KDN PP 11720/4/2013 (032270)

THE
VOL.57

JANUARY-MARCH 2014

L E M B AG A J U R U TE R A M A L AY S I A

B O A R D O F E N G I N E E R S M A L AY S I A

INGENIEUR

M A G A Z I N E O F T H E B O A R D O F E N G I N E E R S, M A L A Y S I A

MANAGING WATER

Challenges in the Construction of the

Pahang-Selangor Raw Water Transfer
Tunnel
Rainwater Utilisation Systems in
Malaysia
Water Security in Malaysia
Global Directions towards creating
Water Footprints
ai

PHOTO COURTESY OF Ir. FONG CHEW CHUNG

Pembiayaan Peribadi-i
INGENIEUR

BANK ISLAM

yaan Asas

bia
KPA - Kadar Pem

Pilihlah dengan bijak.

Dapatkan lebih penjimatan
dengan bayaran bulanan
yang rendah.
Nikmati KADAR pembiayaan yang RENDAH

Dapatkan Khidmat
Nasihat Mengenai:

Beban kewangan Bulanan

Pembiayaan maksima sehingga RM200,000

(bagi pembiayaan melebihi RM150,000, pemohon mestilah berpendapatan
RM120,000 setahun)

* Khas untuk pembiayaan melalui potongan gaji atau pindahan gaji ke akaun Bank Islam dari majikan
yang terpilih dan kadar adalah sah pada masa iklan ini dicetak. Tertakluk kepada terma dan syarat.

6
aii

VOL
2014
VOL 57
55 JANUARY-MARCH
JUNE 2013

PF 001

Tidak perlu menjelaskan pembiayaan

dengan bank lain untuk menikmati
KADAR ISTIMEWA kami

BINA

INGENIEUR

35

CONTENTS
8

19 Sourcing from the Sky

Rainwater Utilisation
Systems in Malaysia

5 Presidents Message
Announcement

6 Publication Calendar
The Ingenieur e-magazine
on Smartphones & iPad
8 Wishing All Readers
Cover Feature

10 Challenges in the
Construction of the PahangSelangor Raw Water
Transfer Tunnel
19

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World Report

26 Global Directions towards

creating Water Footprints
31 WHO - Water Quality and
Health Strategy 2013-2020
35 World Water Day 2013
Water Co-operation

74

Special Feature

42 Control Requirements
for Waterborne
Legionnaires Disease
50 Water Security in Malaysia
Corporate Report

54 PBA: The Road to Corporatisation,

Public Listing & Beyond
Feature

66 Placing a Monetary Value to Angling

in River Waters
71 River Of Life Project Moves
Melawati Residents

54

Photo Feature

74 The Marvel of 2,200-year old

Irrigation Structure at Dujiangyan
Engineering Nostalgia

78 Culvert Construction in 1906

Lighter Moments

80 Shaikys View
50

26

INGENIEUR

EDITORIAL BOARD

LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA

BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA
2013-2014
PRESIDENT

YBhg Dato Seri Ir. Hj. Mohd Noor bin Yaacob

BOARD MEMBERS
YBhg. Dato' Ir. Nordin bin Hamdan
YBhg. Datuk Wira Ir. Md Sidek bin Ahmad
YBhg. Datuk Ir. Hj Abdul Latif bin Mohd Som
YBhg. Dato' Prof. Ir. Dr. Hassan bin Basri
Ir. Mohtar bin Musri
Ir. Yahiya bin Awang Kahar
Ir. Zuraimi bin Haji Sabki
Ir. Prem Kumar M Vasudevan
Ir. Dr. Abdul Majid bin Dato' Abu Kassim
Ir. Gunasagaran Kristnan
Ir. Gopal Narian Kutty
Ir. Prof. Dr. Lee Teang Shui
Ir. Choo Kok Beng
Ar. Dr. Tan Loke Mun
Sr. Nik Zainal Alam bin Hassan

EDITORIAL BOARD
ADVISOR

YBhg Dato Seri Ir. Hj.Mohd Noor bin Yaacob

CHAIRMAN

YBhg Dato Prof. Ir. Dr Hassan bin Basri

EDITOR

Ir. Fong Tian Yong

EDITORIAL MEMBERS

Prof. Ir. Dr K S Kannan

Ir. Prem Kumar
Ir. Chan Boon Teik

PUBLICATION OFFICER

Pn Nik Kamaliah Nik Abdul Rahman

SECRETARY

Ir. Ruslan bin Abdul Aziz

REGISTRAR

Ir. Hizamul-din bin Ab. Rahman

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

Ir. Ashari bin Mohd Yakub

The Ingenieur is published quarterly by the Board of Engineers Malaysia (Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia)
and is distributed free to registered Professional Engineers.
The statements and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the writers.
BEM invites all engineers and readers to contribute relevant articles and views to the Publisher.
PUBLISHER
Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia
Tingkat 17, Ibu Pejabat JKR, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin,
50580 Kuala Lumpur.
Tel: 03-2698 0590 Fax 03-2692 5017
e-mail: nikkamalia@bem.org.my
website: www.bem.org.my
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: Inforeach Communications Sdn Bhd
PRINTER: Art Printing Works Sdn Bhd
6
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JUNE 2013

PRESIDENTS MESSAGE

Managing Water

he balance between increasing water

demand and available fresh water sources
is a major concern for most regions,
particularly in the water scare areas. Water,
although a renewable natural resource, and
available fresh water supply rather constant, its
distribution is variable over regions and periods,
made worse by climate change. Water demand
on the other hand is rising in proportion to
population growth, industrial development, new
affluent lifestyle and agriculture use.
The subject of water as an important
element for sustainable development remains
one of the top agenda in forums of international
organisations. The UN Summit on Climate
Change in 2009 named water scarcity along with
energy security, biodiversity loss and ecosystem
destruction among the critical areas where new
ideas, institutional mechanisms and financial
arrangements are necessary to counteract a
wide range of global sustainable issues.
Although Malaysia is self sufficient in
water consumption at the moment, we should
take cognizance of the worlds movement
and consumption trend as the supply and
demand equation is closely linked globally. The
international movement and new concepts such
as World Water Council, World Water Day 2013,
water footprint, virtual water and Rio+20 Habitat
will impact our nation one way or another.
Comparing Malaysia with Middle East, we have a
comparative advantage over these water-scarce

regions in producing water intensive-goods such

as fresh water fish and vegetables.
In this issue, the above global concerns
are well highlighted in some interesting articles
such as Water Footprint and World Water Day
2013. The article on WHO - Water Quality and
Health Strategy 2013-2020 is equally important
for the food processing establishments as
most food importing nations are imposing food
security measures benchmarked on international
standards. The way water quality is being
regulated at food processing plants is linked to
technology and innovation such as ozone water,
bubbling technology, reverse osmosis and the
like where engineering input will be required.
Human civilization has witnessed several
engineering marvels dating back thousands
of years. The article on irrigation works in
Dujiangyan, China constructed 2,200 years ago
and is still in use today provides a good account
of the use of primitive but innovative ideas
then to tackle some of the difficult engineering
challenges of that period.
As the first issue of the year, I wish all
readers a Happy New Year and may 2014 bring
more excitement to the engineering fraternity
with the nation emphasizing innovation as the
way forward.

Dato Seri Ir Hj Mohd Noor bin Yaacob

President, BEM

INGENIEUR

ANNOUNCEMENT

PUBLICATION CALENDAR
KDN PP 11720/4/2013 (032270)

THE
vol.56

sePtember 2013

L E M B AG A J U R U TE R A M A L AY S I A

B O A R D O F E N G I N E E R S M A L AY S I A

INGENIEUR

M A G A Z I N E O F T H E B O A R D O F E N G I N E E R S, M A L A Y S I A

Housing for Persons

WitH Disabilities
ibs roaDmaP revieW &
tHe Way forWarD
eco-frienDly Houses in
JanDa baik

The Ingenieur is published quarterly by the

Board of Engineers Malaysia. The following
are the themes for the coming issues.
VOL 58 April-June 2014 ICT
CONVERGENCE
VOL 59 July-Sept 2014
CONSTRUCTION SAFETY
VOL 60 Oct-Dec 2014 OIL & GAS
Articles and editorial contributions
relevant to the themes are welcomed,
but the decision to publish rests with the
Editorial Board.

reit management & tHe

Pivotal role of tHe reit
manager
neWly emerging
metHoDs of contract
Procurement in malaysia

Advertising inquiries are also welcomed.

Please refer to the BEM advertisement
in this issue for the latest rate card and
booking form.

Housing for all

ai

ingenieur sept2013-FA1.indd 1

10/1/13 4:19 PM

THE INGENIEUR E-MAGAZINE ON

SMARTPONES & iPad
THE INGENIEUR Vol. 56 September 2013 issue can
now be read on smartphone as well as iPad. Read
anywhere, anytime and share with your colleagues
and friends.

ERRATA
We extend our apologies for errors in the
following articles in Ingenieur Vol 56, Sept
2013, and note here the corrections.

Mobile Version - Scan the QR Code

Are Professional Engineers more accountable

with the implementation of the CCC?
Page 31 - The Factory & Machinery
Department is corrected to Department of
Occupational Safety and Health.

The Ingenieur Vol 56

September 2013

Green Building Index & Green Housing

Pg 36 REFERENCES
Item 5: Interior Designers (MIID) is not in
the BIPC
Item 12: KeTTHA is the acronym for
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology &
Water.

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Jan-March 2014

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Green IBS: A Design Concept of Divergent

Dwelling System
Page 39 Table
Under Area Column, Row 7 should read
First Bathroom

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With its rising prominence in the global economy, developing Asias energy capacity
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INGENIEUR

WISHING ALL READERS

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A whole new business

and training retreat
UTM SPACE

sewaruang@utmspace.edu.my
9

COVER FEATURE

INGENIEUR

Challenges in the
Construction of the

Pahang-Selangor Raw
Water Transfer Tunnel
By Dr Zullkefle Nordin
Project Director,
Pahang Selangor Raw Water Transfer,
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water
The state of Selangor especially the Klang Valley, Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya have
experienced rapid development over the years. The statistics for water demand for these locations
shows there was increase from 2440 million litres per day (MLD) in 1998 to 3809 MLD in 2008. This
trend of increasing water demand at 3.3% per annum is expected to continue in the foreseeable future.
The water demand for 2025 is projected to be about 6242 MLD. To meet the increasing water demand,
the Federal Government has decided to look for alternative water resources beyond Selangor. The
development of water resources requires long distance transfer and hence becomes more expensive
as most of the resources close to the demand centres have been fully developed. The Pahang-Selangor
Raw Water Transfer Project (PSRWT) was identified as the most viable option to meet water demand
for Selangor and Kuala Lumpurs in the future.
Introduction
This project aims to relieve shortfalls in water
supply for daily life and industries of Kuala Lumpur
and Selangor State in the future (supplying
approximately 1890 MLD) of raw water from Pahang
State to Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding areas.
The project consists of four packages;
1. Raw Water Transfer Tunnel,
2. Kelau Dam,
3. Pump House and Intake Works, and
4. Raw Water Twin Pipelines.
Figure 1 shows the overall view of the project.
The consultant engineer was appointed in 2005
for the design work. This project was financed by
the Government of Japan (GOJ) through the Japan
International Co-operation Agency (JICA) and the
Government of Malaysia (GOM). The overall cost
of the project is budgeted to be RM3.93 billion
of which GOJ will finance 75% of the construction
costs. The procurement procedure used is the
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International Competitive Bidding procedure as

requested by JICA. The conditions of contract used
is the Federation Internationale Des IngenieursConseils 1987 (FIDIC 1987). The construction
works began in June 2009 and all the works (all
the four packages) will be completed by the May
30, 2014. Figure 1 shows the progress of each
individual package. As at the end of November
2013 the overall progress of PSRWT was 90.3%. In
this article, the author will concentrate only on the
challenges encountered during the construction of
the raw water transfer tunnel.
The Raw Water Transfer Tunnel
The tunnel is the seventh longest water tunnel in
the world and the longest in the Asian region. It
is 44.6km long with 5.2m diameter. It includes
three sections of 34.6km each excavated by
Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM), four sections each
with a length of 9.1km excavated by conventional
tunnelling methods (New Austrian Tunnelling

Figure 1 Pahang-Selangor Raw Water Transfer Project

Method) and one section with a length of 0.9km

excavated by the Cut and Cover method.
This tunnel route passes under the Titiwangsa
Main Range located in middle of Malaysia Peninsula
(Figure 2). The maximum overburden of the tunnel
is 1,246m at the state border between Selangor
State and Pahang State. The overburden is more
than 1,000m at TBM-1 and 1565m at TBM-2.
As of November, 2013, all the excavation
works had been completed except for TBM1 and
TBM 2 which is about 1.8km, The final breakthrough
is targeted for the end of February 2014. Figure
3 shows the cross section and the progress of
works of the raw water transfer tunnel. Table 1, in
Appendix 1 shows the features of the raw water
transfer tunnel and related works.
Several types of supports were also used
with respect to the rock types (Table 3 and Table 4
in Appendix 2)
Geological Conditions
Figure 4 shows the geological conditions and
fault zones along the tunnel route. Almost 90%
of the rock formations are granite and the rest
are meta-sedimentary rock. The average uni-axial
compressive strength of the granite varies from
150-200 MPa. It is expected that more than 85% of

the tunnel alignment

consists
of
hard
granite
in
good
condition
(Rock
Classification
A&B
according) based on
the Japan Highway
Public
Corporation
(JHPC) as shown in
Table 2 of Appendix 1.
Figure 2 Location of
Raw Water Tunnel

Challenges in Tunnel
Construction
Deep tunnel construction involves high risks
and uncertainties due to minimum availability of
geological data and limited equipment capabilities
used in soils investigation. Through experience and
employing the best engineering practices one can
predict the problems which might be encountered
in deep tunnel excavation.
In view of the long distances involved in
tunnel driving and high ground cover, which
exceeds 1200m in places, relatively few boreholes
have been drilled along the tunnel alignment. To
determine ground conditions ahead of the tunnel
faces during construction, it is only really feasible
to investigate from inside the tunnel.
11

INGENIEUR

Figure 3 Cross
Section and Progress
of Raw Water Tunnel
Some of the challenges faced during the
PSRWT tunnel excavation: Cavity (Lepoh Fault)
High Temperature
High Water Ingress
Rock Spalling/Rock Burst (associated
with High Overburden)
Drill and Blast Under Sg. Kerau
Cavity Encountered at Lepoh Fault
Lepoh Fault is one of the six fault zones along
the tunnel route. It is situated at about 28,590
metres from the tunnel outlet. The rock formation
surrounding this fault was found to be Class B
which is good rock, hard and fresh but affected
by weathering. During the excavation, TBM 2
encountered cavities with loose rocks falling into
the tunnel. It is unusual for cavities to occur in
granite rock as compared to limestone formations
where it is a common phenomenon. During this
incident, all TBM excavation had to stop. Remedial
work had to be carried out in order to ensure
worker safety and to ensure that the TBM would
not be damaged. Mitigation steps were taken to
inject grouting into the cavities and by changing the
tunnel support at the location. Figure 5 and Figure
6 shows the remedial works and face collapse at
the Lepoh Fault.
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High Temperature
at TBM 2
High
rock
temperatures
were experienced
between 19.5km
to 26km from the
tunnel inlet basin.
The
maximum
rock temperature
recorded
was
about 55.5C at
the
overburden
of 1250m. The
reason for the
high temperature Figure 4 Geological and
was not known. Fault Zones
The temperature
at other locations was less than 30C even without
the use of air conditioning. Several assumptions
were made including, it may associated with the
movement of Bukit Tinggi fault, occurrence of hot
springs and also with high overburden along the
tunnel route. A study was carried out but at the
moment the results seem to be inconclusive. Figure
7 and Figure 8 show the rock and ingress water
temperatures. The maximum working temperature
specified in NIOSH guidelines 35C.

Figure 5 Remedial Works at Lepoh Fault

Figure 6 Face Collapse at TBM 2

Figure 7 - Rock and Ingress Water Temp

Figure 8 - Temperature of Water, Air and Rock

The cause of the high temperature is still

under investigation by local universities.
Measurements of rock and water temperature
were taken at regular intervals. The data obtained
was analysed for health and safety reasons of the
workers working in the tunnel. Figure 9 shows the
measurements recorded in the tunnel.
To overcome the low productivity of the
workers and hazardous working environment,
additional chillers and air conditioning units were
installed to reduce the ambient temperature inside
the tunnel.
Special vests were used by the workers during
working. As a result the ambient temperature was
reduced to desirable limits. Figure 10 shows the
results of the ambient temperature after additional
chillers were installed to overcome the high
temperature.
High Water Ingress
Groundwater ingress caused problems in the TBM1 and TBM-2 and these were generally dealt with
by providing adequate dewatering measures.
The amount of the ingress water during
tunnel excavation was estimated as relatively
small based on the results of series of geological
investigations and the ground water analysis. The
counter measures were mainly focused on ensuring
the tunnel face was stabilised during excavation.
However, it imperative to be prepared for the worst
case scenario of a large amount of water inflowing
into tunnel, caused by unexpected poor ground
conditions, or the collapse of the work face under
a river. With this in mind, several countermeasures
were taken both inside and outside the tunnel.
A dewatering system with a capacity of 10 tons
per minute was installed at the Junction of Adit1 tunnel and the Main tunnel at the beginning
of the project. However, in order to treat a larger
amount of unexpected water inflow up to 20m3/
min a stop-log utility was prepared at the Junction
to secure enough time for evacuation of the main
machineries and for installation of additional
dewatering equipment.
During the excavation at TBM 1, the ingress
water the total quantity exceeded 16m3/min. A
similarly problem was experienced at TBM 2. As
a result the working area was flooded. The high
water ingress at both TBMs made it impossible for
the excavation work to continue for safety reasons

13

INGENIEUR
of the workers and the TBM. The TNB lines that
supply power to the TBM use 33KV which may be
short circuited and post a danger to the workers
in the tunnel. Figure 11, Figure 12 and Figure 13
show the seriousness of ingress water at TBM 1
and TBM 2 respectively.
Rock Spalling/Rock Burst
A rock burst occurrence is a common phenomenon
in deep tunnel excavation in hard rocks with rare

Water Ingress at TBM-2 : Ch. 30,066.8 (TD 95.2m)

Ingress Water 5 m3/min
Ingress Water from TBM hopper

Ingress Water
at Right Wall

Under TBM Bridge Conveyor

Separation of

Sump Pit at Portal

Direct
Discharge

Clean Water
Turbid Water

Figure
12 Ingress Water at TBM 2

Figure 9 Measurement of Rock and Water

Temperature in the Tunnel
Figure 13- The Flow of Ingress Water in the Tunnel

Figure 10 Analysis of Ambient Temperature

Figure 11 Ingress Water at TBM 1

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joint zones. For the PSRWT tunnel, rock bursting

occurred in the deeper sections of the TBM 2
tunnel section with an overburden of 800m, which
adversely impacted excavation work. Rock bursting
occurs due to a sudden brittle failure of intact
rock caused by high in-situ rock stresses being
released after the excavation works see Figures
14 (a) and (b).
To clarify the stress redistribution by tunnel
excavation, in situ stress test by Compact Conicalended Borehole Over-coring (CCBO) technique
was carried out at three locations at Adit 2, Adit
3 and Ch.24252. Tests in Adit 2 and Adit 3 were
done before the excavation of the main tunnel was
commenced. The test in TBM 2 was done with high
cover zone of more than 1000m.
The results of the test indicated the vertical
stress is more dominant than the horizontal stress
under thick cover section and the balance of
vertical stress and rock strength showed that the
rock breakout phenomena was mainly in the class
of mild rock burst in Bartons Q system. The rock
strength is represented conveniently by Schmidt
Hammer Test on the tunnel wall.

Figure 14(b) Rock Burst at TBM 1

Figure 14(a)- Rock Burst at TBM 2

Figure 15Tunnel Surface with Fibre Mortar

Several mitigation steps were taken to

overcome the rock burst along the tunnel route,
including the installion of netting and spraying the
fibre mortar at the location of rock bursts. Figure
15 shows mitigation steps to overcome rock burst.

friable clay or sandy material at the tunnel crown.

Permeability tests were carried out using two
methods:
a. Lugeon Test, and
b. Johnson Formation Test (JFT)
In order to figure out the permeability of
fractured granite rock under the river, a series
of Lugeon tests (Pressurized water permeability
tests) were carried out by utilising additionallybored vertical boreholes. The test results showed

Drill and Blast Under Sg. Kerau

One of the greatest challenges faced during the
tunnel construction was tunnelling across Sg.
Kerau in Pahang. The cover between the river bed
and tunnel crown is 10m and it was considered
possible that the river bed might collapse into the
tunnel due to the high water ingress.
Of the 10m overburden at the river crossing
area, the rock portion was assumed to be about
5m thick with weathered condition right above the
tunnel crown, and above this 5m thick rock section
was alluvial material, which was assumed to
consist of silt, sand and gravel. Therefore, counter
measures had to be considered from two aspects;
how to tackle the assumed ingress water and how
to stabilize the tunnel face during excavation.
Additional boreholes were carried out at the
locations. The result of this series of investigations
showed that there was only 3-4m of rock coverage
above the tunnel crown and, furthermore, the
rock was found to be significantly fractured and
weathered, indicating that there might be some

Figure 16 Lugeon Test Map Around Kerau River

15

INGENIEUR
that in most of the area measured the Lugeon
value (Lu) was less than 20 Lu, while in some
areas locally under the tunnel invert level there
were relatively high values of 50 to 135 Lu. The
result of the Lugeon Test is illustrated in Figure 16.
Furthermore, for the purpose of assessing
the permeability from the tunnel crown up to the
surface, JFT (Johnson Formation Test) was also
conducted by using five vertical boreholes. As a
result, the obtained coefficient of permeability
was within 10-6 to 10-7 m/sec. The rock core and
the series of permeability tests indicated the rock
condition around the tunnel at the river-crossing
area consisted of a low-permeable layer of silt,
fine sand and clay material. Consequently the
possibility of occurrence of high water pressure to
cause a large amount of ingress water would be
quite small with an earth covering as shallow as
approximately10-20m.
A series of high-density electrical exploration
surveys was implemented at the river-crossing.
The result of the high-density electrical exploration
survey is shown in Figure 17. The difference in
specific resistance values in the survey indicated
that relatively-hard rock would be located around
the tunnel crown right under the river, and above
this rock layer was a clay layer with low permeability.
From this result, it was speculated that the stability
of the tunnel crown could be more problematic in
terms of proceeding the tunnel excavation than
the permeability of the ground at the river-crossing
area.

Figure 17 High-Density Electrical Exploration

Results
For the purpose of stabilizing the tunnel
crown during tunnel excavation, the installation of
25m long Steel pipe fore poling with silica resin
injection was selected as a countermeasure,
combined with the normal 6m long fore poling

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Figure 18 Tunnelling Under the Kerau River

to complement 25m long steel pipe fore poling.
These methods are designed so that the fore
poling pipes or rods are installed immediately
outside the to-be-excavated perimeter, and silica
resin material is injected from the pipes or rods
by fracturing or penetrating to bond the jointed
rock or decomposed rock, forming an umbrella
ahead of the tunnel face to pre-support the ground
in advance of tunnel excavation.
For this work, silica resin was selected as
the material for injection, taking into consideration
the economical aspects and the estimation of
low-permeability of the rock excavated right under
the river. Additionally urethane material with quite
short set time was also prepared in case of an
occurrence of a large amount of ingress water
(Figure 18).
Safety Aspects in the Tunnelling
Safety in tunnelling work is of utmost importance.
Special care has to given priority to prevent fire
accidents occurring. Emergency Response Plan
(ERP) should be in place and needs to reviewed
regularly. Mock fire drills should be carried out
regularly with various authorities. It is suggested
that Malaysia needs to have its own standards for
in working in confined spaces. It is necessary that
standards should be formulated since tunnelling is
becoming more popular.
About 9,732,310 man hours was reached
without any fatal accident for the PSRWT tunnelling
work. This is because the contractor and the
Government set very high safety standards of
safety by benchmarking against the worlds best
practices.

Conclusion
Mapping work was carried out documenting the
experiences and problems encountered during
the tunnel excavation. Figure 19 shows some of
the mapping work that was done along the tunnel
route.
Finally, the excavation of this unusually long
and deep tunnel presented a number of interesting
technical challenges that have or are being
overcome. Excavation is currently 91.8% complete
and is scheduled to be completed in 2014. We
believe this project will be a useful benchmark for
future tunnel projects in Malaysia and elsewhere
in the world.

Figure 19 Mapping of Tunnel Information

Appendix 1

17

INGENIEUR

Appendix 2

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Sourcing from the Sky

COVER FEATURE

Rainwater Utilisation
Systems in Malaysia
By Ir. Hj Ahmad Jamalluddin Shaaban,
Ir. Mohd Zaki Mat Amin,
Nurul Huda Md Adnan,
Goh Yee Cai
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM)

NAHRIM highlights several locations in the country that have benefited

from its rainwater harvesting systems. Going forward, it calls for more
effort to encourage the use and practice of rainwater harvesting,
especially for existing buildings. On a much larger scale, multi-purpose
rainwater management in a city could be a proactive and alternative
solution for flooding and water supply issues in Malaysia.

ainwater harvesting has

been touted as one of
the solutions for the
water crisis. Rainwater can be
an inexpensive, on-site supply
of water that can be used for
outdoor, non-potable uses with
little, if any, treatment, or for
a variety of additional uses
including potable supplies with
appropriately
higher
levels
of treatment. As cited by
Garrison et. al. (2011), rainwater
harvesting practice can also
reduce runoff of excess water
that would otherwise contribute
to storm water flows, a leading
cause of water pollution and
urban flooding.
Rainwater harvesting also
has the potential to improve
water quality around city areas
by preventing excess storm

water (often filled with sewage,

toxins, and chemicals that coat
our sidewalks and streets) from
washing into rivers, streams,
and beaches. In fact, the US
Environment Protection Agency
(EPA) views urban runoff as one
of the greatest threats to water
quality in the country, and one
of the leading causes of surface
water pollution (US General
Accounting Office, 2001). The
reduction of water pollution
would subsequently reduce the
load for water treatment in water
treatment plants.
Policy and Regulations
The 1998 drought and water
supply crisis in Klang Valley
promoted a surge of interest
in rainwater harvesting. In May
1998, the Ministry of Housing

and Local Government (MHLG)

expressed an interest in
designing housing that include
facilities for collecting rainwater.
In June the following year,
MHLG produced a guideline on
Installing a Rainwater Collection
and Utilisation System. In
March 2007, the National Water
Resources Council approved the
extension of the application of
rainwater harvesting systems
which were to be included in
the Guideline and Regulation
of Building Planning. This
guideline encourages the use
of rainwater harvesting systems
in existing Government and
public buildings. The National
Council for Local Government
approved a regulation in the
Uniform Building By-Law (UBBL)
for rainwater harvesting systems

19

INGENIEUR
in May 2011. Subsequently, the embarked on research and utilised as an alternative water
Uniform Building By-Law (UBBL development
of
rainwater supply system for flushing toilets
1984 Amendment 2011) was harvesting systems and has and landscaping purposes while
gazetted by the Federal Territory successfully carried out a number at the laboratory, it is used
of Kuala Lumpur and four states of projects. NAHRIM developed as the main water supply for
namely Johor, Selangor, Perak a simulation software known as physical modelling activities.
and
Kelantan.
The By-Law
UBBL 1984
Tangki NAHRIM
for estimating
system
the Office
Uniform
Building
is an important
milestone
and achievement The
in order
to for
ensure
that
Amendment
2011 systems
requires
optimum
ofcountry
rainwater
istowards
designed
to store
rainwater harvesting
will bthe
e widely
used size
in the
and cComplex
ontributes
sustainable
new semi-detached houses, tanks by simulating the amount 20m3 of rainwater from a
water resources management.
bungalows and all detached of rainwater captured and total maximum roof catchment of
buildings with a roof area rainwater volume delivered and 3,000m2. The system utilises

equivalent to, or more than by calculating the reliability of three storage tanks: [1] an
2
100m
toStudies
install rainwater the system and efficiency of underground reinforced concrete
R&D C,ase
harvesting
system.
The the storage. Highlighted here rainwater tank of 10m3, [2] a
amended
Uniform Building By- are some of the ongoing and stainless steel tank (6m3) and
Since 2011, NAHRIM has embarked on research and development of rainwater harvesting systems
Law is an important milestone completed rainwater harvesting [3] a feeder tank (4m3) and a
and has successfully carried out a number of projects. NAHRIM developed a simulation software
and achievement in order to system projects.
distribution system consisting
known that
as Tangki
NAHRIM
for estimating the optimum size of rainwater
tanks by
simulating the
ensure
rainwater
harvesting
of gutters,
downpipes
and
amount of
rainwater
captured
total rainwater
volume delivered apipes.
nd by cThere
alculating
the reliability
systems
will
be widely
usedand NAHRIM
are also
two sets
Office Complex
in
andefficiency
contributes
ofof t3HP
submersible
pumps
two here
rainwater
of tthe
he scountry
ystem and
of the There
storage. are
Highlighted
are some
he ongoing
and completed
towards
sustainable
water
and
an
on-ground
pump
of
1HP
harvesting
systems
installed
in
rainwater harvesting system projects.
resources management.
the NAHRIM Office Complex and capacity and a sand filter. From
the Hydraulic and Instrumentation Tangki NAHRIMs simulation, the

R&D Case Studies
Laboratory. Rainwater system in reliability of the system is about
Since
2001,
NAHRIM
Office CNAHRIM
omplex has the administration building is 93%. Based on water bills, the

6
20

Figure 1: Layout plan of rainwater harvesting system for the NAHRIM Office Complex

Figure 1: Layout plan of rainwater harvesting system for the NAHRIM Office Complex
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There are two rainwater harvesting systems installed in the NAHRIM Office Complex and the

harvesting and recycling, by reusing the same rainwater repeatedly and optimally. The collection
surface is primarily the existing rooftop of the laboratory with an area of 12,000m2. With the total
storage volume of approximately 3,700m3, about 10,527m3 or RM17,000 per year of treated water
can be saved (Hamzah, 2011). Water quality control of the integrated rainwater harvesting and
water reuse is limited due to occasional cleaning of storage facilities.

average monthly rate of treated

water conservation is 156m3. In
a year, NAHRIM is able to save
around RM3,000 on water bills.
As for NAHRIMs Hydraulic
and Instrumentation Laboratory,
due to the huge consumption
of water for physical modelling
activities,
the
system
is
designed according to the
concepts of rainwater harvesting
and recycling, by reusing the
same rainwater repeatedly and
optimally. The collection surface
is primarily the existing rooftop
of the laboratory with an area
of 12,000m2. With the total

storage volume of approximately
3,700m3, about 10,527m3Figure
or 2: Schematic diagram of the rainwater harvesting system at NAHRIMs Hydraulic and
Instrumentation Laboratory
RM17,000 per year of treated
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of the rainwater harvesting system at
water can be saved (Hamzah, NAHRIMs Hydraulic and Instrumentation Laboratory


2011). Water quality control
of the integrated rainwater
harvesting and water reuse
is limited due to occasional
cleaning of storage facilities.
Masjid Bukit Indah, Ampang
A rainwater harvesting system
has been in use at Masjid Bukit
Indah in Ampang since 2003.
The main objective is to utilise
rainwater as an alternative water
supply for flushing toilets. An
underground rainwater storage
tank of polyethylene modules
was constructed under the
parking area with the total
volume of 60m3. The reliability
of the system is about 80%
and water saving per month
is
100m3.
Water
quality
monitorings indicate that the
quality of rainwater captured is
good and falls within Standard
Class IIB of the National Water
Quality Standard for Malaysia
(NWQS).

Figure 3: Schematic arrangement of the rainwater harvesting system

at Masjid Bukit Indah

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INGENIEUR
National Zoo, Ulu Klang

Figure 4: Rainwater harvesting system components at

the National Zoo for hippo ponds and flushing toilets
The rainwater project at the
National Zoo was initiated in
2008. The objective of the
project is to use rainwater
as the supplementary or
alternative water supply for
the public flushing toilets and
the two hippopotamus ponds.
The system is designed to
store a total volume of 366m3
harvested from a total roof
catchment of 2,450m2. The
reliability of the system is about
70%. The average monthly
rainwater consumptions for the
ponds and flushing toilets are
271m3 and 35m3 respectively.
Rainwater is used to replace
river water for the hippopotamus

ponds, therefore there is no

direct saving in the water bill.
However, about RM250 a year
is saved from utilising rainwater
for flushing toilets. The quality
of the harvested rainwater is
as shown in Table 1 below. The
rainwater quality appears to be
within Standard Class II for all
parameters except pH, which
is within Standard Class III.
The Water Quality Index (WQI),
developed by the Department
of Environment, was used to
calculate and categorize the
quality of the rainwater. The
WQI is calculated to be within
National Water Quality Standard
(NWQS) Class II.

Parameter

Unit

National Zoo

Ammoniacal Nitrogen
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen
Dissolved Oxygen
pH
Total Suspended Solids

mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l

ND < 0.5
ND < 2
ND < 4
6.17-8.68
5.0-6.3
<8

I
< 0.1
<1
<10
>7
>7
<25

II
0.1-0.3
1-3
10-25
5-7
6-7
25-50

Rumah Panjang Bair, Betong,

Sarawak
A rainwater harvesting system
was constructed for the long
house community in Rumah
Panjang Bair in Betong, Sarawak
utilising rainwater to supplement
the existing river water supply,
mainly for general cleaning. The
first phase of the project was
carried out in 2010, in which
each household unit (24 units in
total) was equipped with a 2m3
stainless steel tank. The system
was designed to supply rainwater
for 21 days in a month. However,
the actual constructed system
managed to supply rainwater for
25 days or 83% reliability. The
total average monthly rainwater
consumption is 25m3. Research
and upgrading works are currently
in progress to improve the
rainwater harvesting system with
the aim of increasing the supply
duration to 30 days and also for
potable use. The upgraded system
utilises a new roof catchment
of 480m2 and three additional
tanks of 5m3 each. One of the
tanks is specifically intended
for potable water supply. A
sophisticated filtration system will
be installed to treat rainwater for
direct consumption. The treated
rainwater quality will be monitored.
Sampling of the rainwater shows
that pH and ammonia are the only
parameters that exceed Class II
of the NWQS, as shown in Table 2.
NWQS Class
III
IV
0.3-0.9
0.9-2.7
3-6
6-12
25-50
50-100
3-5
1-3
5-6
<5
50-150
150-300

V
>2.7
>12
>100
<1
>5
>300

Table 1: Monitored rainwater quality for six chosen parameters compared to National Water Quality
Standard for Malaysia
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Test Parameter

Min

Max

Class

pH

4.8

5.8

II-III

Chloride, Cl

Sulphate, SO4

<1

10

Iron, Fe

<0.03

1.98

Copper, Cu

<0.02

<0.02

Lead, Pb

<0.01

<0.01

Ammonia, N

0.21

0.41

II-III

Hydrogen Sulfida , H2S

<0.1

<0.1

Total Coliform

<1.1

2.3x10

E-Coli

<1.1

7.8

I
2

Table 2: Range of water quality results and their respective NWQS

Class

A rainwater harvesting system for the long house community in

Rumah Panjang Bair in Betong, Sarawak

Design for Rainwater

Harvesting System at the
Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment
NAHRIM has been asked to
carry out a rainwater harvesting
project at the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment
(NRE) building to utilise rainwater
as an alternative water source
for flushing toilets (at ground
level) and a water feature (see
photo at bottom right of Figure
5). The system is designed to
store an estimated volume of
20m3 rainwater in a stainless
steel tank in the basement. The
total estimated water demand is
about 2m3/d, which in turn will
reduce about 480m3 of treated
water and RM770 of water bill a
year (water rates for Government
buildings
in
Putrajaya
is
3
RM1.61/m ). The design has
been completed and submitted
to NRE and the construction
work is expected to begin in
2014.

Figure 5: The proposed rainwater harvesting project at NREs building

23

INGENIEUR
Way Forward
The implementation of rainwater
harvesting systems for new
buildings as stipulated in the
UBBL 1984 Amendment 2011 is
vital in mainstreaming rainwater
harvesting
for
sustainable
water resources management.
Other states in Malaysia should
follow in the footsteps of Perak,
Selangor, Johor, Kelantan and
the Federal Territory of Kuala
Lumpur in gazetting the amended
by-law.
Going forward, more efforts
are needed to encourage the
use and practice of rainwater
harvesting,
especially
for
existing buildings. Economic
incentives such as rebates or
tax exemptions, education and
raising awareness, guidelines
and restrictions in usage of
piped water should be introduced
and implemented in order to
encourage rainwater harvesting
practice (Osman et. al, 2007). To

encourage public participation

in rainwater harvesting practice,
Government agencies and the
mass media should promote
the benefits and importance
of rainwater harvesting and
utilization through campaigns
or by social media. Another
possible effective step to mainstreaming rainwater harvesting
is by incorporating rainwater
harvesting in the education
curriculum as an early awareness
programme.
On a much larger scale,
the concept of multi-purpose
rainwater management in a
city could be a proactive and
alternative solution for flooding
and water supply issues in
Malaysia. South Korea is
pursuing this solution through
Rain Cities Programme such
as the Seoul City Rainwater
Management and the Star City
Rainwater Harvesting System
Project (Han, 2007). The Star City

Programme, for example, took

the No Regret Approach which
is not only useful for efficient onsite flash flood control, drought
management, fire fighting and
landscaping but also helps
in climate change adaptation
and mitigation (reduction of
greenhouse gases via reduction
in energy use). At the same
time, research and development
in the utilisation of rainwater for
drinking and potable consumption should be expanded
and strengthened. Rainwater
harvesting systems, combined
with features such as permeable
pavements,
detention
and
retention ponds, rain gardens,
green roofs, green walls and
water features would not only
improve the health of urban an
environment by reducing water
pollution and urban heat island
effects but they could also
double up as storage facility for
conjunctive water supply.

Figure 6: Overview of Star City rainwater storage and management system (Han, 2007)
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Flooding

Eco friendly

Drought
Countermeasures
against natural
disaster law

River law

Water cycle

Water supply law

Fire prevenUon

Water resources

Figure 7: Concept of multi-purpose rainwater management utilised in Korea (Han, 2013)

Figure 7: Concept of multi-purpose rainwater management utilized in Korea (Han, 2013)

REFERENCES

Garrison, N., Kloss, C. and Lukes, R. (2011). Capturing Rainwater from Rooftops: An Efficient Water Resources
Management Strategy that Increases Supply and Reduces Pollution. The Natural Resources Defence Council, US.

Hamzah
S. B. larger
(2011).scale,
Integrating
Harvesting
with Water
Reuse for Physical
Modelling
Hydraulic
On
a much
the Rainwater
concept of
multi-purpose
rainwater
management
in ina NAHRIMs
city could
be a
and Instrumentation Laboratory. Malaysia Water Research Journal, 1, pp 40-46. NAHRIM.
proactive
and
alternative
solution
for
flooding
and
water
supply
issues
in
Malaysia.
South
Korea
is
Han M. Y. (2013). Progress of Multi-purpose and Proactive Rainwater Management in Korea. Review Paper,
Environmental
Engineering
June,
18(2),Programme
pp 65-69. Korean
Societies
of Environmental
pursuing
this
solution Research,
through 2013
Rain
Cities
such
as the
Seoul City Engineers.
Rainwater
Han M.Y. (2007).
Rainwater
Harvesting
and Management
in Korea.
The Department
of Civil,
Urban
& Geosystem
Management
and
the Star
City Rainwater
Harvesting
System
Project (Han,
2007).
The
Star City
Engineering, Seoul National University, Korea.
Programme, for example, took the No Regret Approach which is not only useful for efficient on-
JPBD (2013). Sistem Pengumpulan dan Penggunaan Semula Air Hujan. Panduan Pelaksanaan Inisiatif Pembangunan
site flash flood control, drought management, fire fighting and landscaping but also helps in climate
Kejiranan Hijau. Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa Semenanjung Malaysia.
change
and mitigation
(reduction
of greenhouse
gases on
via
reduction
in and
energy
use). At
NAHRIM adaptation
(2010). A Desktop
Study on Impact
of Rainwater
Utilization Systems
Flood
Reduction
Supplementary
Public Water Supply for Non Potable Use on a Regional Scale in Sg Damansara Catchment. NAHRIM.
the same time, research and development in the utilisation of rainwater for drinking and potable
Shaaban A.J. and Huang Y.F. (2007). NAHRIMs Experience in Rainwater Utilization System Research. Proceedings of
consumption should be expanded and strengthened. Rainwater harvesting systems, combined with
the Colloquium on Rainwater Utilisation, 19 20 April 2007, pp 39-48. NAHRIM.
features
such
as permeable
pavements,
detention
and
retention and
ponds,
rain System.
gardens,
roofs,
Shaaban A.J.,
M.Amin
M.Z. and Huang
Y.F. (2010).
Rainwater
Management
Utilization
Thegreen
Ingenieur,
Vol
45 March-May
2010,
pp 28-38.
Boardwould
of Engineers
Malaysia.
green
walls and
water
features
not only
improve the health of urban an environment by
Othman M.S.,
Abdul
Rahman and
S., Md
Khalidheat
R., Mohd
Shahwahid
F., Shaaban
A.J. and
Huang
Y.F. (2007).
reducing
water
pollution
urban
island
effects but
they could
also
double
up as Incentives
storage
to Promote Public Use of Rainwater Harvesting in Malaysia. Proceedings of the Colloquium on Rainwater Utilisation,
facility
conjunctive
water
supply.
19 20for
April
2007, pp 69-77.
NAHRIM.
U.S. General Accounting office (2001). Water Quality: Urban Runoff Programs, Report No. GAO-01-679

25

INGENIEUR

WORLD REPORT

Global Directions towards

creating Water Footprints
By Ir. Tan Bee Hong

The concepts of water footprint and virtual

water are now being discussed on a global
front and could impact food security in the
worlds water scare regions.

he need for major new ideas, institutional mechanisms and financial

arrangements necessary to counteract a wide range of global sustainable
development issues was tabled at the UN Summit on climate change in
2009. Water scarcity was among the main topics along with the energy security,
biodiversity loss, ecosystem destruction and the steps required to reach the
intrinsically linked Millennium Goals.
Water as a natural resource has to be viewed on a global perspective
rather than a regional or national issue. There is a nexus between real water
consumption of a region in goods and services and other regional environmental
conditions and economic development. The crop failure of a major producing
country due to drought or other natural, or man made, disasters can affect
the lifestyle of the importing countries either through paying a higher price for
agricultural products or searching for substitutes. On a more serious scale, it can
mean a particular shortage of traditional food materials. With this realization, the
concept of water footprint and virtual water become more eminent.
Water Footprint
The water footprint of a product is the volume of fresh water appropriate to produce
the product, taking into account the volume of water consumed and polluted in
the different steps of the supply chain. In a more specific term, the Victorian
Department of Primary Industries of Australia (DPI) defines water footprint of a
country or region as the volume of water needed for the production of goods and
services consumed by the inhabitants of the country or region, encompassing

6
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It takes 109,671 liters of water

to produce a Kg of beef on the
supermarket shelf.

A kg of rice requires 2091 liters

of water to produce.

It takes 1534 liters of water

produce a kg of corn

both the volume of water from the

domestic water sources and the
volume used in other countries
to produce goods and services
imported and consumed by the
inhabitants of the country.
The
Water
Footprint
Network (WFN) was set up to
drive sustainable water use
as part of its mission to drive
local, national and international
improvements to the way water
is managed and used. WFN
provides clear insights into how
water is used and the impact
resulting from its usage through
its published link at WFA tools
website.
Accordingly, people use
lots of water for drinking, cooking
and washing, but even more for
producing things such as food,
paper, cotton clothes etc. The
water footprint is an indicator

of water use that looks at both

direct and indirect use of a
consumer or producer. The
water footprint of an individual,
community or business is defined
as the total volume of fresh
water that is used to produce the
goods and services consumed
by the individual or community or
produced by the business.
In the words of Prof Arjen
Y. Hoekstra, creator of the water
footprint concept, the interest
in the water footprint is rooted
in the recognition that human
impact on freshwater systems
can ultimately be linked to human
consumption. Issues such as
water shortages and pollution
can be better understood and
addressed
by
considering
production and supply chains
as a whole. Water problems
are often closely tied to the

structure of the global economy.

Many countries have significantly
externalized their water footprint
by importing water-intensive
goods from elsewhere. This puts
pressure on the water resources
of exporting regions, where too
often mechanisms for wise water
governance and conservation are
lacking. Not only Governments,
but also consumers, businesses
and civil society can play a role in
achieving a better management
of water resources.
Virtual Water
With this new thinking,
the concept of virtual water
was established, linking it to
the water footprint of water
scarce nations. Those nations
could ease pressure on their
meagre
internal
freshwater
27

INGENIEUR
resources by importing waterintensive goods, rather than
using scarce indigenous water
supplies to produce goods with
high-embedded water content.
The World Bank subsequently
started to refer to this idea as
the water, food and trade nexus
in the mid-1990s.
DPI views virtual water as
a measure of the total water
consumed in producing and
delivering a good or service.
Virtual water is referred to
as embedded water as its
represents the water used in
the whole production chain
embedded in the end-products
rather than the actual water
content of the finished product.
The total amount of water
required to produce a particular
quantity of output will depend
on the prevailing production
conditions, including place and
time of production and efficiency
of water usage.
To further illustrate the
amount of water it takes to
produce various foodstuffs,
David Pimentel, Laura Westra
and Reed F. Noss produced the
following table in their paper,
Ecological Integrity:
Potatoes: 547 litres a kg
Wheat: 986 litres a kg
Corn: 1,534 litres a kg
Rice : 2091 litres a kg
Soybeans: 2,191 litres a kg
Beef: 109,671 litres a kg
The UN recommendation of the
annual requirement of water per
person is between 5,000 gallons
and 10,000 gallons. Although
water is a renewable resource,
the number of fresh water
sources remains a constant.
However, from the demand side,

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Water stress region is only suitable for less water intensive product

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Virtual water is not just about

water consumed in production
area but also the pollution effect
at that region.

consumption is rising steadily

due to population expansion and
consumption patterns are tilting
toward increasing demand. This
will add on to the water stress in
water scarce countries.
Water is a cheap but a
bulky resource and hence it
is costly to transport, so that
usage in one location is often not
readily substitutable in another

Water is a cheap but a bulky resource and hence is costly to

transport, so that the use in one location is often not readily
substitutable in another location.

location. Just like international

trade where the element of
comparative advantage is one
driving factor; nations gain
from trade if they focus on, or
specialize in, the production
of goods and services for
which they have a comparative
advantage
while
importing
goods and services for which
they have less advantage or are
less competitive. The analogy
applies to different nations with
different available water sources
and usability.
At the moment, there
is no uniform methodology
for calculating virtual water
estimates. This has prompted
calls for some form of
standardization and more virtual
water literature. Some bodies
have suggested to the World
Water Council that Governments
and international organisations
should include virtual water
accounts as an instrument in
any national or regional water
and agriculture policy analysis.
In addition, common procedures
and standards should be

29

INGENIEUR

Shrinking green field due to urbanization and industrial use is one factor leading to water stress of that region.
developed and determined to
enable the introduction of virtual
water as an instrument. Virtual
water accounts should be
developed to support national
or regional water and agricultural
policies.
There is a real need
for more research into the
prescriptive potential of the
virtual water theory and on the
potential of virtual water trade to
relieve pressure on the globes
water resources and to achieve
food security in the worlds water
scarce regions. To make the
concept of virtual water helpful in
policy making, the concept itself
needs to be further clarified and
the difference with common food
6
30

trade must be more explicit.

From
the
consumers
perspective,
there
were
suggestions that consumers
should be informed of the virtual
water content of the products
they purchase from the market.
Products label should mention
water efficiency.
Conclusion
Malaysia with its abundance of
rainfall will have a comparative
advantage in virtual water
trade for products and services
when water stress around the
globe reaches a dangerous
threshold level due to population
growth and shrinking green

VOL
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fields because of urbanization.

However, the issue of pollution
depending on the types of
products selected has to be
carefully examined. For example,
aquaculture is considered to
be a source of pollution in river
systems especially for the fish
rearing industry.
The call for innovation
in water efficiency will be a
challenge to, and an opportunity
for, the engineering fraternity.
The introduction of water
conservation in Green Building
Index (GBI) certification is a good
start but a better understanding
of water footprints and virtual
water should be inculcated in
engineers at large.

WORLD REPORT

WHO - Water Quality and

Health Strategy 2013-2020
By Pang Soo Moi

he quality of water, whether

used for drinking, domestic
purposes, food production
or recreational purposes has
an important impact on health.
Water of poor quality can
cause disease outbreaks and
can contribute to background
rates of disease manifesting
themselves on different time
scales. Initiatives to manage
the safety of water do not only
support public health, but
often promote socio-economic
development and well-being as well. This article
sets out the strategy adopted by the World Health
Organisation (WHO) to manage water quality with
a view to protecting and promoting human health.
Water quality and health strategy is a
framework for action by the WHO Secretariat. It was
prepared through a consultative process, building
on past World Health Assembly resolutions, in
particular WHA64/24, expert consultations, and
feedback from a wide range of stakeholders on
WHO water quality guidelines and associated
activities. It also builds upon the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), the human rights
to water and sanitation and the post 2015 MDG
process, which give increased attention to water
31

INGENIEUR
quality aspects. It defines strategic objectives and
includes activities to guide the water quality work
of WHO.
Strategic Objectives & Outcomes
This strategy, centred on primary prevention of
waterborne and water-related diseases, has the
following five strategic objectives for the period
2013 to 2020:
1. Obtain the most rigorous and relevant
evidence regarding water quality and
health;
2. Provide up-to-date, harmonized water
quality management guidelines and
supporting resources;
3. Strengthen capacity of Member States to
most effectively manage water quality to
protect public health;
4. Facilitate implementation of water
quality and health activities through
partnerships and support to Member
States; and
5. Monitor the impact of these activities on
policies and practice to more effectively
inform decision making.
For each strategic objective, WHOs broad
responsibilities are defined and associated
outputs are included. In meeting these strategic
objectives, the following four strategic outcomes
will be achieved:
1. Reliable, up-to-date technical and policy
advice on water quality management,
informed by research conducted on water
quality and health;
2. Increased number of countries with
effective water quality policies and
regulations that support preventive
risk management of drinking-water,
wastewater and recreational water and
harmonized management of waterrelated hazards and risks;
3. Improved risk management and risk
communication by all stakeholders
responsible for water safety; and
4. Effective networks and collaborations
supported and strengthened to exchange
resources, raise awareness and respond
to specific water quality and health
issues.

6
32

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Target Groups
The target audiences for the expected outputs
of this strategy are: decision makers and their
technical advisers in WHO Member States from
all relevant Ministries concerned with water and
public health; the members and partners of UNWater and other international organisations;
bilateral and multilateral external support
agencies; manufacturers of water treatment
interventions (both at the household and
community level), academics and implementing
organisations,
including
associations
of
practitioners and NGOs.
Vision & Mission
The vision is to attain the highest possible
reduction in waterborne and water-related diseases
by providing up-to-date, evidence-based guidance
and co-ordination, and support for water, sanitation
and hygiene interventions.
The mission is for WHO to be the authoritative
source on health-based water quality information,
for use by water and health regulators, policymakers, their advisors and other stakeholders
including practitioners and NGOs. This includes
the provision of information and health-based
assessments on the various microbial, chemical,
radiological and physical human health hazards
that may be present in the water cycle and the
approaches to manage those associated risks.
To fulfil its mission and to ensure achievement
of the recommendations in WHA64/24, the Water
Quality and Health Strategy includes five strategic
objectives and associated functions and outputs
as described above.
Global Changes
Global driving forces, including climate change,
increasing water scarcity, population growth,
demographic changes and urbanization are
expected to affect the resilience of water supply
and sanitation systems and services. As climate
change scenarios become increasingly reliable,
existing infrastructure will need to be adapted
and plans for new systems and services will
need to be updated. Extreme weather conditions
are also reflected in the increased frequency
and intensity of natural disasters. For example,
in 2010, over 200 million people were victims of
natural disasters, including floods, with important

repercussions for waterborne and water-related

disease transmission.
By 2025, half of the world population will
be living in water stressed areas. Increasingly,
countries are utilizing wastewater as an important
source of irrigation water and nutrients for crop
production. In developing countries at least 20
million hectares are irrigated using wastewater,
corresponding to 7% of all irrigated land. The
practice poses health risks from exposure to
untreated and partially treated waste for workers,
communities and consumers that need to be
weighed against the potential benefits of increased
food production in terms of improved nutrition and
income. However, due to the relatively informal
nature of wastewater reuse, accurate estimates
of disease burden associated with the practice is
unknown.
As the options for the types of water resources
used for drinking-water and irrigation continue
to evolve with changing circumstances, with an
increasing reliance on ground water and alternative
water sources, including use of wastewater and,
under the influence of climate change, greater

fluctuations in harvested rainwater, it will be crucial

to improve the management of all water resources
ensuring their quality and set better defined quality
criteria for the use of water fit for purpose.
The WHO Policy Framework
The World Health Assembly resolution WHA64.24
of May 2011 makes clear references to the
issues of water quality and health. It reaffirmed
the need to galvanize efforts to strengthen water
supply and sanitation services, noting that rapid
population growth, urbanization and climate
change impact their availability and quality of
access. The Resolution calls on Member States
and WHO to take actions to improve water quality
management at the policy and institutional level,
through partnerships and by supporting capacity
building and implementation. Resolution 64.15
on cholera highlighted the role of water, sanitation
and hygiene in cholera prevention and control while
WHA45.31 on environmental health recognized
that access to good-quality water and sanitation is
essential to primary health care and fundamental
to the prevention of waterborne diseases.

33

INGENIEUR

Yet by the end of 2010, 783 million people still lacked

access to improved water sources and over 2.5 billion
people did not have access to basic sanitation.

Improved management of water, sanitation

and hygiene, is a critical component of the sevenpoint strategy agreed by WHO and UNICEF for
comprehensive diarrhoea control, which includes
promotion of hand washing with soap, household
water treatment and safe storage and communitywide sanitation promotion.
International Agreements and Relevant
Strategies
Target 7C of the MDGs calls for reducing by half
the proportion of people without sustainable
access to safe drinking-water and basic sanitation
by 2015. There is an unequivocal recognition of
the importance of this target for the achievement
of other MDGs, particularly MDG 4 (reducing child
mortality), MDG 5 (improving maternal health) and
MDG 6 (combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other
diseases). Between 1990 and 2010 over two
billion people gained access to improved sources
of drinking-water and 1.8 billion gained access
to improved sanitation. Yet by the end of 2010,
783 million people still lacked access to improved
water sources and over 2.5 billion people did not
have access to basic sanitation. Furthermore, the
safety of even improved drinking-water sources
is highly variable and in a substantial number of
cases does not protect health.
The commitment to meet MDG Target 7C
and the right to safe and affordable drinking-water
and basic sanitation for all was reaffirmed in the
outcome document, The Future We Want of the
Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development. It recognized the central role of water
in sustainable development as it is closely related
to a number of critical global challenges, including
the need to improve water quality and wastewater
management, including water reuse. Accordingly,
WHO is contributing to UN post-2015 Development
Agenda with the development of drinking-water,
6
34

VOL
2014
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55 JANUARY-MARCH
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sanitation and hygiene targets and indicators, a

process which pays increased attention to water
quality aspects.
Harmonized Risk Assessment and Management
While the strategy considers all routes of
exposure relevant to water-related diseases,
and the full spectra of microbial, chemical and
radiological hazards, and of water-based disease
risks, it recognizes that the fundamental driver of
waterborne disease risk is exposure to excreta.
Thus, hygiene and sanitation interventions are
critical.
The Stockholm Framework provides a
common conceptual framework to assess water
quality hazards and manage the associated
risks. It informs development of the WHO water
quality guidelines. As hazards and risks are often
interlinked within the water cycle, they can be more
effectively managed in an integrated manner, as
aspects of a whole, rather than in isolation, bringing
about greater health, economic and environmental
benefits and the optimal use of resources.
Preventive risk management plans (drinkingwater, recreational water, or sanitation safety
plans) are the instruments to make the guidelines
operational. Protecting source water from pollution
is key for all water-related management plans.
They also focus on reducing contamination proactively at the earliest stage. For example, water
safety plans advocate for catchment initiatives
for long-term, sustainable improvements in
water quality based on multi-barrier approaches
wherever possible, rather than for capital-intensive
options for treatment with high recurrent costs
and large carbon footprints. Such harmonized
and integrated initiatives may require a longer
time to improve quality, but ultimately they will be
more effective and sustainable than a treatmentfocused approach.

WORLD REPORT

World Water Day 2013

Water Co-operation
By Lee Hon Boon

n
March 22, 2013,
World Water Day was
celebrated under the
theme Water Co-operation.
The Day was organised as part
of the International Year of Water
Co-operation. The aim of the
celebration is to raise awareness
on the importance of freshwater
and advocating sustainable
management
of
freshwater
resources with a special focus
on water co-operation, its
challenges and benefits.
Water is central to the wellbeing of people and the planet,
says UN Secretary-General Ban
Ki-moon in this video message
for the International Year of
Water Co-operation 2013.
At
theinternational
level,water appears to provide
reasons
for
trans-boundary

co-operation rather than war.

Looking back over the past 50
years, there have been some
37 cases of reported violence
between states over water
and most of the episodes have
involved only minor skirmishes.
Meanwhile, more than200 water
treatieshave been negotiated.
Some of these treatiessuch
as the Indus Basin Treaty
between India and Pakistan
have remained in operation even
during armed conflict.
Co-operation for peace and
security
On the global scale, the effective
and mutually beneficial solution
of
water
resources-related
problems
underlies
peace,
security and stability of our
nations. Fortunately, our planet

actually has sufficient water

resources to provide water
security for all. But this can
become a reality only if we change
our conceptual approaches to
water management. Throughout
history, nations have learned how
to share the benefits of the river.
The key issue here has always
been and remains to be the
development of rules of conduct
in handling disputes peacefully.
Co-operation for sustainable
development and environmental
sustainability
Water is key to sustainable
development; it has value
from a social, economic and
environmental perspective and
needs to be managed within a
sound,integrated socio-economic
and environmental framework.
35

INGENIEUR

The WaTer ConvenTion: 20 years of successful water coo

Lake
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Maggiorereturns
returnsto
toan
anoligotrophic
oligotrophicstate
statethanks
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Swiss-ItalianCommission
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and
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River

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Discharge
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(FI-RU),1989
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Germanyand
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Croatia-Slovenia,Bosnia
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11999955

22
119999

Guidelines
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and
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Iran-Turkmenistan and
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Croatia-Montenegro
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Chu-Talas
Chu-TalasCommission
Commission
(KZ-KG)
(KZ-KG)established
established

33
220000

6
36

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Benefits of co-operation
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First Assessment
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First
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Management adopted
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Flood

VOL
2014
VOL 57
55 JANUARY-MARCH
JUNE 2013

Agreementon
on
Agreement
Developmentoo
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Recommendations on
on Payments
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for Ecosystem
Ecosystem Services
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for
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all have a shared responsibility

for protecting the shared
environments
surrounding
rivers and their associated
watersheds.

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between the
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of
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and Ukraine
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an overall strategy on water
resources management. We

11999988

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nd Turkmenistan
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ECONOMIC
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FOR
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Convention
Convention
on the
on the
Protection
Protection
andand
UseUse
of Transboundary
of Transboundary
Watercourses
Watercourses
andand
International
International
Lakes
Lakes

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transboundary
transboundary
rivers,
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and
groundwaters
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NPD on
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in Kazakhstan
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Model Provisions
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on Transboundary
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Groundwater developed
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Proposal for
for the
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Committee developed
developed
Committee
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ofthe
thework
workon
onthe
the
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water-energy-foodnexus
nexusin
in
water-energy-food
thetransboundary
transboundarycontext
context
the
Expected globalization
globalization of
of
Expected
the Water
Water Convention
Convention
the

and labour markets. Obvious

examples include the Euphrates,
Indus and Jordan Basins.
Co-operative approaches
to river systems can also
generateless tangible political
benefits. The Nile Basin Initiative
links Egypt politically and

economically to poor countries

in Sub-Saharan Africa. These
links have the potential to create
spill over benefits. For example,
the political standing that Egypt
has acquired through the Nile
Basin Initiative reinforces its
emergence as a partner and
champion of African interests at
the World Trade Organisation.
Co-operation at the basin
levelcan promote efficient
techniques for water storage and
distribution, expanding irrigation
acreage. The Indus Waters Treaty
of 1960 was the precursor to the
massive expansion of irrigation
works in India, which in turn
played an important role in the
green revolution.
Co-operation
between
municipalities
and
private
providerscan
stimulate
resource mobilization. The Tamil
Nadu Urban Development Fund,
established by state authorities
in 1996, developed the Water
and Sanitation Pooled Funda
300 million rupee facility
generated through bond markets
for 14 small municipalitieswith
a partial credit guarantee from
the US Agency for International
Development.
Convention on the protection
and use of Trans-boundary
Watercourses and International
Lakes
The Convention on the Protection
and Use of Trans-boundary
Watercourses and International
Lakes (Water Convention) is
intended to strengthen national
measures for the protection and
ecologically sound management
of
trans-boundary
surface
waters and ground waters. The
Convention obliges parties to
prevent, control and reduce

trans-boundary impact and to

use trans-boundary waters in a
reasonable and equitable way.
Parties bordering the same
trans-boundary waters must cooperate by entering into specific
agreements and establishing
joint bodies.
UNECE Water Convention
The Convention on the Protection
and Use of Trans-boundary
Watercourses and International
Lakes (Water Convention) was
adopted in Helsinki in 1992
and entered into force in 1996.
Almost all countries sharing
trans-boundary waters in the
region of the United Nations
Economic
Commission
for
Europe (UNECE) are parties to
the Convention.
The Water Convention
strengthens
trans-boundary
water
co-operation
and
measures for the ecologicallysound
management
and
protection of trans-boundary
surface waters and groundwater.
The Convention fosters the
implementation of integrated
water resources management,
in particular the basin approach.
The Conventions implementation
contributes to the achievement
of the Millennium Development
Goals and other international
commitments
on
water,
environment and sustainable
development.
Water co-operation between
nations
Despite the complexity of
water problems and the many
interests at stake, records
show that water disputes can
be handled diplomatically. A
growing number of treaties,
protocols, conventions
and

37

INGENIEUR
institutional
arrangements
have been created on the use,
development and protection
of watercourses and related
ecosystems. These frameworks
and arrangements increasingly
help crystallize mechanisms
for the prevention and peaceful
resolution of disputes over water
resources.
A review of case studies
where international law has
been a part of resolving conflict
has shown that the successful
achievement of co-operative
solutions is facilitated by:
Putting a legal framework in
place (series of treaties);
Relatively good neighbourly
relations
between
the
parties;
Creation
of
joint
commissions to address
problems;
Agreement to submit the
matter to arbitration; and
Absence
of
significant
adverse impact on the
quantity or quality of waters
flowing into the neighbouring
country.
International
diplomacy
has played a key role in many
cases
around
the
world.
Water Diplomacy efforts have
often been directed to the
establishment of a global
framework for water governance
which
facilitates
further
development of multilateral
and bilateral water treaties and
agreements.
UN General Assembly
Resolution on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers
The 63rd session of the UN
General
Assembly
adopted
ResolutionA/RES/63/124on

6
38

The Water Convention requires parties to prevent,

control and reduce trans-boundary impact, use transboundary waters in a reasonable and equitable way
and ensure their sustainable management. Parties
bordering the same trans-boundary waters have
to cooperate by entering into specific agreements
and establishing joint bodies. As a framework
agreement, the Convention does not replace bilateral
and multilateral agreements for specific basins or
aquifers; instead, it fosters their establishment and
implementation, as well as further development. In
2003, the Water Convention was amended to allow
accession by countries outside the UNECE region.
The amendment entered into force on February 6,
2013, turning the Water Convention into a global
legal framework for trans-boundary water cooperation. It is expected that countries outside the
UNECE region will be able to join the Convention as
of early 2014.
the Law of Trans-boundary
Aquifers by consensus on
December 11, 2011. The
resolution encourages States
to make appropriate bilateral
or regional arrangements for
the proper management of their
trans-boundary aquifers, taking
into account the provisions of
these draft articles, which are
annexed to the resolution. These
provisions include co-operation
among States to prevent,
reduce and control pollution of
shared aquifers. In view of the
importance of these invisible
resources, States are invited
to consider these draft articles
as a basis for the elaboration of
a convention. The Law of Transboundary Aquifers is a concrete
step forward towards the

VOL
2014
VOL 57
55 JANUARY-MARCH
JUNE 2013

peaceful sharing of ground water

resources. Until then there was
no instrument of international
law that could provide a complete
set of recommendations and
guidelines for the sustainable
and peaceful management of
trans-boundary aquifers.
Trans-boundary Waters
As water quality degrades or
the quantity available has to
meet rising demands over time,
competition among water users
intensifies. This is nowhere more
destabilizing than in river basins
that cross political boundaries.
But experience shows that in
many situations, rather than
causing open conflict, the need
for water sharing can generate
unexpected co-operation.

Despite the complexity of

the problems, records show that
water disputes can be handled
diplomatically. The last 50
years have seen only 37 acute
disputes involving violence,
compared to 150 treaties that
have been signed. Nations value
these agreements because they
make international relations
over water more stable and
predictable. In fact, the history
of international water treaties
dates as far back as 2500 BC,
when the two Sumerian citystates of Lagash and Umma
crafted an agreement ending a
water dispute along the Tigris
River - often said to be the first
treaty of any kind. Since then, a
large body of water treaties has
emerged. According to the Food
and Agricultural Organization,
more than 3,600 treaties related
to international water resources
have been drawn up since 805
AD. The majority of these deal
with navigation and boundary
demarcation. The focus of
negotiation and treaty-making in
the last century has shifted away
from navigation towards the use,
development, protection and
conservation of water resources.
Conclusion
Aaron T. Wolf summed up in
his paper on conflict and cooperation along international
waterways that regardless of
the institutional framework, it is
clear that no single discipline
neither law, nor economics nor
engineering will provide all of
the answers for resolving water
disputes. Rather, policymakers
and their institutions will have to
foster an active dialog between
all approaches to these critical
resources.

International
River Basin for
Asia region

Number of
Agreements per
International
River Basin

Currently, The UN Convention on the Law of the NonNavigational Uses of International Watercourses and
the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (the
Water Convention) form useful frameworks where
general principles and prescriptive obligations are
set out. The adoption of these conventions facilitates
dispute resolution as it provides a common ground
and focus from which mediation can occur. One of
the objectives of water diplomacy will be to highlight
the importance of these conventions in enhancing
co-operation and to encourage states to ratify the
conventions.

39

INGENIEUR

Where Engineers Excel

The Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM),
formed in 1972, is a statutory body
constituted under the Registration of
Engineers Act 1967. BEM falls within the
ambit of responsibility of the Minister of
Works. Its primary role is to facilitate the
registration of engineers and regulate the
professional conduct and practice of
registered engineers in order to
safeguard the safety and interest of the
public.
Under BEMs registration record are
15,000 Professional Engineers and
71,000 Graduate Engineers in various
disciplines and industries throughout
Malaysia.
Published quarterly by BEM, The Ingenieur,
reaches out to the engineering community
via a 13,500 print version as well as to
other readers via an e-format.
Readership is estimated at 50,000.

The content in this magazine, written mainly

by the engineering community and
technical professionals, provides first-hand
and valuable knowledge. There is a wealth
of information on:
Infrastructure design and
development
Professional practice
Government policies and guidelines
Legal issues
Engineering personalities
Management
Continuous development of engineers.

For
inquiries, please
please contact
contact
For advertising
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and subscription
subscription inquiries,
Board
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of Engineers
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Malaysia
Tingkat
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JKR, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50580 Kuala Lumpur
Jalan
Salahuddin,
Email Sultan
: publication@bem.org.my
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Lumpur7095/96/97/98
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41
41

INGENIEUR

SPECIAL FEATURE

Control Requirements
for Waterborne
Legionnaires Disease
By Ir. Chen Thiam Leong

Both potable and non-potable water supplies harbour Legionella pneumophila,

and have been linked to outbreaks of both hospital- and community-acquired
Legionnaires disease. The key prevention is maintenance of the water systems
in which Legionella grow, including drinking water systems, hot tubs, decorative
fountains, and cooling towers.
Legionellaacquired its name after a July 1976
outbreak of a then-unknown mystery disease that
sickened 221 persons, causing 34 deaths. The
outbreak was first noticed among people attending
a convention of the American Legion - an association
of USmilitary veterans inPhiladelphiaduring
theU.S. Bicentennialyear. On January 18, 1977,
the causative agent was identified as a previously
unknown
bacterium
subsequently
named
Legionella.
Legionnaires disease, or Legionellosis, is
a severe infection caused by Legionella species,
primarily L.pneumophila which is responsible for
90% of infections. The disease typically presents as
pneumonia. The incubation period of Legionnaires
disease is from two to ten days. For several days,
the patient may feel tired and weak. Most patients
6
42

VOL
2014
VOL 57
55 JANUARY-MARCH
JUNE 2013

who are admitted to the hospital develop a high

fever, often greater than 39.5C. A cough can be
the first sign of a lung infection. The cough may
be sufficiently severe to cause sputum production
(coughed up mucous). Gastrointestinal stomach
symptoms are common, with diarrhoea being the
most distinctive symptom. Many patients have
nausea, vomiting, and stomach discomfort. Other
common symptoms include headaches, muscle
aches, chest pain, and shortness of breath.
Legionnaires disease is not contagious. No
special precautions are necessary. The disease
is transmitted via drinking water, not by infected
persons (hence, it differs from SARS and influenza
where masks must be worn). Likewise, women who
are pregnant and their foetuses have nothing to
fear from patients with the disease.

SOURCE OF THE LEGIONELLA PATHOGEN

Legionnaires disease is a global public health
issue. According to CDCs Morbidity and Mortality
Weekly Report (August 2011), Legionnaires
disease increased 217% between 2000 and
2009. The disease-causing bacterium, Legionella
pneumophila, is a waterborne pathogen found in
natural and man-made water systems.
Legionella are natural inhabitants of water
and can be detected in rivers, lakes and streams.
One type of Legionella species (L. longbeachae)
has been found in potting soil. The major source
is water distribution systems of large buildings,
including hotels and hospitals. Cooling towers
have long been thought to be a major source
for Legionella, although some new data suggest
that this may be an overemphasised mode
of transmission. Other sources include mist
machines, humidifiers, whirlpool spas, and hot
springs. Both potable and non-potable water
supplies harbour Legionella pneumophila, and
have been linked to outbreaks of both hospitaland community-acquired Legionnaires disease.
More specifically, Legionella bacteria are found
in the environment, usually in warm water. They are
not transmitted from person to person. People
get Legionnaires disease or Pontiac fever when
they breathe in a mist or vapour (small droplets of
water in the air) that has been contaminated with
Legionella bacteria. Keeping Legionella bacteria out
of water is key to preventing infection. Most people
with Legionnaires disease have pneumonia (lung
infection) since the Legionella bacteria grow and
thrive in the lungs.
PREVENTION
The key to preventing Legionellosis is maintenance
of the water systems in which Legionella grow,
including drinking water systems, hot tubs,
decorative fountains, and cooling towers. Guidelines
for appropriate water temperatures and chemical
treatment of water for Legionellosis prevention can
be found in ASHRAE Guidelines 12-2000. There
are no vaccines that can prevent Legionellosis.
Persons at increased risk of infection may choose
to avoid high-risk exposures.
The fact that Legionella are found in hotwater tanks or thermally polluted rivers emphasise
that water temperature is a crucial factor in the
colonization of water distribution systems. L.

pneumophila has been shown to be able to

withstand temperatures of 50C for several hours,
but does not multiply below 20C (Fliermans,
Soracco & Pope, 1981; Katz & Hammond, 1987;
Colbourne et al., 1988; Bentham 1993). It is for
this reason that the recommended temperature for
storage and distribution of cold water is below 25
C and ideally below 20 C.
Thus, the presence of Legionella in an
aquatic environment and warm temperatures
are two key factors that can increase the risk of
Legionnaires disease. The presence of bio films
is important for Legionella survival and growth in
water systems. Legionella are found in sources
such as distributed drinking-water supplies, which
then feed into water systems within buildings
and cooling towers, accounting for the bacterias
presence and subsequent growth in these artificial
environments.
Whilst the 1976 outbreak was traced to
likelihood of the bacteria breeding in cooling towers
and then transmitted as airborne water droplets
through fresh air (ventilation) intakes into the
buildings air distribution system, understanding
the bacteria has since led to their discovery in hot
water systems (domestic or otherwise).
Somewhat akin to mould growth or even
explosions due to hydrocarbons, a distinctive set
of favourable conditions must exist together before
Legionella can become lethal. Both nutrients and
ideal warm temperature must be present to enable
the Legionella bacteria to thrive and multiply. The
bacteria remain dormant at temperatures below
20C, active between 25C to 45C and are killed
above 60C. Certain studies indicate that above
44C, their growth is decreased and between
48.4C to 50C, growth is limited. Therefore,
the recommended temperature for re-circulating
hot water is between 45 to 60C and cold water
distribution to be below 25C. The use of copper
pipe is encouraged as copper is inhibitory to the
Legionella bacteria.
CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
Most developed countries have established rules
and guidance to prevent Legionnaires. Some,
like Australia, have even legislated that the
responsibility of preventing Legionnaires disease
lies with the maintenance officer-in-charge (usually
Chief Engineer and punishable with jail sentence)

43

INGENIEUR
with regards to proper maintenance of cooling
towers. However, developing countries including
Malaysia do not have any such legislation and
relies on the designers and operators to be aware
of the risk of Legionnaires and to mitigate against
it.
Nonetheless, local designers and operators
are able to refer to the numerous available
international codes and guides for cooling towers
and hot water systems relating to good practice to
mitigate against Legionnaires. Even the Malaysia
Standard on Code of Practice on Energy Efficiency
for Cooling Towers (expected to be published in
early 2014), stipulates the minimum distance
apart for cooling tower to any outdoor intake, as
well as types of water treatment requirement.
In general, the risk from exposure to
Legionnaires can be controlled by measures
which do not allow the proliferation of Legionella
bacteria in the system and reduce exposure to
water droplets and aerosol. Precautions include
the following;
Controlling the release of water spray;
Avoidance of water temperatures (25-45C)
and conditions that favour the proliferation of
Legionella bacteria and other micro-organisms;
Avoidance of water stagnation which may
encourage the growth of bio film;

Avoidance of the use of materials that

harbour bacteria and other micro-organisms, or
provide nutrients for microbial growth;
Maintenance of the cleanliness of the system
and the water in it;
Use of water treatment techniques. For
cooling towers, apart from traditional chemical
treatment, use of non-chemical means of changing
water chemistry have gained traction in recent
years led no doubt by the sustainability a.k.a. green
agenda. These non-chemical means in turn, may
be grouped into five basic categories: magnetic,
alternating-current (AC) induction, electrostatic,
ultrasonic, and mechanical energy (cavitation);
and
Action to ensure the correct and safe
operation and maintenance of the water system.
RECOMMENDED CHECKLISTS
Monitoring
The composition of the make-up of cooling
water should be routinely monitored to ensure
the continued effectiveness of the treatment
programme. The frequency and extent will depend
on the operating characteristics of the system;
the minimum recommended frequency being once
a week to ensure that dosage and bleed rates is
correct (see Table A).

Table A: On-site Monitoring checks recommended for Good Operating Practice

Parameter

Calcium hardness as mg/l CaCO3

Magnesium hardness as mg/l CaCO3
Total hardness as mg/l CaCO3
Total alkalinity as mg/l CaCO3
Chloride as mg/l Cl
Sulphate as mg/l SO4
Conductivity s (Total dissolved solids)
Suspended solids mg/l
Inhibitor(s) level mg/l
Oxidising biocide mg/l
Temperature C
pH
Soluble iron as mg/l Fe
Total iron as mg/l Fe
Concentration factor
Microbiological activity
Legionella

6
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Timing
Make-up water

Cooling water

Monthly
Monthly
Monthly
Quarterly
Monthly
Quarterly
Monthly
Quarterly
Quarterly
Quarterly
Quarterly
Quarterly
-

Monthly
Monthly
Monthly
Quarterly
Monthly
Quarterly
Weekly
Quarterly
Monthly
Weekly
Quarterly
Weekly
Quarterly
Quarterly
Monthly
Weekly
Quarterly

Guidance on Action to be taken if Legionella is found in the Water System

Table B: Action levels following Legionella sampling in hot and cold water systems.
Legionella bacteria
(cfu/litre)

Action Required

More than 100 but less than

1,000

Either:
1. If only one or two samples are positive, system should be
re-sampled. If a similar count is found again, a review or the
control measures and risk assessment should be carried
out to identify any remedial actions.
2. If the majority of samples are positive, the system may be
colonised, albeit at a low level, with Legionella. Disinfection
of the system should be considered but an immediate
review of control measures and risk assessment should be
carried out to identify any other remedial action required.

More than 1,000

The system should be re-sampled and an immediate review of the

control measures and risk assessment carried out to identify any
remedial actions, including possible disinfection of the system.

*cfu denotes Colony Forming Unit

Recommended Inspection Frequencies for Risk Systems

Table C: Checklist for Cooling Water Installations
System/Service

Task

Frequency

Cooling towers
and evaporative
condensers

Monitor water quality, water use and biocide/chemical use to

assess and ensure effectiveness of water treatment regime,
including key chemical and microbiological parameters, and
observations of internal condition of pond, pack and water

See Table A

Central control function, conductivity sensor calibration, blow

down function, uniformity of water distribution, conditions of
sprays/ troughs, eliminators, pack, pond, immersion heaters,
fans and sound attenuators

Monthly to
three monthly,
according to risk
(See Table A)

Clean and disinfect cooling towers/ evaporative condensers,

make-up tanks and associated systems, including all wetted
surfaces, de-scaling as necessary. Packs should be removed
and cleaned where practical

Six monthly

45

INGENIEUR
Table D: Checklist for Hot and Cold Water Services
Service

Task

Frequency

Hot water
services

Arrange for samples to be taken from hot water calorifiers, in

order to note condition of drain water

Annually

Check temperatures in flow and return at calorifiers

Monthly

Check water temperature up to one minute to see if it has

reached 50C in the sentinel taps

Monthly

Visual check on internal surfaces of calorifiers for scale and

sludge. Check representative taps for temperature as above on
a rotational basis

Annually

Check tank water temperature remote from ball valve and

mains temperature at ball valve. Note maximum temperatures
recorded by fixed max/min thermometers where fitted

Six monthly

Check that temperature is below 25C after running the water

for up to two minutes in the sentinel taps

Monthly

Visually inspect cold water storage tanks and carry out

remedial work where necessary. Check representative taps for
temperature as above on a rotational basis

Annually

Shower heads

Dismantle, clean and de-scale shower heads and hoses

Quarterly or as
necessary

Little-used
outlets

Flush through and purge to drain, or purge to drain immediately

before use, without release of aerosols

Weekly

Cold water
services

CONCLUSION
Anyone involved in the supply of water systems (e.g.
designers, manufacturer, vendors, contractors,
operators) has the duty, as far as reasonably
applicable, to ensure that the water system is
designed and constructed so that it is safe when in
use and enables safe and easy operation, cleaning
and maintenance.
Some key points to consider in the design
and construction of water systems (cooling, hot
and cold water) would be;
Comply with relevant MS or where not
available, the appropriate International
standards;
Control the release of drift by fitting
effective drift eliminators (such devices
do not eliminate but rather reduce drift).
Spray from other parts of the system
should also be controlled;

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Aid safe operation e.g. water circuitry

should be as simple as possible, ideally
without dead legs, or at least with the
length of dead legs limited;
Aid cleaning and disinfection e.g. those
parts of the system which need regular
cleaning should be easily accessible,
readily removable and easily dismantled;
and
Be made of materials which can easily
be disinfected and which do not support
microbial growth.
REFERENCES
HSE UK, Legionnaires; disease Approved
Code of Practice & Guidance
HPAC Engineering Dec 2009 issue Greening
your Cooling Tower
www.legionella.org

47

INGENIEUR
ADVERTORIAL

IFP Engineering Solutions

Growing Malaysias
O & G Process
Engineering Services
A MSC Malaysia Status and
its accompanying incentives
can be a big boost to a small
engineering service company.
IFP Engineering Solutions Sdn
Bhd ( IFP), incorporated in 2012,
provides design engineering
services in the oil and gas (O &G)
industry. The company credits
the Multimedia Development
Corporation (MDec), a onestop
Government
agency
which accords the Malaysia
MSC status, for assistance in
bringing in engineering talent
and promoting its services.
Hari Chandran, HR/Admin
manager at IFP explains that the
company specialises in onshore
downstream oil and gas
processing. This is backed by its
founder and managing director
Dr Ragunath Bharath who has
a PhD in chemical engineering
and 25 years of experience in
this field.
On a global perspective,
downstream oil and gas
processing is a billion dollar
industry and most of the
players are big multinationals.
As a Malaysian entity in this
6
48

Hari Chandran

specialised field, IFP is unique,

and managed to obtain MSC
Malaysia status from MDeC.
(MSC Malaysia status is
recognition by the Government
of Malaysia for ICT and ICTfacilitated businesses that
develop or use multimedia
technologies to produce and
enhance their products and
services). Under MSC Malaysia
status, IFP benefits from many
incentives. Among these is
pioneer status which gives the
company 100% tax exemption
for five years.

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IFP relies on a big pool of

engineers to service its clients.
Currently, it employs 30
engineers, mostly graduates
from UiTM in various disciplines.
They have to deal with
many variables and process
a lot of mind-boggling data,
notes Chandran. However,
experienced engineers in fluid
mechanics and thermodynamics
are considered rare in Malaysia.
With the shortage of skill sets,
IFP needed talent input from
abroad.
Chandran noted that IFP
benefitted from MSC Malaysias

IFP Engineers analysing large amounts of data via computers and hard copies

e-Xpats System (application

services
for
employment
passes for foreign knowledge
workers of MSC companies)
as the company has been able
to source expertise faster and
at lower cost. IFP identifies
the expert it wants to recruit
and can obtain the person in
as fast as two weeks. Using
the e-Xpats System, IFP has
brought in seven experts
from India, the Philippines
and Japan, mainly on one or
two year contracts. Working
with us, they have passed the
knowledge to our local staff,
Chandran acknowledges. He
adds that the company retains
its local engineers by rewarding
them well and allocating equity
shares to loyal staff.
With the needed technical
expertise, IFP has secured
contracts in several prominent O
& G projects. Among these is the
RM9bn Pengerang Independent
Deepwater Terminal in Johor.
Phase one construction of the
Terminal, with a storage capacity
of 1.3 million m3 of petroleum

and promotion. It benefitted

from being under MDeCs
umbrella at major O & G events.
IFP showcased the companys
engineering services at the
Malaysian Oil & Gas Service
Exhibition and Conference
2012, and the Oil and Gas
Association 2013 Conference.
The marketing exposure has
been very valuable.

O & G pipes and tank storage

facilities

products, is progressing well and

scheduled for commissioning
in the second quarter of
2014. IFP was also involved in
designing several plants under
the on-going National B5 Diesel
Blending Project (B5 is diesel
blended with 5% palm methyl
ester).
As a small company with an
annual turnover of about RM3
million, IFP does not have
budget for extensive marketing

Moving forward, IFP is on an

expansion path. Chandran
reveals that the company will be
strengthening its engineer pool
to 50. It will also be expanding
its office space at a new
premise in CBD2, Cyberjaya.
The company is also planning to
export its engineering services
and is studying the markets
in Mynamar and Japan. It has
established a marketing arm in
Yokohama, Japan. Canada and
the US also offer potential in the
area of shale gas processing.
The next five years will see IFP
growing its engineering talent
bank and capturing a bigger
share of the O & G engineering
services market.
49

INGENIEUR

SPECIAL FEATURE

Water Security in Malaysia

By Dr Norhayati Abdullah and Ir. Mohmad Asari Daud,

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia/Malaysian Water Association
The formulation of a holistic National Water Resources Policy (NWRP) for the period 2010 until 2050
will ensure the security of water supply for growing demand including agriculture and industrial sectors
as well as rapid increase in the population due to urbanisation.

ith the advent of global

warming,
increased
extreme
weather
and annual flood conditions,
water security is regarded
as one of the arising central
issues in Malaysia with huge
social implications. There is
an increasing concern among
policy makers, researchers and
non-Governmental organisations
(NGOs) about crucial water
issues requiring immediate,
viable and sustainable remedial
actions. Among them are the
decentralized water services
sector,
water
governance,
unsustainable tariffs, inefficient
operation by water operators,
huge investments needed for
sustainable development of
water supply and sewerage
infrastructures and high nonrevenue water (NRW) losses.
An estimated projection of
6.3 billion people worldwide will
not have access to safe drinking
water in 2050 following rapid
urbanization which increases
6
50

threats to global water resources

worldwide. According to the
National Water Resources Study
2000, Malaysias water demand
will increase by 63% from 11
billion m3 in 2008 to 17.7 billion
m3 in 2050. Despite being
blessed with copious rainfall
and richly endowed with multiple
water resources, Malaysia is
confronted
with
numerous
issues related to water. These
include inadequate quantities in
certain areas, degrading water
quality of main water bodies,
such as rivers and lakes, and
extreme flooding and droughts.
Even though Malaysia enjoys
3,000 mm of rainfall per year,
these problems are indicative of
the predicaments that might be
faced in developing a holistic and
integrated approach to manage
the countrys water resources.
The 3rd IWA International
Development Congress held in
Nairobi, Kenya in October 2013
with the theme of Catalysing
Urban Water Transitions ended

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on an intellectual high resulting

from a culture of scientific
collaboration and evidence that
important progress is being
made to create essential tools
to deliver safe water for all.
This message encompasses
our collective and concerted
efforts in pursuit of an
integrated approach by taking
into consideration the socioeconomic, environmental and
technical
aspects
towards
sustainable water resources
management in Malaysia.
The main challenge will be
to diminish the silos created by
our institutional arrangements
for water based on thematic and
technical boundaries, principles
and practices, often imposed
from the top down. Increasingly
unsustainable and competing
pressures are being placed on
the natural water resources
upon which our societies depend
which is occurring against a
backdrop of climate change.
Major water issues affecting

water security in Malaysia are as

follows:
Water
Pollution.
Good
quality water is essential for
public health consumption.
The quality of rivers in
Malaysia is being degraded
by point and non-point
sources pollutants. Among
the major sources of point
pollution are effluents from
oil palm, rubber and food
processing industries which
contribute to high Biological
Oxygen Demand (BOD) and
Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD)
concentrations.
The major sources of
non-point
pollution
are
from land-use activities
especially land clearing for
agricultural areas, forestry
activities and construction
which
contribute
to
accumulation of suspended
solids. Management of
pollutants is important for
sustainable water resources
management in Malaysia.
Integrated
water
resources
management
issues (IWRM), which has
been discussed in public fora
during the last two decades,
have not fully embraced the
extent to which Selangor and
Kedah have made inroads
into the issues through
the formation of Lembaga
Urus Air Selangor (LUAS)
and Lembaga Sumber Air
Negeri Kedah (LSAN). The
holistic approach to the
implementation of IWRM is
dependent on the political
will and awareness of its
importance and cooperation
between related agencies
responsible for sources of
water.

High Non-Revenue Water

(NRW). The problem of
NRW faced by water utility
companies
remains
a
concern in Malaysia. The
estimated levels of NRW for
2012 range from 18% (in
Penang) to 66% (in Perlis)
and it is clear that the
task of reducing the NRW
levels is both daunting and
challenging.
Non-revenue
water within a utilitys
network is a huge source of
wastage. It adds greatly to
operating costs and leaks
can add big complication and
expense to the sustainable
management
of
water
services. The components
of NRW are made up of
commercial losses such
as apparent losses due to
meter
under-registration,
illegal use arising from
fraudulent and unregistered
connections and legal but
often
unmetered
uses
like fire fighting, flushing
of mains, street cleaning,
etc. In addition, physical
losses such as losses
from broken and leaking
pipes, storage reservoirs
overflows,
customers
service connections etc., all
contribute to high NRW.
The Malaysian Water
Association has conducted
several
specialised
conferences such as Water
Loss Asia to inculcate
awareness and gain industry
support on NRW reduction
programmes. A workshop
post Water Loss Asia 2010
made a recommendation
to the Government for the
formation of a specialist
group with the following

terms of reference:
Build strategies
Standardise guidelines
Set priorities for NRW
programmes
Review target and
assisting operator to
set realistic targets
Advice on budget and
investment
Give clear direction on
NRW in Malaysia
The
successful
implementation of NRW programmes especially the
reduction of physical losses will defer infrastructure
projects and also reduce the
carbon footprint of the water
industry.
In addition, the role of
the specialist group should
be guided by the following:
Outline the framework,
milestones and
outcomes
Determine the
deliverables
Write codes of practice
Produce manual and
standard operation
procedures for NRW
Form close links to
international and
regional water NGOs
To
date,
this
recommendation has not
been fully implemented
though SPAN (Suruhanjaya
Perkhidmatan Air Negara)
in its capacity as regulator
formed by the NRW Task
Force to standardise NRW
practices
in
Malaysia.
Relevant authorities should
join effort and put more
resources to alleviate NRW
wastages which appear to

51

INGENIEUR
drop of the water levels of
the Pedu and Muda dams
dropping to critical levels,
resulting in cancellation of
the off-season rice crop. In
1998, an El Nino related
drought also caused severe
water stress in Kedah
and Penang, and caused
severe water rationing in
Kuala Lumpur and Petaling
Jaya for many months. In
2002, drought destroyed
thousands of hectares of
paddy in Perlis and many
areas also suffered water
stress. The recent flooding
in Pahang has almost
paralysed the town centre
and surrounding areas when
there is no electricity and
water supply in most parts
while the flooding in the
state, Johor, Terengganu
and Kelantan has seen over
37,127 people evacuated.

be the main challenge for

water operators in Malaysia.
Rapid Urbanisation. The
availability of raw water
in Malaysia is generally
not an issue as majority
of the potable water is
tapped from rivers which
are fed by abundant annual
rainfall. However, problems
arise because rainfall is
not uniformly distributed
over the year temporally
and spatially, base flow is
being reduced due to rapid
urbanisation, supply does
not meet demand in major
cities, weak distribution
systems and water becoming
polluted and rendered less
suitable for the intakes
when passing through the
urban centres.
It is vital that as cities
develop,
infrastructural
facilities
for
water
management should be kept
at par with other facilities
so that city dwellers need
not be worried about water
shortages, poor quality and
supply interruptions since
direct access to sources for
them is almost unthinkable.
However city dwellers are
responsible for ensuring that
effluent discharged from
city waste water treatment
and other discharges are
of
premium
effluent
standard.
Climate Change. Droughts
occurred in 1977 and 1978,
devastating the paddy crop in
most of the irrigation areas
in Northwest Peninsular
Malaysia. In 1982 and
1991, drought resulted in

6
52

review of the national water

resources is an important step
forward. The NWRP will ensure
the security of water supply
for growing demand including
agriculture and industrial sectors
as well as rapid increase in the
population due to urbanisation.
The policy also emphasises
the need for adequate water
resources
to
guarantee
sufficient food supply which
reinforces recognition of the
closely bound inter-connection
between water, energy and food
creating the so-called nexus for
better understanding of natural
resources.
Given the rapid economic
growth and increased population
in Malaysia, water security is fast
becoming a formidable task for
all experts in the water industry
from source to use.

REFERENCES
Demand
Management
Strategy. Water is extremely
important because it is
linked to food production.
Current water demand for
agriculture accounts for
approximately 70% of water
use while the remainder is
for potable water and other
uses. To secure food, water
supply and distribution,
usage of, or demand for,
water has to be adequately
managed and shared in what
is termed Water Demand
Management.
The formulation of a holistic
National Water Resources Policy
(NWRP) for the period 2010
until 2050 aimed at determining
the future direction for water
resources sector based on a

VOL
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Mamun, A.A. and Zainudin, Z.

(2013). Sustainable river water
quality management in Malaysia.
14 (1), IIUM Engineering
Journal.
Malek, M.A., Nor, M.A.M.
and Leong, Y.P. (2013). Water
security and its challenges in
Malaysia. 4th International
Conference on Energy
and Environment 2013
(ICEE2013) IOP Publishing.
doi:10.1088/17551315/16/1/012123.
The Ingenieur. Board of
Engineers Malaysia. ISSN 01284347 Vol.46 June-August 2010.
The Tenth Malaysia Plan 20112015

53

INGENIEUR

CORPORATE REPORT

Perbadanan Bekalan Air Pulau Pinang

THE ROAD TO
CORPORATISATION,
PUBLIC LISTING
& BEYOND
By Ir. Jaseni Maidinsa,
CEO, PBA Holdings Bhd,
General Manager,
Perbadanan Bekalan Air Pulau Pinang Sdn Bhd
Often taken for granted, water is a necessity for
life, and water supply is a critical factor for the
development and evolution of every community.
The roots of water engineering in Penang can
be traced back to 1805, when the first simple aqueduct water supply system was established to
serve 10,000 people in George Town. At that time,
Penang was a British colony with a thriving port,
and this public utility system was the first of its
kind to be established in Malaysia.
The availability of public water supply helped
the state, and its people, to progress and prosper
as a centre for entrepot until 1969, when Penangs
free port status was rescinded.
Following this setback, Penang turned to
industrialisation as its primary economic engine
in the 1970s. Industrialisation marked the
beginning of a new, and highly successful, chapter
in Penangs history, and transformed its socioeconomic landscape.
Driven by rapid developments in the
manufacturing sector, as well as related growth
in the tourism, services and logistics sectors,
Penang further consolidated its position as the
most progressive state in the northern region
of Peninsular Malaysia, with a highly diverse
population in terms of culture, ethnicity and
religion.
However, there is a price to pay for such
progress and prosperity due to its small size and
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geographic
limitations,
combined with
population
growth
and
escalating
industrial
water demand,
P e n a n g
inevitably
b e c a m e
a
waterstressed
state.
Water
consumption
shot
up
by
275%
in 25 years, from 52,120,428m3 in 1973 to
195,668,297m3 in 1998. With catchments
totalling only 6% of its total land area of 1,031 sq
km, Penang needed an organisation to effectively
manage its water supply in the 21st Century.
In 1999, Perbadanan Bekalan Air Pulau
Pinang Sdn Bhd (PBAPP - the Penang Water Supply
Corporation Pte Ltd) was incorporated to fulfil this
need. The corporatisation of PBAPP heralded the
beginning of a new era for sustainable, innovative
and professional water supply management in
Penang.

PBAPP sustains 100% urban and 99.7% rural water supply coverage in Penang.
As at December 31, 2012, registered water
consumption has reached 290,625,401m3,
representing a 48% growth in consumption since
1999 (195,801,494m3). Nevertheless, PBAPP
continues to sustain 100% urban and 99.7% rural
supply coverage, supplying tap water that complies
to the Malaysian Ministry of Healths Quality
Assurance Programme (QAP) for Drinking Water
to 533,916 customers, 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week.
CORPORATISATION & PUBLIC LISTING
Water supply-wise, the holistic and integrated

model of corporatisation of PBAPP has stood

Penang in good stead since 1999. To this day,
PBAPPs scope of activities encompasses the
extraction and treatment of raw water, as well as
the distribution and billing for treated water.
Corporatisation
This comprehensive business model places all
the key respon-sibilities of water supply upon the
shoulders of one entity that manages water supply
in totality. As such, PBAPP is able to optimise
resources, promote sustainability and prevent
misalignments in operational priorities.
55

INGENIEUR
Managing water supply is a critical
responsibility. Unlike other consumer products,
water is a resource that is needed all the
time by everyone for all the basic aspects of daily
life, including drinking, cooking, cleaning and
washing.
In effect, Penangs holistic corporatisation
model makes PBAPP responsible, and answerable,
to the end-consumers. Everyday, PBAPP has to
deliver, not only in terms of specific tasks such
as water extraction, treatment and distribution, but
in terms of ensuring that water flows from all taps
when they are turned on.
Supply has to be readily available because
interruptions
would
lead
to
widespread
inconveniences, losses and emergencies. Repairs
and rectification works have to be carried out
promptly. While minimising service interruptions,
PBAPP has to consistently plan and implement
strategies, programmes and projects that ensure
the sustainability of water supply in the future.
Moreover, from the financial standpoint, the
very concept of corporatisation drives PBAPP to
be financially independent. As PBAPP also has to
generate sufficient funds to fulfil its responsibilities,
its corporatisation also promotes sustainability,
innovation and professionalism.
Public Listing
The second major step in PBAPPs early evolution
was the establishment of PBA Holdings Bhd
(PBAHB), a public company to serve as a vehicle
for eventual public listing on the Main Board of
Bursa Malaysia.
PBAHB was successfully listed on April 18,
2002 with PBAPP as its 100%-owned subsidiary.
The allocation of pink forms to PBAPP employees
and the domestic water consumers allowed them
to own shares in Penangs water supply operator.
As at December 2012, 28.5% of PBAHB shares are
held by public investors, Penang water consumers
and PBAPP employees.
Meanwhile, SSI Incorporated, an investment
arm of the Penang State Secretarys Office, is the
majority shareholder. SSI also holds a golden
share to further ensure the protection of public
interest. This allows the Penang State Government
to direct the management of PBAPP, via its majority
holdings and golden share, for the benefit of the
people.

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Public listing, therefore, ensured a good

balance in serving as a public-private enterprise.
Through PBAHB, the public owns shares in PBAPP.
At the same time, as the principal shareholder, the
State Government acts to protect public interests.
Moreover, public listing also drives PBAPP to
operate in accordance to best practices in the
corporate world, while adhering to the principles of
good governance.
MANAGING CHANGE
Prior to PBAPPs corporatisation, water supply was
managed by the Penang Water Authority (PWA), a
state statutory body. All PWA staff were offered
option papers, and 999 were absorbed into PBAPP.
All PBAPP employees were required to adjust
to a private sector work culture, governed by
reward for performance, efficiency and productivity.
PBAPP embarked on a series of key management
initiatives as part of its managing change
strategy, including the:
Creation of a clear corporate vision
Meeting All Your Water Supply Needs;
Introduction of result-driven mission
PBAPP will be a leading organisation in
water supply;
Definition of the PBAPP commitment
We will be environmentally sensitive,
responsible, proactive, p r o f e s s i o n a l ,
innovative and committed to excellence
and sustainable development. We will be
responsible for the development of water
supply and deliver the best possible
service by being customer-oriented;
Adoption of the following key corporate
objectives

Uninterrupted
water
supply; customer satisfaction; skilled,
competent and motivated workforce;
effective
teamwork,
timely
and
orderly development of water resources;
productive
utilisation
of
financial
and other resources; continuous
improvement on all fields; compliance
with relevant legislations; and effective
relations with government agencies and
industrial organisations;
Conceptualisation of a water droplet
corporate logo to reflect PBAPPs identity,
vision, mission commitment
and
objectives;

 Implementation of workshops, seminars,

training programmes and teambuilding
events to promote a c o r p o r a t e
mindset, inculcate positive corporate
values and enhance technical skills; and
Corporate restructuring to clearly define
and focus on all key areas of PBAPPs
holistic business
model; optimise
operations, resources and management
systems; and comply to relevant
legislations and the best practices in
corporate management:
four
engineering
departments
(Operations, Production, Planning &
Development, and Quality, Safety &
Health);
five corporate departments (Corporate
Services, Human Resource, Finance,
Information Technology, and Internal
Audit); and
two new departments were introduced
in 2008 (Facilities and Customer
Care).
As at December 2013, PBAPP operates
with 11 departments reporting to the General
Manager.
PEOPLE WITHIN A NEW CORPORATE CULTURE
Establishing and cultivating the right corporate
culture put PBAPP on the right footing to serve as
a leading organisation in water supply.

The PBA Way

The foundation of PBAPPs corporate culture is
The PBA Way, as in:
People we motivate (in reference to PBAPP
personnel)
Best we deliver (in reference to systems)
Aim for excellence (with regard to customer
satisfaction)
A.C.T.I.O.N.
Workshops were arranged from January to February
2003 for all executives and supervisory staff to
embrace The PBA Way, based on the following
core values:
Accountability
Communication
Teamwork
Integrity
On-going Learning
New Ways for Improvement.
NEW IMPROVED SYSTEMS
Beyond changing mindsets and upgrading its
operational structure, PBAPP implemented
improved management systems, some of which
were linked to specific global benchmarks:

ISO 9001 Quality Management System
In May and June 2003, PBAPP received companywide ISO 9001:2000 certification for quality
management from UKAS of the United Kingdom and

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INGENIEUR
On November 21, 2013,
Perbadanan Bekalan Air
Pulau Pinang Sdn Bhd
(PBAPP the Penang Water
Supply Corporation) received
two inaugural KeTTHA
Industry Awards (KIA) from
the Ministry of Energy,
Green Technology and Water,
Malaysia.
In serving Penang,
PBAPP does not expect to
win awards. Nevertheless,
the 2013 KIA Efficiency
Award and Water Operator
of the Year award do mark
an important milestone for
PBAPP as the licensed water
operator that serves Penang.

2013 KeTTHA Industry Awards Efficiency Award

and Water Operator of the Year.

DAR of Germany. It was the first Malaysian water

supply operator to receive international quality
certifications encompassing a holistic scope in
water supply, for the treatment and supply of
water with the provision of customer services.
In 2009, PBAPP successfully migrated to
the upgraded ISO 9001:2008 platform. To this
day, PBAPPs quality management systems are
internationally certified.
ISO 14001 Environmental Management System
On the environmental management front, PBAPP
received its first international ISO 14001:2004
certification in 2005 for the management and
treatment of raw water and the supply of potable
water at the Batu Ferringhi Treatment Plant and
the Teluk Bahang Dam.
Since then, the company has also received
similar certifications for the Waterfall Treatment
Plant (2007) and Air Itam Water Treatment Plant
(2010). PBAPP is now working to acquire more ISO
14001:2004 certifications for the other key other
water supply installations.
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OHSAS 18001 Occupational Health & Safety

Management System
Since PBAPPs employees are its key resources in
a critical service industry, the company also sought
company-wide OHSAS 18001 certification to
maximise employee safety. In March 2006, PBAPP
received its OHSAS 18001:1999 certification from
SGS International, with accreditation to Swiss
Certification, for the treatment and supply of
water with provision of customer services.
In 2008, the company successfully migrated
to the upgraded OHSAS 18001:2007 platform.
MS ISO/IEC 17025:2005 Competence of Testing
and Calibration Laboratories
In 2008, PBAPP received its MS ISO/IEC 17025
certification for its water testing laboratory at the
Sungai Dua Water Treatment Plant.
MS ISO/IEC 27001:2007 Information Security
Management System
The Sungai Dua Water Treatment Plant, Penangs
largest water treatment plant, is classified as

a national security asset. Accordingly, PBAPP

acquired the MS/IEC 27001:2007 certification for
its I.T. system to reinforce the security of its highly
automated daily operations.
Integrated Revenue Management System (iRMS)
The iRMS is a proprietary on-line integrated
billing system developed by PBAPP to facilitate
efficient bill collection. Since 2002, the iRMS
has facilitated online linkages amongst the
Corporate Services, Finance, I.T. and Operations
departments e-databases to provide accurate
status reviews and on-line updating of every single
customer account. It also supports the success
of PBAPPs Customer Care Centres and 24-hour
Call Centre.
Strumap Geographical Information System (GIS)
In 2001, PBAPP began implementing its
Strumap Geographical Information System
(GIS). With online integration of engineering
data, consumer data, aerial photography and a
catchment area plan onto a strategic network
model, the system facilitates analyses of water
demand, distribution network, leakages, supply
interruptions and water source tracing, as well
as water quality modelling.
Data from the system is also being used
to manage and conserve gazetted catchment
areas and safeguard raw water sources. Water
catchments are the beginnings of the water supply
value chain. PBAPP monitors water catchments in
Penang by superimposing satellite photographs
of land lots gazetted as catchments to detect
encroachments or other illegal activities.
Water Supply (Catchment Area) Orders
Conservation of Catchments
PBAPP helped to draft the Water Supply (Catchment
Area) Order 2004 under the Penang Water Supply
Enactment 2004 that was published by the Penang
State Government. This order is an environmentfriendly legislation that bans all potentially
destructive commercial activities in 62.9 sq.
km of green hill areas and forestlands that have
been delineated as water catchment areas. These
areas are now reserved for eco-friendly activities
such as camping, hiking, jungle trekking and bird
watching, as well as the establishment of lowimpact eco-tourism projects that allow people

to interact positively with the refreshing natural

environment.
Protection of Penangs precious green
areas was further enhanced by the Water Supply
(Catchment Area) 2009, which states that lowimpact eco-friendly and eco-tourism projects are
allowed only in downstream areas.
As these forestlands serve as critical
green lungs which house the natural habitats for
thousands of species of indigenous flora and
fauna, the orders have effectively preserved the
natural heritage of the state in the interests of
sustaining continuous good water supply.
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES
As part of its commitment to continuous
improvement in water supply, PBAPP also
implemented the following programmes to
consolidate its competitive advantages:
Uninterruptible Water Supply Programme (UWSP)
Targeted
at
maximising
customer
satisfaction while minimising the adverse
effects of supply interruptions, the UWSPs
key elements include:
Continuous on-going replacement of outdated pipes that are prone to bursting;
Scheduled supply interruptions from
midnight to dawn;
Expedite emergency repairs with the
establishment of the 24-hour Call Centre;
Completion of all emergency repair work
within 24 hours;
Utilisation of technology (where possible)
to fit and join pipes without interrupting
supply; and
A materials committee to review and
approve materials for use in water supply
networks.
Non-Revenue Water (NRW) Management
Programme
Effective NRW management is critical in a waterstressed state. PBAPPs NRW management
methodologies include:
Water Assets Management;
Water Distribution Management;
Customer Care Management;
iRMS and GIS; and
Human Capital Development.

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INGENIEUR
The key engineering elements of its NRW
programme encompasses:
Meter reading accuracy, meter accuracy
and calibration;
Meter
management
and
meter
replacement;
Accurate measurements of production
output;
Monitoring and ensuring speedy pipe
repairs;
Managing an active leakage control
program;
Controlling materials for use in the
distribution system;
Pipe replacement;
District metering for new housing projects;
Zone metering for analysis of base night
flows; and
Active leakage control.
Friendly, Caring, Responsive (FCR) Customer
Care Programme
With rapid technology advancements and increasing
affluence, the 21st Century Penang community have
become much more sophisticated and demanding.
Since the 1990s, more and more people enjoy
wider exposure to global developments and
trends, via international travel, satellite TV and
Internet connectivity. It follows naturally that their
expectations of public services are higher than
ever before. With this in mind, PBAPP implemented
a Customer Care Management Programme to
engage all water consumers positively, in the
interests of establishing and sustaining good
professional relationships based on mutual
respect and understanding.
In October 2001, PBAPP launched a customer
care unit to manage its Customer Care Centres
(CCCs). In 2008, the unit was expanded to become
a full-fledged department the Customer Care
Department to reflect the growing importance
of customer care in supporting the companys
operational and bill collection efficiencies, as well
as its goal to provide a higher level of customer
satisfaction.
With increased emphasis on customer care,
PBAPP unveiled its Friendly, Caring, Responsive
(FCR) branding in 2009. The key elements of the
branding which drives PBAPP to meet customer
expectations to this day include:

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International
hand-sign
for
okay
with interlaid traditional Penang-style
decorative motifs;
Friendly service to address all customer
transactions with one consultation;
A caring approach in providing the best
possible advice, assistance and solutions;
and
Regulated responsive actions to resolve
all issues and complaints as promptly as
possible.
PBAPPs FCR Customer Care management
programme encompasses the following initiatives.
Customer Care Centres (CCCs): As at
December 2013, nine PBAPP CCCs are operating
in strategic locations throughout Penang - Komtar,
Rifle Range (Air Itam), Bayan Lepas, Balik Pulau,
Kepala Batas, Taman Selat, Prai Industrial Park,

PBAPPs newest Customer Centre on

Level 4, Komtar.
Bukit Mertajam and Jawi. Equipped with on-line
Customer Help Desks (I.T. systems with realtime links to the databases of the Corporate
Services, Finance, Information Technology and
Operations departments), PBAPP customer
care personnel are able to address 20 types of
customer transactions on-the-spot. Besides water
bill collection, the CCCs also handle payments
for bills issued by Tenaga Nasional, Telekom
Malaysia, the Penang Development Corporation,
the Penang Municipal Council and the Seberang
Prai Municipal Council.
PBAPPs newest CCC is the upgraded
Komtar CCC was opened in October 2013. It is
conveniently located on Level 4 of George Towns
most recognisable landmark, and is part of an
integrated operations hub that also houses the
I.T. Department, the Planning & Development
Department and Internal Audit Department.

24-hour Call Centre (CC) Tel No. 04

509 6 509: Since December 2002, PBAPP has
provided a 24-hour Call Centre (CC) service to all
its customers. By dialling tel. no. 04 509 6 509
at any time, from anywhere, consumers can seek
assistance, file a report, request or complaint. The
CC is always open and manned by personnel who
operate the I.T.-driven Customer Help Desks to
provide assistance or answers promptly.
Corporate Website (www.pba.com.my)
& Email Address (consumer@pba.com.my):
PBAPPs corporate website has been online since
August 2003, serving as a virtual repository of
key information about water supply in Penang and
PBAPP. Over and above sharing information, the
website also features a login feature that allows
registered Penang water consumers to check the
status of their water bill account online. Moreover,
www.pba.com.my also broadcasts the latest news
on developments such as supply interruptions and
PBAPP tenders. Alongside the website, PBAPP has
also been promoting a corporate email address
for consumers use in addressing email queries consumer@pba.com.my.
PBAPP Online: In 2011, PBAPP launched
the PBAPP Online e-payment programme that
allows customers to settle their water bills online
via e-banking. As at December 2013, e-banking
facilities have been established with 9 banks
AmBank, Bank Rakyat, BSN, CIMB, HSBC, Maybank,
Public Bank, RHB and UOB as well as with
PosOnline (Pos Malaysia) and MBF Online (for MBF
credit cardholders). Effectively, the PBAPP Online
programme allows PBAPP customers to pay their
bills from wherever they are, whenever they want,
so long as they have an Internet connection, a PC/
tablet/smartphone and a compatible e-banking
account.
PBAPP Prepaid: 2011 also saw the launching
of the auto-debit PBAPP Prepaid facility that
allows water consumers to pay ahead for water
bills, thereby reducing the risks of defaulting on
payments and having their meters clamped.
PBAPP Prepaid payments can be made at PBAPP
customer service centres or via PBAPP Online
e-banking facilities at any time, to the customers
convenience. In fact, any payment made above
a monthly bill will be captured as credits that
would then be automatically drawn down with each
billing cycle.

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INGENIEUR
One-Stop Office Complexes (OOCs): To serve
more effectively and react promptly to customer
needs in high growth areas, PBAPP established
One-Stop Office Complexes (OOCs) that are similar
in form and function to district police stations. Each
OOC is a self-contained and stand-alone nerve
centre that can provide a range of comprehensive
services, swiftly and directly.
Typically, an OOC would house a Customer
Care Centre, an Operations Centre, store facilities
and quarters. There are currently 4 PBAPP OOCs,
located at Rifle Range (Air Itam), Prai, Kepala Batas
and Jawi.
SATISFYING CUSTOMER NEEDS
The following table summarises PBAPPs key
performance indicators (KPIs) in serving as
Penangs licensed water operator in 2012:
KPIs
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

6.
7.

8.

Penang
Percentage of Urban
Population Served
Percentage of Rural
Population Served
Network Density (km
of pipeline per sq km
of area)
Domestic Population
Served (per km of
pipeline)
Average No. of
Connections per
Employee
Non-Revenue Water
Average Domestic
Water Tariff (RM/m3)
First 35m3
Average Industry
Water Tariff (RM/m3)
First 500m3

National
Average*
100.0% 96.9%
99.7%

90.7%

3.93

1.65

391

206

445

354

17.6%
0.31

36.4%
0.66

1.19

1.45

* National average statistics as reported in the

Malaysia Water Industry Guide 2013.
In accordance to its ISO9001 commitment
towards continuous improvement, PBAPP also
commissions independent bi-annual public opinion
polls (POPs) to gather direct feedback from water
consumers in Penang. In the 2012 POP, the Penang
Institute of Integrity (INPPI) interviewed 130
trade/industry consumers and 1,650 domestic
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consumers. Tables 1 and 2 summarise the key

results.

STRATEGIC INITIATIVES TOWARDS 2050
Looking ahead, Penangs water demand will
continue to escalate in tandem with population
growth as well as increasing economic
activities. In 2012, Penangs water demand was
984 million litres per day (MLD). Projections
indicate that by 2050, it will increase to 1,884
MLD. Bearing in mind Penangs inherent
geographic limitations, and the related issue of
limited water resources, PBAPP has outlined the
following five key initiatives to sustain continuous
good water supply in a water-stressed state in the
future.
Implementing Holistic NRW Management
Traditionally, NRW management in Malaysia
is focuses primarily on methodologies and
programmes at water treatment plants, distribution
systems and meter positions. Reviewing the
water supply value chain in totality, PBAPP plans
to expand the scope of its NRW management
initiatives into the following new focus areas:
Water catchments;
Raw water supply systems dams, canals,
mains, pumping stations and intakes; and
Internal reticulation systems as related
to the regulation of pipes and fittings,
pumps, roof-top tanks and suction tanks.
The goal is to sustain the lowest NRW
percentage in Malaysia, not only in existing NRW
focus areas, but throughout the water supply value
chain.
Raising the Value of Water (Tariffs & Water
Conservation Surcharge - WCS)
Penangs domestic water tariffs are sustained as
the lowest in Malaysia via cross-subsidies from
trade consumption earnings. Although sustaining
low water tariffs is a noble social initiative and
consumer-friendly measure, primarily for the
benefit of the lower income group, the unfortunate
by-product is high domestic consumption.
In July 2013, Penangs average per capita
domestic consumption reached the level of 302
litres/capita/day (l/c/d) as compared to the
national average of 212 l/c/d in 2012. As high
domestic consumption does not augur well for


Table 1: Rating of TAP WATER QUALITY
Very Good

Good

Average

Poor

Very Poor

Total

Domestic Consumers

10%

59%

21%

9%

1%

100%

Trade Consumers

11%

69%

11%

7%

2%

100%

Very Good

Good

Average

Poor

Very Poor

Total

Domestic Consumers

16%

65%

16%

2%

1%

100%

Trade Consumers

11%

77%

12%

100%

Table 2: Rating of PBAPP SERVICE

The Teluk Bahang Dam, one of Penangs three major dams, overlooks the Teluk Bahang coastline.

63

INGENIEUR
water conservation efforts, PBAPP has to gradually
raise the value of water towards 2050 to convince
water consumers to value it as an important
resource that should be used wisely.
As at 2013, PBAPP uses two main
mechanisms to manage the value of water:
Water tariffs the last water tariff review
was in 2009. The tariff increase was 27%,
affecting only trade/industry consumers;
Water Conservation Surcharge (WCS)
the WCS is the first surcharge of its kind
to be introduced in Malaysia in 2009 to
motivate domestic consumers to save
water and use it wisely at home. The
initial value of the WCS was RM0.24 per
1,000 litres, applicable only for domestic
consumption above 35m3 per month.
However, after almost three years, it was
found that the RM0.24 premium was not significant
enough to motivate domestic water conservation.
As such, in 2013, the WCS value was increased
to RM0.48 per 1,000 litres, applicable only for
domestic consumption above 35m3 per month.
PBAPP statistics show that seven of every 10
households in Penang did not have to pay the
WCS in 2012 because they used less than 35m3
per month. Only 28% of high volume domestic
consumers were subject to the WCS and they
have the option of avoiding the WCS by simply
reducing their consumption.
Towards the 2050 timeframe, PBAPP
plans to price domestic water supply at its true
value. The business plan for the future is to
eventually supply domestic water at cost and
to generate sufficient revenue from trade water
consumption to consistently improve or upgrade
infrastructure.
It has been proven worldwide that one of the
key motivating factors for water conservation is
setting the correct value for water. Once water is
valued by consumers, they will use it wisely. As
and when consumers use water wisely, they will
inevitably support the drive towards sustainable
water supply in Penang.
Increasing Public Awareness & Participation
Increased public awareness and participation is
critical to the success of sustainable water supply
management in Penang. As a public utility company,
PBAPP will continue to reach out and communicate

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with the people, water consumers, government and

non-government organisations regularly.
PBAPP has been opening and communicating
through as many channels as possible, since
1999, to get the right messages across, including:
Website postings www.pbapp.com.my;
YouTube postings;
Public Advisories from its 24-hour Call
Centre and Customer Care Centres;
Multilingual News Releases press
releases and press conferences;
Annual
World
Water
Day
commemorations,
Participation in Conferences, Forums,
Workshops and Dialogues; and
Multilingual
Advertisements
and
Publications.
Promoting Water Saving Devices (WSDs)
Since WSDs are fittings, equipment and machines
that promote water saving by automatically
reducing flow, the promotion of these devices will
have a significant impact on water conservation.
While water saving practices may require lifestyle
adjustments, WSDs represent fit-and-forget
technologies that reduce water flow effortlessly.
In this context, WSDs present a more
user-friendly option for water conservation.
To promote the usage of WSDs, mandatory or
voluntary rating schemes have already been
implemented in Australia, Hong Kong, New
Zealand, Singapore, the United Kingdom and the
USA to increase public awareness. In Malaysia,
SPAN (the National Water Services Commission)
has already launched its water efficient product
labelling scheme.
In Penang, PBAPP intends to actively
publicise the importance and significance of
WSDs and promote installation of such devices
in all new property development projects. PBAPPs
WSD campaign will also encourage as many water
consumers as possible to purchase and use
WSDs including tap equipment, shower systems,
toilet/urinal equipment, washing machines and
dishwashers.
Developing an Additional Water Resource
As at 2013, about 80% of Penangs raw water is
drawn from Sungai Muda, a resource that it shares
with its neighbouring state of Kedah. Projections

indicate that this river can only adequately meet

Penangs raw water needs until 2020. Without
another raw water resource, it is impossible for
PBAPP to sustain continuous good water supply
until 2050.
In fact, PBAPP has identified a second raw
water resource for Penang the Perak River in the
neighbouring state of Perak. Penangs proposal
for tapping this additional resource involves the
pumping of raw water from this river through a new
water tunnel built across the highlands. The water
will then be discharged into the Ijok River, a tributary
of Sungai Kerian, at the southern border of Penang,
for drawing and treatment in PBAPP-managed plants.

As Penang has migrated to the National

Water Services Re-Structuring Scheme in 2011,
the funding for this proposed inter-state Sungai
Perak Transfer Water Resources Scheme is to be
borne by the Federal Government, while Penang
will have to invest in the treatment works.
As Penang is an island state, PBAPP will also
explore the viability of saltwater desalination, as
implemented successfully in Singapore. Although
desalination costs will undoubtedly be higher, the
application of this technology may well guarantee
self-sufficiency for Penang well into the future,
without the inherent risks and threats of inter-state
water dependency.

PBAPP strives to manage water supply sustainably for Penangs future.

65

FEATURE

INGENIEUR

Placing a
Monetary Value
to Angling in River
Waters
By
Prof Dr Mohd
Shahwahid
Haji Othman,
Dean Faculty of
Economics &
Management,
Universiti Putra
Malaysia.
mohdshahwahid@
gmail.com
Poh Lye Yong,
Principal Assistant
Director (Forest
Economics),
Department
of Forestry,
Peninsular
Malaysia
Zulnaidah Abd
Manan, Assistant
Director (Forest
Economics),
Department
of Forestry,
Peninsular
Malaysia

6
66

The authors introduce the concepts of Trip Generation Function

and Consumer Surplus to place a value on recreational fishing in
rivers. They study the Pahang River and the profile its avid anglers
to come out with a value.
Rivers, whose water flows are regulated by forest catchments located
upstream, are a complex and biologically diverse ecosystem. They
generate various benefits to the community. Some of these benefits
are directly attributable to the environmental characteristics, while
others can be ascribed to their cultural significance. Among others,
these benefits include natural products like fishes, community water
supply and storage, flow regulation and flood control, prevention of
saltwater intrusion, coastal and riverine erosion control, sediment
and nutrient traps, toxicant removals, water transport, and
recreational and tourism benefits.
The above contributions of river waters to society are a fact but
their values are not very much known. In a world where decisions on
land uses are very much influenced by the monetary contributions,
efforts at placing the financial worth of the services offered by river
waters are much solicited.
Owing to rising awareness of the importance of environmental
services offered by river waters, Governments are willing to set
aside budgets in the management and cleaning of rivers so that
they could continue to provide the invaluable services to society.

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This development implies that rivers which until a

few years ago, were only valued for their irrigation
and drainage functions, are now as valuable as
providing habitats for fishery resources, medium
to generate new income sources like cage cultures
for fish, recreational opportunities for angling
enthusiasts and family outings and amenity
values to homes located beside them. There is
now a realization that in some river waters, the
value of clean and healthy river water system and
positive externalities they provide could match
and even outweigh the summation of the costs
of maintaining these rivers. This is a positive
development. The role of river waters maybe
grossly under-valued, in the sense that much of
their benefits are ignored and not valued. There
exist methodologies to estimate the value of these
environmental functions played by river waters.
Valuing Functions of River Waters
This article is an attempt by researchers from
Universiti Putra Malaysia and Department of
Forestry Peninsular Malaysia to appraise the
functions of river waters as recreational angling

opportunities by selecting the Pahang River. The

full investigation on the economic values of the
Pahang River is reported in Zulnaidah and Mohd
Shahwahid 2013. The Economic Valuation Of Forest
Conservation Benefits, Fisheries Habitat, Pond Fish
Farming and Recreational Angling published by
the Department of Forestry, Peninsular Malaysia,
Kuala Lumpur.
The benefits from recreational angling have
increasingly received ex-situ visitors making the
use of the river waters no longer local communitybased but attracting visitors who are alien to
the rural environment. This trend has a positive
aspect making urbanites more aware of the rural
environment. Growing use of river waters for
recreational activities can pose an opportunity
for strengthening the conservation of water
catchments and river water systems. A wide range
of recreational services are provided by rivers to
local residents and visitors. Notable recreational
services include angling, river cruise, whitewater
rafting and recreational swimming.
According to economic theory, value to an
angler could be derived from a Trip Generation

67

INGENIEUR
Gender
Male (%)
Female (%)

Age (years)
93.75
6.25

Race
Malays (%)
Indonesian (%)

96.88
3.12

Income
< RM500
RM501-1,000
RM1,001-1,500
RM1,501-2,000

12.50
53.13
12.50
18.75

>RM2000
Mean

3.12
RM1,170

Profession
Government officer
Agricultural farmer
Businessman

13.04
47.82
13.04

Contractor
Security guard
Cleaner
Freshwater fish
culturing and selling
Total

4.35
8.70
4.35
8.70

21-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45

6.25
15.62
18.75
9.38
12.50

46-50
51-55
56-60
>60

9.38
12.50
12.50
3.12

Mean age (years)

40

Trips per month

1-5

31.25

6-10
11-15
16-20

18.75
18.75
3.12

21-25
26-30
Mean trips per month

6.25
21.88
14

Table 1. Socio-Economic
Profile of the Respondents

100.00

Function (TGF) to the recreational site by measuring

the consumer surplus. The consumer surplus is
the average aggregate level of satisfaction gain
from indulging in the leisure activity nett of its
travel cost. A TGF to the Pahang River waters for
angling purposes is obtained by adopting the travel
cost method (TCM). Although, there is no price to
angling along the river water, the travel cost is used
as a proxy of price which is needed to obtain the
TGF demand function for angling along the Pahang
River waters.
Profiling Malaysian Angling Enthusiasts
The profile of a typical angler along the Pahang
River waters is given in Table 1. The income of
the average visitor is RM770 per month. While the
average number of years of formal education was

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nine years, that is up to lower secondary schools,

the mean age of visitors was 40 years old. The
relatively high age group indulging in this activity is
related to the experience and sense of adventure
involved in this activity. Further, sport fishing
takes a lot of time and it is possible that those
who are a little bit more settled and already have
a stable income would be more likely to have the
time to spare for this activity. The distance of the
recreational site from home has some influence
on the mode of transportation chosen. An average
one-way travel to the site takes about one and a
quarter hour that is manageable for most form
of land and water vehicles. About 47% of the
respondents indicated that they used a motorcycle
to access to the site. 33.5% of the visitors used
a car to reach the site, 17% of the visitors used a

boat and only 2.5% came by public transportation

(bus). The time spent at the site averaged seven
hours that is ample to indulge in a fishing activity.
Fishing exceeding the whole day is rare.
Most of the anglers were males and
Malays accounted for 93.75% and 96.88% of the
respondents. More than half of the respondents
(53.75%) earned a monthly income of RM5011,000 with another 12.5% and 18.75% earning
RM1,001-1,500 and RM1,501-2,000 respectively.
Almost half of the respondents or 47.83% of
the respondents are involved in farming or are
rubber/oil palm smallholders. Other professions
are Government officers and businessmen each
with 13.04% of the respondents. The rests are
involved in other jobs such as security officers and
freshwater fish culturing and selling. About 56.25%
of the anglers aged between 26-46 years old.
The frequency of trips among the anglers
show repeat visitors; with 31.25% making
1-5 trips per month. Another 21.88% were very
frequent visitors, making trips to the fishing sites
more than 25 trips per month. The average number
of trips made in a month at the site was about 13.8

times suggesting that these visitors were engaged

in a hobby that they like to repeat. Also, all of the
visitors were purposeful visitors i.e. the visit to
the site is the sole purpose. It is observed that
93.75% of the visitors sampled are day-trippers.
This profile of the sampled visitors is important
as the expenditure incurred reflect the full cost of
travel to the site. The above visitors profiles are
significant in the context of the TGF estimation as
they do away with the need to proportionate travel
cost between destination to the angling site and
other alternative or holiday sites.
Estimated Trip Generation Function and Value of
Angling
A linear functional form was found to be the best
specification of the TGF with only travel cost and
income having statistically significant coefficients
with the expected signs.
The consumer surplus was calculated
by integrating the demand function that have
statistical significant travel cost coefficients, with
respect to the travel cost variable and valuing
the integrals between the choke travel cost and

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INGENIEUR

v = 12.3643 - 0.0805 tc + 0.0046y + (i)

(3.88)*** (-2.52)*** (1.73)*
R2=18.2% F statistic = 3.34**
***,**,* respectively significant at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively
where
v is the total number of trips the respondent has taken to the site in the last year.
tc is the travel cost of the individual to the site
y is the income of the individual
is the error term

the mean travel cost. It was set that the choke

travel cost was RM250 and its mean was RM50.
A number of observations can be made about
these estimates. Consumer surplus estimate
from linear functional form was computed to be
RM83.20 per trip. The high estimate obtained is
due to the enjoyment from an active participatory
activity whereby the fish catches themselves have
a commercial value. Given that an angler has an
average trip of 13.8 per month, this suggests that
an average annual trip of 165.6 could be made.
This implies that for an angler, the economic value
obtained is estimated to be RM13,778.
To obtain the aggregate consumer surplus
generated from the angling activity along the
Pahang River waters that have been regulated by
upstream forest catchments, requires information
on total number of trips made by angling
enthusiasts for the year. This estimate is not
available. If we assume that the number of anglers
frequenting Pahang River waters ranged between
1,000 to 3,000 people, then it was estimated that
the values could range from RM13.8 m to RM41.3
m per year.
Implications from Acknowledging Value Of
Angling in River Waters
The estimated value of the angling services
provided by the Pahang River waters could serve

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as an indicator of the flow of benefits that rivers

and their upstream natural forest catchments
could generate. The value of protecting sufficient
forest reserves will help policy makers to manage
this resource optimally. Frequently, policy makers
find it difficult to make management decisions
because they do not know the value of river waters
as an angling attraction. For example, they must
decide whether selected forest catchments should
continue to be retained as forest reserves or clearcut to allow other forms of project development.
When access to the fishing site can be
regulated, the consumer surplus computed can be
a potential revenue earner. Fees to the recreational
angling area could be collected from each angler
to be equal to the maximum amount that each
would pay for such access which is equivalent to
the estimated consumer surplus. In the event that
the Government intends to charge a user fee for
engaging in angling at a particular site, the average
consumer surplus per trip estimated could be used
as a guide on the maximum fee structure. However,
implementation of the user fees requires market
acceptance and sensitivity analysis on trip rates.
Furthermore, problems related to the inability to
check on visitors access to the site also exist.
The difficulties are specially so along the Pahang
River waters that are long and have multiple points
of entry.

After participating in the

River of Lifes Public Outreach
Programmes, some Taman
Melawati residents want to
do more. Along a clean and
beautiful river, they want to
develop community river parks,
community forest park and
recycling centre.
Many people living in the 30-year
Taman Melawati and surrounding
areas did not know that the
Klang River flowed through their
neighbourhood. But awareness
grew when the Public Outreach
Programme (POP) related to
the River of Life (ROL) project
kicked off in the Ulu Kelang
area in 2013. School children,
restaurant owners, property
developers, workshop operators
and even mosque and surau
leaders took notice. Residents,
the local Masjid leaders and the
Rotary Club of Melawati saw this
as an opportunity to rally fellow
residents to not only clean up
the Klang River but also improve
the overall living environment.
Dr
G
Balamurugan,
managing director of ERE
Consulting
Group,
the
Department of Irrigation and
Drainage
(DID)
Malaysias
consultant for the Stage 1 POP
in Ulu Kelang, explains that
various outreach programmes
were designed to engage
different target groups, namely,
restaurants,
industries,

FEATURE

River Of Life Project Moves

Melawati Residents

schools, developers and local

communities.
The objective
is to make people realise the
importance of clean rivers and
take responsibility to minimise
pollution.
Within POP,
the Smart
Ranger and River Ranger
programmes
have
been
embraced by teachers as
an
extracurricular
subject.
School
children are taught
the importance of river life and
care for the environment. An
open classroom in nearby
Taman Warisan has provided the
opportunity for the childrens onsite education where they are
able to study river water quality
on a regular basis. Restaurant

operators are taught best

practices in managing used
cooking oil (a river pollution
source), instead of dumping
into the drains. Developers and
contractors are also engaged
to reduce sedimentation from
construction sites.
Dr Balamururgan notes
that Stage 1 of POP started in
January 2013. It covers the
area from Klang Gates Dam to
the Ampang Klang confluence,
and has a population of about
200,000 people. He and his
team have conducted various
programmes for residents in the
Datuk Keramat area (AU3) and
Melawati area. He reveals that
the POP in the Melawati area

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INGENIEUR

An open classroom in nearby Taman Warisan has provided

the opportunity for the childrens on-site education where
they are able to study river water quality on a regular basis.

The River of Life Project

(ROL) is a RM4bn longterm (2012-2020)
programme to make
the Klang River clean
and vibrant. Rapid
development in the city
has put a lot of stress
on the river, where over
three million people
live in the catchment
area. Sewage, rubbish,
industrial effluent, and
other pollutants are
constantly discharged
into the river.
ROL is an Entry Point
Project in the Greater
Kuala Lumpur/Klang
Valley National Key
Economic Area under the
Economic Transformation
Programme. It is spearheaded by the Ministry
of Federal Territories
and Urban Well-being.
The river clean-up and
the public outreach
programme is led by the
Department of Irrigation
and Drainage Malaysia
and its partners.
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72

has reached out to 12 schools,

three mosques and six suraus.
On the commercial sector, 25
developers and 20 restaurant
owners have attended various
POP programmes.
From his experience, Dr
Balamurugan notes the people
outreach process has been very
challenging, having met with
reactions like apathy, resistance
and all sorts of complaints from
the community. It has been
a steep learning curve, he
acknowledges. However, some
unexpected positive outcomes
have also surfaced.
Motivated by the POP,
various groups have started
a more focussed initiative

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calledSociety of Eco Greater

Melawati (SEGM)for community
improvement.Long-time
Taman Melawati residents, Ir.
Dr Dhileepan Nair and Zulkifli
Mohamed are the Pro-tem
Chairman
and
Committee
Member, respectively of the
recently registered society. Hj.
Sirol Aflah bin Hassan Basri,
the Chairman of the Al Hidayah
Mosque committee is the
Deputy Chairman. President
of the Rotary Club of Melawati,
Sunthar Raj and some members
of the Taman Melawati Resident
Association have also joined the
Society.
SEGM intends to transform
the area into an eco-friendly

and sustainable community.

It wants to initiate actions for
the creation of a Community
River Park, Community Forest
Park, environmental resource
centre, library and communitybased Recycling Centre, all of
which will be situated along
a clean and beautiful river in
their neighbourhood. A series
of activities to engage the
community and Government
authorities have been planned.
It will be a long term process but
with community and Government
support, it is easier to sell the
idea of a cleaner and healthier
Melawati, says an enthusiastic
Dr Dhileepan. Inforeach

73

PHOTO FEATURE

INGENIEUR

The Marvel of 2,200-year

old Irrigation Structure at
Dujiangyan
By Fong Pok Yee, ATAM, AAT(ASEAN)

Sample of woven bamboo

basket filled with stone and
wooden tripod used for the
construction of levee on display
at the entrance to Dujiangyan
irrigation works

View of inner stream with

Dujiangyan town in the
background

Statue of Li Bing and his son

It was by chance during my trip

to Chengdu in Sichuan province,
China that the locals suggested
that I visit the old irrigation
structure at Dujiangyan; a
one-hour journey by bus from
Chengdu city or 30 minutes by
high speed train.
The idea of the constructing
a levee, or dyke, was conceived
by the then Governor of the Shu
district, Li Bing, and his son
in the Qin dynasty during the
warring states period of 406221 BC. The people living on
the plains along the Ming river
were plagued by annual floods
when the water from the nearby
mountains swelled the river after

the snow melts in spring. When

the water reached the slower
flowing reaches of the river, it
burst its banks. Li Bing was also
charged in keeping the waterway
open for military vessels to send
troops to the frontiers. As such,
building a dam could not be
considered.
Li Bing travelled over
70 miles of the surrounding
area, studying the topography
and examining the behaviour
of natural water courses. He
finally came up with the idea of
constructing an artificial levee or
dyke to redirect a portion of the
rivers flow to new a channel by
cutting through Yulei Mountain

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to discharge the excess water to

the Chengdu plain and beyond.
The levee was constructed
in 256 BC by placing sausageshaped woven baskets or cages
made from bamboo in-filled
with stones and held in place
with wooden tripods. Tens of
thousands of workers were
involved in the construction.
Excavating
the
new
channel using only human
force and primitive tools was
made even more difficult when
they encountered rock. Li Bing
estimated that it would take

them 30 years to excavate the

rock using the traditional method
of chiselling as explosive was not
invented then. Li Bing introduced
the method of using fire woods
to create a high temperature in
the rock and then showering it
immediately with cold water to

Stone carving showing the

function of wooden tripods

break up the rock due to the

sudden temperature gradient
change. It took them 8 years
to cut through a 20 metre wide
channel .
After the completion of
the system, there was no more
flooding in the region. The new
irrigation system had made
this part of Sichuan the most
productive place in China.
Irrigation System
What began as a flood mitigation
system subsequently led to
an efficient irrigation system
that is still functioning today
after 2,200 years. The inner
stream was diverted into several
streams
and
sub-streams
making the Chengdu plain one of
the most productive agriculture
areas in the region. This has
made it a tourist attraction and
it was granted UNESCO Heritage
status in 2000.
The original Dujiangyan
irrigation system consisted of
three main construction works
that are synchronized with one
another in mitigating floods as
well as distributing water for
irrigation on the plains at the
downstream regions.
1. Fish-Head Levee - Yuzui
The main part of the construction
is the artificial levee that is
shaped like fish head, hence the
name Fish-Head Levee that was
constructed by laying baskets
filled with stone and held by
timber tripod. The levee divides
the river flow into an inner and
outer stream. The inner stream
is narrower but deeper while
the outer stream is relatively
shallow but wider. During the
dry season, 60% of the water
flows into the inner stream for

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INGENIEUR

View of the Fish-Head levee

dividing the Ming River into inner
stream (left) and outer stream
(right).

Another view of the

Fish Head levee

The swing bridge on the way to

the levee area

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View of the Bottle-neck channel

created by cutting through the
hill consisting of rock 2200
years ago by applying fire and
cold water technique

Southern Bridge for

pedestrian only

Beautifully decorated roofcovered South Bridge across the

inner stream

Inscription stone describing the

history and working of the levee
and the irrigation system built by
Li Bing

irrigation purposes and 40%

flows into the outer stream.
During the flooding season, only
40% of the water flows into the
inner stream to mitigate flooding
in the region. The swirling action
of the swift water flow helps to
flush out the silt and sediment
from the outer stream when the
inner stream joins it at the lower
level. The outer stream absolves
the rest of 60% of water diverted
from the levee.
2. Lower reach sand weir called
Flying Sand Weir - Feishayan.
This weir at the lower reach
has a 200 m wide opening that
links up the inner stream to the
outer streams. The function is to
prevent flooding by allowing the
swift swirling water of the inner
stream to channel out excess
water to the outer stream. By
this action, the swirl also flushes
out the silt and sediment to the
outer stream.
3. Bottle-Neck Channel
Baopingkou
The narrow channel in the
mountain that Li Bings team
gouged out
was engineered
to create a swirling action that
enables the flow to carry excess
water to the Flying Sand Weir.
When the irrigation system
began its operation, Li Bing
created a maintenance and
operation manual as the bamboo
baskets filled with stones
require periodic maintenance.
However, over time, some of the
structures were strengthened by

other means.
UNESCO Heritage Status
Dujiangyan irrigation system is
now a living heritage of a 2,200
years old design and engineering
idea that still serves the regions
agriculture
production.
The
structure was placed on the
World Heritage List in 2000. It
has also been declared a State
Priority Protected Site which
is among the National Scenic
Areas and Historical Sites.
During the Sichuan earthquake
on 12th May, 2008 during which
Dujiangyan town was affected,
the Dujiangyan irrigation system
was undamaged.
In honour of Li Bing and his
sons contribution, a temple with
his statue was built next to the
inner stream river bank.
Tourist Features
A beautiful ancient roof-cover
South Bridge was built across
the inner stream with art works
and carvings lining the side wall
that offers a good view of the
swift flowing inner stream.
Samples
of
basket
filled with stones used for
the construction and wooden
tripod of original levee are also
displayed along the way to the
Fish-Head levee.
It was a worthwhile trip
to reflect upon the marvel of
irrigation works of such a scale
built 2,200 years ago that still
serves its original function and
has stood the test of time and
earthquakes.

77

ENGINEERING NOSTALGIA

INGENIEUR

Culvert Construction in
1906
Submitted by Cheo Hong Keyong
In the photographs below, you can see a water course constructed in 1906 using the then current method
of culvert construction. Notice the quality of craftsmanship employed in laying the bricks which are still
in good condition after more than a century. The cool environment of the culvert has attracted swiftlets
to build nests at the upper soffit of the culvert. The water course can be found under the main Railway
line near Bekok Town, Johor.

Culvert constructed using the old method in 1906 near Bekok in Johor

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Swiftlets resting on nest in the culvert

79

INGENIEUR
Shaikys View

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