Geotechnieal and Geological Engineering, 1994, 12, 253-276

Geological and geotechnical aspects of Saudi

Arabia
T. A L - R E F E A I and D. A L - G H A M D Y
Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia

Summary
This paper presents a brief review of the geological and geotechnical aspects of the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia. The first part of the paper presents a brief summary of the geological aspects and the soil
characteristics in different parts of the country. The second part gives a brief outline of the major
geotechnical problems encountered in the regions of the Kingdom along with their geographical
locations.

Keywords: Saudi Arabia; expansive soils; collapsing soils; sabkha deposits; compressible and shrinking
aeolian deposits and shifting sand dunes.

Introduction
Many areas in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are associated with problematic soils and
complex subsoil conditions such as expansive soils, collapsing soils, sabkha deposits,
compressible and shrinking loose aeolian deposits, and shifting sand dunes. Even the igneous
rock formations of the western mountain regions, the sedimentary rock formations of the
central and northern regions, and coral limestone formations in coastal areas are not devoid
of foundation problems. While there have been many detailed subsoil investigations
conducted all over Saudi Arabia during the last decade of rapid development, the
geotechnical data is scattered and is not easily accessible. Thus the physical findings and the
lessons derived from past investigations and experience, which constitute a major feedback
into engineering practice, are lost. This paper attempts to review the most significant
geotechnical problems and the geographical areas associated with these problems in Saudi
Arabia.

Geological features
Saudi Arabia is a vast country occupying most of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bisected by the
Tropic of Cancer. Climatically it is mostly dry and arid.
Topographically it can be divided into the relatively fiat coastal areas between the Red Sea
0960-3182

1994 Chapman & Hall

254

Al-Refeai and A1-Ghamdy

and the western mountain ranges and a fairly flat central plateau followed by the flat terrain
of the eastern region bordering the Arabian Gulf. In the depression to the south lies the vast
sand tract of Rub A1-Khali. The geology of the Arabian Peninsula is given in detail by Powers
et al. (1966), A1-Sayari and Zoti (1978), Brown and Jackson (1959), Kent (1978) and others.
The physical geology and climate conditions in Saudi Arabia are discussed by Oweis and
Bowman (1981) and Fookes (1978).
Saudi Arabia is divided into two basic geological zones. About one-third of the Kingdom
is underlain by the Arabian shield (Precambrian Basement Complex) which extends from the
western coast for about 500 to 600 km towards the east. The Precambrian rocks of the
Arabian shield are mostly igneous and metamorphic. The rocks form a dome-shaped
topography and are often covered by thin deposits of alluvial sands and gravels (Touma et
al., 1981). The Arabian shelf lies to the east of the shield and forms the remaining two-thirds
of the Arabian Peninsula. The sedimentary rocks of the Cambrian and Quaternary ages of
the shelf run, with a gentle dip of about one degree, towards the east to the Arabian Gulf and
towards the south to the depression of Rub A1-Khali. The sedimentary rocks are mostly
limestone sand and silt stones, and shales. The terrain is often covered by loose aeolian
deposits and sometimes with thick strata ofwadi alluvium and/or residual soils (Cooke et al.,
1978).
The following is a brief description of the geological aspects and soil characteristics found
in the different geographic areas of the Kingdom.
The western areas

The western areas are mostly mountainous with mountains rising up to 3000 m above sea
level. The western coastal plain along the Red Sea is low in elevation and fairly narrow.
Owing to favourable marine and climatic conditions, coral cultures grew along the coast
during recent geological times giving rise to terraces of coralline limestone. Coral banks and
reefal limestone are often found either as outcrops on the shores or covered with sand and silt
deposits (Rahim and Dhowian, 1988). Further east, the coastal plain rises gently and is
mostly granular soils overlying tertiary rocks. In some areas they overlie soft coastal deposits
or sabkha flats.
The city of Jeddah is situated on the Red Sea coast as shown in Fig. 1. Geologically, the
city is underlain by basement rocks of Cenozoic and Precambrian age. The upper layers of
the coastal plain are mostly silty sandy deposits. With the retreat of the sea, the mode of
deposition of sediments changed from subaqueous to subaerial and aeolian deposits. In the
northern part of Jeddah the coastal plain is underlain by coral limestone. In places, the coral
is absent but pockets of clay or silty sand are mixed with shells and deposits of salts and
gypsum. In the southern part, sediments from erosion of rocks occur closer to the shores, in
addition to coral limestone (Ghazali et al., 1985). In addition, the water table in the Jeddah
area is high, and the saline soils create geotechnical problems in the city.
Further east the topography suddenly changes with rugged mountains rising steeply to
between 2000 and 3000 m above sea level: The Tail region is an example of rugged
topography with mountains composed of granite and fragments of quartz and diorite. Even
in Taif with the granite base there are geotechnical problems, where subsurface conditions
change abruptly within short distances from residual soil into granite (Touma and
Bellerjeau, 1981). The mountain ranges continue further south to Abha and Najran. In the
Abha area, the steep slopes of the escarpment consist of greenstone lava with schists. Further

Geological and #eotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia

32"

28"

36"

39"

42"

45"

4S"

255
51"

54"

0
lr..

Tabuk
Tayma

57"

6;"

200
I

400 Km
I

Gassim, JubailDahranDammam-~..
Madinah

24"

Jeddah

Riyadh o

Hofuf
Kharj

Tail

20"

~ o Abha
Najran
Sharorah
16"

ol Adent

Fig. 1. Saudi Arabia

inland the rock is mostly granite and grandiasite. Around Abha, the soil is mostly silty sand
with decomposed granite layers underneath (Urpak, 1985; RGME, 1993)i Further south,
similar conditions of topography and geology continue to Najran and beyond. The western
coastal plains between the impressive escarpment rising to 3000 m and the Red Sea are fairly
flat with granular soils and are known as the Tihamah. The geological features of the city of
Jizan is of special interest, as this coastal city is situated on an elevated terrain underlain by a
salt dome. The salt dome is the predominant structural feature of this southern coastal plain.
It protrudes about 50 m above the surrounding sabkha flats. There are a few outcrops of the
salt deposits. An aeolian silty sandy deposit overlies the salt dome. The combination of the
geology, topography and environmental conditions have given rise to complex geotechnical
problems in the City of Jizan (A1-Muhendis, 1985; Ghazali et al., 1985; Erol, 1989).
In the north, the city of AI-Madinah has different geological and topographical features.
The city is situated on a wide plain underlain by a complex of Precambrian basement rocks.
The plain is formed by the accumulation of thick alluvial materials in the basin. The basin in
which the city is located is surrounded by high hills forming natural barriers to the overall
drainage patterns of the area. The stratification of the basin mostly consists of successive
layers of gravel, sand, silt and clays and their combination. The existing shallow water table

256

AI-Refeai and AI-Ghamdy

and the basin stratification have given rise to some geotechnical problems in the city of
A1-Madinah (Cansult, 1981a, b, 1983; Tekar, 1978).

The southern areas

The southern area is covered by the Rub A1-Khali, the largest sand tract in the world. The
western area of Rub A1-Khali and the areas surrounding the city of Sharorah are generally
covered by recent windblown sand-silt-gravel mixtures. These deposits are underlain by
Wasia and Biyadh formations of cross-bedded quartz sandstones of red, white and grey
colours and sometimes with beds of quartz conglomerate and shales. These deposits are
underlain by the Tawilah group consisting of calcareous bound deposits of sand and silt
stones, shale and marl with some carboniferous plant remains (Rahim, 1987; A1-Kateb,
1972).

The central areas

The Central Plateau is a relatively flat plain. The sedimentary base rocks of the central area
have been subjected to uplift and erosion during the Tertiary age and the massive rock units
have formed several escarpments. Silt, sand, gravel and limestone of Quaternary and
Tertiary ages are found along erosion channels and wadis between escarpments. The Riyadh
area is underlain by limestone of Jurassic age named the Jubaila and Arab formations. The
Jubaila formation is extremely resistant, dense and hard and is a light brown to yellowish
colour. The Arab formation overlies the Jubaila formation. The Arab formation is generally
composed of alternating layers of weathered limestone and solution-collapse breccia. The
near-surface dissolution of the anhydrites have resulted in slumping of carbonate beds
producing a considerable quantity of solution-collapse breccia. It is less resistant, soft and
porous, and grey to yellow (Rahim, 1981). The Riyadh area has some complex geological
problems (Jarallah, 1981; Touma and Bellerjeau, 1981).
Northwest of Riyadh lies the AI-Gassim area. The base rocks of the A1-Gassim area
comprise sedimentary rocks of the Devonian, Ordovician and Silurian ages of the Tabuk
Formation. It is red to pink, and partly micaceous silty sandstone. The sandstone has
partings of green to brown silty clayey shales. The shales are expansive in characteristic when
wetted. The overburden is mostly medium-dense dune sand of varying thickness. At various
locations there are sabkha flats in the area (RGME, 1986). The cities of A1-Zulfi, A1-Washm
and A1-Ghatt lie in a large basin with a steep escarpment to the east, and sand dunes to the
west. The wadi basin is surficially covered with silt, sand and gravel of Quaternary age
underlain with highly weathered clayey green shales of the Dhurma formations. The surficial
deposits contain significant amounts of soluble sulphur trioxide (SO3) and large amounts of
salts which lead to collapse of the soil structure on wetting (RGME, 1982a; A1-Moser, 1988;
A1-Santaly, 1981).
The city of A1-Kharj lies south-east of Riyadh. It is situated in a large flat depression carved
in the eomparatively soft terrain of the Arab and Wasia formations. These depressions drain
all surface and underground water from the Tuwayq mountain wadis. The surficial deposits
are mostly aeolian silty sand of variable thickness (Powers et al., 1966).

Geological and 9eotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia

257

The northern areas

The northern areas form part of the great Nafud sedimentary basin. These Quaternary
deposits consist mainly of red to pink and grey marly to calcareous sandstone-sandy marl
with pinkish sandy shale and clayey silty sand. Tabuk city is underlain by a shale formation
called the Tabuk formation. The depth of the shale from ground level varies with location. In
some parts of the Tabuk area the shale outcrops are covered with a very thin layer of aeolian
silty sand. The shale formation of Tabuk possesses high swell potential on wetting. Also the
ground-water table is at relatively shallow depths of 5 to 7 m (RGME, 1982b; International
Associates, 1982). Similar geological formations continue to the A1-Jouf area.

The eastern areas

The eastern plain is covered by deposits of Quaternary ages consisting of salt-bearing soils,
areas of sand dunes and outcrops of limestone and calcareous sandstones. The Gulf shores
are covered with silty clayey sands and coral limestone and sometimes with relatively hard
marine conglomerate of Quaternary marine processes (Abu Taleb and Egeli, 1981).
The base rocks of the eastern plain are Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary rocks. The
city of A1-Hofuf is located in the A1-Hasa oasis. The upper stratum in the A1-Hasa area is
known as the Hofuf formation. It consists of terrestrial sediments of the upper Miocene and
lower Pliocene periods. This stratum is underlain by marine sediments known as the
Dammam Formation consisting of limestones, marls, and clays of the middle Miocene
period. The stratum is fairly thick (up to 100 m) and consists of pink, white and grey marls
and red, green and olive clay with interbedded sandstone and limestone. The water table is
fairly high in the area. The surficial deposits and ground-water contain high percentages of
chlorides and sulphates. There are also several hot water springs in the area. The clays have a
high potential for swell (Ahmed, 1983; RGME, 1983).
The cities of A1-Dammam, A1-Khobar and AI-Dhahran are situated on the eastern coast.
The geology of this area is rather complex. The main feature is what is known as the
Dammam Dome. It is an oval-shaped salt-intrusion feature with complex crystal faulting.
Superficial deposits are mostly aeolian silty sand, followed by the Dammam formation of the
middle Eocene period consisting mostly of limestone, marl and shales. This is underlain by
the Russ Formation of the lower Eocene. It consists of marl and limestone with gypsum and
anhydrite. Following deposition of the upper Dammam formation the sea receded. This
caused a concentration of salts in the ground-water resulting in recrystallization and
dolomitization of near surface limestone and the development of sabkha flats. During the
succeeding Miocene and Pliocene epochs, uplift of the area caused doming and flexing of
overlying rocks including salt intrusion in the area (Powers et al., 1966; A1-Sayari and Zoti,
1978; Davies and Lord, 1981).
Further north on the eastern coast lies the industrial city of A1-Jubail, where the base
geology is similar to all of the eastern plain and is composed of upper tertiary sedimentary
rocks and marine sediments. In the A1-Jubail area, these are overlain by Quaternary aeolain
and sabkha deposits. The sabkha flats occupy about two-thirds of the area. These soft saltencrusted flats are of variable thickness and consist of both cemented and uncemented
sand-silt layers interbedded with clays of varying consistency. The non-sabkha terrain is
mostly aeolain silty sand deposits and dune-sand. The water table is only 0.5 m from the

258

AI-Refeai and AI-Ghamdy

surface in the sabkha areas, complicating the geotechnical problems (A1-Messairiei and
Feroz, 1985; Akili and Ahmed, 1983).
As mentioned earlier, Saudi Arabia is almost bisected by the Tropic of Cancer. Hence the
climate is hot and arid with scanty rainfall and high evaporation rates. Also, the daily
variation of 10 to 20 C in temperature, the seasonal sand storms and occasional flash floods,
all influence the formation and affect the characteristics of sediments. The climatic
conditions, the physical environments, the topography and the local geology have given rise
to formations of soils with geotechnical problems in many areas of the Kingdom. Some cases
pertaining to specific geographical locations have been mentioned earlier.

Geotechnical problems

Expansive soils
The central and northern regions of the Kingdom are most associated with the problems of
expansive soils. There are also other localized problem areas, scattered all over the Kingdom,
as shown in Fig. 2. The physical properties of typical expansive soils encountered in the
upper 18 m of the soil profile in different regions are summarized in Table 1. The groundwater table in all the regions is well below the active zones of expansive soils (Dhowian,
1993). The swell potential of the shales and clays at Ghatt, Tabuk, Tayma, Jouf, Sharaourah,
Hafuf and Madinah as classified using the consistency limits according to the method of
Dakshanamurthy and Raman (1973) vary from !ow to extra high as indicated in Fig. 3. Fig. 4
shows a typical profile for selected regions. The swell parameters for those regions are shown
in Fig. 5. Field conditions in regions of expansive formations have been described in detail by
Ruwiah (1987).

Collapsing soils
Collapsing soils exist in the central and eastern regions of Saudi Arabia (Dhowian and
Touma, 1991). Collapsing soils in the Riyadh area are characterized as wadi deposits of an
alluvial nature consisting primarily of sand with varying amounts of gravel, silt and clay.
Ranges of soil properties for an alluvial collapsing deposit in the east of Riyadh are shown in
Fig. 6. Typical results of classification tests on collapsing soil from Hutat Bani
Tamim - 180. km south of Riyadh - are compared with those of North American loess soil as
shown in Table 2, which clearly reflects the similarity between collapsible loess and Hutat
Bani Tamim soil. The wind deposits in Hutat Bani Tamim undergo a 2% to 8.5% volume
decrease depending on the applied pressure during saturation (Ruwiah and Erol, 1981).
The shear strength envelopes for undisturbed samples from east of Riyadh and Hutat Bani
Tamim in dry and soaked conditions are shown in Fig. 7. As shown in this figure, the soaking
process considerably reduces the cohesion for undisturbed samples from 225 to 25 kPa for
soils from east of Riyadh and from 50 to 10 kPa for soils from Hutat Bani Tamim. Soaking
will therefore substantially reduce the bearing capacity.
Figure 8 shows typical results from plate-load tests conducted east of Riyadh on soil at
natural water content and after soaking. The behaviour of dry soil could be considered
essentially elastic, and able to support a large load with small settlement. Wetting of the soil

Geological and geotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia

259

N
"Z

"-

/.:]::.:[,'.:Joufa-~
i::-'"":-.'-"

.....: ~ :..-.-:-.: ~.:: z ...':...

":-...--.- :..-:. ::..~.'-..'- Tavma"::
~" ::'~';:';;"
~{'-.
. "..
- :...'..-'o.~...

~
\

....
-'.:::::.~.t
.-'-'-~'~itnah
"".'.'
L

".

..:::::...':.
~-. -... ~..
:.--., :......
', S ~ u r a h
"7"

Regions

With

Expansive

Fon~ations.

Fig. 2. Distribution of the expansive formation~ in Saudi Arabia (Ruwaih, 1987)

produced a significant reduction in soil modulus and void ratio and resulted in irrecoverable
settlement.

Shrinkage in soils
On desiccation, some aeolian desert deposits experience excessive shrinkage and reduction in
volume. Soils exhibiting these characteristics are present in the central and southern regions
of the Kingdom (Rahim, 1985).
Zeleii (1984) studied the bar shrinkage characteristics of aeolian desert deposits from two
sites in a large wadi 30 km north of Riyadh. Table 3 shows the properties of the soils studied.
It can be seen that these deposits are predominantly sandy in nature (85-89 % sand), but they
still exhibit shrinkage (6%).

Loessal soils
Loessal soils are wind-blown deposits which have a very loose structure and a low density
and are highly compressible. These desert deposits exhibit high compressibility. In a dry state

A1-Refeai and A1-Ghamdy

260

g~

+.a

oo~oooo~~
~

Geological and geotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia

Swell

261

Potential
HIIgH

V.

HI6H

i
I EXTRA

HI6H

o GHATT

- I" T A B U K

TAYIJ A

JOUF

1
I

I
I

o . , f

x6ouj - A SHAP~OURAH'I
n
HOFUF

o blEDINAH

_ +

--

~--40

i--

ii

_^

.y ', o

U .o
i'-"

~zo
0

oO+

~: 5,"

"

ZO

J"

40

&O
LI

Q.UID

I
t
I
I
I

I
I
I
~

SO

I00

~
12.0

LIMIT

Fig. 3. Plasticity characteristics of soils investigated (Ruwaih, 1987)

the deposits are relatively incompressible with appreciable shear strength but when exposed
to excessive water, the deposits lose strength and undergo excessive compression often
leading to collapse of structure. These desert deposits exist extensively in the central and
southern regions of Saudi Arabia (Fookes, 1978; A1-Solai, 1983).
Typical geotechnical properties of loess formations in the Riyadh and Gassim areas are
shown in Table 4. Both soils exist as loose deposits in the natural state and can be compacted
to relatively high dry densities. The soils indicate significant collapse potential exceeding
10% on saturation even at relatively low pressure, as shown in Fig. 9.

Loose granular sand deposits and sand dunes

These deposits exist as sand tracts in the Central, Eastern and the Southern regions of the
Kingdom as shown in Fig. 10. These sand tracts are not only the major hazard to the
highways and other communication systems but also have other problematic properties
typical of aeolain deposits (Redding and Lord, 1981; Stipho, 1992).
Properties of dune sands from different locations in the central region are shown in
Table 5. The unique compaction behaviour of dune sand is of a profound importance for
highway embankment construction. The highest degree of compaction is achieved by
compacting the sand in completely dry conditions as shown in Fig. 11. This is especially
advantageous in a country like Saudi Arabia where water is expensive to obtain. Mirza
(1992) found that dune sand can be effectively compacted in lifts up to 1 m in thickness with
concrete shaft vibrators. Badr (1992) studied sand dune treatment and stabilization in Saudi

Al-Refeai and AI-Ghamdy

262
HoOf

~o

Madinah

HoOf
20 t,O GO 80
t

-2

'

Wn I PL
,/o J

LL1
!

20 t.O 60 80
I

25 50 75
I

i'.'.u:

?.:'~
:.~.".:

100

I-----.--q

:.7,."=

__

tt

PL

N
F

Top soll

Dune sond

Brc,w n i s h 9rey
c o t c o r e o u s cloy

~Green-white
soft t o
I
I mediu m s t i l l cloy

Fine cemented s a n d w i t h
limestone
intrusions

~
~

Ghatt

Tayma
0

20 t~) 60 80

-0
1

~1

~i

~_LL

-2

~----~ '

'

'

_1,.,.=.
""~

Greenish"

herd

cloy

Tabuk
10
I

wn

20

30

~t.
t

~0

LL
t

# o"

20

t~3 60

80

PL " i t
I

.. .

-~"
3

11

-5
-..::2

-7.

II

"

-9"
t

..=10

~"

I
op

5oll

Weathered ~
Lamira,~d Intoct
B
~ -Extremety
Shale dch=n gypsum. I==:q shalewith ctaystonel
siUstor~ intr'usions

Fig. 4. Typical subsoil profiles for selected regions (Dhowian, 1993)

$o'nd stone

Geological and geotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia

13

Madinah

Ghatt

11

12
L.~OORATORY
11 DE~ICATED~,NPLF..~

,~.

tO

10

10.

t <

030

SO 6O
LL.'I.

70

7'

6-

6.

S-

S-

t,,

Jr,.

t..

1 ~:.t
i

"

' l!l

3.

2-

2-

I. ~Im

1.

1
,80 9 0
LL'/.

70

ttO

Ghatt

SO

11
10

,
eo
LL;I,

9'0 ~00 25

35 45
LL'I.

10-

~ s3

30

SO GO
LL,'I.

'o
70

,80

60

7o 80
L L.'I,

12- Hofuf
I0-

98-

8-

7-

7-

6-

' IJ IE [hw
o,

50

,~.

~-;

"

55

13

~t Tayma

10-

13

11-

~<

LIHIT

~2- Tabuk

l U~+l
i + -i

,.

t,

[
70

13

13

9.
8

LIOUID

10

o:..+
i + o +..,

3.

Tayma ,2 Hofuf

7"

-+I

13

II

7'

Tabuk

:1[

~--~-+I +
..~

13

13

13

12

263

,Jr
l

SO 60

5-

5-

3-

3-

2-

70 80
LL,'I.

LIQUID

90

100 110

o'25

,Jl !l
l

30

3S .~0 ~S
L L ,'1.

LIMIT

Fig. 5. Swell parameters for selected regions (Dhowian, 1993)

2-

I-

,j

o
SO

60

70
L

L'/.

80

90

90

264

A1-Refeai and Al-Ghamdy

Depth

Natural
Moisture
('/.)

(I,4etet s ) 0

0.0

Fraction Pa~:r,lr~j Reha'tive

No 200 Compaction

Sieve

( -t. )

20 o 1o
I

("t.)

30
I

Liquid
Limit

50 60
1

Index

(./.)

8o
t

Pt czst icily

IO00
!

2o
!

z;O 0

C "l. )
10

20

1.5
3.0
4.5
6.0

7.5

9-0

105-

Fig. 6. Range of soil properties for alluvial deposits (Dhowian and Touma, 1991)

Table 2. Comparison of index properties of collapsing soils

Properties
LL (%)
PI (%)
Natural void ratio (e)
Clay percent
Maximum dry density
(MDD, kN/m 3)
Optimum moisture content
(OMC, %)

North American
loessa

Hutat Bani Tamim

soilb

24-42
6-18
1.0-1.50
10-32

.31-39
8-13
0.92-1.05
16-26

16.48-17.55

16.38-17.55

16-19

18.4-20.7

Peck et al. (1974).

b Ruwaih and Erol (1981).

Arabia. Fig. 12 shows the relation between relative density and the angle of friction (qS) of
dune sands.

Salt-bearing soils (sabkhas)

Sabkhas have high concentrations of salts. These soils originate due to capillary suction and
intense evaporation in the coastal and inland flat plains of Saudi Arabia (Oweiss and
Bowman, 1981). Sometimes the salinity of the pore fluid reaches as high or higher than sea

Geological and 9eotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia

265

400

East of Riyadh

300

/
/

Undisturbed

[]

Dry

"

Soak~

2O0

t-,

100

eo --0.393, wo =1%
I

50

1 O0

150

200

250

Normal Stress (-k.Pa)

100

Undisturbed

Hutat Bani Tamim

DR Y

50

o
0'3

(Ruwi~h and Ero1,1981)

50

100

Normal Stress (kPa)

Fig. 7. Failure envelopes for soil in dry and soaked direct shear tests

A1-Refeai and AI-Ghamdy

266
Applied Pressure(kPa)
0

150

300

,-',7---~------~

450

600

' co Dry

20

Soaked

25

Applied Pressure(kPa)
0

150

30O

450

~-------2____..] . Soaking

"5

15

Fig. 8. Typical plate test results east of Riyadh

Table 3. Properties of shrinking soils in the Riyadh area (Zeleii

1984)
Specific gravity
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Shrinkage limit (%)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
M D D (kN/m 3)
OMC (%)
Percentage shrinkage

Site 1

Site 2

2.72
25.2
23.2
19.8
89
6
2
17.46
19
4-6

2.74
23.4
22.2
20.9
85
7
3
17.90
16
4-6

Geological and 9eotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia

267

Table 4. Typical properties of loess formations (A1-Solai, 1983)

A

Site

Riyadh

Gassim

Specific gravity (Gs)

Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Shrinkage limit (%)
Field dry density (kN/m3)
Natural water content (%)
MDD (kN/m3)
OMC (%)

2.64
17.2
NP
15
12.26-13.14
2.9-3.5
20
9.6

2.70
16.3
12.5
11.0
13.63-13.83
4.2-4.3
20.79
7.9

water. The high salt content has great impact on the strength properties of soils and also on
structures in contact with the soil. Salt-bearing soils are extensively found on the eastern
coastal plains and at locations on the western coastal plains of the Kingdom.
Salt-bearing plains in Saudi Arabia are generally categorized by layered sediments of fine
silty clay covered with few metres of fine dune sand (Akili, 1981). Table 6 shows data from
coastal and inland sabkha samples obtained from different locations in Saudi Arabia. AbuTaleb and Egeli (1981) summarized the geotechnical properties of sabkha deposits in the
eastern province of Saudi Arabia, as shown in Table 7. The geotechnical properties of sabkha
sediments in Jizan region are summarized in Fig. 13. Plasticity characteristics of sabkhas
from Jizan region, shown in Fig. 14, demonstrate the range of variation in consistency limits
which reflect the heterogeneity of the sabkha profiles.
This heterogeneity is the distinctive feature of sabkhas that gives rise to uncertainties in
evaluating their engineering behaviour (Erol, 1989). Typical load~iisplacement relations
obtained from plate load tests in Jizan are shown in Fig. 15. It can be seen that these sabkha
deposits are also affected by soaking, with a significant ificrease in settlement when tested in
an inundated condition.

Solution collapse limestone breccia and highly weathered limestone with large cavities
The sedimentary rock beds of the Arab formation in the central region are generally
composed of a thick stratum of highly weathered and decomposed limestone with calcite
crystals and solution cavities or solution collapse breccia or both. These limestone beds vary
erratically both in their composition and strength characteristics. Also the existence of large
cavities in the limestone bedrock causes geotechnical problems. The central and eastern
region in general and the city of Riyadh in particular have these geotechnical problems (Lord
and Marcetteau, 1981; Touma and Bellerjeau, 1981).
There has been a steady rise in water levels in the Riyadh area over the last 5 to l0 years
(ADA, 1990). Porous brecciated rock and highly fractured and weathered rock in the Arab
formation are affected by changes in the water levels, which may increase the potential for
cavity formation by solution of limestone. Also cavity infil! material may be carried away by
flowing water, thus increasing the risks of cavity collapse (Salih and Swann, 1989). The
presence of water can also affect the intrinsic strength properties of the limestones. A series of

AI-Refeai and AI-Ghamdy

268
t.2

I.I

A-SAMPLE
~.ec = 0.2329

"~ t.0

Undislur be d S c r u p l e s
l
Test: A-l-t(Air d:ied)ll. ~ e, =0.B6gfi
Test~A-I-2 (SooWed) o-O e,=t.lt.1
Collapse

at

P o t e n l i a l [C.P),~O.~'/,

o" =02BSk~/cm2

0.~1

qTo

0,6C
0.55
0.I

, ,il;ili

02

0.3

0 ~ m0S 06 0TQB091,O

t' S 6 7 B g I0
PRESSURE ' Kg/cm.2

20

J II lU

(0

6B

100

0.9

r, e c : 0.227~

O.TS -- -

0.7

~+'--"~-~['Y

B - SAte4 P L.__~E
l
Undisturbed samples
Test:BJ.tlAir dried]a~---I e. ;Q76/,5 1

at o" : 0.285 K~/cm 2

"

- 0.6
<

o 0.B - -

0.t. - 035

o3

- -

03

0.2

1 I

0.~

IIII

0.6

0.~ 19

I I I IIIll

~.
6
B 10
PRESSURE
Kg/cm 2

Fig. 9. Collapse behaviour of loess soil (A1 Solai, 1983)

20

I I J IIII
~0

60

80 I00

Geological and geotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia

36

39"

42"

45

48"

269
51"

54"

57

61"

32" r ' ~

"~,

.~;>._.

28"

24"

20"

Arabian
Sea
16"

:Sndreas/'Guf'Adet
Fig. 10. Sand terrains in the Arabian Peninsula: 1, A1-Jafurah; 2, Ad-Dahna; 3, The
Great Nafud; 4, Nafud Ath-Thuwayrate and As-Sirr; 5, Ar-Rub'al-Khali

Table 5. Properties of dune sand

A

Location

Gassim

Muzahmiah

Ghatt

Riyadh

Specific gravity (Gs)

Effective size (Dlo, mm)
Mean size (Dso , mm)
Coefficient of uniformity (Cu)
CBR (%)
emin
emax

2.643
0.14
0.26
2.04
41
0.504
0.746

2.636
0.14
0.29
2.22
54
0.468
0.689

2.640
0.16
0.26
1.75
81
0.468
0.662

2.654
0.13
0.23
2.12
56
0.459
0.683

Al-Refeai and Al-Ghamdy

270
1.9

SAMPLE
O'----

1.8

1.7

z
)tr
3

1.6

1.5

MOISTURE CONTENT (%)

Fig. 11. Compaction curves for dune sands

46
44
42
Z

o_

40

I-

F.-

38
36

<
34
32
20

40

60

80

100

RELATIVE DENSITY (%)

Fig. 12. Angle of internal friction versus relative density of dune sands
strength tests on various Riyadh rocks have shown that there is a trend towards weakness
with increasing moisture content as shown in Table 8.

Coralline limestone
Owing to favourable marine and climatic conditions, coral cultures grow along the coastal
line giving rise to terraces of coralline limestone. These deposits are found predominantly

271

Geological and geotechnicaI aspects of Saudi Arabia

Table 6. Salt contents in soil from Saudi Arabia (Oweis and Bowman, 1981)

Location

Soil
classification

Sulphate
contents
(ppm)

Chloride
contents
(ppm)

Jeddah
Yanbu
Khamis Mushayt
Tabuk
Taif
Riyadh
Riyadh
Jubail
Hafr A1 Batin

Sand (SP)
Sand (SP-SM)
Sand (SM)
Sand (SM)
Sand (SP)
Sandy clay (CL-SC)
Sand and gravel (GM-SM)
Sand (SP)
Sand (SW)

9000
15 000
1500
160 000
600
6000
15 000
21 000
90 000

15 000
28 000
100
2000
100
50 000
40 000
3000
1000

Table 7. Physical and mechanical properties of sabkha (from Jubail Industrial

area) (Abu-Taleb and Egeli, 1981)
Description

Maximum

Minimum

Passing 0.425 mm sieve (%)

Natural water content (%)
Liquid limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Bulk density (kN/m 3)
Specific gravity
SPT (blows/300 mm)
Cohesion (kN/m 2)
Angle of friction (degrees)
Initial voids ratio
Compression index (C)

97
84.6
84
39
18.54
2.82
6
53
22
2.16
0:95

18
10
30
NP
13.14
2.51
0
0
0
1.39
0.39

55 samples were tested.

along the western coast and at scattered locations along the eastern coast of the Kingdom.
Along the western coast, the deposits extend to greater depths and in places the stratum is
more than 50 m thick. In its natural condition, coralline limestone is soft, non-homogeneous
and porous. The density, porosity and strength characteristics of these coral formations vary
erratically, creating difficult geotechnical conditions (G.K.N. Keller, 1984).

Shales and clays

Shales exist predominantly in the northern regions but are also found scattered in the central
region. In the Tabuk area, the shale formation called the Tabuk formation is highly
weathered and interbedded with silt-sand mixtures, In the central region of the A1-Gassim
area pink shales occur. The city of A1-Madinah is surrounded by soft clay deposits developed
from weathering of vesicular volcanic basalt. The greenish Madinah clay has been classified
as a highly compressible plastic clayey silt to silty clay of soft to stiffconsistency, and has a

Al-Refeai and Al-Ghamdy

272
~)EP'~ LAYER SYMB

DESCRIPTION

Honplastic sift with line sand

presence at sulphate and chloride
salts. Gr. S y m : M L - S M
. . . . .

tHICKNESS
(m)

SPT. N

0.7- 2.2

9 - 16

CONSISTENCY
LL.'I. PI.
Wn, "I.

NP

NP 24.4 ~5J}

High plcLsticlty o r g a n i c c l a y s ,
and silts

/4- ::I:

Gr. sym: OH, MH

v~

1.5o! I - 6

3.1 ;

57 14 25 8 493+-14.2

::/.,/.',
a.

6m

8- :E
9-

10
11-

?,,,..;..S
ei./.),~ Moderate

to l o w

pLasticity siLts

,/,, ,,'/, and c l a y s

~,)IV,',
Gr. s y m : CL, ML

I -6

3.65 ; 1.85

2-8

3 3 ; 8 11T-4 336;7.1

i |-,,
..%.I,|,

::!L.'..;::

,:..;;:.,'1

Nonplastic

s i l t y , clayey line

sands.
i~;;~::~, Gr. S y m : S M , S C

0
u

3.55 T-1.90

NP

NP

25.578.8

e , !

w
~

M e d i u m dense to d e n s e

o.'-"
i l

Variable

o i l

1213-

~;
-r

%; Fine

""'"

tel

sands,

from
medium
dense
to Very
dense )

"

e l

LL: Liquid t i m i t , P I : P l a s t i c i t y
Index. Wn: n a t u r a l w a t e r c o n t e n t
SPT: Standard Penetration Test

Fig. 13. Profile characteristics in sabkha sediments (Erol, 1989)

60

50

CH

o. 40
o

CL

30

"NP e

2c
~
10

ICL-ML
0

I
10

MH or OH

~ ~L:-'''~I'~':

20

30

40
50
60
LIQUID LIMIT, LL,'I.

70

80

Fig. 14. Consistency limits of sabkha sediments from Jizan (Erol, 1989)

90

100

273

Geological and 9eotechnical aspects of Saudi Arabia

LOAD

,.,

20
[

/,0
I

kN

60
[

80
I

1(~

120

L,.

E
E
"12

uJ
u.I
..,
a.

16.

E3
O NATURAL

20-

o
~.

"" ....

24

~ ~D,.. ~

~ ~ ~O...._

~,
\

INUNDATED

PLATE
~,

OIAM:

300mm

28

Fig. 15. Typical plate load test on sabkha in Jizan (Erol, 1989)

Table 8. Effect of wetting on rock strength (ADA, 1990)

Description

Average dry
strength
(MPa)

Average wet
strength
(MPa)

Percentage
reduction

Jubail aphanitic
Jubail calcarenite
Arab aphanitic
Arab breccia
Arab calcarenite
Sulaiy aphanitic
Sulaiy breccia
Sulaiy calcarenite

39.9
26.5
19.8
23.1
25.3
25.6
17.9
21.3

25.5
14.0
15.2
6.3
11.3
17.2
8.9
13.1

36
47
23
73
55
33
50
38

low unit weight, a low degree of saturation and a high void ratio. It possesses a high liquid
limit (160-200%) with a high plasticity index ( > 20%). The coefficient of consolidation is in
the range of 0.50-50 m2/year for the stress range of 25-400 kN/m 2 (Hanafy, 1989). Shales,
and compressible and desiccated clays frequently cause geotechnical problems in Saudi
Arabia (Fagerstrom, 1981; International Associates, 1982).

274

Al-Refeai and Al-Ghamdy

Conclusion
In this paper, the prevailing geotechnical conditions in Saudi Arabia are presented. The
information from previous investigations and experience gathered from completed projects
all over the Kingdom have been utilized for the geotechnical characterization of ground
conditions in Saudi Arabia.
The kingdom has a range of problematic soil types which include expansive soils,
collapsing soils, sabkha deposits, compressible and shrinking loose aeolian deposits and
shifting sand dunes.

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-