THE IMPACTS OF AIR

POLLUTION IN GLADSTONE
A Literature Review of the Sources of Air Pollution, the Health Impacts, and
Management Strategies

7421ENV ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

8 NOVEMBER 2015
Written and Produced by Group 2 Blake Hight (s2816835), Britta Hilkmann (s5028498) and Sinead Liu
(s2760399)

Contents Page
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 3
1

Introduction and Aim .......................................................................................................................................... 4

Methodology ....................................................................................................................................................... 5

Types and Sources of Relevant Air Pollutants................................................................................................... 5

3.1 Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) ........................................................................................................................... 5
3.2 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) ............................................................................................................................. 5
3.3 Particulate Matter (PM) ........................................................................................................................ 6

Human Health Impacts on Air Pollution ............................................................................................................. 6

Management Strategies for Air Pollution ........................................................................................................... 8

5.1 Air Quality Management Strategy ........................................................................................................ 8
5.2 Managing Air Pollution on Different Scales .......................................................................................... 8
5.2.1 International Management of Air Pollution ................................................................................ 9
5.2.2 National Management of Air Pollution ....................................................................................... 9
5.2.3 State Management of Air Pollution............................................................................................ 9
5.2.4 Regional Management of Air Pollution .................................................................................... 10

Case Study: Air Pollution Threats in Gladstone ............................................................................................... 10

6.1 Major Gladstone Industries ................................................................................................................ 10
6.2 Industrial Pollution and Health in Gladstone ...................................................................................... 11
6.3 Pollution Management in Gladstone .................................................................................................. 13

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 15

Reference List .......................................................................................................................................................... 15

List of Figures
Figure 1: Air Quality Management Theory ................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 2: Graph Explaining the Total NOx, SO2 and Particulate Matter Emissions 2008/2009 ................................ 9

List of Tables
1

Table 1: Total NOx, SO2 and Particulate Matter Emissions (Tonnes per Year) 2008/2009 .................................... 9
Table 2: Emissions in Gladstone on 17.10.15 ........................................................................................................ 12

List of Abbreviations
ADRs

Australian Design Rules

DEHP Department of Environment and Heritage Protection

DERM Department of Environment and Resource Management
HAP

Hazardous Air Pollutants

N2O

Nitrous Oxide

NEPM National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure

NH3

Ammonia

NO

Nitric Oxide

NOx

Nitrogen Oxide

PM

Particulate Matter

SO2

Sulfur Dioxide

VOC

Volatile Organic Compounds

WHO

World Health Organisation

Executive Summary
Extensive research indicates that there are many sources of air pollutants and that they will have significantly negative
impacts on the environment and on human health. The case study included in the following paper explores the specific air
pollution threats in Gladstone. The Gladstone Power Station (NRG) produces over 43,000 tonnes of nitrogen oxide (NOx)
and 35,000 tonnes of sulfur dioxide (SO2) per year, but only about 8% of the total particulate matter (PM) released in the
Gladstone region (CS Energy, 1997). Mitigating the air pollution impacts will therefore have to be a collaborative worldwide
effort, and suitable policy and management strategies must be put in place. However, more research still needs to be
conducted in order to understand the difficulty of air pollution and its relationship with other environmental factors, such as
the direct impacts of climate change.

Introduction and Aim

Air pollution has always existed through natural processes of the earths environment but since the industrial revolution
began around 200 years ago, anthropogenic emissions have been rising sharply to the point where human and
environmental health are being adversely affected by it. Only recently has science begun to understand the extent of the
damage that air pollutants have caused to the environment and human health and methods of managing and mitigating its
effects have been introduced. Australia is one of the worlds largest emitters of greenhouse gases per capita (Yusef et al.,
2011) yet it lacks clear and comprehensive air quality standards and due to there being both federal and state regulations,
they are complex and confusing (Dobbie & Green, 2015). Current standards rely on the measurement of ambient
concentrations over certain periods of time which ignores the direct impacts that localised emissions from point sources can
have on the population of industrialised cities (Dobbie & Green, 2015). The National Environment Protection (Ambient Air
Quality) Measure (NEPM) states that the desired environmental outcome of this measure is ambient air quality that allows

for the adequate protection of human health and well-being (NEPM, 2003, p. 6). The adequate protection of human health
appears to set a low standard and is an overly simplified measurement for such an important issue. Management of air
pollution and how it interacts with the public should aim for exemplary standards that can address the environmental and
health issues that it is exacerbating.
Gladstone is an industrial city located on the sub-tropical north of Australias east coast with a population of 66,000 in 2014
including almost one quarter under 15 years of age and 10% that are over 65 years of age (Gladstone Regional Council,
n.d.). Maximum temperatures can reach 42 degrees over summer with the daily average from November to March
exceeding 30 degrees (Bureau of Meteorology, n.d.). In 2009 the Gladstone Regional Council in collaboration with the
Queensland Government released the Clean and Healthy Air for Gladstone Project to better understand the quality of air in
the Gladstone area and how it could be affecting the health of the population (Gladstone Regional Council, n.d.). The project
examined the levels and effects of industrial pollutants along with the meteorological factors that affect them. Due to
Australias large expanses of desert and high temperatures, Gladstone air is also negatively affected by frequent dust storms
and bushfires which can push air pollution levels above NEPM standards (Queensland Government, n.d). Bushfires, which
degrade air quality through the increase of particulate matter (PM) can be either man-made, such as agricultural and hazard
reduction burn-offs, or natural through bush and grass fires.
The variations in meteorological conditions between cities, countries and regions means that the dispersion of air pollution
and how it affects climate change will not be evenly distributed (Nordiska Ministerrdet, 2008). Therefore, depending on a
regions meteorological characteristics, such as average wind speeds and direction, rainfall patterns and temperatures,
climate will be a mitigating factor in ambient air quality regardless of the levels of emissions from the region. For example,
the health effects of temperature are described as a U-shaped curve with continuing decreases in temperature below a
certain amount causing an increase in mortality, with rising temperatures past a certain point also increasing rates of
mortality (Kan et al., 2012). While the population health of some regions will benefit from rising temperatures, others will be
adversely affected. Strategies for the management of air pollution and possible physiological health symptoms will need to
take these factors into consideration.
4

The following study will look at the sources of air pollution in Gladstone with a focus on industrial emissions. There will be
a review of the relevant literature to understand the most common types of industrial pollutants, the health effects that they
can cause and the available options for managing their emissions. Throughout the study the current and potential impacts
of climate change will be taken into consideration when discussing health and management policies. The case study will
use this information to assess the main types of air pollution in Gladstone in addition to any adverse health impacts and the
strategies used for emissions management.

Methodology

The methodology utilised in this research is an extensive review of the literature based on the sources and the health and
environmental impacts of air pollution as well as its management options, and a case study of specific air pollution in
Gladstone has been included to explain how air pollution is currently being addressed in a region that has significant
problems of air pollutants.

Types and Sources of Relevant Air Pollutants

There are many sources and types of air pollutants, both primary and secondary, but arguably the most important ones are
nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (PM) (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2012), which will be explained
in more detail in the sections below.

3.1

Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)

The term NOx is used to represent oxides of nitrogen. The x specifies the mixture of nitrogen and oxygen in the compound.
Of the various forms of NOx that are likely, nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) are the most significant air
contaminants (Richter, 2009). The primary source of NOx is the combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas. The
main culprits are motor vehicles and the refining of petrol and metals, but gas stoves, gas and wood heaters and cigarette
smoke are also significant sources of nitrogen oxide (Hill, 2010). The harmful effects of these indoor sources are increased
when ventilation is poor (Richter, 2009). Oxides of nitrogen are emitted during high-temperature combustion processes. At
the point of release into the atmosphere approximately 95% will be NO with about 5% NO2. Trace amounts of other forms
of nitrogen oxides are also released from combustion processes, such as nitrous oxide (N 2O) (Sun & Jacobs, 2010).
Furthermore, in the presence of sunlight and oxidation compounds, nitric oxide combines with oxygen to form NO 2, which
can create a brown haze reducing visibility and resulting in acid rain (Hill, 2010). Finally, NO x can influence climate change
emissions through human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, wastewater management and industrial
processes, and plays a much larger role in exacerbating climate change than carbon dioxide.

3.2

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

A colourless, irritating and reactive gas with a pungent odour, SO 2 is produced naturally in volcanoes, geothermal activity
and bushfires. Erupting volcanoes are a major but periodic source of SO 2, which can impact the atmosphere through the
long-term heating of the Earths climate. Fossil fuel combustion accounts for the majority of the worlds anthropogenic sulfur
dioxide emissions. Various industrial activities such as petroleum processing, base metal smelter operations and wood
processing produce significant amounts of SO 2. People living in the vicinity of these industries may be exposed to sulfur
dioxide in the atmosphere. SO2 may also be produced naturally from the decay of vegetation on land and marshlands and
in the ocean. Sulfur is present as a contaminant in fossil fuels including the coal that is burnt in power stations. Generally,
Australian fuels including oil and coal are low in sulfur relative to global levels (World Health Organisation, 2006). During
combustion the sulfur reacts with oxygen to form oxides (principally sulfur dioxide), which are released with the flue gases.
In addition, after being released the highly reactive sulfur dioxide tends to form acid gases and sulfate aerosols, which when
combined with water can create acid rain (WHO, 2006).

3.3

Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate matter (PM) is a term used to describe airborne particles existing in the atmosphere. These particles, including
all organic and inorganic compounds, can range in size from microscopic to visible. They occur from either natural activities
such as erosion, evaporative sea salt, forest fires or anthropogenic processes such as combustion, manufacturing activities
or automobile exhaust. The terminology commonly refers to particulate matter as PM x, where x denotes the particle
diameter in microns (1 millionth of a metre). PM10 indicates all particulate matter of diameter 10 microns or less. Particulate
matter can originate from a wide variety of sources, which can differ from one location to another depending on the problems
of industry and dominant land use. Some natural sources of particulates are bushfires, oceans (sea salt particles), pollens
and windblown dust. Various sources result from human activities including fuel combustion, vehicle engines, and dust from
stockpiles and land clearing (WHO, 2006). In most urban areas PM exposure would be predominantly from motor vehicle
emissions, while in rural areas, agricultural operations can generate airborne particulate matter, especially during the dry
seasons (Hill, 2010). During the combustion process, coal is burnt for the production of electricity which results in the
emission of residual ash. Some of the ash becomes entrained in the hot combustion gases and is referred to as fly ash.
The combustion emissions, a mixture of gaseous, liquid and solid matter, are sent to the fabric filters to minimise the
particulate emissions before the combustion gases are released into the atmosphere. The environmental fate of PM
depends on the way the particle is formed (Meyer, 1998). Particulate matter can be formed when combustion material has
been condensed in the atmosphere (WHO, 2006). Gases in the atmosphere can also react with combustion products to
form particulate matter, which are removed from the atmosphere by rain (WHO, 2006).

Human Health Impacts on Air Pollution

The effects of ambient air pollution on human health is well-documented with the World Health Organisation citing it as the
cause of 3.7 million deaths in 2012, with 80% related to ischemic heart disease and strokes, 14% to chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease and 6% to lung cancer (World Health Organisation, 2014). Even low concentrations of air pollution can
have adverse health effects such as allergies and throat irritations, and social and physiological stresses (Hansen et al.,
2009). Although inhalation is the pathway through which air pollution enters the body, cardiovascular illnesses are more
6

commonly associated with morbidity and mortality than respiratory illnesses (Langrish et al., 2012). Pollutants affect the
body in various ways including pulmonary irritation, suppression of the immune system and the disruption of the autonomic
nervous system (Peel et al., 2013). Research has shown that those with weakened immune systems such as children, the
elderly and those born with pre-existing conditions are at a greater risk of suffering from the effects of air pollution (ONeill
et al., 2011). Air pollution can cause chronic health problems which are associated with long-term exposure at lower
concentrations of the pollutant in the ambient air, and acute health problems which occur due to short-term exposure to
higher concentrations of specific types of air pollutants. Epidemiological studies have shown that microscopic solid or liquid
matter suspended in the atmosphere, the sum of which is called particulate matter (PM), especially those that are 2.5m or
smaller (PM2.5) (Robinson, 2015), have the greatest association with morbidity and mortality of any type of air pollution due
to their small size and ability to penetrate deeper into the lungs and blood (Langrish et al., 2012).
For the majority of the population, exposure to air pollution can be traced back to particulate matter derived from the
combustion-based sources such as industry and traffic (Langrish et al., 2012). However, other sources of air pollution in
Australia include home heating sources and bushfires (Hansen et al., 2009). The air pollutants that have the most adverse
effects on human health can be either primary pollutants, which are emitted directly from the pollution source, or secondary
pollutants, which are created when primary pollutants interact in the atmosphere. Nitric oxides released from a point source
of pollution quickly react with ozone to produce nitrogen dioxide, which in high and low concentration can have negative
acute and chronic respiratory effects (Kampa & Castanas, 2008). Nitrogen oxides are also involved in the production of
ground level ozone which is another air pollutant shown to have negative impacts on respiratory health (Kan et al., 2011).
Similarly, the primary pollutant sulfur dioxide and its derivative secondary pollutants sulfuric acid and sulphates are
respiratory irritants that can exacerbate pre-existing respiratory illnesses. The effects of both sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen at the PM10 to PM2.5 have also been proven to contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease, acute
coronary syndrome and acute myocardial infarctions (Franklin et al., 2015). This suggests that sudden increases in
atmospheric sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen can exacerbate pre-existing conditions and increase the risks of mortality
in the population (Franklin et al., 2015).
The combustion of fossil fuels is related to the increase of air pollution and the acceleration of climate change and will
therefore also affect the epidemiology of the health effects of air pollution (Hansen et al., 2009). There is already strong
evidence that climate change is affecting human health through the increase of heatwaves and other extreme weather
conditions which act as stressors and raise mortality rates (Kan et al., 2011). The accumulation of air pollutants within an
areas is associated with meteorological factors such as humidity, precipitation, temperature and wind speed (Hansen et al.,
2009; Sujaritpong et al., 2014). Drier conditions leads to increases in particulate matter, higher temperatures are related to
increases in the production of ozone and heatwaves, all of which have been linked to the onset of cardiovascular and
respiratory disease. A study of air pollution in Sydney has shown that for every one degree increase in temperature, there
is a daily mortality increase of 0.9%, and when temperature rise to over 32 degree, this increases to 7.3% (Hansen et al.,
2009). Therefore, local and regional climatic conditions and how these will be affected by climate change, will have to be
considered when evaluating air pollutions future impacts on human health (Peel et al., 2013).

Management Strategies for Air Pollution

The management of air pollution takes place on different scales and reaches from a local to an international level. The
following sections points out management options as well as the different spatial- and temporal-scale levels in Australia.

5.1

Air Quality Management Strategy

The range of contributing air pollutants makes air quality a complex problem, which can only be solved through different
measures (Queensland Government, 2013). There are three main techniques for reducing air pollution (Nesaratnam &
Taherzadeh, 2014) such as (1) modification of processes to decrease emissions, (2) collection of particulate materials, and
(3) absorption of toxic gases. Bachmann (2007) established an air quality management theory which follows five steps to
reduce air pollution. He also states that for air quality management theory to be successful, goals need to be established,
emission reductions determined, programs developed, and strategies implemented, enforced and evaluated (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Air quality management theory (Bachmann, 2007 adapted by HIlkmann, 2015).

5.2

Managing Air Pollution on Different Scales

The management of air pollution can be divided into different spatial- and temporal-scales from a global level to a regional
level. On the larger scale, regulations with standards and maximum values are usually set whereas on the smaller scales,
plans or planning schemes arrange concrete aims.
8

5.2.1

International Management of Air Pollution

The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution in 1979 has been the foundation for Australias air quality
management since it was first introduced. This convention connects divergent political systems as well as stabilising political
changes and is the only legally binding instrument for air quality management at the international level. It aims for a global
system of air pollution management as well as a closer cooperation between politics and research. This convention was
developed because of the sulfur dioxide emitted in central Europe on lakes in Sweden and Norway (Federal Ministry for the
Environment, Nature Conversation and Nuclear Safety, 2013). The involved states made arrangements on the recognition
of transboundary air pollution and its impacts on both the environment and on the community in addition to the obligation of
improving emissions, the implementation of a European evaluation system and the establishment of committees for further
development and the implementation of the convention (UNECE, 1979). Furthermore, the Gteborg Protocol in 1999 with
an update in 2012 is the most recent air management protocol. The update in 2012 sets new standards and emission levels
for 2020. This Protocol focuses on the management of SO2, NOx, and volatile organic compounds (VOC) and ammonia
(NH3). However, it has been criticised because the reduction of emissions is not enough and the differences between the
signatories are still too high (DNR, 2012).
5.2.2

National Management of Air Pollution

The national level mainly provides overall goals, but also standards and maximum values for industry and traffic. The most
important strategy for Australian air quality management is the NEPM 1998, which sets standards for sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, particles and lead, but also mandatory monitoring and reporting requirements
(Department of the Environment, 2015). Furthermore, the Australian Design Rules (ADRs) set standards for new vehicles
concerning their emissions and over the last 20 years has led to reductions of lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons and particles. Another government publication the Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000 sets the national quality
standards for a wide range of fuel quality properties aimed at reducing emissions and improving engine performance
(Queensland Government, 2013). Australia also wants to establish a National Clean Air Agreement by 2016 that will address
the challenges in terms of air pollution as well as to analyse health impacts and improve ambient air quality nationwide
through new regulations (Department of the Environment, 2015). This new agreement is necessary, because the current
system of the NEPM is now insufficient and ineffective, because it has failed to keep pace with international standards. For
example, there are still no regulations on PM2.5, although its harmful effects are well known and most vulnerable groups are
not adequately protected.
5.2.3

State Management of Air Pollution

The government on the state level implements legislation, statutory instruments, programmes and policies in their own
jurisdiction to meet the national standards (Department of the Environment, 2015). In Queensland the Environmental

Protection Act 1994 and the Environmental Protection Regulations 2008 establish a list of industrial activities which are
environmentally-relevant and have to have a current development approval or environmental authority. The aim of this
9

protection is to prevent or minimise all environmental pollution. Therefore, individuals carrying out environmentally-relevant
activities have to take all reasonable and practicable steps to make sure that best practices in environmental management
are used. These conditions of approval can include limiting emissions of air pollutants or monitoring emissions of ambient
air quality. Furthermore the Environmental Protection (Air) Policy 2008 established long-term objectives for different
pollutants, ozone and air toxics (Queensland Government, 2013).
5.2.4

Regional Management of Air Pollution

On the regional level different planning arrangements and local planning schemes make major contributions to air-quality
management. They establish the location and nature of major infrastructure projects or set up goals and processes to guide
development decisions at regional, suburban or local scales (Queensland Government, 2013).

Case Study: Air Pollution Threats in Gladstone

This case study examines the specific air pollution threats in Gladstone. Also, a simple analysis on the health and
environmental impacts that are commonly found in Gladstone in relation to air pollution have been conducted. Lastly, the
management measures of the different levels of Australian Governments related to these Gladstone air pollutants were also
studied.

6.1

Major Gladstone Industries

There are many industries that add to the increase of air pollutants within Gladstone but the ones that has the most
significant contribution include:

Boyne Smelters Limited (aluminium smelting operation) (EPA 2008a);

NRG Gladstone Power Station (black-coal fired electricity generation) (EPA 2008b);

Queensland Alumina Limited; and

Rio Tinto Yarwun (alumina refining); and

Cement Australia (cement clinker production) (EPA 2008c).

However, due to word constraints, only the NRG Gladstone Power Station will be discussed. The Gladstone Power Station
is the largest coal-fired power station in Queensland and is situated just outside Gladstone on the central Queensland coast
(NRG, 2008). As a major industrial source of NOx in the Gladstone region, NRGs emissions are minimised at ground level
because they are released from tall chimneys and produce approximately 43,000 tonnes of NOx per year (NRG, 2008).
NRG is also a major emitter of sulfur dioxide (SOx) due to the large quantities of sulfur containing coal that is burned to
generate electricity. NRGs contribution to the ground level concentrations are minor as the SO2 emissions are emitted and
dispersed above the inversion layer, with a total of 35,000 tonnes of SO 2 emitted annually (NRG, 2008). According to the
National Pollutant Inventory database for the 2008/2009 period, NRG produces only around 8% of the total particulate
10

matter (PM10) released in the Gladstone region (NRG, 2008), and as such, the Gladstone Power Station contribution to local
PM10 levels is lower than normal guideline values on both a daily and annual basis. This contribution is also within cut-off
levels proposed by the National Environment Protection Council as per the standards of the NEPM and the QLD
Environmental Protection Agencys EPP (NRG, 2008). Finally, the graph and table below (Table 1 and Figure 3) shows the
NOx, SO2 and PM10 emissions for the five Gladstone industries mentioned above. As can be seen, the NRG Gladstone
Power Plant produces significantly more air pollution emissions while Rio Tinto Yarwun produces the lowest. It can therefore
be inferred from this that NRG plays a significant role in the increase of the production of air pollutants in the Gladstone
region. However, this problem can be easily mitigated through an effective, efficient and appropriate management strategy,
which will be mentioned in the Section 6.3.
Table 1: Total NOx, SO2 and Particulate Matter Emissions (Tonnes per Year) 2008/2009 (Source: CS NRG, 2008)
BSL

NRG

Queensland Alumina Limited

Rio Tinto Yarwun

Cement Australia

NOx

534.675

43000.23

8447.76

990.635

2918.047

SO2

12430.785

35000.003

4020.052

1310.457

49.064

PM10

850.101

137

352.7

116.576

33.458

Total

13815.561

78137.233

12820.512

2417.668

3000.569

Figure 3: Graph Explaining the Total NOx, SO2 and Particulate Matter Emissions 2008/2009 (Source: NRG, 2008).

6.2

Industrial Pollution and Health in Gladstone

The findings from the CHAG (2009) report indicate that no air pollutants were found in the atmosphere at levels that
exceeded national standards or pose an unacceptable risk to human health. Levels of nitric oxides, sulfur dioxide and carbon
dioxide were all well under the health-based standards (Queensland Health, 2010) but concentrations of PM2.5 exceeded
NEPM annual average standards of 8 g/m3 at four of six monitoring sites. However, these averages are not representative
of a typical day as when the daily concentrations are viewed alongside meteorological data it can be seen that large spikes
in recorded PM2.5 concentrations are outliers amongst normally low concentration levels and that these spikes coincide with
bushfires and dust storms in the Gladstone area (Queensland Health, 2010). The authors also note that reducing PM 2.5
levels to a daily average of 2-5 g/m3 would have minimal impact on reducing adverse health effects (Queensland Health,
2010). However, PM is the air pollutant that causes the most substantial impact on human health (Australian Institute of
Health and Welfare, 2011) and Fisher et al. (2007) reported that up to 85% of health care spending from air pollution related
11

illnesses is accounted for by long term exposure to PM. This suggests that the acute effects of PM could be more damaging
than previously thought.
According to the Queensland Health community health survey (2009), the population of Gladstone is not significantly
different from the wider Australian population in a number of health conditions, including cardiovascular illnesses. However,
the prevalence of asthma in adults and children was shown to be significantly different within the Gladstone population,
12.0% compared to 9.8% for Queensland and 10.5% for Australia (Queensland Health, 2009), despite ambient air quality
being similar to other urban areas. Additionally, those affected by asthma took twice as much medication for their symptoms
and visited a doctor twice as much as the average Australian (Queensland Health, 2009) While the report suggests that the
causes of asthma are not well understood other studies have noted the influence of air pollution in the exacerbation of its
symptoms (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2011). Several studies have found an association between air
pollutants and asthma in childhood and suggest that nitrogen oxides, particulates, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide damage
airways through oxidative stress and inflammation (Ferrante et al., 2014). Research from CHAG assessed the possibility of
pollutant mixing as a source of lung and airway irritation and a cause of the higher than average incidences of asthma found
in the Gladstone area. Again, the results showed that at the recorded concentrations levels, the combination or air pollutants
would not pose a significant public health risk (Queensland Health, 2009). A factor cited for the increased prevalence of
asthma in Gladstone is the significantly higher rates of smoking amongst the population (Queensland Health, 2009) however
the prevalence rates for asthma has not been shown to be significantly different for smokers and non-smokers suggesting
other contributory factors (Polosa & Thomson, 2013). While no strong conclusions can be drawn from the research, it does
suggest that morbidity for asthma could be higher in industrial cities and children exposed to concentration levels deemed
safe could be at a greater risk to develop acute respiratory illnesses.
While the final health report from CHAG (2010) focused on the physiological risks, the Community Health Survey indicated
that air pollution could potentially be impacting on psychological health. The survey found that 75.7% of respondents
expressed concern over the health impacts of industry, especially air pollution (Queensland Health, 2009). Of these, over
25% indicated that they were highly or extremely concerned as well as almost 50% who agreed or strongly agreed that
while they had concerns, there was nothing they could do to control the risks to their health (Queensland Health, 2009).
The survey also found that almost half the respondents regularly experienced odours from industrial sites, 4.3% of these
reported as extremely annoying. Capelli et al. (2012) note that aside from the annoyance, the perception of industrial odours,
more associated with people's fear of the possible health effects, is psychological more damaging than the physical effects
of exposure. Several studies have suggested that higher pollutant concentrations can effect emotional states and general
wellbeing (Bullinger, 1989), with exposure to higher concentrations of ozone having a significant correlation with symptoms
of anxiety (Evans et al., 1988). Therefore, it could also be argued that the perception of pollutants could have additional
adverse effects on emotions and wellbeing and act as a stressor when an industrial odour is perceived.
Government policies aimed at limiting emissions from Gladstones industries due to climate change will also need to deal
with the health issues that the predicted temperature rise and reduction in air quality could bring (Sujaritpong et al., 2014).
The two pollutants that are predicted to have the most negative effects on human health due to climate change are Ozone,
through rising temperatures interacting with nitric oxides and VOCs, and increases in PM due to more frequent and intense
12

bushfires and dust storms (Spickett et al., 2011). As Gladstone is situated in a sub-tropical region that already has high
summer temperatures, any additional increases will also bring an increase in morbidity levels (Kan et al., 2012). Evidence
suggests that the health of the elderly and children will be the most affected by climate change, current estimates states
that those 60 and over account for 81%, and those under five 3%, of all outdoor air pollution deaths (Spickett et al., 2011).
Hanna and Spickett (2011) suggest that policies regarding health and climate change need to address the modelling and
forecasting of air pollutants levels, reductions in emissions, increased monitoring of pollutants levels and global cooperation
in monitoring adverse health effects from air pollution.

6.3

Pollution Management in Gladstone

Because air pollution has been a well-known problem in Gladstone state and local government sponsored projects to
research on links between air pollution and health (Higginbotham et al. 2010). The CHAG project (2011) aimed to appraise
the emission impacts on air quality, the risks of air pollution to human health, negative health outcomes, but also developing
approaches to decrease the emissions and identifying needs to health monitoring or evaluation.
All in all there are three key issues on air quality management (DERM, 2011):

Community concerns;

Deal with existing sources; and

Future industrial development.

For the community concerns the community first was consulted although the community does not expect the air quality to
be compromised (DERM, 2011). Furthermore groups and forums have been established with different stakeholders from
the private sector and the public. Therefore, a working relationship needs to be developed between different stakeholders
that focuses on air pollution management. Also, an air quality monitoring project has been developed to determine
concentrations, provide air quality data and inform the public, assess, evaluate and determine the effectiveness of the
programmes and to validate air dispersion models. This can be achieved through a further cooperation between the
Department of Environment and Resource Management (DERM) focussing on ambient air monitoring and communicating
with industries in the region to engage with the project (DERM, 2011).
The second step of dealing and managing existing sources showed that air pollution levels in Gladstone are within the
current health-based standards, but it presents the ongoing risks to air quality, therefore it needs to be managed. This can
be done through a cooperation of industry, government and community, which need to seek opportunities for a reduction in
the amount of discharged contaminants. Therefore emission limits as well as monitoring and an appropriate reporting should
be implemented. The emissions are regulated through the DERMs Environmental Protection (Air) Policy 2008 and the

Environmental Protection Act 1994. Therefore, an integrated approach for air regulations should be implemented with
different amendments on the pollutants. A further focus on sulfur dioxide is also required because under a worst case
scenario, standardised levels will be exceeded, therefore the current limits need to be reviewed. Another way to achieve
this is the maintenance and operation of plant and equipment, because of its effects on contaminant releases.
13

Recommendations to solve this include making sure that plants and equipment are consistent and meet requirements so
that they avoid environmental harm through control devices, standby systems or operational performance. Lastly, incident
management in terms of existing sources, which focusses on ensuring that the community is safe or, at the very least,
harmful events are minimized. Therefore risk assessments have to be undertaken, specific response procedures need to
communicate incidents, investigate them and record the data, which then needs to be tested and reviewed. Also, the
significant pollutants need to be provided with adequate reporting and communication of incidents as well as a modification
of the development approvals with an inclusion of incident response conditions (DERM, 2011).
The last step is the coordination of future industries in Gladstone and findings of future locations for industrial and urban
development. This is necessary because Gladstone is still a growing economic centre through expansions of existing
industries. Therefore, the regional emissions inventory, the purpose of which is to provide input data for the regional air
quality model, needs to be amended as it only focusses on the main stacks of the emitting industries. To improve this, a
comprehensive inventory needs to be maintained of all new industries, as well as existing industries providing emissions
profiles and environmentally relevant activity to keep it up-to-date. Low emission technologies are not a policy requirement
currently, but there is the need for best practice environmental management, because currently environmental impacts
statements require the assessment of alternatives, although they rarely lead to proposed technologies, with less harm for
the environment (DERM, 2011). Therefore, alternative technologies and an identification of contaminant emission should
be implemented. Effective land-use planning can also lead to a better air quality, which can be easily be achieved through
a separation of heavy industries and residential or other areas. However, buffer zones and distances are not an alternative
to lower emissions, they can only lead to less effects on special zones. To achieve a reduction in emissions, new industrial
development needs to be evaluated including the potential for cumulative impacts on air quality and priorities given to areas,
which avoid cumulative impacts and degradations of air quality (DERM, 2011).
Furthermore a project plan focusing on population health risk was developed, with the following main tasks: developing an
air emission profile and a regional air quality model, transacting a monitoring program, assessing community health and
health risk, developing an approach to manage air pollution and reviewing the regional air quality management (DERM,
2011; DEHP, 2014). Through the monitoring program which was developed in the project, plans for the stations to measure
the emissions have been developed in the Gladstone area. These stations provide continuous and up-to-date data about
key pollutants and their concentrations to examine the influence on air quality, and evaluate and inform public about
dangerous amount (Table 2).
Table 2: Emissions in Gladstone on 17.10.15 (DEHP, 2015).

Gladstone

Carbon Monoxide

Nitrogen Dioxide

Ozone

Sulfur Dioxide

PM10

PM25

Visibility

Targinie

0.001

19

7.4

17

Clinton

0.003

17.8

4.9

18

South Gladstone

0.001

16.1

5.4

19

13.1

18

Boyne Island

0.2

14

Very Good

Good

Fair

Poor

Very Poor

No Data

Another approach implemented in the region is the industrial ecology strategy, which is supported by a few governments in
Australia and can be found in a few cities. The industrial region Kwinana started this strategy and now has a huge supply
chain between the different firms and uses opportunities for waste exchange and energy cascading (DEPM, 2011). The
Queensland government has looked for opportunities to develop industrial synergies to reduce waste and energy usage for
heavy industries in Gladston. Five significant synergy activities were found: alternative fuels, water reuse, waste separation
use, fly ash and waste recovery. However, potential for new developments was limited because of scale and planning,
especially since the city size is too small and lacks a critical mass of firms and soft infrastructure necessary to support
downstream processing industries. In addition, export to Asia limited the chances, because of a missing connection to the
port network system of Australia and therefore transport of waste by-products is too expensive. Furthermore, there is a lack
of human and social capital networks to support the development of industrial ecology as well as a not conductive regulatory
environment (Roberts, 2014).

Conclusion

Air pollution is a major issue worldwide, which affects the environment and human health. Therefore it is necessary to
ensure an ambient air quality, which can be achieved through management strategies in order to follow international and
national standards and assure human health is not affected. Furthermore, Gladstones industrial economy will lead to a
further research on air quality in order to measure and evaluate air pollution levels. This is why, through the Clean and
Healthy Air Gladstone, different changes and recommendations should be suggested and implemented in order to ensure
an even better air quality.

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