1

Running head: Review of Literature

Review of Literature
Katie Chock
April 26, 2016
CURR 384
Crescentia Thomas, Ed.D.
Teacher College of San Joaquin

2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Background/Purpose of Literature
The implementation of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS, 2014) requires
teachers to place a greater emphasis on engaging, inquiry-based learning with a hands-on
approach to better prepare students for 21st century jobs related to science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM). As a middle school science educator, my goal is to
maintain high levels of engagement, increase self-efficacy by providing the necessary support for
students to be successful, and to introduce, prepare, and expose students to potential job
opportunities in STEM-related fields by making science meaningful, relatable, and relevant to all
students. To assist in my efforts, I have performed extensive research on the implementation of a
variety of teaching strategies that affect student engagement at the middle school level.
Introduction to Literature Review
Maintaining student engagement and a substantial interest in science at the middle school
level is a continuous challenge many teachers face. Both male and female students lose interest
in science prior to, or during the middle school age range. According to researchers (Rice, Barth,
Guadagno, Smith, & McCallum, 2012; Odom & Bell, 2014; Pittinsky & Diamonte, 2015)
students negative feelings towards science increase between elementary and high school years.
This is a concern because there are many job vacancies due to retirement and an absence in
student participation in STEM-related fields. It is imperative for teachers to engage students, and
encourage students to pursue careers in STEM. According to the Presidents Council of Advisors
on Science and Technology (PCAST) report (2010), students not only lack proficiency and
literacy in science and mathematics, but also have insufficient interest and curiosity in STEMrelated fields. Due to the increasing demand for workers in STEM-related jobs, the United States
is becoming increasingly dependent on developing careers in science, engineering, and
technology; however, our current K-12 educational programs are not producing enough students

3
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
who are proficient in these fields (Pittinsky & Diamonte, 2015; Wyss, Heulskamp, & Siebert,
2012). Further, King (2014) stated that companies are looking to hire more women in STEMrelated fields to promote and maintain diversity and equality; however, there are not enough
female students who have the sufficient problem-solving and critical thinking skills. The PCAST
report (2010) also stated the United States is further behind in test scores compared to other
nations in STEM education at the elementary and secondary levels. Science and mathematics test
scores indicated the United States performs toward the middle to lower rankings in comparison
to other nations. Additionally, less than one-third of all United States eighth graders can
demonstrate proficiency in science and mathematics. Wyss et al. (2012) theorized that students
either do not have a clear understanding of what science has to offer them, do not identify with
role models in STEM-related fields, or do not even know what scientists do as a profession. The
lack of a clear understanding about all aspects of the science profession explains the reason why
students are low performing in science and mathematics.
As I become more knowledgeable about underperforming students, my emphasis on
being an effective science educator and increasing awareness to other professionals is pertinent
to our futures success. My job requires me to consistently be a role model to students, sustain
student engagement in the classroom, and instill student-confidence in STEM-related career
options. Providing middle school students with accurate information about STEM-related
careers enables them to make more knowledgeable choices about courses of study and career
paths (Wyss et al., 2012, p. 501). Students make career decisions as early as middle school, and
students who lack exposure to STEM-related career opportunities are making career choices
without accurate information (Wyss et al., 2012). The goal as an educator is to spark interest and
increase preparation to undertake STEM-related careers.

4
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
My research topic identifies effective student engagement techniques in the middle
school science classroom to increase test scores, proficiency, and interest. Primary research on
maintaining student engagement techniques in the classroom includes: implementing cooperative
learning through laboratory experiments, applying science to the real world, facilitating healthy
discourse, and productively incorporating technology into the classroom. These science
engagement strategies contribute to shaping 21st century learners while promoting and
developing interest in STEM-related career paths.
Keeping students engaged in the classroom is a priority to ensure students take a
proactive approach to learning in order to maintain success in the science and mathematics
classrooms (King, 2014). Students who experience success tend to be more prepared in the
science classroom, and demonstrate increased levels of interest in STEM-related careers (King,
2014). Liu, Horton, Olmanson, & Toprac, (2011) believed there are primarily two ways to
motivate students: through self-efficacy, improving students belief in oneself to succeed, and
increasing personal interest in subject matter. Providing students with exposure to STEM-related
activities may help peek interest in the STEM-related fields because they will have basic
fundamental knowledge about potential careers in those fields (King, 2014). For example, handson, inquiry-based activities will assist teachers who incorporate more abstract concepts
(DeJarnette, 2012). Additionally, students who perceived greater social support from parents,
teachers, and friends reported better attitudes and perceived abilities in mathematics and science
(Rice et al., 2012). By providing equitable support and information about STEM-related career
opportunities, I can prepare students for 21st century jobs in the STEM-related fields.

5
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Definition of Terms
Discourse- Verbal arguments in classrooms that provide an effective way to improve
established beliefs and methods so that new ideas can be generated and established ideas be
improved (Cheuk, 2016, p. 96).
Growth mindset- A mindset where people tend to embrace challenges, persist in the face of
obstacles, perceive effort and study strategies as a means to learn, utilize feedback to improve,
and find inspiration in the success of others (Esparaza, Shumow, & Schmidt, 2014, p. 6).
Fixed mindset- A mindset where people believe that intellectual ability is a fixed trait that one
cannot change (Esparaza, Shumow, & Schmidt, 2014, p.7).
Intrinsic motivation- When a student values a task for its own sake or finds enjoyment or
interest when performing that task (Liu, Horton, Olmanson, & Toprac, 2011, p. 250).
Lower level questioning- Asking questions that pertain to the three lower levels of Blooms
Taxonomy which include questions on a knowledge and understanding level, requiring students
to recall relevant information studied previously or familiar through everyday experiences (p.
70-71)
NGSS- Next Generation Science Standards- newly adopted science framework (Cheuk, 2016,
p. 96)
Self- Efficacy- Perceived abilities towards academic competences (Rice et al., 2012, p. 1028).

Research question
What techniques are effective for increasing and maintaining levels of student
engagement in the middle school science classroom?

6
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Ways to increase engagement
Student- Centered Laboratory Experiments
One way to engage students is through exciting, hands on, student-centered laboratory
experiments (Longo, 2011). Students misconceptions about STEM are sometimes challenging to
foresee and it is easy for students to appear engaged and understand information by showing no
apparent difficulties. However, when asked to complete an experiment or assessment, their
answers can be disappointingly off-topic, vague, or incorrect. Particularly during laboratory
experiments, teachers need to guide students by keeping them involved and active in their
learning process. Science classes (at all levels, including elementary levels) need to promote
more problem solving, critical thinking, and open-ended inquiry in order to prepare students for
the real world of science (DeJarnette, 2012). Kran & Sungur, 2012 stated
teachers need to implement inquiry-based science activities and to scaffold them. The
challenge provided by these activities should be optimal and students should be given
corrective feedback on their performances. [The students] should have the opportunity to
correct their mistakes and to see mistakes as part of their learning (p. 627).
Another reason to implement inquiry-based laboratory stations is that Longo (2011)
believed the key to effective lab stations involved students learning through problem solving and
posing their own questions in scientific investigations. They then become the creators of their
knowledge and teachers are mere facilitators. These effective lab stations place emphasis on
inquiry and inquiry-based learning. Longo (2011) suggested, inquiry allows students to take
responsibility for the problems they create or discover. Mota and dos Santos (2013) believed
successful labs stem from students collaboration with peers, explaining ideas to small and whole
group discussions, and sharing newly acquired knowledge. Students should actively address and
document their learning by expressing their thoughts and conceptual facts in writing, and answer

7
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
teacher or student follow-up questioning which creates a favorable learning environment (Mota
& dos Santos, 2013). Students should be encouraged to share-aloud thoughts, ideas, and personal
connections to ensure positive reflections. Additionally, a relevant post laboratory write-up needs
to reinforce the authentic, meaningful, inquiry-based laboratory experiment the students
performed (Ende, 2012). Longo (2013) found these skills eventually lead to students developing
their higher-order thinking skills as they create hypotheses, analyze and interpret data, and
compare and contrast their results. Limiting participation and demonstrations do not promote
active learning, and ultimately teachers lose control of student learning. Providing STEM
exposure to young learners could result in long-term success for the United States. (Longo, 2013)
Teacher-Centered Laboratory Experiments
Odom and Bell (2014) explained teacher-led direct instruction and watching teachers
perform experiments negated students learning and their attitudes towards learning science. The
researchers continued, teacher-led demonstrations are tedious to students, and they do not
physically engage students or their peers with the science materials because they are passively
observing the teacher present content, which is not significantly different than a teacher lecturing
during class. Their research also indicated that there is insufficient evidence to support the idea
that science demonstrations improve science achievement. lekiene & Ragulien (2010) felt it
was convenient for students to lack participation and involvement with teacher-led science
demonstrations. They further stated that students who fail to draw connections to science
material are more likely to repeat mistakes, formulate incorrect theory about a phenomenon, or
summarize unessential properties of an experiment. The only way for science demonstrations to
serve beneficial to students is when they deepen knowledge and thinking about a particular topic,
educate scientific reasoning, develop creativity, and prove relevant to students (lekiene &
Ragulien, 2010).

8
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Real World Connections
Real world connections allow students to relate classroom learning to authentic, personal,
real-life experiences. Students should always be encouraged to think like scientists by practicing
higher order thinking skills as they hypothesize, analyze and interpret data, and compare and
contrast results of authentic inquiry laboratory activities (Longo, 2011). Making these personal
connections enhances students engagement and learning in the classroom. To support this notion
of developing a real world connection to the classroom material, McLaughlin (2013) found
success with her students when she had students independently and collaboratively analyze and
generate claims about a journal article from the Natural Inquirer. Students practiced making
claims and supporting them with evidence, evaluated the journals findings, examined graphical
representations, recorded their personal ideas, and documented as much evidence to support their
ideas as possible. In turn, students were able to compare their own claims to the ones made by
the scientists who conducted the research, and validated the report and results. McLaughlin
presented the students with relevant, real-world problems that interested them. Students were
able to apply what they were learning to the real world, and saw the connection between school,
and real-life, making learning more relevant and meaningful for the students. Students who are
able to identify a connection between curricula and apply it to the real world have more
motivation, engagement, and positive academic achievement (Ende, 2012; Harmer & Cates,
2007; ONeill, 2010).
Drawing connections between science and the real world helps middle school students to
utilize the resources within their environment. Students are then more likely to be active
participants in the science classroom and recognize the relationship between the data and
learning objectives in the lessons. Furthermore, they learn better when the topics and
assignments taught have a direct correlation to their personal life (McLaughlin, 2013). Ende

9
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
(2012) suggested that students should develop a personal connection to their experiment by
requiring students to pass a three barriers test. The first, second, and third test requires that no
participant be hurt, embarrassed, or stressed in any way/ The experiment needs to be conducted
with materials provided at home or school and there must be a personal interest to the student.
This ensures students are active participants in and out of the classroom.
Discourse
Successful science discourse is another way to maintain student engagement. Teachers
are responsible for clearly communicating how to discuss and model proper argumentation from
evidence as a means of learning (Cheuk, 2016). Students need to be involved, participating, and
in control of their learning so that discourse in the science classroom can allow teachers to mold
experiences through language (Maeng & Kim, 2010; (Odom & Bell, 2015). Maeng & Kim
(2010), Odom & Bell (2014), Smart & Marshall (2013) agreed healthy, science discourse
increases levels of engagement, attitude, and academic success in the middle school science
classroom. Discourse also aims to elevate students language and literacy skills, especially with
English language Learners (ELLs) (Cheuk, 2016). Maeng & Kim (2010) understood there are
many approaches to facilitating effective classroom discourse to ensure students discover
meaningful understanding of scientific conceptual knowledge. Asking basic, lower-level
questions does not help students understand content or engage students in learning because it
does not probe student thinking nor facilitate effective discourse. Lower-level questions include
ones that are closed-ended, yes or no questions; produce answers that can be easily recalled by
looking in a reading or passage, or anything that has students recall a fact or definition. Instead,
teachers must pose questions that will generate discussions of key concepts and challenge
students to think (Plankis, Vowell, & Ramsey, 2011).

10
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Smart & Marshall (2013) described students engagement in discourse and content are
dependent on the questioning level, complexity of questions, questioning ecology,
communication patterns, and classroom interactions. Students who care about the questions they
ask will struggle to find the answers, and will eventually develop an ability to problem solve and
think critically (Meots, & Pedaste, 2014). Challenging students to think critically and defend
their opinions with evidence while having fun is the goal of discourse. Managing classroom
discourse can control students pedagogic subject position, and contribute to students science
learning (Maeng & Kim, 2010).
Technology as tools
McCormack and Ross (2010) stated a valid opinion that technology was once considered
a luxury, and now is indispensable from most teenagers. It is important for educators to find
meaningful ways to incorporate technology into the classroom. Many academics believe
technology is a resource that teachers can use to boost student achievement and engagement in
science (Bender & Bull, 2013). According to Bender and Bull (2013), science curriculum that
utilizes a wide span of technology mediums has academic advantages. Prezi, Web-based
Learning Tools (WBLT) and tools such as Inspiration and Appleworks are all resources teachers
can implement in their classroom that will positively impact student achievement (Bender &
Bull, 2011; Cifuentes & Hsieh, 2001; Kay, 2011). Kays (2011) research indicated that students
have higher engagement levels and self-esteem regarding the use of technology when learning
science. Numerous websites have a primary focus to further reinforce curricula, aid students
through real-world applications, and display science phenomenon that students would otherwise
not be exposed to (Meots & Pedaste, 2014). Students have higher levels of engagement,
conceptual understanding, realizations, and the ability to re-watch video clips at their own pace
when technology is implemented appropriately (Molyneux & Godinbo, 2012). Technology also

11
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
has the ability to demonstrate animations, videos, and podcasts to all students on virtually any
topic (McCormack & Ross 2010).
iPads were another useful resource to help engage students. Boyce, Mishra, Halverson,
and Thomas (2014) implemented iPads as a learning tool. Students utilized iPads to conduct
research and collect data. This particular research contained an Apple Application that
corresponded with their inquiry-based curriculum. iPads also allow students to demonstrate their
knowledge through authentic assessments. McCormack and Ross (2010) challenged students to
create animated, how-to videos on a variety of science topics. Students were able to evaluate
their own learning and identify gaps and misconceptions of their own understanding.
Computer simulations are another way technology can be utilized in the classroom.
Computer simulations are frequently becoming more common in the classroom because they are
able to increase student engagement when simulations facilitate a meaningful problem, can
challenge the students, are academically appropriate, and promote authenticity (Khan, 2010; Liu
et al., 2011). Khan (2010) found that through computer simulations, students were able to
process large amounts of information, interpret various representations of data, and recognize
relationships. As teachers, because technology allows us to visualize phenomenon we might not
normally experience, we should encourage students to think like scientists and learn though
many online simulations.
Self-Efficacy and the growth mindset
Academic success can also be attributed to hard work, perseverance, and dedication to
learning. Albert Bandura first introduced the concept of self-efficacy (Kran & Sungur, 2012).
Rice et al. (2012) defines self-efficacy as ones perceived abilities towards academic
competencies. Kran & Sungur (2012) stated if students could successfully complete a task, their
beliefs about their capabilities to perform will increase. However, if students fail, their efficacy is

12
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
expected to diminish. Furthermore, when students fail more times than succeed, self-efficacies
are greatly affected and, as a result, there is a decrease in the students perception of their own
abilities. Kran & Sungur (2012) research also indicated that boys and girls levels of science
self-efficacy do not differ from one gender to another; boys and girls have equal access to
sources of self-efficacy. Additionally, Liu, Hsieh, Cho, & Schallert (2006) did not find that
attitude was a contributing factor of science achievement; however, self-efficacy towards science
learning can be used to predict achievement. Through their research they discovered that students
with high levels of self-efficacy performed better than students with low levels of self-efficacy.
According to Rice et al. (2012) higher levels of self-efficacy depend on parental, teacher, and
peer support. Their research showed the steepest decline in support from teachers and friends
was between elementary and middle school aged groups.
Attitudes towards science are correlated with science achievement (Odom & Bell, 2014).
Their research indicated there was a strong positive association of attitudes toward science and
frequency of student-centered teaching practices with science achievement. To the researchers,
Esparaza, Shumow, & Schmidt (2014) academic achievement is a mindset. Students with a
growth mindset tend to embrace challenges, persist in the face of obstacles, perceive effort and
study strategies as a means to learn, utilize feedback to improve, and find inspiration in the
success of others. They view errors and tribulations as part of the process of achieving
excellence. Additionally, a common misconception is that gifted students have a growth mindset
(Esparaza, Shumow, & Schmidt, 2014). Gifted students are able to learn the material being
taught more quickly; however, once learning becomes a challenge, they view this as a signal that
they are no longer smart. Knowing there are some students who enter the classroom with a fixed
mindset should encourage teachers to implement mindset intervention strategies (Esparaza,
Shumow, & Schmidt, 2014). These interventions included teaching students about how the brain

13
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
responds to learning, motivational strategies, as well as provided students with study skills and
tools they need to be academically successful. Esparaza, Shumow, & Schmidt (2014) further
stated that students who improved academically expressed a growth mindset, and students who
did not improve demonstrated a fixed mindset.
To accomplish a growth mindset and internal motivation, students need grit. Grit is a
willingness to continue, sustain interest in an effort to achieve long-term goals. (Laursen, 2015;
Pittinsky & Diamonte, 2015). Laursen (2015) stated that students achieve what they believe
about themselves. Increasing students self-efficacy and providing them with tools necessary to
have a growth mindset will promote success and engagement in the science classroom. Once
students can feel confident with themselves about their science practices, increased sense of
engagement, motivation, and interest in science will increase.

Conclusion
Research has shown us that the academic achievement gap for this generation is
alarming. Lack of motivation, interest, support, and low levels of self-efficacy all contribute to a
decline in fulfilling STEM-related jobs. Rice et al. (2012) stated teachers had considerable
influence on students because of their authority in the classroom. They further believed that
adolescence is an important time to focus on career development, and address bridging
disconnect between students and STEM careers.
Students are not interested or prepared for 21st century STEM-related careers. Tan,
Calabrese Barton, Kang, and O'Neill (2013) explained students, especially females do not
identify with science, regardless of test scores. There are no tangible role models for young girls
to look up to, and science is of no personal relevance to them, which is the beginning of the
achievement gap. Many schools and teachers need more support and resources to aid them with

14
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
incorporating more STEM into their curriculum. (Presidents Council of Advisors on Science and
Mathematics, 2010)
School systems lack tools for assessing progress and rewarding success. The United
States lacks clear, shared standards for science and math that would help all actors in the system
set and achieve goals. As a result, too many American students conclude early in their education
that STEM-related subjects are boring, too difficult, or unwelcoming, leaving them ill-prepared
to meet the challenges that will face their generation, their country, and the world.
Extensive research has shown improving laboratory experiments, applying science to the
real world, facilitating healthy discourse, and productively incorporating technology into the
classroom have a positive effect on students academic achievement and increased engagement
levels. These engagement strategies allow us to provide intentional, meaningful experiences and
learning opportunities required for community and global participation (Laursen, 2015). As
teachers, we need to inspire students to maintain high levels of engagement to spark the interest
students who desire to become future scientists, engineers or programmers. Encouraging students
to stick with something even when it is hard would contribute to reducing the STEM-related
field dropout rates in college, and therefore inspire students to pursue STEM-related career paths
(Pittinsky & Diamonte, 2015).
According to the research I have conducted, America has identified this ongoing issue of
unprepared students in the STEM-related fields, and change is not happening as quickly as it
needs to. As educators, we need to reach out to students before they lose interest in STEMrelated fields. Pittinsky & Diamonte, 2015 stated that so many students of different ethnicities
and genders express a profound interest in STEM-related fields in elementary school; however,
these numbers decline in high school and college as the workload in these subjects becomes
more challenging. My research on maintaining engagement techniques will increase interest in

15
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
the classroom, ensure students are proficient in math and science, and fill jobs needed to uncover
personal success.

16
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

References
Bender, C., & Bull, P. H. (2011). Using Prezi to motivate middle school. Journal On School
Educational Technology, 7(3), 10-21.
Boyce, C., Mishra, C., Halverson, K. K., & Thomas, A. (2014). Getting students outside: Using
technology as a way to stimulate engagement. Journal of Science Education &
Technology, 23(6), 815-826. doi:10.1007/s10956-014-9514-8
Cheuk, T. (2016). Discourse practices in the new standards: The role of argumentation in
common core-era next generation science standards classrooms for English language
learners. Electronic Journal Of Science Education, 20(3), 92-111.
Cifuentes, L., & Hsieh, Y. J. (2004). Visualization for middle school students' engagement in
science learning. Journal of Computers In Mathematics & Science Teaching, 23(2), 109137.
DeJarnette, N. K. (2012). Americas children: Providing early exposure to STEM (science,
technology, engineering and math) initiatives. Education, 133(1), 77-84.
Ende, F. (2012). Not another lab report. Science Scope, 35(5), 44-50.
Eshach, H., Dor-Ziderman, Y., & Yefroimsky, Y. (2014). Question asking in the science
classroom: Teacher attitudes and practices. Journal of Science Education & Technology,
23(1), 67-81. doi:10.1007/s10956-013-9451-y
Esparza, J., Shumow, L., & Schmidt, J. A. (2014). Growth mindset of gifted seventh grade
students in science. NCSSSMST Journal, 19(1), 6-13.

17
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Harmer, A. J., & Cates, W. M. (2007). Designing for learner engagement in middle school
science: Technology, inquiry, and the hierarchies of engagement. Computers In The
Schools, 24(1/2), 105-124. doi:10.1300/J025v24n01_08
Laursen, E. K. (2015). The power of grit, perseverance, and tenacity. Reclaiming Children &
Youth, 23(4), 19-24.
Liu, M., Horton, L., Olmanson, J., & Toprac, P. (2011). A study of learning and motivation in a
new media enriched environment for middle school science. Educational Technology
Research & Development, 59(2), 249-265. doi:10.1007/s11423-011-9192-7
Liu, M., Hsieh, P., Cho, Y., & Schallert, D. L. (2006). Middle school students' self-efficacy,
attitudes, and achievement in a computer-enhanced problem-based learning environment.
Journal Of Interactive Learning Research, 17(3), 225-242.
Longo, C. M. (2011). Designing inquiry-oriented science lab activities. Middle School Journal,
43(1), 6-15.
Kay, R. R. (2011). Examining the effectiveness of web-based learning tools in middle and
secondary school science classrooms. Interdisciplinary Journal Of E-Learning &
Learning Objects, 7, 359-374.
Khan, S. (2011). New pedagogies on teaching science with computer simulations. Journal Of
Science Education & Technology, 20(3), 215-232. doi:10.1007/s10956-010-9247-2
King, D. (2014, July 25). Tech camps, other programs hope to keep girls interested in STEM
Fields. The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved from
http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/bs-md-women-in-stem-20140725story.html
Kran, D., & Sungur, S. (2012). Middle school students' science self-efficacy and its sources:
Examination of gender difference. Journal Of Science Education & Technology, 21(5),

18
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
619-630. doi:10.1007/s10956-011-9351-y
Maeng, S., & Kim, C. (2011). Variations in science teaching modalities and students' pedagogic
subject positioning through the discourse register and language code. Science Education,
95(3), 431-457. doi:10.1002/sce.20429
Meots, M. M., & Pedaste, M. M. (2014). The role of general inquiry knowledge in enhancing
transformative inquiry process in a web-based learning environment. Journal Of Baltic
Science Education, 13(1), 19-31.
McCormack, S., & Ross, D. L. (2010). Teaching with Technology. Science Teacher, 77(7), 4045.
McLaughlin, C. C. (2013). Engaging middle school students in the analysis and interpretation of
real-world data. Science Scope, 37(3), 53-58.
Molyneux, P. P., & Godinho, S. S. (2012). "This is my thing!": Middle years students'
engagement and learning using digital resources. Australasian Journal Of Educational
Technology, 28(8), 1466-1486.
Odom, A. L., & Bell, C. A. (2015). Associations of middle school student science achievement
and attitudes about science with student-reported frequency of teacher lecture
demonstrations and student-centered learning. International Journal Of Environmental &
Science Education, 10(1), 87-98. doi:10.12973/ijese.2015.232a
O'Neill, T. B. (2010). Fostering spaces of student ownership in middle school science. Equity &
excellence in education, 43(1), 6-20. doi:10.1080/10665680903484909
Pittinsky, T. L., & Diamante, N. (2015). Going beyond fun in STEM. Phi Delta Kappan, 97(2),
47-51. doi:10.1177/0031721715610091
Plankis, B., Vowell, J., & Ramsey, J. (2011). Generating discourse with cookie and doughnut
investigations. Science Scope, 35(1), 38-41.

19
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Presidents Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. (September 2010). Prepare and
inspire: K-12 education in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) for
america's future. Washington DC: White House. Retrieved from
https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/pcast-stemed-report.pdf
lekiene, V., & Ragulien, L. (2010). The learning physics impact of interactive lecture
demonstrations. Problems Of Education In The 21St Century, 24(120-129).
Smart, J. J., & Marshall, J. M. (2013). Interactions between classroom discourse, teacher
questioning, and student cognitive engagement in middle school science. Journal Of
Science Teacher Education, 24(2), 249-267. doi:10.1007/s10972-012-9297-9
Tan, E., Calabrese Barton, A., Kang, H., & O'Neill, T. (2013). Desiring a career in STEM-related
fields: How middle school girls articulate and negotiate identities-in-practice in science.
Journal Of Research In Science Teaching, 50(10), 1143-1179. doi:10.1002/tea.21123
Wyss, V., Heulskamp, D., & Siebert, C. (2012). Increasing middle school student interest in
STEM careers with videos of scientists. International Journal Of Environmental &
Science Education, 7(4), 501-522.