Finite-element Design of Concrete Structures

Figure 1.6 Nodal forces for a four-noded and eight-noded isoparametric plate element under
uniform vertical loading

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1.2.2.3 Determination of the required reinforcement

Nowadays, the estimation of the reinforcement required and its detailed arrangement
in truss and plate structures is not a problem. However, this is not the case for deep
beams and shell structures. Here, a software program in general is not able to make
the best detailing of the reinforcement, as it is based on an element-wise analysis.
Force redistribution, due to the cracking of the concrete, is not considered in a linear
elastic analysis. In general, an FE model with shell elements will not be able to
distinguish between a member in bending and one in compression, whereas their
design must be different. Thus, the model can lead to incorrect results. The same is
true for shear design.
1.2.2.4 Discretisation
The numerical modelling of a real structure, the discretisation (subdividing a structure
into a nite number of different elements), is where most of the errors are made
(Figure 1.7). Here, among other matters, special note should be made of the following
factors.
Size of elements
Some years ago, the number of elements was limited due to the capabilities of both
computer hardware and software, whereas nowadays a sufciently ne discretisation
of an entire building can be done without any major difculties. Furthermore, an element
mesh can be produced very quickly by graphical pre-processors. Nevertheless, even
automatic mesh generation should not be used in an uncaring or uncritical manner;
engineering knowledge is still required. An inadequate modelling of apparently
irrelevant details, such as, for example, small cantilever slabs of a bigger plate (Section
4.12.2) or openings in a at slab near columns, can lead to faulty calculations and an
unsafe design. A sufciently ne element mesh should be used in regions of high
deformation or stress gradients.
Element form functions, incompatible elements
In general, the user of a software program has no information of the numerical
algorithms and the form functions for the elements on which the software is based.
Nevertheless, the user should have the basic knowledge to understand at least the
principal difference between a beam, a plate and a shell element, in order to understand
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