has low permeability and high density. Concrete also
gives steel within it a chemical protection. Steel will not corrode as long as
concrete around it is impervious and does not allow moisture or chlorides to
penetrate within the cover area. Steel corrosion will also not occur as long as
concrete surrounding it is alkaline in nature having a high pH value.
Concrete normally provides excellent protection to reinforcing steel.
Notwithstanding this, there are large number of cases in which corrosion of
reinforcement has caused damage to concrete structures within a few years
from the time of construction. One of the most difficult problems in repairing
a reinforced concrete element is to handle corrosion damage. Reinforcement
corrosion caused by carbonation is arrested to a great extent through repairs
executed in a sound manner. However, the treatment of chloride-induced
corrosion is more difficult and more often the problem continues even after
extensive repairs have been carried out. It invariably re-occurs in a short
period of time. Repairing reinforcement corrosion involves a number of steps,
namely, removal of carbonated concrete, cleaning of reinforcement

application of protection coat, making good the reduced steel area, applying
bond coat and cover replacement. Each step has to be executed with utmost
care. When chlorides are present in concrete, it is extremely difficult to
protect reinforcing steel from chloride attack particularly in cases where
chlorides have entered through materials used in construction and residing in
the hardened concrete.
This increase in volume causes high radial bursting stresses around
reinforcing bars and result in local radial cracks. These splitting cracks results
in the formation of longitudinal cracks parallel to the bar. Corrosion causes
loss of mass, stiffness and bond and therefore concrete repair becomes
inevitable as considerable loss of strength takes place

Corrosion of steel in a canopy

Remedial Measures:
Reinforcement steel in concrete structures plays a very important role as
concrete alone is not capable of resisting tensile forces to which it is often
subjected. It is therefore important that a good physical and chemical bond
must exist between reinforcement steel and concrete surrounding it. Due to
inadequacy of structural design and /or construction, moisture and chemicals
like chlorides penetrate concrete and attack steel. Steel oxidizes and rust is
formed. This results in loss of bond between steel and concrete which
ultimately weakens the structure.
The best control measure against corrosion is the use of concrete with low
permeability. Increased concrete cover over the reinforcing bar is effective in
delaying the corrosion process and also in resisting the splitting.

5. Moisture Movement:
Most of the building materials with pores in their structure in the form of
intermolecular space expand on absorbing moisture and shrink on drying.
These movements are cyclic in nature and are caused by increase or
decrease in inter pore pressure with moisture changes.
Initial shrinkage occurs in all building materials that are cement/lime based
such as concrete, mortar, masonry and plasters. Generally heavy aggregate
concrete shows less shrinkage than light weight aggregate concrete.
Controlling shrinkage cracks.
Shrinkage cracks in masonry could be minimized by avoiding use of rich
cement mortar in masonry and by delaying plaster work till masonry has
dried after proper curing and undergone most of its initial shrinkage. In case
of structural concrete shrinkage cracks are controlled by using temperature
reinforcement. Plaster with coarse well graded sand or stone chip will suffer
less from shrinkage cracks and is preferred for plastering for external face of
walls.
Considering the building as a whole, an effective method of controlling
shrinkage cracks is the provision of movement joints. The work done in cold
weather will be less liable to shrinkage cracks than that in hot weather since
movement due to thermal expansion of materials will be opposite to that of
drying shrinkage.

6. Poor Construction practices.

The construction industry has in general fallen prey to non-technical persons

most of whom have little or no knowledge of correct construction practices.
There is a general lack of good construction practices either due to
ignorance, carelessness, greed or negligence. Or worse still, a combination of
all of these.
The building or structure during construction is in its formative period like a
child in mothers womb. It is very important that the childs mother is well

nourished and maintains good health during the pregnancy, so that her child
is healthily formed. Similarly for a healthy building it is absolutely necessary
for the construction agency and the owner to ensure good quality materials
selection and good construction practices. All the way to building completion
every step must be properly supervised and controlled without cutting
corners.
Some of the main causes for poor construction practices and inadequate
quality of buildings are given below:

Improper selection of materials.

Selection of poor quality cheap materials.

Inadequate and improper proportioning of mix constituents of

concrete, mortar etc.

Inadequate control on various steps of concrete production such as

batching, mixing, transporting, placing, finishing and curing

Inadequate quality control and supervision causing large voids (honey

combs) and cracks resulting in leakages and ultimately causing faster
deterioration of concrete.

Improper construction joints between subsequent concrete pours or

between concrete framework and masonry.

Addition of excess water in concrete and mortar mixes.

Poor quality of plumbing and sanitation materials and practices.

7. Poor structural design and specifications

Very often, the building loses its durability on the blue print itself or at the
time of preparation of specifications for concrete materials, concrete and
various other related parameters.
It is of crucial that the designer and specifier must first consider the
environmental conditions existing around the building site. It is also equally
important to do geotechnical (soil) investigations to determine the type of
foundations, the type of concrete materials to be used in concrete and the

grade of concrete depending on chemicals present in ground water and subsoil.

It is critical for the structural designer and architect to know whether the
agency proposed to carry out the construction has the requisite skills and
experience to execute their designs. Often complicated designs with dense
reinforcement steel in slender sections result in poor quality construction. In
addition, inadequate skills and poor experience of the contractor, ultimately
causes deterioration of the building.
Closely spaced of reinforcement steel bars due to inadequate detailing and
slender concrete shapes causes segregation. If concrete is placed carelessly
into the formwork mould, concrete hits the reinforcement steel and
segregates causing fine materials to stick to the steel, obstructing its
placement and is lost from the concrete mix while the coarse material falls
below causing large porosity (honeycombs).
Slender structural members like canopies (chajjas), fins and parapets often
become the first target of aggressive environment because of dense
reinforcement, poor detailing, less cover of concrete to the reinforcement
steel. Added to all this, low grade of concrete and poor construction practices
can make the things worse. It is necessary for the structural consultant to
provide adequate reinforcement steel to prevent structural members from
developing large cracks when loaded.
To sum up, the following precautions are required to be taken by the
Architects, Structural Consultants and Specifiers:

Proper specification for concrete materials and concrete.

Proper specifications to take care of environmental as well as sub soil
conditions.
Constructable and adequate structural design.

Proper quality and thickness of concrete cover around the

reinforcement steel.

Planning proper reinforcement layout and detailing the same in slender

structures to facilitate proper placing of concrete without segregation.

Selection of proper agency to construct their designs.

Architects and Engineers are parents of the buildings they plan and design
and therefore their contribution to the health and life of the building is quite
significant. Once the plans are drawn the structural designs and
specifications are prepared, it is then the turn of the agency to construct the
building and bring the blue print to reality. Special care must be taken in the
design and detailing of structures and the structure should be inspected
continuously during all phases of construction to supplement the careful
design and detailing.

8. Poor Maintenance
A structure needs to be maintained after a lapse of certain period from its
construction completion. Some structures may need a very early look into
their deterioration problems, while others can sustain themselves very well
for many years depending on the quality of design and construction.
.

Leakage from roof slab

Spalled concrete due to corrosion of steel

Regular external painting of the building to some extent helps in protecting
the building against moisture and other chemical attacks. Water-proofing and
protective coating on reinforcement steel or concrete are all second line of
defence and the success of their protection will greatly depend on the quality
of concrete.
Leakages should be attended to at the earliest possible before corrosion of
steel inside concrete starts and spalling of concrete takes place. Spalled
concrete will lose its strength and stiffness, besides; it will increase the rate
of corrosion as rusted steel bars are now fully exposed to aggressive
environment. It is not only essential to repair the deteriorated concrete but it
is equally important to prevent the moisture and aggressive chemicals to
enter concrete and prevent further deterioration.

9. Movement due to Chemical reactions.

The concrete may crack as a result of expansive reactions between
aggregate containing active silica and alkalines derived from cement
hydrations. The alkali silica reaction results in the formation of swelling gel,
which tends to draw water form other portions of concrete. This causes local
expansion results in cracks in the structure.
To control Cracks due to alkali-silica reactions, low alkali cement, pozzolona
and proper aggregates should be used.

10. Indiscriminate addition and alterations.

There have been some building collapses in our country due to indiscriminate
additions and alterations done by interior decorators at the instance of their
clients.
Generally, the first target of modifications is the balcony. Due to the
requirement to occupy more floor area, balconies are generally enclosed and
modified for different usages.

Balconies and canopies are generally cantilever RCC slabs. Due to additional
loading they deflect and develop cracks. As the steel reinforcement in these
slabs have less concrete cover and the balcony and canopy slab is exposed to
more aggressive external environment, corrosion of steel reinforcement
takes place and repairs become necessary.
The loft tanks are generally installed in toilets or kitchens, which are humid
areas of the buildings. The structure in addition to being overloaded is also
more prone to corrosion of reinforcement steel in these areas and therefore
deteriorates and if not repaired, part of the building can even collapse.

OPEN SPACE REQUIREMENTS FOR

BUILDINGS
OPEN SPACE REQUIREMENTS (Table 3)
Open air space for ventilation. Every room intended for human habitation
should abut an interior or exterior opening air space of the width r
dimensions specified below.
Where height of building

Minimum width of open air

above plinth adjoining the

open air space does not

space throughout

exceed
5m

3.0 m

6m

3.0 m

9m

3.9 m

12 m

4.8 m

15 m

5.7 m

18 m

6.6 m

21 m

7.5 m

OPEN SPACE AROUND RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

Front open space: every building should have a front yard of minimum
width of 3m and in case of two or more sides a width of an average of 3 m

but in no case it shall be less than 1.8 m. Such a yard shall form an
inseparable part of the site.
Rear open space: Every residential building shall have a yard of an average
width of 4.5 m and at no place the yard measuring less than 3 m as an
inseparable part of the building, except in the case of back to back sites
where the width of the yard could be reduced to 3m provided no erection, reerection or material alteration of the building shall be undertaken, if at
common plot line straight lines drawn downwards and outwards from the line
of intersection of the outer surface of any rear wall of the building with the
roof perpendicular to that line form an angle of more than 63.5 degree to the
horizontal.
Side open space: every residential building may have a permanently open
air space not less than 1m in width on one of its sides other than its front
and rear and such side open space shall form an inseparable part of the site.
In case, side open air space is to be used for ventilation, it shall be in
accordance with the requirements mentioned in the previous paragraph. In
case, the side open space abuts a road, the width shall not be less than 3m.

OPEN SPACE FOR BUILDINGS OTHER THAN RESIDENTIAL

The front, rear and side yards, widths and the rules governing those shall be
laid down by the authority in each case.
The rules applicable to residential buildings with regard to front open space,
rear open space and the side open space and the angle 45 and 63.5 degree
governing erection, re-erection or material alteration of a residential building
sall also be applicable to business and industrial buildings, provided, however
that the local authority may prescribe the front and rear open spaces as
required.

DEFINITION OF TERMS IN BRICK

MASONRY
Definitions of terms brick masonry

1. Course: A course is a horizontal layer of bricks or stones.

2. Bed: it is the surface of stone perpendicular to the line of pressure. It
indicates the lower surface of bricks or stones in each course.
3. Back: the inner surface of a wall which is not exposed is called the back.
The material forming the back is known as backing.
4. Face: The exterior of wall exposed to weather is known as face. The
material used in the face of the wall is known as facing.
5. Hearting: It is the interior portion of a wall between the facing and
backing.
6. Side: it is the surface forming the boundary of bricks or stones in a
direction transverse to the face and bed.
7. Joint: It is the junction of two or more bricks or stones. If the joint is
parallel to the bed of bricks or stones in a course then it is termed as bed
joint. The joint which are perpendicular to the bed joints are termed as
vertical joints or side joints or simply joints.

8. Header: it is a brick or stone which lies with its greatest length at right
angles to the face of the work.. in case of stone masonry header is
sometimes known as through stone. The course of brick work in which all the
bricks are laid as headers is known as header course.

9. Stretcher: it is a brick or a stone which lies with its longest side parallel
to the face of the work. The course of brick work in which all the bricks are
laid as stretchers is known as stretcher course.
10. Bond: This is the method of arranging bricks so that the individual units
are tied together. Bonding is essential to eliminate conyinuous vertical joints
both in body as well as on the face of wall.
11. Spalls: these are the chips of stones used for filling the interstices in
stone masonry.
12. Quoins: these are the stones used for the corners of walls of a structure.
13. Bat: it is the portion of brick cut across the width.
14. Closer: it is the portion of the brick cut length wise in such a manner
that its one long face remains uncut.
15. Queen closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting a brick
length wise into two portions.
16. King Closer: these are the portions of a brick obtained by cutting off the
triangular piece between the center of one end and the center of one side.
17. Bevelled Closer: it is that portion of a brick in which the whole length of
the brick is beveled for maintaining half width at one end and full width art
the other.
18. Frog: it is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made
with the object of forming a key for the mortars. This reduces the weight of
the brick also.
19. Plinth: it is the horizontal course of stone or brick provided at the base
of the wall above ground level. It indicates the height of the ground level
above the natural ground level. It protects the building from dampness.
20. Plinth Course: It is the top most course of the plinth masonry.
21. String Course: It is a horizontal projecting course of masonry projecting
out of the face of the wall for shedding rain water off the face. It imparts an

aesthetic appearance to the structure and is generally provided at every floor

level.
22. Sill: it is a horizontal member of stone, concrete or wood, employed for
the purpose of shedding off rain water from the face of wall immediately
below the window opening. It gives support to the vertical members of a
wooden window frame.
23. Lintel: it is a horizontal member of stone, brick, wood, iron or RCC used
to support the masonry or load above an opening.
24. Jambs: these are the vertical sides of an opening for doors and windows.
These may be plain or splayed or may be provided with recesses to receive
the frames of doors and windows.
25. Reveals: These are exposed vertical surfaces left on the sides of an
opening after the door or window frame had been fitted in position
26. Cornice: It is a projecting ornamental course near the top of a building
or at the junction of a wall and ceiling.
27. Blocking Course: It is atop most course of stone masonry provided
immediately above the cornice to prevent the tendency of the cornice to
overturn. It also adds to the aesthetics of the cornice.
28. Coping: It is a course placed upon the exposed top of an external wall to
prevent the seepage of water.
29. Corbel: It is the extension of one or more course of stone or brick from
the face of a wall to serve as a support for wall plates.
30. Template: Pieces of stones placed under the end of a beam to distribute
the load over a greater area.

IMPROVING EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANCE OF SMALL BUILDINGS
The earthquake resistance of small buildings may be increased by taking
some precautions and measures in site selections, building planning and
constructions as explained below:

1. Site Selection for small buildings:

The building constructions should be avoided on
(a) Near unstable embankments
(b) On sloping ground with columns of different heights
(c) Flood affected areas
(d) On subsoil with marked discontinuity like rock in some portion and soil in
some portion.

2. Building Planning:
Symmetric plans are safer compared to unsymmetric. Hence go for square or
rectangular plans rather than L, E, H, T shaped. Rectangular plans should not
have length more than twice the width.

3. Foundations:
Width of foundation should not be less than 750 mm for single storey
building and not less than 900 mm for storeyed buildings. Depth of
foundation should not be less than 1.0 m for soft soil and 0.45 m for rocky
ground. Before foundation is laid remove all loose materials including water
from the trench and compact the bottom. After foundation is laid back-fill the
foundation properly and compact.

4. Masonry:
In case of stone masonry:

Place each stone flat on its broadest face.

Place length of stones into the thickness of wall to ensure interlocking
inside and outside faces of the wall.

Fill the voids using small chips of the stones with minimum possible
mortar.

Break the stone to make it angular so that it has no rounded face.

At every 600 to 750 mm distance use through stones.

In case of brick masonry:

Use properly burnt bricks only.

Place bricks with its groove mark facing up to ensure better bond with
next course.

In case of concrete blocks:

Place rough faces towards top and bottom to get good bond.

Blocks should be strong.

Brush the top and bottom faces before laying.

In general walls of more than 450 mm should be avoided. Length of wall

should be restricted to 6 m. Cross walls make the masonry stronger. It is
better to build partition walls along main walls interlinking the two.

5. Doors and Window Openings:

Walls with too many doors and windows close to each other collapse
early.
Windows should be kept at same level.

The total width of all openings in wall should not exceed 1/3rd the
length of wall.

Doors should not be placed at the end of the wall. They should be at
least at 500 mm from the cross wall.

Clear width between two openings should not be less than 600 mm.

6. Roof:

In sloping roofs with span greater than 6 m use trusses instead of

rafters.

Building with 4 sided sloping roof is stronger than the one with two
sided sloping, since gable walls collapse early.

7. Chejjas:

Restrict chejja or balcony projections to 0.9 m. For larger projections

use beams and columns.

8. Parapet:
Masonry parapet wall can collapse easily. It is better to build parapet with
bricks up to 300 mm followed by iron railings.

9. Concrete and Mortar:

Use river sand for making mortar and concrete. It should be sieved to
remove pebbles. Silt should be removed by holding it against wind. Coarse
aggregates of size more than 30 mm should not be used. Aggregates should
be well graded and angular. Before adding watercement and aggregates
should be dry mixed thoroughly.

10. Bands:
The following R.C. bands should be provided
(a) Plinth band
(b) Lintel band
(c) Roof band
(d) Gable band.
For making R.C. bands minimum thickness is 75 mm and at least two bars of
8 mm diameters are required. They should be tied with steel limbs of 6 mm
diameter at 150 mm spacing. If wall size is large, diagonal and vertical bands
also may be provided.

11. Retrofitting:
Retrofitting means preparing a structure in a scientific manner so that all
elements of a building act as an integral unit. It is generally the most
economical and fastest way to achieve safety of the building. The following
are some of the methods in retrofitting:

Anchor roof truss to walls with brackets.

Provide bracings at the level of purlins and bottom chord members of
trusses.

Strengthen gable wall by inserting sloping belt on gable wall.

Strengthen corners with seismic belts.

Anchor floor joists to walls with brackets.

Improve storey connections by providing vertical reinforcement.

Induce tensile strength against vertical bending of walls by providing

vertical reinforcement at all inside and outside corners.

Encase wall openings with reinforcements.

FIRE RESISTANT BUILDINGS

REQUIREMENTS

It is reported that in USA fire kills more people each year than all other
natural disasters combined including floods, cyclones and earthquake.
The fire load in a building should be kept to the minimum possible. The
term fire load indicates the amount of heat liberated in kilo joules per
square metre (kJ/m2) of floor area of any compartment by the
combustion of the content of the building including its own combustible
part. It is determined by multiplying the weights of all combustible
materials by their respective calorific values and dividing that with floor

area.
A building may be made more fire resistant by:
1. Using suitable materials.
2. Taking precautions in building construction
3. By providing fire alarm systems and fire extinguishers.

Fire Resistant Building Requirements

1. Using Suitable Materials:

The fire resisting material is having the following characters:
(a) It should not disintegrate under the effect of heat
(b) It should not expand under heat so as to introduce unnecessary
stresses in the building

(c) The material should not catch fire easily

(d) It should not lose its strength when subjected to fire.
Fire resisting characteristics of some of the commonly

used building materials are:

Stone: It is a bad conductor of heat. Sand stones with fire grains can
resist fire moderately.Granite disintegrate under fire. Lime
stone crumbles easily. Most of the stones disintegrate during cooling
period after heated by fire.
Brick: Bricks can resist heat up to 1200C. At the time of construction,
if good quality mortar is used, fire resistance is extremely good.
Timber: Any structure made of timbers is rapidly destroyed in fire.
Timber enhances the intensity of fire. Use of heavy sections of timber
in buildings is not desirable. To make timber more fire resistant the
surface of timber is coated with chemicals such as ammonium
phosphate and sulphate, boric acid and borax. Sometimes fire resistant
paint is applied to timber used in the building.
Concrete: Concrete has got very good fire resistance. The actual
behaviour of concrete in case of fire depends upon the quality
of cement and aggregates used. In case of reinforced concrete
and prestressed concrete, it also depends upon the position of steel.
Larger the concrete cover, better is the fire resistance of the member.
There is no loss in strength in concrete when it is heated up to 250C.
The reduction in strength starts if the temperature goes beyond 250C.
Normally reinforced concrete structures can resist fire for about one
hour at a temperature of 1000C. Hence cement concrete is ideally
used fire resistant material.
Steel: It is a good conductor of heat. Steel bars lose tensile strength.
Steel yields at 600C. They melt at 1400C. Steel columns become
unsafe during fire. Steel reinforcement weaken the reinforced concrete
structures. Hence steel columns are usually protected with brick works
or by encasing in concrete. Reinforcement in concrete are protected by
concrete cover. Steel grills and beams are applied with fire resistant
paints.
Glass: It is a poor conductor of heat. It expands little during heating.
After heating when it cools, cracks are formed in glass. Reinforced

glass with steel wire is more resistant to fire and during cooling
process, even if it breaks, fractured glasses are in their original
position.
Aluminium: It is good conductor of heat. It has got higher resistance
to fire.
Asbestos Cement: It is non-combustible material. It possesses high
fire resistance.

SETTING OUT A BUILDING PLAN ON

GROUND
A building is set out in order to clearly define the outline of
the excavation and the centre line of the walls, so thatconstruction can be
carried out exactly according to the plan. The centre line method of setting
out is generally preferred and adopted.

PROCEDURE

Fig.1: Example plan to be set out on the ground

1. From the plan (fig 1), the centre line of the walls are calculated. Then the
centre lines of the rooms are set out by setting perpendiculars in the ratio
3:4:5. Suppose the corner points are a, b, c, d, e, f and g which are marked
by pegs with nails on top.
2. The setting of the corner point is checked according to diagonals ac, bd, cf
and eg.
3. During excavation, the centre points a, b, c, d, e, f, g may be removed.
Therefore the centre lines are extended and the centre points are marked
about 2m away from the outer edge of excavation. Thus the points A1, A2,
B1, B2 and like wise, are marked outside the trench. Centre line are shown
clearly by stretching thread or rope. The centre points fixed 2m away from
the excavation are marked with sit out pegs.
4. From the plan details, the width of excavation to be done is also marked
by thread with pegs at appropriate positions.
5. The excavation width is then marked by lime or by with furrow with spade.
6. If the plan is much to complicated and follows a zigzag pattern, then the
centre pegs are kept at suitable positions according to site conditions.

COMPONENTS OF STAIRCASE
Following are the terms used for components of staircase:
Step The step is composed of the tread and riser.
Tread The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to the
samespecifications (thickness) as any otherflooring. The tread "depth" is
measured from the outer edge of the step to the vertical "riser" between
steps. The "width" is measured from one side to the other.
Riser The vertical portion between each tread on the stair. This may be
missing for an "open" stair effect.

Nosing An edge part of the tread that protrudes over the riser beneath. If
it is present, this means that, measured horizontally, the total "run" length of
the stairs is not simply the sum of the tread lengths, as the treads actually
overlap each other slightly.
Starting step or Bullnose Where stairs are open on one or both sides,
the first step above the lower floor may be wider than the other steps and
rounded. The balusters typically form a semicircle around the circumference
of the rounded portion and the handrail has a horizontal spiral called a
"volute" that supports the top of the balusters. Besides the cosmetic appeal,
starting steps allow the balusters to form a wider, more stable base for the
end of the handrail.
Handrails that simply end at a post at the foot of the stairs can be less
sturdy, even with a thick post. A double bullnose can be used when both
sides of the stairs are open.
Stringer, Stringer board or sometimes just String
The structural member that supports the treads and risers. There are
typically two stringers, one on either side of the stairs; though the treads
may be supported many other ways. The stringers are sometimes notched so
that the risers and treads fit into them.
Stringers on open-sided stairs are often open themselves so that the treads
are visible from the side. Such stringers are called "cut" stringers. Stringers
on a closed side of the stairs are closed, with the support for the treads
routed into the stringer.

Fig: Components of Staircase

Winders
Winders are steps that are narrower on one side than the other. They are
used to change the direction of the stairs without landings. A series of
winders form a circular or spiral stairway. When three steps are used to turn
a 90 corner, the middle step is called a kite winder as a kite-shaped
quadrilateral.
Trim
Trim (e.g. quarter-round or baseboard trim) is normally applied
where walls meet floors and often underneath treads to hide the reveal
where the tread and riser meet. Shoe moulding may be used between where
the lower floor and the first riser meet. Trimming a starting step is a special
challenge as the last riser above the lower floor is rounded.
Flexible, plastic trim is available for this purpose, however wooden mouldings
are still used and are either cut from a single piece of rounded wood, or bent
with laminations Scotia is concave moulding that is underneath the nosing
between the riser and the tread above it.
Banister, Railing or Handrail

The angled member for handholding, as distinguished from the vertical

balusters which hold it up for stairs that are open on one side; there is often
a railing on both sides, sometimes only on one side or not at all, on wide
staircases there is sometimes also one in the middle, or even more. The term
"banister" is sometimes used to mean just the handrail, or sometimes the
handrail and the balusters or sometimes just the balusters.
Volute
A handrail end element for the bullnose step that curves inward like a spiral.
A volute is said to be right or left-handed depending on which side of the
stairs the handrail is as one faces up the stairs.
Turnout
Instead of a complete spiral volute, a turnout is a quarter-turn rounded end
to the handrail.
Gooseneck
The vertical handrail that joins a sloped handrail to a higher handrail on the
balcony or landing is a gooseneck.
Rosette
Where the handrail ends in the wall and a half-newel is not used, it may be
trimmed by a rosette.
Easings
Wall handrails are mounted directly onto the wall with wall brackets. At the
bottom of the stairs such railings flare to a horizontal railing and this
horizontal portion is called a "starting easing". At the top of the stairs, the
horizontal portion of the railing is called a "over easing".
Core rail
Wood handrails often have a metal core to provide extra strength and
stiffness, especially when the rail has to curve against the grain of the wood.
The archaic term for the metal core is "core rail".
Baluster

A term for the vertical posts that hold up the handrail. Sometimes simply
called guards or spindles. Treads often require two balusters. The second
baluster is closer to the riser and is taller than the first. The extra height in
the second baluster is typically in the middle between decorative elements on
the baluster. That way the bottom decorative elements are aligned with the
tread and the top elements are aligned with the railing angle.
Newel
A large baluster or post used to anchor the handrail. Since it is a structural
element, it extends below the floor and subfloor to the bottom of the floor
joists and is bolted right to the floor joist. A half-newel may be used where a
railing ends in the wall. Visually, it looks like half the newel is embedded in
the wall. For open landings, a newel may extend below the landing for a
decorative newel drop.
Finial
A decorative cap to the top of a newel post, particularly at the end of the
balustrade.
Baserail or Shoerail
For systems where the baluster does not start at the treads, they go to a
baserail. This allows for identical balusters, avoiding the second baluster
problem.
Fillet
A decorative filler piece on the floor between balusters on a balcony railing.

ROBUSTNESS OF BUILDINGS
Robustness of Buildings is explained by an example of a building collapse.
The whole building collapsed due a pressure cooker blast on 20th floor.
Early one morning in 1967 a large part of the building (shown in fig.) in north
London, collapsed, after an explosion on the 20th floor. The resulting enquiry
led to a major developments in the way we think about design. It made
designers aware of robustness.

What happened at Ronan Point?

Ronan point is a large panel structure made from precast wall and floor units.
Very early in the morning a gas cooker exploded in a flat on the 19th floor.
The result provoked to be catastrophic. The explosion caused the kitchen wall
to disintegrate. This led to the collapse of the flat above, since its support
had been removed. All the debris from the floors above fell onto the kitchen
floor which collapsed and precipitated a domino effect onto the floors below,
as shown in the figures below:

Fig.2: 20th floor of the building

Fig.3: collapse of 20th floor due to cooker blast

Fig. 4: Whole building collapse due to collapse of top kitchen floor

Lesson learnt from the Ronan Point:

Proportional Damage:
With regard to the Ronan point disaster, the major concern was that a
relatively small and local occurrence, the explosion of a gas cooker, led to the
collapse of over 20 storeys.
The was felt to be unacceptable and the requirement was stated that damage
should not be disproportionate to the cause. It should not lead to the
collapse of the whole building, a result which is entirely out of proportion to
the cause.

Member Redundancy:
The concept was developed that any single member should be able to be
removed without causing overall collapse. This could be achieved in the
Ronan point type of structure by tying together the members.

The connections between all members allow the floors above to remain intact
and not collapse onto the floors below, should any member be removed.

Key Elements:
More importantly for the basic planning of structures, it was recognized that
structures which depend for their support on only one, or a very few key
elements should be avoided, such structures are not Robust.

BUILDING SECURITY AND CONTROL

SYSTEMS
Building security and control system have become necessary with increasing
size and complexity of buildings. The building security and control system is
designed to monitor and control mechanical and electrical installations, fire
protection and escape, burglary, assault and emergency communication.
In tall buildings and major complexes, the most important security
requirement is fire-safety system. In addition to the structural precautions
for fire protection, special system is required to monitor and control are:
1. Fire detection and suppression,

2. Movement and protection of people

3. Smoke control including pressurization and barriers
4. Safe places of refuge and
5. Emergency arrangements and communication.
In major buildings, these arrangements are integrated with those required to
monitor and control the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems and
other aspects of security within a single electronic system. The computer
monitors all significant local conditions and appropriate action is taken.

Such measures for security and control could bring in the use of:

Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning plant and equipment to suit

internal and external conditions or programmed requirements.

Data collection for maintenance and resource management,

particularly energy use and analysis, programmed responses to suit
anticipated emergencies, e.g. defining smoke-free zones and escape
routes in the event of fire, and

Security interlocks, surveillance and access control.

Energy management system (EMS), building automation system (BAS) and

Building Management System (BMS) are used to describe these systems. The
EMS controls the environmental functions, the BAS controls the technical
automation and BMS includes such matters as status reports on
environmental conditions, lifts and location of people for security purpose. All
these are influenced, and influenced by the overall building designs.
The problems of building security is not only limited to major building
complexes. With also depends on crime rates, density, size and tenant
income, the nature of surrounding areas, building design characteristics etc..

FLOORING AND FALSE FLOORING

FLOORING AND FALSE FLOORING
Flooring is essentially required for any building. For a building to look good it
is very much necessary that proper flooring pattern is selected. While
deciding the flooring pattern one must also consider the function of the
particular space. For example flooring pattern used for kitchen of a house
may not be suitable for bedroom of the same house. Similarly flooring
pattern for exterior use and interior use are also different. For example
flooring which may be used in courtyard of building or house may not be
suitable for the living room or dinning room of the same building.
For flooring various types of material are available. Considering the need one
may the select any of the options available.

Flooring may be broadly classified into four:1. Tiles

2. Stones
3. Wooden. Flooring
4. I.P.S. Flooring
Apart from this technology has started exploring new possibilities into world
of flooring like glass flooring which we did not thought of earlier days is now
possible.
Tiles may be again classified into three major groups
1.

Ceramic / Glazed Tiles

2.

Porcelain Tiles

3.

Vitrified Tiles

Stones:Stones are available of various shapes and size and each have different
characteristics.
Here we list few of the stones
1.

Kadappa Stone

2.

Kota Stone

3.

Dholpur Stone

4.

Marble

5.

Sandstone

6.

Jaisalmer

7.

Granite

Most of the stones are known from the place where they are available. Kota
stone is available from Kota in Rajasthan, Dholpur Stone from Dholpur,
Jaisalmer stone from Jaisalmer etc.
Stones such as Jesalmer, Granite and Marble are available with different
texture and colour. Their rate depends according to their properties and
texture. Generally flooring pattern and material depends upon the budget of
the building. Though it does not mean that if the budget for the flooring is
high it would result into good flooring. For flooring to be aesthetically
appealing and functionally workable proper selection of the material and
proper installation of the flooring plays an important role.
WOODEN FLOOR
Apart from Stones and Tiles another flooring pattern is wooden floor. Wooden
floor looks aesthetically good. PERGO is the company name which has been
into the business of wooden flooring since years and has done a great job.

Wooden flooring is quite flexible. Even if any of wooden piece breaks or

damages, its simple to replace it.
I.P.S. FLOOR
It is traditional Indian style of flooring. It is a simple flooring made out
of cement. Its done on site. The cement paste is applied on the floor similar
to the plastering of the wall. Then required pattern or grids is embossed on it
with rope. This is the cheapest type of flooring.

GLASS FLOORING
Apart from these, technology has become such that the wildest thing which
could not been thought of 10 years ago is now possible with the help of
technology. One such example of it is GLASS FLOORING.
Apart from flooring glass can also be used in Staircases.

Figure: Wooden flooring

Figure: Tile flooring

FALSE FLOORING
False Flooring is flooring used for buildings with high service requirement
mostly offices which carries high amount of cables etc. and sometimes Airconditioner, water supply pipes. Additional structural support and lighting are
often provided when a floor is raised enough for a person to crawl or even
walk beneath.
This type of floor consists of gridded metal frame work or understructure of
adjustable-height legs (called Pedestal) that provide support for individual
floor panels, which are usually by 2 X 2 feet or 60 X 60 cms in size. The
height of the legs/pedestals is dictated by the volume of cable and other
services provided beneath, but typically arranged for clearance of at least six
inches or 15cms.
The panels are normally made of steel-clad particle board or a steel panel
with a cementitious internal core. There are a variety of flooring finishes to
suit the application such as carpets, high pressure laminates, marble, stone,
and anti-static finishes for use in computer rooms and laboratories.
Many modern computer and equipment rooms employ an under-floor cooling
system to ensure even cooling of the room with minimal wasted energy.
Cooled air is pumped under the floor and dispersed upward into the room
through regularly spaced diffuser tiles or through ducts directed into specific
equipment.

Figure: False flooring

LAMINATE FLOORING DO IT
YOURSELF
Laminate flooring
In todays trend of homely yet modern design is plenty of space for
laminateflooring. The ease of maintenance and hygienic properties of this
type of flooring are just two of the reasons that more and more people
choose to go laminate. It will be able to give you the feel of a wooden floor,
without having to spend bags of money. And nowadays it is so easy to lay it
yourself!
With the development of the click-and-go laminates, you really dont need to
be a professional to be able to lay your own floor. Which saves you a lot of
money! In this guide we will give you a few handy pointers to laying your
own laminate floor and how to care for it.

What is laminate flooring?

Laminate is a type of flooring that exists of different layers of material that
all have different qualities. From top to bottom, in a typical laminate floor
there are: a decorative surface (made of a resin-based melamine that is hard
wearing), a wood-based core (which is the main component of a laminate
floor), and a backing that is bonded to the underside of the core, which gives
it its rigidity.
Laminate flooring comes in all sorts of designs, mainly copying wood patterns
and is produced in rectangular plank shape. But recently new designs have
been put on the market, imitating slate and tiled flooring. Therefore these
laminates have a square shape, but will still have the same main features of
laminate flooring, namely durability, ease of maintenance and ease of fitting.
Which flooring to choose?
There are different types of laminate flooring, but both of them work with the
tongue-and-groove principle and both of them are floating systems, which
means that the floor is not attached to the under-floor, but is resting on the
under-floor. First of all, there are two methods of putting the floor together:
with glue and without glue. Glued flooring is put together by putting a bead
of glue between the tongue and the groove. Glueless flooring is a system by
which the panels are clicked together and gets more and more popular every
day, as it is quicker and cleaner than the glued system. It is also possible to
unclick the panels and take them with you when you move.
Laminate flooring comes in a lot of different qualities, thickness and water
resistance. Choose the best flooring you can afford and make sure the

flooring you choose is appropriate for the room youre going to put it in. For
example, you best use waterproof laminate flooring for the bathroom and the
kitchen! Have a look around your local DIY stores, comparing qualities and
prices to make sure you make the right choice.

Tools and materials that you will need

Be sure you check and double check the size of your room and buy 5%
more than you think you need. You will always need more for cutting and
nobody likes going back to the DIY shed for one pack of planks! Besides
that, when you do return, they might not have your colour match
anymore.

Underlay (to make the floor sound proof and to provide insulation).
Take 5% extra of this as well.

Edging trim (a laminate flooring is not fixed anywhere, edging trim is

used to keep it in place along the sides and to provide a neat finish). Take
some more of this as well, as you will always have to cut around funny
corners you hadnt anticipated.

Tape measure

Mask and goggles

Scissors

Circular saw/Jigsaw

Handsaw

Spirit level

Square

Nails/screws etc.

When you have a concrete sub-floor:

Chisel

Hammer

Levelling compound

Bucket
Damp-proof membrane (for when you have tiles, asphalt/concrete or
vinyl as your sub-floor)

When you have a wooden sub-floor:

Hammer

Detector for pipes and electricity cables

Plane (for protruding areas)

Filler or levelling compound (for holes and hollow areas)

Pipe covers to neatly finish flooring around pipes

How to start?
First of all you have to condition the flooring to the rooms temperature and
humidity. Leave it in its packing and lay it horizontally (to prevent bending of
the laminate) for at least 48 hours before you start to lay it.
Remove all the flooring you will not need anymore (like carpets, etc.). Leave
only the sub-floor. You will now have the opportunity to access any underfloor electrics and plumbing, so take it! It will save you a lot of time in the
long run.
Determine whether your floor is level enough to start adding the underlay or
whether you have to level it out first. Important! Not taking enough time to
level the floor at this stage will later surface in a number of problems, like
bending and warping of the boards and a general unevenness of the floor.
This will reduce the enjoyment you will have from your floor and will also
shorten its life expectancy. A floor is considered level when difference in
height is less than 1mm over a metre.
To level a concrete sub-floor, you will use your hammer and chisel to chip
away the protruding areas, and your levelling compound to fill any gaps.
However, if they floor is generally not level, it is best to apply the levelling
compound over the whole area, which will give a perfectly smooth finish allover. A damp-proof membrane now has to be put in place according to the
composition of the sub-floor.

A wooden sub-floor needs to checked on protruding nails and loose

floorboards. A plane can be used for any uneven boards. Filler for smaller
areas and levelling compound for larger areas can be used to even out the
floor.
What next?
Put the under-floor down according to the instructions on the packet. As soon
as youve done this, check whether the door will clear the final height of your
floor by putting a laminate floorboard against the door. If the door gets stuck
on the floorboard, now is the moment to remove the door and sand or plane
away the excess in order to let the door open properly.
Decide which way you would like to have your floor laid. It is recommended
that the floor is laid at a 90o angle across the floorboards (if you have any)
in order to reinforce the joints. Another solution might be to first apply a
hardboard underfloor to the floorboards. This way it doesnt matter which
way you lay your laminate.
Use two spacers in one corner of the room in order to leave a gap between
the floorboards and the wall, and lay your first board against it. Make sure it
is aligned properly with the wall. Now you can start clicking the boards
together until you get to the end of the first row, making sure you use
spacers all along the entire wall.
To cut the last board off at the correct point, place the board next to the
flooring that is already in place. Make sure you allow for the spacers that
need to be placed at the end of the row.
If the cut-off of the last board of the previous row is longer than 300mm, you
can use it to start the next row. It is important to create a staggered effect,
as the boards shouldnt end at the same place.
It is now easy to click and fit the biggest area of your room, and quite quickly
it will look like youre creating something! The only areas you really have to
take care of are around doors and pipes. Try to fit your floor as neatly as
possible around your door mouldings. You might have to carefully saw into
the moulding to ensure a snug fit. Use a laminate floorboard as a guide to
show you how much you need to cut away. For pipes you have to measure
the distance into the floorboard where the pipes will emerge (taking care to

allow for a gap between the boards and the wall). Also measure the width of
the pipe. Use a jigsaw to cut out the area around the pipe, starting at the
edge of the board. This way you can remove the bit where the pipe will come
through the board, and you can replace the bit behind the pipe (using a bit of
glue to hold it in place). Use pipe covers to neatly cover around the pipe.
After removing the spacers from around the floor, use edging trim around the
room to neatly finish off the floor.
Now you just have to give it a sweep and youre ready!
Top tips

Have a good look around your local DIY sheds before you commit
yourself to a particular type of flooring. Nowadays there are a lot of
different
designs and colours available, and there are quite a few offers on
laminate flooring, so shop around and get yourself a good deal!
A shopping list is always a good idea!

Measure measure measure before you go to your DIY shed. And even
then buy about 5% more than you need. Especially if youve never done
laminate flooring before it helps if you dont need to worry about miscutting a few boards. You dont want to go back for one extra pack just
because you couldnt be bothered with it in the first place!

Always buy the right flooring for the right environment. Check whether
the floor will be water resistant when you want to apply it to your kitchen
or bathroom.

Plan any electrical or plumbing work ahead. When you remove your
carpet or old floor, you have the easiest access to the wires and pipes
under the floorboards, so do it before you lay your new floor!

Check whether the spacers are included in the pack of floorboards

youre buying. They are handy tools to keep your floor in place while
youre fitting.

Take your time while fitting the floor! Although you really want to finish
it tonight, deep in your heart you know the floor will look a lot better
when you sleep on it and look at it again with fresh eyes the following
morning!

If you decide to go for a glued laminate floor, please keep the drying
times in mind. This mainly determines the strength of the flooring.

If you decide to take the floor with you when you move (only possible
with the glueless variant), be careful with unlocking the boards. The
tongues snap quite easily if treated roughly.

Use a special laminate floor cleaner to optimise the shine and durability
of your floor. Do not use any abrasive or bleach-based products.

SLABJACKING
SLABJACKING

The purpose of slab jacking is to raise a slab in place permanently, prevent

impact loading, correct faulty drainage, and prevent pumping at transverse
joints by injection of a grout under the slab. The grout fills voids under the
slab, thereby restoring uniform support when necessary; it can also be used
to raise the slab. This work must be done by an experienced contractor due
to work complexity and specialized equipment required.

Need for Slabjacking

Slabjacking should be considered for any condition that causes non uniform
slab support, such as embankment settlement, settlement of approach slabs,
settlement over culverts or utility cuts, voids under the pavements,
differences in elevation of adjacent pavements, joints in concrete pavements
that are moving or expelling water or soil fines, and pavement slabs that
rock or teeter under traffic.
Location of Injection Holes
Location of injection holes must be determined in the field. The jacking crew
superintendent normally locates the holes and must take into consideration
the size or length of the pavement area to be raised, the elevation difference,
sub grade and drainage conditions, location of joints or cracks, and the
manner in which the slabs will be tilted or raised. As a general rule, holes
should not be placed less than 12 inches or more than 18 inches from a
transverse joint or slab edge. The holes should not be placed more than 6

feet center to center, so that not more than approximately 25 to 30 square

feet of slab is raised by pumping any one hole. Additional holes may be
required if the slab is cracked. The proper location of holes varies according
to the defect to be corrected. For slab jacking a joint where faulting has not
yet occurred, a minimum of two holes can be used. For slab jacking a joint
where one corner of the slab has faulted, the hole at the low corner should
be set back to avoid raising the adjacent slab. Where the pavement has
settled and the slabs are in contact with the sub base, a single hole located
in the middle of the panel may be

sufficient.
Drilling Holes
Holes that are 1-1/4 to 2 inches in diameter are drilled by pneumatic drills,
core drills, or other devices which are capable of drilling grout injection holes
through the concretepavement and the base material. The equipment must
be in good condition and operated in such a manner that the holes are
vertical and round. The down feed pressure, whether by hand or mechanical
means should not exceed 200 pounds per square inch (1,379 kilopascals).
Where the concrete pavement is tight against the base material, the use of
an airline or blow pipe may be necessary to form a cavity under the
pavement slab for the grout pressure to take effect. Where the pavement is
placed and bonded to cement treated or other stabilized base material, grout
holes should be drilled completely through the base material. The grout
should be injected below the base material rather than between the
pavement and base material.
Grout Mixtures.

A variety of grout mixtures have been successfully used for slabjacking. They
generally consist of three to seven parts fine aggregates or a mixture of
aggregate and pozzolans or flyash to one part Portland cement with enough
water to produce the desired consistency. Wetting agents or other additives
may also be used to increase the flowability. The use of a wetting agent
lubricates the grout and permits runs of up to 6 feet (, and it also tends to
reduce pyramiding (a stiff grout may form a pyramid under the slab,
leaving unfilled cavities). A definite method of proportioning the grout
mixture should be used to ensure uniform consistency. The proper
consistency to be used for any given condition is best determined by
experience. Generally, a mix of stiff consistency is used to raise the
pavement slabs and a more fluid mix is used for filling voids. The consistency
should be checked by a flow faulted, the hole at the low corner should be set
back to avoid raising the adjacent slab. Where the pavement has settled and
the slabs are in contact with the sub base, a single hole located in the middle
of the panel may be sufficient.
Drilling Holes
Holes that are 1-1/4 to 2 inches in diameter are drilled by pneumatic drills,
core drills, or other devices which are capable of drilling grout injection holes
through the concrete pavement and the base material. The equipment must
be in good condition and operated in such a manner that the holes are
vertical and round. The down feed pressure, whether by hand or mechanical
means should not exceed 200 pounds per square inch (1,379 kilopascals).
Where the concrete pavement is tight against the base material, the use of
an airline or blow pipe may be necessary to form a cavity under the
pavement slab for the grout pressure to take effect. Where the pavement is
placed and bonded to cement treated or other stabilized base material, grout
holes should be drilled completely through the base material. The grout
should be injected below the base material rather than between the
pavement and base material.
Grout Mixtures
A variety of grout mixtures have been successfully used for slabjacking. They
generally consist of three to seven parts fine aggregates or a mixture of
aggregate and pozzolans or flyash to one part Portland cement with enough
water to produce the desired consistency. Wetting agents or other additives
may also be used to increase the flowability. The use of a wetting agent
lubricates the grout and permits runs of up to 6 feet (1.8 meters), and it also

tends to reduce pyramiding (a stiff grout may form a pyramid under the
slab, leaving unfilled cavities). A definite method of proportioning the grout
mixture should be used to ensure uniform consistency. The proper
consistency to be used for any given condition is best determined by
experience. Generally, a mix of stiff consistency is used to raise the
pavement slabs and a more fluid mix is used for filling voids. The consistency
should be checked by a flow other elevation differences. If the temperature is
high, the concrete may be in compression at the slab ends and may not be
free to move. This may require freeing the joints by sawing to complete the
lifting process.
Grout Pumping
Pumping and jacking operations should normally start at the lowest point in a
depressed area and work outward in both directions. Pumping progresses by
lowering into successive holes an injection pipe connected to the discharge
hose of the grout pump. An expanding rubber packer is used to seal the open
space between the pipe and the drill hole. The injection pipe must not extend
below the bottom of the pavement and it must be equipped with a return line
to circulate the grout while no grout is being placed. Lifting should be done in
increments of about 1/4 inch with frequent changes in injection locations to
keep slab stresses at a minimum and avoid cracking. The rate of grout
injection should be uniform and as slow as possible, usually a minimum of
1/2 cubic foot (0.014 cubic meter) per minute to a maximum of 2 cubic feet
(0.056 cubic meter) per minute. Initial pumping is normally at the lower rate
and is increased as lifting progresses. As the desired elevation is approached,
the lifting rate should be reduced. When grout is extruded from joints,
cracks, or from the pavement edge before the target elevation is reached,
regrouting in new drill holes and additional slabjacking will be necessary.
Gauge pressures for slabjacking are normally in the range of 75 to 200
pounds per square inch with short pressure surges up to 600 pounds per
square inch (4,134 kilopascals) to initiate lifting of bonded slabs. Constant
observation and analysis of pressure behavior is the most important single
factor affecting good Slabjacking. A rapid increase could signal a stoppage of
flow that could be followed by a buildup of pressure and excessive lift and
cracking, if pumping continues. A sudden reduction of pressure could indicate
a loss of lift due to subsurface leakage. In slabjacking operations, the
temperature is important when raising slabs to correct faulted joints or other
elevation differences. If the temperature is high, the concrete may be in

compression at the slab ends and may not be free to move. This may require
freeing the joints by sawing to complete lifting
process.

Elevation Control During Jacking

Before slabjacking operations are started, some method of controlling the
amount the slab is to be raised and the finished elevation of the pavement
should be determined. For correcting faulted slabs, a straight edge may be
used. For short dips up to approximately 50 feet (18.3 meters) in length, a
tight stringline is adequate provided the joints are true and plane with those
of the adjacent pavement. For dips in excess of 50 feet (18.3 meters) in
length, an engineers level and rod should be used to check the profile well
beyond the dip. This will avoid building a bulge into the pavement.

Plugging and Cleanup

After slabjacking has been completed in a hole and the discharge pipe
removed, the hole should be plugged immediately. Tapered wooden plugs are
temporarily placed into the injection hole to retain the pressure of the grout
and stop any return flow of the mixture. When slabjacking to the desired
elevation has been accomplished, the temporary plugs are removed and the
injection holes are filled with a stiff one-part-water, three-part-cement grout
or approved concrete mixture. These areas are then finished to an
approximate match with the existing pavement. Surfaces adjacent to the

grouting operation should be kept clean of excess grout and other materials.
Grout and cement slurry on the pavement should be broomed and washed
off to avoid unsightly discoloration and to remove the grout slurry before it
bonds to the surface.

REPAIRS OF COMMERCIAL
BUILDINGS
Concrete construction is generally expected to give trouble free service
through out its intended design life. However, these expectations are not
realized in many constructions because of structural deficiency, material
deterioration, unanticipated over loadings or physical damage. Premature
material deterioration can arise from a number of causes, the most common
being when the construction specifications are violated or when the facility is
exposed to harsher service environment than those expected during the
planning and design stages. Physical damage can also arise from fire,
explosion as well as from restraints, both internal and external, against
structural movement. Except in extreme cases, most of thestructures require
restoration to meet its functional requirements by appropriate repair
techniques.
Buildings and other structures have a certain useful life, which depends on
the specifications adopted. The large number of monuments, which are
cherished heritage structures have stood well over a period of time. But
some of these have shown signs of distress due to age, aggressive natural
environment industrial pollution etc. Further, distress gets aggravated due to
overloading/ misuse of buildings. A few buildings have also failed due to
faulty design / construction. Thus, Repairs & Rehabilitation of buildings are of
vital importance.

Scope
The Scope is:
1. To identify the causes of Repairs of Residential buildings
2. To select and plan the effective remedy using appropriate methodology.

1. Distress Identification:Before attempting any repair procedure it is necessary to have a planned

approach to investigate the condition of concrete and reinforcement. While
the diagnosis of damage or deterioration in some cases is reasonably
straightforward, it may not be so in many cases. Particularly difficult are
cases in which the cause and effect phenomenon cannot be readily
explained.
This will require a thorough technical inspection and an understanding of the
behaviour of the structural component, which is being repaired. Inspection
calls for detailed mapping of affected areas, documentation of type and
location of symptoms and their history and photographic evidences. It may
also include the environmental factors which are likely to accelerate the
damage process. Existence of concealed ducts, water lines, wet areas require
special attention. A comprehensive inspection data helps in making an
effective strategy for repair and rehabilitation

2. Repair Management:
Three distinct stages are to be recognized while taking up a repair job.
Stage 1: The first stage involves documentation of damage, its type and
extent, prognosis of repaired structure and recommendations on repair
methodology. For major jobs it will be worth while to engage an independent
consultant to do this job.
Stage 2: The second stage requires preparation of detailed drawings,
sketches, execution guidelines and notes, material and works specifications
and tender document. The tender document should adequately cover various
elements to the extent possible. Specific provisions in terms of material
specifications should be included. It should clearly define modalities of

payment, works measurements and records. This will facilitate in receiving a

fair and competitive proposal for the repair works. Guidelines prepared for
executing the job should be practical and flexible so as to encourage the
ingenuity of the contractor executing the job.
Stage 3: The third stage is actual execution of repairs. This is a specialized
job and those who have the necessary expertise and resources in terms of
tools and plants should be engaged. The supervising engineer should have a
good understanding of the procedures and give an attentive supervision. In
some cases it may become necessary to monitor the effectiveness of repairs
by various tests before and after the repairs have been executed.
Selecting a most appropriate material and repair methodology is very
important to achieve durable, effective and economic repairs. Matching the
response of repaired sections with the main structure is an important task.
Compatibility of materials and matching specifications are essential in any
repair job. Just as building durable construction requires understanding of
structural engineering, material science, and environment/ exposure
conditions, repair jobs also require the same level of attention in these areas.
The buildings taken up for repair may have structural deficiency and in such
cases it is necessary to consider provisions for strengthening through bracing
and creating alternative load transfer framing to give additional reserve
strength to the structure for adequate safety and serviceability response. If
this aspect is overlooked, the symptoms are likely to reappear even after
repairs have been carried out.

MISCELLANEOUS REGULATIONS FOR

BUILDINGS
DISTANCE OF BUILDINGS FROM ELECTRIC LINES
No verandah, balcony, saiban or the like be allowed to be erected or reerected or any additions or alterations made to a building with the distances
(quoted below) as per the current Indian Electricity Rules and its
amendments from time to time between the buildingsand any overhead
electric supply line. (Table 14)
Table 14

Voltage line

Vertically (meters)

Horizontally (meters)

(a) Low and medium

voltage lines and service
lines.

2.4 m

1.22 m

(b) High voltage lines

upto and including 33000
V.

3.66 m

1.83 m

(c) Extra high voltage

lines beyond 33000 V

3.66 m (plus 0.3 m for every

additional 33000 V or part
thereof)

1.83 m (plus 0.3 m for every

additional 33000 V or part
thereof)

Minimum thickness of load bearing walls excluding plaster for

residential or business masonry walled buildings:
The strength of masonry walls depends on a number of factors such as the
quality of bricks, mortar, method of bonding, unsupported height and length,
eccentricity in loading, the position and amount of openings in the wall, the
location of longitudinal and cross-wall and combination of various
external loads to which the walls are subjected. The walls should be designed
taking into account the various factors discussed above, such that the
stresses in the walls do not exceed the safe permissible limits.

REQUIREMENTS FOR SPECIFIC USES:

Parking spaces:
Parking spaces for cars required for cinemas, shopping centres and offices in
central areas shall be as given below:
Shopping areas: One car for 440 square meter of plinth area of shops.
Offices: One car for 600 square meter plinth area of offices.
Scales of areas required for parking cars, scooters, motor cycles and bicycles
shall be as below:
Cars 24 sq.m
Scooter / motor cycles 2.8 sq.m

Bicycles 1.4 sq.m

FACTORIES AND INDUSTRIAL

BUILDING REGULATIONS
Notwithstanding any provisions provided, in any one of these bye-laws, every
factory building or part thereof shall comply with the following additional
regulations:
a) Site: The location of every factory site shall be governed by the
provisions of the development plan. For cities having no development plans,
the factory site shall have to be approved by the authority.
b) Means of escape in case of fire: In the case of factories constructed or
converted to use as a factory after the date of enforcement of the these
regulations the following additional requirements shall apply:

i. At least two of the stairways provided should be of the fire resisting

materials.
ii. No stairway shall be less than 1.2m in width.
iii. All the stairs shall have an unobstructed head room of at least 2.1 m
measured vertically above the tread in line with the face of the riser.
iv. In straight treads, the run of the treads shall not be less than 25 cm wide
and the rise shall not be more than 18cm high. The width of the tread
including nosing shall not be less than 27 cm.
v. No part of a factory building shall be farther than 15 m from any one of
the fire escapes.
vi. Every staircase provided above shall be lighted and ventilated from an air
space of not less than 3m depth, measured horizontally in case of ground
and one upper floor structure, 4.5m in case of ground and two upper and
higher structures than this shall not have an air space of less than 6m,
provided that the lighting and ventilating area shall not be less than 1 sq.m
per floor height.
vii. Every person who undertakes construction of a factory building shall
construct lobby, landing corridor or passage included in such work that it
shall in no part be less than 1.2 m in width free from encroachment of any
kind and its floor shall be of fire-resisting materials and supported by fireresisting materials.
viii. Every hoist-way or lift-way inside a factory building shall be completely
enclosed with fire-resisting materials and means of access to that hoist or
lift, shall be fitted with doors of fire-resisting materials, provided that such
hoist-way or lift-way shall be enclosed only at the top by some material
easily broken by fire or be provided a vent at the top. Escape arrangements
should be fully in terms of section 38(7) of the Indian Factories Act,1948.
Abutment of over crowding:
These should be provided at all times for each person employed in any room
of the factory at least 3.4 sq.m f the floor space exclusively of that occupied
by the machinery and a breathing space of atleast 14 cubic meter.

Height of work Rooms

The internal heights of a work room shall not be less than 4.5 m measured
from the floor level to the lowest point in the ceiling.
Percentage of Coverage:
Not more than three-fifths area of the site may be covered subjected to the
mandatory open spaces specified as above:
Front area 7.5 m
Side yard 3.0 m
Rear yard 7.5 m
Miscellaneous
1.

Unfinished buildings: No building should be left with unfinished

portions including projecting reinforcing bars, which in the opinion of the
authority are unsightly unless within the permission prescribing conditions
with respect to the structure and the period for which such permissions
remain valid.

2.

Clearing of site: As soon as any building is completed, all rubbish,

refuse or debris of any description shall be removed by the owner from
the site or sites on which building operations have been carried out or
from any adjoining land which may have been used for deposition of
debris.

REGULATION FOR PROJECTIONS

FROM BUILDINGS
Projections from Buildings
No projections of any sort what so ever extending more than 23 cm below a
height of 4.3m, such as projection on the level of chajja, cornice, water
spouts, drains, pipes, advertisement boards and the like shall project over
the land of the road or over any drain of the vertical part of the rain water

spouts projecting at the road level or the water pipe may be permitted in
accordance with the drainage plan.
a) Sunshade over windows and ventilators: Projections of sunshades
over windows or ventilators when permitted by the authority shall fulfill the
following conditions:
i. Notwithstanding anything contained in these bye-laws, no projection of any
sort shall be permitted over the land and the road or over any drain or over
any portion outside the boundaries of the site below a height of 2.8 m from
the road level.
ii. Sunshades provided above a height of 2.8 m from the ground level shall
be permitted to project upto a maximum width of 60 cm if the road over
which they project exceeds 9m in width.
iii. No projection of any sort whatever shall be permitted on roads less than
9m in width or on roads having no footpaths.
b) Porticos in existing developed areas: Porticos may be allowed in such
roads as can leave a minimum clear space of 18m between kerbs or if a
stipulation has been made for such construction in the lease deed or in such
cases where its construction would completely fall in a gap in the existing
arcade, provided that these shall be constructed as follows:
i. It shall not be less than 3m wide and is either cantilevered or supported on
thin steel or RCC pillars.
ii. Nothing shall be allowed to be constructed on the portion which shall be
used as an open terrace.
iii. Nothing shall be allowed to project beyond the line of arcades.
iv. The space under the portion shall be paved and channeled according to
the directions of the authority.

REQUIREMENTS OF STAIRCASE &

BATHROOMS
Requirements of staircase and bathrooms other than lighting and
ventilation are given here.

Other requirements of staircase:

The minimum clear width of staircase in case of residential buildings shall not
be less than 1m. In case of a public building, a staircase not less than 1.2m
in width should be provided for 600 persons or thereof, expected to use the
building and the farthest corner of the building shall not be more than 30m
distant from the staircase. The maximum riser and minimum width of tread
of staircase should be as given in the table 2.

Type of Building

Maximum riser

Minimum tread width

Public buildings

15 cm

30 cm

Domestic buildings

19 cm

25 cm

Other requirements in the construction of bathrooms and

water closets:
Every water closets or bathroom should
1.

Be so situated that at least one of its walls shall be open to external

air.

2.

Not be directly over or under any room other than another latrine,
washing place, bath or terrace, unless it has a water tight floor.

3.

Have the platform or seat either plastered with cement or be made of

some water tight non-absorbent materials,

4.

Be enclosed by walls or partitions of bricks. Surface of every such wall

or partitions should be finished with a smooth impervious material, such
as cement plaster, 1.3cm thick of glass glazed tiles or polished marbles or
any suitable material to a height of not less than 1m above the floor of
such a room.

5.

Be provided with an impervious floor covering sloping towards the

drain and not towards varnishes or any other room.

6.

Have a floor level of such a height as to ensure suitable grade towards

the sewage drain.

LIGHTING AND VENTILATION

REQUIREMENTS OF ROOMS
LIGHTING AND VENTILATION OF ROOMS
a) Rooms: Every habitable room which should have for the admission of air
and light, one or more apertures such as windows and fanlights, opening
directly to the external air or into an open verandah and of an aggregate
area, inclusive of frames, of not les than
i. One-tenth of the floor area excluding doors for dry hot climate.
ii. One-sixth of the floor area excluding doors for wet/hot climate.
No portion of a room should be assumed as lighted if is more than 7.5m
away from the door or window which is taken for calculation as ventilating
that portion.
Cross-ventilation by means of windows and ventilators or both shall be
effected in at least living room of tenement either by means of windows in
opposite walls or if this is not possible or advisable, then atleast in the
adjoining walls.
b) Bathrooms and water closets: The rooms should be provided with
natural light and permanent ventilation by one of the following means:
i. Windows having an area of not less than 10% of the floor area and located
in an exterior wall facing a street alley, yard or an air shaft whose dimensions
in the direction perpendicular to the window is not less than one-third the
height of the building on which the window is located, subject to a minimum
limit of 1m and maximum 6m.
ii. Skylights, the construction of which shall provide light and ventilation
required in (i) above.

iii. Ventilation ducts: Provided such ducts have 130 square cm of area for
each square meter of area with a minimum total area of 300 square cm and
least dimension of 9cm.
c) Stores, backrooms: These will have atleast half the ventilation required
for living room.
d) Basement and floors: Basements and rooms located therein except
room shall be lighten and ventilated by windows in exterior walls having a
ventilating area of not less than 2.5% of the floor area.
e) Kitchen shall be ventilated according to standards prescribed for
habitable rooms near the ceiling as far as possible.
f) Stairways: every staircase should be lighted and ventilated from an open
air space of not less than 3m depth measured horizontally in case of ground
and one upper floor structure, 4.5 m in case of ground and two upper and in
higher structure than this, the open air space shall not be less than 6m,
provided that the lighting area shall not be less than 1 sq.m per floor height.
Every staircase shall be ventilated properly.

DAMP PROOF COURSE (DPC)

DAMP PROOF COURSE (DPC)
Materials for Damp Proof Course (DPC):
An effective damp proofing material should have the following
properties;
1.

It should be impervious.

2.

It should be strong and durable, and should be capable of withstanding

both dead as well as live loads without damage.

3.

It should be dimensionally stable.

4.

It should be free from deliquescent salts like sulphates, chlorides and

nitrates.

The materials commonly used to check dampness can be divided into

the following three categories:
1.

Flexible Materials: Materials like bitumen felts (which may be hessian

based or fibre/glass fibre based), plastic sheeting (polythene sheets) etc.

2.

Semi-rigid Materials: Materials like mastic, asphalt, or combination of

materials or layers.

3.

Rigid Materials: Materials like first class bricks, stones,

slate, cement concrete etc.

SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR DAMP PROOF COURSE:

The choice of material to function as an effective damp proof course requires
a judicious selection. It depends upon the climate and atmospheric
conditions, nature of structure and the situation where DPC is to be provided.
The points to be kept in view while making selection of DPC materials are
briefly discussed below:
1.

DPC above ground level: For DPC above ground level with wall
thickness generally not exceeding 40cm, any one of the type of materials
mentioned above may be used. Cement concrete is however commonly
adopted material for DPC at plinth level, 38 to 50mm thick layer of
cement concrete M15 (1:2:4 mix) serves the purpose under normal
conditions.

In case of damp and humid atmosphere, richer mix of concrete should be

used. The concrete is further made dense by adding water proofing materials
like Pudlo, Impermo, Waterlock etc in its ingredients during the process of
mixing. It is used to apply two coats of hot bitumen over the third surface of
the concrete DPC.
1.

DPC Material for floors, roofs etc: For greater wall thickness or
where DPC is to be laid over large areas such as floors, roofs, etc, the
choice is limited to flexible materials which provide lesser number of
joints like mastic, asphalt, bitumen felts, plastic sheets etc.

The felts when used should be properly bonded to the surface with bitumen
and laid with joints properly lapped and sealed.
1.

DPC Material for situations where differential thermal

movements occur: In parapet walls and other such situations, materials
like mastic, asphalt, bitumen felts and metal (copper or lead) are
recommended. It is important to ensure that the DPC material is flexible
so as to avoid any damage or puncture of the material due to differential
thermal movement between the material of the roof and the parapet.

2.

DPC material for Cavity Walls: In cavity wall construction, like

cavity over the door or window should be bridged by flexible material like
bitumen felt, strips or lead etc.

General principles to be observed while laying DPC are:

1.

The DPC should cover full thickness of walls excluding rendering.

2.

The mortar bed upon which the DPC is to be laid should be made level,
even and free from projections. Uneven base is likely to cause damage to
DPC.

3.

When a horizontal DPC is to be continued up a vertical face a cement

concrete fillet 75mm in radius should be provided at the junction prior to
the treatment.

4.

Each DPC should be placed in correct relation to other DPC so as to

ensure complete and continuous barrier to the passage of water from
floors, walls or roof.

Figures 1 to 7 explain provision of DPC under different conditions

Figure 1: Air Drain

Figure 2: DPC Treatment for basement on undrained soils.

Figure 3: Plan of building showing DPC

Figure 4: DPC treatment for basement in damp soil

Figure 5: Asphalt tanking for basement

Figure 6: DPC for flooring

Figure 7: DPC for internal wall

FORMWORK SAFE PRACTICES

CHECKLIST
A safe practice for formwork duringconstruction at site is important for safety
of workmen. Improper erection of formwork can cause damage to structural
element as well as pose threat to the safety of workmen.
Following are the safe practices checklist for formwork:

Formwork Safety Checklist during Design:

1. Formwork should be properly designed for the structural element
considered and its working drawing should be available at site.
2. Design of formwork should consider all the loads it will experience during
casting ofconcrete structural members.
3. Strength of materials used for formwork should be adequate to support
structural load as well as other loads imposed on it.
4. Formwork design should indicate the rate of concrete pour, height of
concrete pour, temperature and sequence and schedule of concrete pours.
5. Working drawing of formwork should have detailed dimensions including
pouring pocket size, compaction opening and cleanouts.
6. Formwork design should consider the safe bearing capacity of soil.

Formwork Safety Checklist during Construction:

Following inspection should be carried out before starting the concreting of
structural member:
1. Inspection of entire formwork system for details from bottom to top of
formwork for proper load transfer in safe manner.
2. Inspection of working scaffolds, ladders, runways, ramps and crossings.
3. Maintenance of good housekeeping around working area and passage.
4. Guarding of peripheral edges and floor openings.
5. Adequate space for safe working.
6. Safety training of workmen involved in formwork and concreting works.
7. Use of all personal protective equipment (PPEs).
8. Formwork, rigging inserts and connections checked for correct installation
and periodically checked for wear and correct position.

9. Removal of all unused and hanging forms, loose materials etc. stored on
exposed floors.
10. Inspection of all props and shores for adequacy to handle all the loads.
11. Removal of defective props.
12. Alignment of props such as verticality, height and spacing between props
should be inspected.
13. All props should be rested on bearing plates.
14. Props should be placed on hard bearing surface.
15. Safe nailing and firm locking of clamps on adjustable props.
16. Lateral stability of formwork and complete fixity at the joint between
props when one prop is placed on the top of the other.
17. Proper bearing below the stringers and joists at points of supports.
18. De-shuttering and removal of props below concrete slabs and beams
after development of adequate strength in concrete.
19. Construction loads not placed on freshly cast slab or beams while
removal of formwork or before concrete attaining required strength.
There can be many more checklists for formwork which has not been written
here. If you think any addition has to be made, please write those in
comments.

CONCRETE FORMWORK CHECKLIST

AT SITE
Concrete formwork is a temporary supporting structure for concrete when it
is placed at the construction site to keep the concrete in position and shape
till it gets hardened. Checks for formwork should be carried out before
concreting, during concreting and after removal of formwork. Concrete
formwork possesses both quality and safety threats. If the formwork is not
right for the concrete and work is being done at height, it may cause safety
issue. Quality of concrete is affected when the formwork is not properly
aligned, not leak proof etc. Proper storage of concrete formworks is also
required to for cost economy of the project.

CONCRETE FORMWORK CHECKLIST AT SITE:

FORMWORK CHECKLIST FOR WALLS:

1. Ensure lateral bracings provided firmly supports the forms at all points of
support.
2. Block out (stop end) braced to resist vertical and lateral loads.

3. Form panels are adequately braced and tied with each other.
4. Formwork corners shall be adequately tied to prevent leakage or bulging
and spreading of concrete.
5. Ensure sufficient length is provided for wall ties and has sufficient strength
and spacing as required.

6. Check wales for proper proper spacing and joints between should be
staggered from one tier to the next.
7. In double member wales, one member left continuous across the location
of form ties.
8. Wall ties and bolts tightened properly.
9. In case double member wales is used, both wales should have identical
depths.
10. Check for adequate lap between forms and previously cast concrete.
11. Ensure that grout leakage does not occur at joints between panels and
joints between old concrete and panels above them.
12. Check the provision of resistance against uplift in case of sloping faces of
concrete formwork.

13. Ensure experienced supervisor is available at site while installing the wall
forms and while placing concrete.

FORMWORK CHECKLIST DURING CONCRETING:

1. Before concreting commences ensure proper access for workers involved
in placing, compacting and finishing concrete.
2. Presence of experienced supervisor keeping a continuous watch for any
dangerous situation.
3. Adequate supply of spare props, clamps, bolts, wedges and skilled workers
at site.
4. Alignment, camber, level and plumb (verticality) maintained while
concreting is in progress.
5. Effective depth between top and bottom reinforcement not disturbed.
6. Cover of concrete around reinforcement steel maintained as specified.
7. Grout loss due to movement at joints and corrective action taken against
it.
8. Loosening of wedges and fixings due to vibrations transmitted to the
formwork and corrective action against it.
9. Spilt concrete and/or grout cleaned immediately.
10. All wooden spreaders, to hold vertical form faces apart, removed after
placing concrete.
11. Wooden members for creating pockets eased before concrete sets fully.
12. Concrete pouring sequence as per that shown on formwork drawing
(avoid eccentric loading).
13. Prevention of heaping of concrete and high impact drops from concrete
buckets.
14. Rate of concreting within allowable limits as shown on working drawing
or as assumed while designing the formwork against lateral pressures.

15. Proper bond between layers of concrete, in case concrete is placed in

layers, by ensuring that needle vibrator while vibrating the top layer also
penetrates the lower layer.

CHECKLIST DURING FORMWORK STRIKING (STRIPPING OR

REMOVAL):
1. Formwork design and layout such that smooth striking of formwork in
sequential manner is possible.
2. Strength of concrete capable of taking self weight and construction load on
it.
3. Removal time to be ascertained depending on size, shape and span of the
member, grade of concrete mix and its rate of gain of strength, type
of cement, ambient temperature and weather conditions and extent of curing
executed.
4. At the time of removal of side form, corners and edges not damaged.
5. Ties, clamps and wedges loosened and removed gradually.
6. Removal time in line with those specified in code of practice (IS 4562000).

7. Props in case of beams and slabs removed in stages from mid-span

working outwards.
8. Bolts, nuts, clamps, wedges collected in a box and not dropped carelessly.
9. Use of crowbars to prise open forms avoided.
10. Formwork prised loose using wooden wedges.
11. Formwork carefully lowered and not dropped and damaged.
12. Panel faces should be carefully removed and lowered without them
hitting the scaffold projections.
13. Panels placed on leveled surface after removal.
14. Nail projections hammered down.
15. Cordoning off the area below the location where formwork removal is
proposed.
16. Presence of competent crane operator and foreman.

CHEKLIST FOR CLEANING AND STORAGE OF FORMWORK:

1. Formwork as soon as it is removed, cleaned with a stiff brush.
2. Dust, dirt, stubborn bits of concrete or grout removed.
3. Timber surface and uncoated ply coated with release agent before storing.
4. Steel form coated lightly with oil to prevent corrosion.
5. Damaged formwork sorted out and repaired before storage.
6. Depressions, nail holes repaired with suitable materials and lightly rubbed
down to give smooth surface.
7. Panels and plywood sheets stored on a horizontally leveled floor.
8. Panels stored face to face to protect the surface.
9. Storage area protected from rain and moisture and well ventilated.

10. All formwork materials stacked off the ground.

11. Loose wailing, soldiers (struts) etc. stored with respective panels after
numbering for proper match when reused.
12. Bolts, nuts, champs, pins, wedges, keys and ties stored in separate bins
or boxes.

FORMWORK TECHNICAL,
FUNCTIONAL & ECONOMIC
REQUIREMENTS
Formwork is a temporary mould into which fresh concrete and reinforcement
are placed to form a particular reinforcedconcrete element.
A typical breakdown of total construction percentage costs shows that
formwork material and labour alone consists of 35% of the total concrete
construction cost. In the construction of a structural element, the cost
distribution can be found approximately as:

Concrete Cost Materials 28%; Labour 12% = 40%

Reinforcement Steel Cost -Materials 18%; Labour 7% = 25%

Formwork Cost Materials 15%; Labour 20% = 35%.

To ensure that the formwork is economical and practical to build, the

following basic technical, economical and functional requirements that should
be kept in mind when designing and constructing formwork.

Technical requirements of formwork:

Formwork should be of the desired shape, size and and fit at the
location of the member in structure according to the drawings.

Formwork shall be carefully selected for required finish surface and

linings to produce the desired concrete surface.

Formwork should withstand the pressure of fresh concrete and

working loads and should not distort or deflect from their position during
the concrete placing operation.

Formwork should support the designed loads any other applied loads
during the construction period.

The formwork must not damage the concrete or themselves during

removal from structure.

Panels of the formwork should be tightly connected to minimize gap at

the formwork connection to prevent leakage of cement paste.

Functional requirements of formwork:

Form sections should be of the size that can be lifted and transported
easily from one job site to another.

Formwork should be dismantled and moved as easily as possible so

that construction of the building advances.

Formwork Units must be interchangeable so that they can be used for

forming different members.

Formwork shall be designed such that it fits and fastens together with
reasonable ease.

Forms should be simple to build.

Formwork should be as lightweight as possible without any strength

reduction.

Forms should be made such that workers can handle them without any
safety issue, respecting the Health, Safety, and Hygiene Regulation in
effect.

Economic requirements of formwork:

Formwork shall be made of low cost materials, energy and labour if

possible.

Formwork should be manufactured such that it can be repetitively used

and shall be as adaptable as possible. They must be able to withstand a
good number of reuses without losing their shape.

Formwork must be designed so that the whole formwork can be

assembled and dismantled with unskilled or semi-skilled labour.

Formwork care and maintenance should be done according to

specifications.

CONCRETE FORMWORK DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS

Designing and building formwork effectively requires a basic understanding

of how concrete behaves as it exerts pressure on formwork. Concrete exerts
lateral pressure on the formwork. The formwork is designed based on these
lateral forces.
Lateral concrete pressure on formwork is affected by:
1) Height of concrete pour
2) Concrete pour rate
3) Weight of concrete
4) Temperature
5) Type of cement
6) Vibration
7) Concrete slump (watercement ratio)
8) Chemical additives
1) Height of concrete pour: Before concrete hardens, it acts like a liquid
and pushes against the forms the way water presses against the walls of a
storage tank. The amount of pressure at any point on the form is directly
determined by the height and weight of concrete above it. Pressure is not
affected by the thickness of the wall.

Fig: Lateral concrete pressure on formwork

2) Concrete pour rate: Concrete pressure at any point on the form is
directly proportional to the height of liquid concrete above it. If concrete
begins to harden before the pour is complete, the full liquid head will not
develop and the pressure against the forms will be less than if the pour were
completed before any of concrete hardened.
Once concrete hardens it cannot exert more pressure on the forms even
though liquid concrete continues to be placed above it. The following
diagrams illustrates how form pressure varies when the pour rate is
increased from one level to another level. For ease of explanation, it is
assumed that concrete hardens in one hour (typically) at 21C.

Fig: Concrete pressure on formwork during hardening

When the pour rate is increased the pressure also increases as shown below:

Fig: Concrete pressure on formwork due to higher pour rate

3) Weight of Concrete: Pressure exerted against the forms is directly
proportional to the unit weight of concrete. Light weight concrete will exert
less pressure than normal weight concrete as shown below:

Fig: Pressure on formwork due to normal and lightweight concretes

4) Temperature: The time it takes concrete to harden is influenced greatly
by its temperature. The higher the temperature of the concrete, the quicker
it will harden. Most formwork designs are based on an assumed average air
and concrete temperature of 21C. At low air temperatures, the hardening of
concrete is delayed and you need to decrease your pour rate or heat your
concrete to keep the pressure against the formwork from increasing. Ideally,
concrete should be poured at temperatures between 16C and 38C. Outside
this temperature range there is often insufficient moisture available for
curing. If adequate water for curing is not available or freezes, the strength
of the concrete will suffer.
5) Type of Cement: The cement type will influence the rate at which
concrete hardens. A high early strength concrete will harden faster than
normal concrete and will allow a faster pour rate. When using a cement
which alters the normal set and hardening time, be sure to adjust the pour
rate accordingly.
6) Vibration: Internal vibration consolidates concrete and causes it to
behave like the pure liquid. If concrete is not vibrated, it will exert less
pressure on the forms. ACI recommended formulas for form pressures may
be reduced 10% if the concrete is spaded rather than internally vibrated. Revibration and external vibration result in higher form loads than internal
vibration. These types of vibration require specially designed forms.
7) Concrete Slump: When concrete has very low slump, it acts less like a
liquid and will transmit less pressure. When using concrete with a slump
greater than 100 mm, the formwork should be designed to resist full liquid
head.

8) Chemical additives: When using chemical additives i.e. retarders,

plasticizers, etc. make sure to refer to the vendors application data.

INSULATING CONCRETE FORMWORK

Insulating concrete formwork (ICF) is a building system that uses lightweight
formwork (made from an insulating material) to support concrete walls whilst
they are being cast in-situ and which is then left in place as insulation.

Used on the continent and in North America for many years, ICF has proved
to be robust, cost effective method of constructing of variety of building
types from houses and basements to multi-storey cinemas and commercial
buildings.

How is it used in practice?

Insulated concrete formwork consists of twin-walled expanded polystyrene
panels that are stacked together to create the permanent formwork used to
contain the ready-mixed concrete for the walls.

The insulated formwork remains in place to provide complete thermal

insulation to the walls of the finished building. It also provides a uniform
surface ready for direct application of most finishes and proprietary cladding
systems. Many insulated concrete formwork systems also incorporate their
own flooring system.

Design Considerations:

The blocks that make up the insulating formwork are manufactured in

a variety of shapes and component types, creating limitless design
opportunities. For example, features such as bay windows and arches can
be generated without having to resort to specialist products. In addition,
floors can be constructed using ICF components.

Any type of foundation, flooring, partition, stair or roofing system is

compatible with ICF construction.

ICF provides an easy means of achieving high standards of structural,

energy, fire and acoustic performance.

The exterior of the building can be clad in any finish the architect
requires including masonry, brick slips, render tiles, curtain walling and
weather boarding. Internally, plaster or dry lining is applied directly to the
face of the expanded polystyrene formwork.

ICF advantages for the builder:

ICF is quick and easy to use without the need of skilled tradesman. In
fact, any builder can quickly erect an ICF structure since the lightweight
units are easier to handle than traditional materials. Typically an
experienced team of four can erect and concrete the walls of a threebedroomed bungalow in a day, significantly reducing the contract
program.

The low labour and reduced need for skilled tradesman result in more
efficient use of increasingly scarce construction workers. Also, with the
speedy construction of watertight building envelope, internal services and
finishings can progress independently of external cladding.

Service ducts and utilities can be pre-installed within the concrete core
or chased into the expanded polystyrene using a router of hot-wire cutter.

ICF components and temporary bracing systems are delivered as

lightweight portable packs, which do not require mechanical handling or
the use of special tools.

Just-in-time deliveries and direct placement of ready-mixed concrete

reduces waste and site storage facilities. Also, the energy-efficient
building allows downsizing of the boiler.

ICF Advantages for the occupier

The occupants benefit from low running expenses, as the energyefficient building costs less to heat. In fact, some houses need no heating
other than that provided by solar energy.

The ICF insulation reduces impact sound, while the concrete core
provides a solid mass to reduce airborne noise. This makes the system
ideal for party wall construction.

All ICF materials are inert, giving no toxic fumes. Also, the building
maintains an even comfortable temperature, and air quality is essentially
controlled good news for those with asthma or other allergies. There are
no problems with condensation, mould or mildew.

All expanded expanded polystyrene materials used in ICF buildings are

treated with fire retardant, thus giving all ICF systems appropriate fire
certifications. All mortgage lenders, insurance companies and planning
authorities accept ICF certification.

TYPES OF FORMWORK (SHUTTERING)

Formwork is an ancillary construction, used as a mould for a structure. Into
this mould, fresh concrete is placed only to harden subsequently. The
construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to
25% of the cost of the structure or even more. Design of these temporary
structures are made to economic expenditure. The operation of removing the
formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused. Reusable
forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary forms.
Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage
with timber formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of
water impermeable cost to the surface of wood mitigates these defects.
A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1.

It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and

live loads.

2.

It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced

both horizontally and vertically, so as to retain its shape.

3.

The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage

of cement grout.

4.

Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in

desired sequences without damage to the concrete.

5.

The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and

should be suitable for reuse.

6.

The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels
should have plane surface.

7.

It should be as light as possible.

8.

The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when
exposed to the elements.

9.

It should rest on firm base.

Economy in Formwork
The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of
formwork:
1.

The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in

the size of rooms, floor area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork
repeatedly.

2.

Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most

economical way.

3.

Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to

enable reuse of the material a number of times. The quantity of surface
finish depends on the quality of the formwork.

Formwork can be made out of timber, plywood, steel, precast concrete or

fibre glass used separately or in combination. Steel forms are used in
situation where large numbers of re-use of the same forms are necessary.
For small works, timber formwork proves useful. Fibre glass made of pre-cast
concrete and aluminium are used in cast-in-situ construction such as slabs or
members involving curved surfaces.

Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement:
It should be
1.

well seasoned

2.

light in weight

3.

easily workable with nails without splitting

4.

free from loose knots

Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth
and even surface on all faces which come in contact with concrete.

Normal sizes of members for timber formwork:

Sheeting for slabs, beam,
column side and beam bottom

25 mm to 40mm thick

Joints, ledges

50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150 mm

Posts

75 x 100mm to 100 x 100

mm

Plywood Formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up
panels of required sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably
with that of timber shuttering and it may even prove cheaper in certain cases
in view of the following considerations:
1.

It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface

finishing is there.

2.

By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour

cost of fixing and dismantling.

3.

Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For

estimation purpose, number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.

Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the
edges by small steel angles. The panel units can be held together through
the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in
large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are largely
used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the
shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for
circular or curved structures.

Steel forms compared with timber formwork:

1.

Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber
formwork and their reuses are more in number.

2.

Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and
speed.

3.

The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good

and such surfaces need no further treatment.

4.

Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.

5.

Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

Construction of formwork:
This normally involves the following operations:
1.

Propping and centring

2.

Shuttering

3.

Provision of camber

4.

Cleaning and surface treatment

Order and method of removing formwork:

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:
1.

Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides
should be removed first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.

2.

Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.

3.

Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded

shuttering should be removed in the end.

Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow
early removal of formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be
allowed to be removed until all the concrete reaches strength of atleast twice
the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal
of formwork. All formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in order
to prevent the load being suddenly transferred to concrete.
Figure 1 to 6 shows formwork for different types of members in civil
engineering construction.

Figure 1(a): Details of timber formwork for RCC beam and slab floor

Figure 1(b): Details at section (A) shown in above figure

Figure 2(a): Elevation

Figure 2(b): Details of timber formwork for circular RCC column

Figure 3(a): 150 3D View

Figure 3(b): Details of timber formwork for square or rectangular RCC

column

Figure 4: Sectional plan showing details of timber formwork for an octagonal

column

Figure 5: Details of formwork for stair

Figure 6: Timber formwork for RCC wall

Table: Period of removal of formwork

S. No. Description of structural member

Period of time

Walls, columns and vertical sides of beams

1 to 2 days

Slabs (props left under)

3 days

Beam soffits (props left under)

7 days

Removal of props to slabs

(a) For slabs spanning upto 4.5 m

7 days

(b) For slabs spanning over 4.5 m

14 days

Removal of props to beams and arches

(a) Spanning upto 6 m

14 days

(b) spanning over 6 m

21 days

FORMWORK AND GOOD FORMWORK

PROPERTIES
What is formwork?
When concrete is fresh and in its liquid state it must be restrained within a
mould in order for it to set in its required shape. Formwork is the term used
to describe this mould.
For most in-situ pours, the formwork is made of wood. A smooth outer
surface provides the main support for theconcrete as it sets. This is normally
made of plywood.
Concrete is approximately 2.4 times as dense as water, and in its liquid state,
it imposes considerable forces on the formwork containing it. Consequently it
is necessary to reinforce the plywood with horizontal wooden beams or
wailings.

If constructed properly, this mechanism of a plywood skin supported by

timber wailings provides ample support for the setting concrete. The
mechanism of transferring these loadsto a solid support can be performed by
numerous methods which are collectively known as falsework.

GOOD FORMWORK:
There are two factors that decide how well the concrete will look in the final
result.. one is how the concrete is placed and compacted, and the other is
the quality of the formwork.
Formwork is made from expensive materials, and requires great skill and
experience in its manufactures. Its importance is evident when you consider
that the cost of fabrication, erecting and striking the formwork, often exceeds
the cost of the concrete it is designed to shape and support.
Formwork usually needs to be used many times for it to be cost efficient.
This can only be done if it is carefully handled, cleaned and stored,
regardless of what material it is made from.
For anything other than most smallest of concreting jobs e.g. walls over 1m
in height, a drawing should be provided, showing what formwork is required.
This need not be an intricate design drawing, a simple sketch is usually
sufficient.
The below picture shows part of a concrete structure soon after the formwork
has been struck. Not the poor finish (circled). This is an imprint off the

painted plywood formwork. Some of the paint has run, and this has been
transposed to the concrete. It is important to remember that the face of the
concrete is effectively a negative of the formwork face. Always inspect the
formwork prior to pouring.

Good formwork should fulfill the following criteria:

It is strong enough to support the weight of fresh concrete during

placing and compacting, and any other loads it may be required to take.

The face of the formwork is of sufficient quality for its use.

It can be easily erected and struck.

It is sufficiently stable in all weathers.

It can be handled safely and easily using the equipment available.

It provides suitable access for placing and compacting the concrete.

It conforms with appropriate safety regulations.

The joints between members are sound enough to prevent grout

leakage.

MATERIALS FOR FORMWORK

Following are the materials which are used for formwork:
Plywood:
This is by far the most common material used for the facing panel. It is easily
cut to shape on site, and if handled and stored carefully, it can be used many
times.

Note the different thickness: A standard plywood thickness on site is 18mm.

this is usually sufficient for most pours. However, if the formwork is curved, a
thinner plywood is used to facilitate bending. Thicker plywood may be used
when the weight of concrete causes a standard thickness plywood to bow
out, distorting the concrete face.
Timber:
This is the most common material used for bracing members to the form
face. Like plywood, it can be easily cut to size on site. Formwork made from
timber is called traditional formwork. The construction methods using timer
formwork have been used on site for years, and all well understood by
trained operators.

Steel:
Steel is also used in pre-fabricated formwork. Purpose made steel forms are
fabricated when dimensional tolerances are critical, or when the forms are
planned to be re-used. Steel forms become cost-efficient after about a dozen
uses, although they can be used upto 100 pours if they are carefully cleaned
and stored.

Aluminium:
Often used in pre-fabricated formwork, that is put together on site.
Aluminium is strong and light, and consequently fewer supports and ties are
required. The lighter sections will deflect more, but this can be avoided by
simply following the manufacturers recommendations.
Plastics:
Glass reinforced plastics (GRP) and vacuum formed plastics are used when
complicated concrete shapes are required (e.g. waffle floors). Although

vacuum formed plastics will always need support, GRP can be fabricated with
integral bearers making it self supporting. Like steel, plastic formwork can be
re-used many times, as long as care is taken not to scour the surface whilst
vibrating the concrete.