Orals Revision

Notes

Task Revision Notes: Manoeuvring

Interaction
A vessel moving along experiences unwanted forces caused by the flow of
water and unequal pressure around the hull.

A build up of positive pressure builds up ahead of ship caused by water

piling up ahead of the vessel trying to resist its fwd movement.
The water down the sides of the ship creates a balancing area of
negative pressure.
The negative pressure over compensates the positive pressure so another
smaller area of positive pressure astern is created.
These pressure zones not only go outwards they also act vertically
downwards.

Bank Effect
This occurs when a vessel is passing a gently shelving bank, the positive
pressure forward pushes the bow away from the bank. The Negative pressures
draw the stern towards the bank. If the forces are very strong then it may
cause the vessel to roll towards the bank increasing the vessels draught.
To control the effect you have to constantly correct the amount of helm
that is being applied.
Bow Cushion effect
When the river banks sides are steep sided the vessel will experience
constructive forces. The forward pressure area is partially constrained on the
obstructed side and therefore creates a cushion at the bow.
As long as the stern is kept far enough away that the negative forces do not
create a suction then you can balance the outward turning force of the bow
cushion with the inward turning force at the stern, this is done by applying
helm towards the bank.
If you are navigating in a narrow channel which is constrained on both sides
then the bow cushion forces the vessel to take the center line of the channel.
If you pass an opening in the channel this loss of pressure will cause the bow to
turn towards the opening.
Squat
The restriction at the bow causes the speed of water to flow under the
fore foot of the vessel to increase
This increase of water causes a low pressure area under the fore foot to
form which in turn leads to a loss of buoyancy at the fore foot.
Due to the loss of buoyancy the bow will dip
Due to the bow dipping an increasing amount of water will build up in
resistance

This forces the bow deeper dipping the bow further until the buoyancy is
equal to the downward weight of the vessel
In addition to what is happening forward the speed of the flow of the
water around the vessel also suffers an increase as it is drawn both along
the ships side and down under the hull.
This fall in water level causes the loss of the under keel clearance called
SQUAT
Another effect of squat is the reduced steering lever, during a turn this
may lead to a sudden or rapid sheer of the vessel. If a vessel does
experience sheer then a good burst of power is required to correct the
sheer before reducing speed to reduce squat.
Squat = Cb x V2
K
Cb
V
K
depth

= the block coefficient

= speed in knots
= a constant depending upon the
: draught ratio

K = When the available depth of water is greater than twice the deepest
draught then K may be assumed to be 100
K = Where the ratio is between 1 : 1.15 and 1 : 2 then K may be assumed
to be 50
Ship to Ship Interaction
If two vessels meet head to head the combined positive bow pressures will
cause the bows to be repelled

When the vessels are abeam the negative pressure zones cause a suction
towards each other

As the vessels are stern to stern the negative pressure causes the vessels to be
drawn together

Shallow water
In shallow water the size of the turning circle and a loss of speed.
This is because in shallow water there is a much greater build up of
lateral resistance caused by the restriction of under keel clearance.
This causes the pivot point to move aft shortening the turning lever
The longitudinal water flow under the keel is increased and so the vessel
has to use more power to maintain speed
There is also a restricted lateral flow caused by the increased draught on
the outside of the turn.
The result is that the rudder is less effective, the turn is dramatically
reduced therefore the angle of drift is much shallower.
Ship Speed
The following factors effect ships speed:
Boundary Layer
Vessels carry a body of water surrounding the whole body of
the ship, this water is on mm thick but it causes a loss of
power
Shallow water effect on bow and stern waves
In addition to the reduction of under keel clearance there is an
increase of water around the hull which produces a larger bow
and stern wave.
In addition to squat the vessel will also have to increase speed
to over come the bow and stern waves generated
Stopping
There are six main ways of stopping a vessel using just engines and rudders:
Crash stop
Low frequency rudder cycling
High frequency rudder cycling
Turning under full helm
Controlled speed reduction
Inertia stop
Crash stop Putting engines from Full ahead to Full astern
There is a immediate loss of control
Much better to reduce to slow ahead then slow astern, the chance
of cavitation is reduced and control is maintained for longer
Low frequency rudder cycling
This is designed to take greatest advantage of drift angle which
develops as a vessel enters a turn.
High frequency rudder cycling
This relies on the drag on the rudder to reduce headway
Turning under full helm

Good to use when the vessel is not restricted by sea room or

depth.
This is probably the quickest and most efficient method of taking
way off due to the drag on the hull created by the lateral
resistance to the turn
Controlled Speed reduction
The most practical way of taking way off the vessel in confined
waters
Speed is reduced in stages until both vessel and engines are dead
slow ahead
When at Slow ahead then Slow astern is sufficient to stop the
vessel
Inertia Stop
This is simply stopping the engines and allowing the ship to stop
The use of anchors for stopping
Dredging is particularly effective in eliminating speed and directional control.
Having both anchors out shifts the pivot point to a position between the two
anchors this gives improved steering and makes it easier to control the bow.
The additional drag created by the anchors is often sufficient to take all way
off the vessel
The vessel must be moving when the anchors are let go

Clearing a Foul Anchor

If the anchor becomes fouled on the sea bed then there are couple of methods
that you have to try and break it out
Heave short and steam slowly over the anchor
If this fails pay out some cable and steam around the anchor position,
this should rotate the shank allowing it to break out
If this fails you will need to buoy and break the cable.
Clearing a foul hawse
When a vessel has both anchors out it is inevitable that the vessel will swing
round it moorings due to tide and wind. This will result in the anchor cables
becoming crossed.
Clearing these turns can be tricky, you can do it by gentle engine moments and
rudder movements steam round un-twisting the cable.
If this fails the foul must be cleared manually.
Heave in so that the foul turns above the water
Lash the cables together using natural fiber rope below the turns
Pass a preventer wire through the sleeping cable after the turns and
lashing
Heave up the preventer wire to act as a slip wire and turn it up on the
bits
Walk back on the sleeping cable to expose a joining shackle
Make fast the cable below the joining shackle and break the cable
Pass a wire messenger from the port side
Make a half turn around the riding cable in the opposite direction to the
turns
Pass a wire up the stbd hawse pipe and attach it to the sleeping cable
Heave up on the messenger wire and slack on the easing wire
This will remove the turns, one half turn at a time
When all the turns have been removed, retrieve the sleeping cable by
heaving on the easing wire
Reconnect the joining shackle and remove the preventer wire
Move the lashing between the two cables
Heave up and secure the anchors for sea
Hanging off an anchor
When a vessel is to moor to a buoy with its own cable it is therefore necessary
to hang the anchor off

Walk the anchor out till is clear of the hawse pipe

Secure anchor using wires and bottle screws

Guillotines should be left in place

Pass a wire through the D shackle on the anchor secure one end to the
bits and the other end should be put on the windlass
Rig a preventer wire in a slack position
Walk back on the anchor till the weight is taken by the wire
The wire will now be in the up down position and the preventer will be
tight
Pay out anchor until the first join shackle appears on deck
Rig an easing wire below the joining shackle and then break the shackle
Slack back on the easing wire until the cable is clear of the hawse pipe
The vessel can now use the broken cable to moor to a buoy.

Open moor
The vessel should approach with the wind and weather approximately six points
on the bow with sufficient headway, but not too fast it will cause damage to
the anchors
Walk both anchors to the waterline
Let go the windward anchor
Continue making headway up to windward
Steam for 2 ship lengths
Let go the Lee anchor
Hold on to the windward anchor
Rudder amidships and engines half astern this will move the stern round
Pay out on the leeward anchor
Stop engines when the sternway comes on
The vessel will be brought up when there is equal cable on both anchors
at an angle of about 60
Standing Moor
Used when the wind and tide are coming from different directions
Stem the tide
Let go the upstream anchor
Move astern
When the cable is twice the required length let go the down stream
anchor
Go ahead on the engines to cant the bow away from the first anchor
Vessel is now back in the middle position
Now heave on the upstream anchor and pay out on the downstream
anchor

Open Moor

Standing Moor

Running Moor
Similar to the Standing moor except it is carried out differently
Let go down stream anchor when the vessel is still moving ahead
Pay out twice as much cable as is required
Let go up stream anchor
Pay out the up stream anchor and heave on the down stream anchor
until both lengths are the same
Medi Moor
Carried out in the Mediterranean where the wind is fairly predictable and the
tide is minimal
Make approach, when one and half ship lengths away let go the offshore
anchor
Steam round the anchor then kick ahead on the engines
When the bow is one and half lengths past the intended final position let
got he second anchor
Come astern on the engines
Go astern on to the berth adjusting both anchors so that there is even
weight on both
Run stern lines and make fast

Berthing
Port side to no wind or tide
Approach with minimum headway at an angle of 25 - 30
The bow should be aimed at a point just short of where you want to
position the ship
Stop engines well in advance and drift in
When about a beams width off the berth Hard Stbd
Slow astern will cant the stern to port
Stbd side

too no wind or tide

Make the approach at 15 - 20
Aim roughly where the bow will end up
When half a beams width from the berth back spring ashore
Dead slow astern
Pass a stern line as soon as possible to assist with coming alongside

Port side too tide from ahead with a gentle on shore breeze
Due to the tide there will be much better steering characteristics due
to more water passing over the rudder
Stop the vessel when still far away from the berth and assess the tide
and wind strength
Aim the bow at the final position
Approach at 25 - 30
When about a beams width off the berth round up to stem the tide
Balance this position and wind will bring the vessel alongside
Port side to Tide from dead ahead strong onshore breeze
Aim the vessel 50 60m ahead of the final position and one a half
beams width off the berth
Let go the off shore anchor
Now balance the engines so to stem the tide
Using the anchor to control the bows closing speed come onto the
berth
Port side to Tide from ahead moderate offshore breeze
Aim the bow at the final position
Approach at 20 or less to allow for the vessel being blown off the
berth
When about a beams width off the berth round up to stem the tide
Balance this position and wind will bring the vessel alongside
Pass lines as soon as possible
Avoid when possible approaching a berth with the tide astern of you, unless you
have the assistance of tugs.

Navigating in Ice

If a vessel is not down to her marks when navigating in ice you should
do all you can to ballast her down ensuring that stability is not
compromised
Be aware of ballast water freezing especially in high sided tanks, fill
only to 90% full to give some Free surface to it
Trim by the stern as much as possible so that the props and rudders is
as deep as possible
Ensure search light is working, if not do not navigate at night
Always pass to windward of ice bergs

When approaching ice from open water make your entrance at right
angles, slowing down until vessel is nearly stopped
Proceed at speed fast enough that you will not cause damage to the
hull and slow enough ice will not form around you
When following an ice breaker the idea is to follow in its wake but
dont get too close to it.
If your vessel is in danger of having her props hit a berg then stop the
shafts to avoid damage to the blade tips
If your vessel is suffering from ice accretion then turn your vessel so
the relative wind is on the opposite side. Be very careful not to
induce stress fractures when using hammers or mattocks.

Tugs
3 types of tug:
Conventional
Tractor
Azimuth stern drive
Conventional Tug
Single prop big rudders
As soon as she takes a tow the pivot point moves directly under the
towing point
If the angle of tow moves dead astern to 45 off the tug will not be able
to return to a position with the tow dead astern without letting the tow
go
Tractor Tug
2 Voith Schnieder units
Propulsion is fwd of the towing point
This means the tug can pull in any direction and girting is much less of a
problem
Very expensive + hard to maintain
Less bollard pull than a conventional tug
Azimuth
Takes the best of both tugs
Propulsion is a pair of independently rotating units both mounted at the
stern
2 towing points 1 fwd and 1 aft of mid ships
Maneuvers much the same as the conventional tug
Girting

Conventional tugs are prone to girting due to the pivot point being fwd of the
propulsion units. If the tug repositions or the ship takes a sudden swing then
the line of the tow is displaced causing a turning moment, this can heel the tug
violently possibly causing it to capsize
To minimize girting Gob ropes maybe used, this effectively bowses down the
tow rope and moves the pivot point aft of the thrust

Task Revision Notes: Passage Planning

Appraisal Gathering all the information together:
Charts
Tidal Streams / atlass
Publication: Mariners Handbook, ALRS, Pilot Books, Bridge Procedures
Guide
Routing Charts
Ocean Current Charts
Weekly Notices to Mariners
M Notices
IMO ships Routing
Guide to Port entry
Distance Tables
Ice Charts
Ocean Passages for the world
Annual Summary notice to mariners
Planning Putting the lines on the charts and making the passage plan
Execution Selling and going over the plan with the master
Monitoring Actually carrying out the plan and monitoring its effectiveness
Weekly Notice to Mariners
Section 1
Explanatory Notes, Index for section 2
Contains explanatory notes and advise on the use of charts and
publications followed by an index of notices and chart folio index of
charts effected together with the geographical region
Section 2
Admiralty Notices to Mariners Chart corrections
Contains notices for correction of charts including notices effecting
navigational charts and are listed consecutively from the onset of the
year

Contains Ts and Ps notices relevant to the week. The last weekly

notice for each month will also list the Ts and Ps remaining current
Any new addition charts together with new publications issued
Latest editions of publications are listed at the end of March, June,
September and December

Section 3
Reprints of Radio warnings
Contains all Navarea messages in force with reprints of those issued
in the week
Also lists Hydrolants, Hydropacs, US special warnings received
together with reprints in force for the those areas
The first weekly notice for each year contains a list of Navearea,
Hydrolant and Hydropac messages
Section 4
Corrections to admiralty sailing directions
Contains all corrections affecting Sailing Directions for that week
A cumulative list of these corrections is published each month
Section 5
Corrections to admiralty list of lights and fog signals
Contains all corrections for that week
Section 6
Corrections to admiralty list of radio signals
Contains all corrections for that week
Routing charts
The following Information is found on a monthly routing chart:
Ice information max limit
Position of ocean weather ships
Recommended tracks and distances
Bailie wind rose
Areas of predominant poor visibility
Mean air temperature guide
Wind force guide
Dew point and mean sea temperatures
Loadline demarcation limits
Ocean Currents

Task Revision Notes: Gyro

A gyroscope is a heavy wheel which when at high speed will rotate around its
spin axis and is free to move around two other axiss mutually perpendicular to
each other. These other two degrees of freedom allow the gyroscope to turn in
azimuth and tilt.
Gyroscopic inertia
Before the gyro starts to spin its spin axis can be moved in any direction
When it starts spinning it exhibits resistance against efforts to change
the direction of its spin axis this is gyroscopic inertia
o Inertia is related to the shape and weight of the gyro, the
distribution of that weight and the rate of spin of the wheel
o For the optimum performance you need a wheel with the weight
heaviest around the rim, which is spinning as rapidly as possible
Gyroscopic inertia ensures that the spin axis will continue to be directed
towards a fixed point in space
Consequently the movement relative to the earth allows gyroscopic
inertia to be divided into tilt and drift
Tilt
The vertical movement of a gyro axis relative to the earth
If the gyro is situated at the equator horizontal with the spin axis pointing east
the gyros spin axis will steadily tilt upwards so after about 6 hours it will be
vertical, it will then start to tilt down wards and after 12 hours it will be
pointing west. It will continue downwards until after 18hours it will be pointing
vertically downwards, after which it will start to tilt upwards again until it is
directly east again.
When the gyro is at either pole and horizontal it will follow its representative
star around the horizon with no change in tilt.
Drift
The horizontal movement of the gyro axis (change in azimuth)

A free gyroscope sited at either pole with its spin axis horizontal will
apparently move in a clockwise direction when viewed from above the North
Pole due to the counter clockwise rotation of the earth. It will move in an
apparent counterclockwise rotation when viewed from the south pole.
When placed on the Equator there will be no drift
Precession
If you apply a torque perpendicularly to the spin of the axis the axis will move
in a direction perpendicular to that of the applied torque. This is called
precession and is the result of the gyro trying to re balance itself to
accommodate the two demands made on it.
If the torque applied about the spin axis in the plane wheel its effect is
to reduce / increase the speed of rotation increase / decrease the load
on the motor.
To work out which way precession is going to take place you need to know the
direction of spin on the wheel.
Next you just rotate the torque through 90 in the direction of the spin to
ascertain the direction of precession
Torque applied here

Resultant Precession

Gyro Compass
Precession is very useful and is utilised to make the gyro north seeking.
Assume:
The axis is horizontal and is pointing to the east at a rising star
As the star rises the north end of the axis will tilt upwards
If adding weigh to the rotor casing asymmetrically to make it top or
bottom heavy the axis can be made to precess towards the meridian as
the gyro tilts
When the gyro is horizontal the added weight is either directly above or
below the wheel and causes no torque

This gravity controlled method unfortunately will only make the gyro
very crudely north seeking rather than north settling

Methods of gravity control

The simple method as mentioned above with putting weights directly above or
below the spin axis is highly unsatisfactory in a sea way where the weight
would be subject to accelerations from rolling and pitching of the vessel
What to do
The system of using liquid ballistics produces a top heavy effect by a high
density fluid flowing under gravity from pots on the high side of the assembly
which supports the wheel. This fluid is able to flow through a small bore tube
to similar pots on the low side. The torque produced by this weight transfer has
the same effect as the torque produced by a heavy top weight and results in
precession to the meridian.
The bore of the tube is such that it resists the surge of liquid when the vessel
rolls.
Gyro wheel

Horizon

Tube

As it tilts the fluid

flows to the low
side causing a
torque, precession
returns the gyro
back to the
meridian

Gravity control using a pendulum effect

This is basically a pendulum bob which swings to the low side of a spin axis to
produce torque, which in turn precesses the gyro towards the meridian. This is
also impractical due to the vessel movement.
Damping

Without some means of damping a gravity controlled gyro will continue to

follow an elliptical path. If the gyro is going to be useful then the size of this
elliptical path must be reduced so that the axis finally settles on the meridian.
A gyro may be damped in tilt or damped in azimuth. Damping in tilt is achieved
by making any tilt of gyro produce a horizontal torque which results in vertical
precession to oppose the tilt
Damping in azimuth is achieved by making a vertical torque and horizontal
precession, this precession is out of phase with that achieved by the gravity
control

Errors of a gyro
Course and speed
The cause and effect of tilt in a gyro has been that the gyro has maintained its
position on the earths surface, unfortunately ships compasses are always on the
move.
When a vessel is steaming North or South its bow is steadily tilting downwards
relative to a point in space, this causes unwanted tilting on the gyros spin axis
When a vessel is steaming East or West there is no tilting so no effect on the
gyro.
If the gyro was responding to N / S motion it would settle with the spin axis
E/W where there was no tilt.
As the gyro settles N/S when subject to the earth rotation alone and E/W when
subject to the N/S component of ships speed a vector diagram can be drawn to
show the error cause by the ships movement.
To correct for these steaming errors is done by correcting latitude and speed
this done manually by applying the information to the lubber line by means of a
cam and cosine groove.
Today latitude and Speed corrections are fed in manually or where it is linked
to a GPS it may receive its information from there.
In either case the result is fed to a correction torque motor which creates a
precession in tilt equal an opposite to the unwanted tilt.
Change of speed error
Steaming error is proportional to the ships speed and the cosine of the course.
This normally would not be very high but a vessel navigating at 20kts at lat 70
may get an error of 8. The gyro will therefore be unreliable for a period time
while the axis completes its damped spiral path to the new settling position.
Many modern gyro compasses are able to automatically produce a precessing
torque that reduces steaming error problems whatever the course / speed /
latitude

Questions and answers

What are the three degrees of freedom of a free gyroscope

Free to tilt about its Horizontal axis

Free to drift about its Vertical axis
Free to Spin about its axis

Describe the two notable properties of a free gyro

Gyroscopic inertia The reluctance of the gyro to change its plane of
rotation unless acted upon by an external force, thus the axle tends to
maintain the same direction with respect to space, known as rigidity in
space
Precession The movement of the axle of a gyroscope when an external
force is applied to it. If a force is applied to one end of the spin axis is
will move at right angles to both the applied force and the spin axis. The
resultant motion is precession.
Upon what properties does the moment on inertia of a free gyro
depend

The speed of the wheel

The mass of the wheel
The distribution of the mass

What is meant by the terms TILT and DRIFT when applied to the axle
of a free gyro

Tilt is any movement up or down

Drift is any movement east or west

Is the rate of tilt constant and how can it be calculated

Yes, but it depends on the latitude of the gyro. At the equator, with the
gyro spin axis pointing east west, the axis will appear to tilt east end
up, the tilt rate will be 15 per hour and there will be no drift. The tilt
can be calculated at latitudes other than the equator by the equation 15
x Cos Latitude + Sin azimuth.
Is the rate of drift constant and how can it be calculated
Yes, again it depends on the latitude of the gyro. At the north pole the
gyro spin axis will, when viewed from above, drift clockwise at 15 per
hour. There will be no tilt. The drift at latitudes below the north pole
can be calculated by 15 x Sin Latitude
Why is a free gyro not suitable as a compass
A free gyro is unsuitable as because :
o It is unable to seek the meridian
o It must be accurately aligned with the meridian, and be regularly
checked and adjusted.
o Frictional torque imposed by the gimble assembly causes the gyro
to drift out of the meridian.

o It only passes the meridian twice in 24 hours

Describe how controlled precession is achieved
Control precession is achieved in the Sperry gyro by means of a liquid ballistic
system. This is fitted to convert a free gyro into a controlled gyro as it provides
a means of controlling the drift of a free gyro. This is achieved by fitting pots
on either end of the gyro. Each pot is filled with equal amounts of mercury
when the spin axis is horizontal. When the north end tilts up mercury transfers
from the north pot to the south pot. This has the same effect as putting a
downward force on the south end, which results in easterly precession of the
south end and westerly precession of the north end. The amount of precession
depends on how far the north end is above the horizon. As the north end tilts
up Precession will be small, as it continues to tilt it will reach a point when
Precession will match the easterly drift of the earth. It will now precess west.
When it returns to the meridian there will be no tilt and Precession will be
maximum.

Task Revision Notes: GPS

The GPS system that we predominately use is the NAVSTAR GPS the American
system which stands for Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging Global
Positioning System. Other systems are the GLONASS system and the new Galileo
system.
Until recently the civilian access to the system was degraded but in 2000 the
Selective Availability was removed.
When selective availability was in use the accuracy was only up to 100m, with
the introduction of DGPS which was able to produce accuracy up to 1-3m
The GPS System is made up of 3 parts:
Ground Control Segment
Space Segment
User Segment
Ground Control Segment
Master control station
Controls and monitors the satellite orbits
Predicts performance and produces ephemeris for all satellites
Information of the health of the satellites is passed to each
satellite so they can pass this on to the users
In addition to the master control station there are four monitoring station in
low latitudes that are evenly space round the world. This is so that satellites
are always above the horizon of one or more stations
The monitoring stations collect data in the ephemeris production, they may
also be used to transmit navigation data and commands to the satellites.
Space Segment
Satellites operate in six circular orbits inclined to the equator.

Each orbit has four active satellites, this configuration ensures that at least 4
satellites are available to a user anywhere on the earths surface.
User Segment
A GPS receiver determines the position of its antenna by simultaneously
measuring the ranges from a number of satellites whose positions are
accurately known. Basically what actually happens is the receiver measures
how far a code signal received from the satellite is out of step with a replica
code generated within the receiver. Unfortunately the clock within the receiver
is not synchronized exactly with the satellite time so direct calculation of
range is not possible. But the errors for the satellite clocks are know and are
sent out by the Ground Control Segments.
GPS signals are very weak and spread over a wide band width, therefore the
receiver gets good signals and a lot of noise. So that the receiver does not pick
up lots of stronger signals the design of the antennae is vital.
The weak signals are amplified as they are sent down the cable to the
antennae. Further amplification is carried out in the receiver to pick out and
process the code.
The receivers micro processor then is able to devise the pseudo range.
There are 3 types of receiver on the market
Parallel Receiver
1 channel dedicated to each satellite this allows them to access all the
satellites continuously and simultaneously
Such receivers achieve better signal noise ratios and better pseudo range
results
Parallel receivers are typically used for highly accurate applications such
as for surveying

Fast sequencing receivers

Do not have dedicated channels
They are able to rapidly switch between the channels of the available
satellites
Due to the measurements not being made simultaneously which may
result in inaccuracies in the position
Multiplexing receivers
These are very fast sequencing
But are prone to noise which results in bad positions

Errors within the GPS System

WGS84
GPS provides positions based on WGS84 (World Geodetic System 84) which is a
mathematical model of the earth. This requires all current charts to be

converted to WGS84 to ensure that they correspond with the actual position.
The corrections are usually noted on the charts and obviously this provides a
big opportunity for human error.
System Error
Despite the constant monitoring of the satellites by control stations
there will be small clock errors and ephemeris errors. Although the
combined error is unlikely to give more than a 2m position error.
Ionospheric delay is caused by refraction in the ionosphere, this delay
can be calculated and supplied to the user via the Control Stations
Tropospheric delay can not be calculated, this will only produce a small
error when using a good receiver
Multi path error refers to an error caused by receiving direct and
reflected signals the receivers in a modern set are programmed to
detect this
Noise is likely to cause errors in positions obtained from the GPS,
warning of solar activity may be included in this category
Dilution of precision
When fixing normally we know that 3 bearings cut at 60 is ideal, the GPS
system will automatically select available satellites to provide that accurate
fix.
The user receives an indication of the accuracy of the fix he has received and
the expected current satellite geometry.
This is provided by the receiver and available on the display as Dilution of
Precision (DOP):
GDOP Geometric Dillution of Precision applies to four dimensions (N/S,
E/W, height and time)
PDOP Position Dilution of Precision applies to three dimensions (N/S,
E/W and height)
HDOP Horizontal Dilution of Precision is the most valuable to a
navigator because it indicates the probable accuracy of the N/S and
E/W dimensions)
EDOP Easting Dilution of Precision is of interest when longitude errors
are most critical
NDOP Northing Dilution of Precision is of interest when latitude
accuracy is critical
TDOP Time Dilution of Precision applies to time accuracy only
VDOP Vertical Dilution of Precision when altitude is critical
If your HDOP reading is 2 then there is a 95% probability that the GPS position is
within 200m of the true position.
DGPS

A DGPS base station is erected over a known position and the co-ordinates of it
are entered into the receiver.
Given the true position and the ephemeris of all the satellites the base station
receiver is able to calculate a series of true ranges. It simultaneously measures
the pseudo range to the same satellites. The difference between the two
provides a set of range corrections that is then transmitted to users in the
area, resulting in a more accurate position.
For DGPS frequencies check the ALRS Vol. 2
Errors with DGPS
The maximum separation between the DGPS station and the user should
be 300Nm
Noise can result in an error of a number of meters in the pseudo range
Multi path error cannot be removed but receivers compensate for it

Radar
RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Range
Fundamentally a RADAR is a precision clock which enables the time between a
transmitted radio signal leaving the set and the reflected pulse returning to the
set to be measured.
RADAR can measure the bearing and distance of most objects at quite
long ranges by using radio waves or electro magnetic vibration
The basic set
Transmitter

This generates the radio waves

Transmits the high energy radio waves and receives
the low energy echoes
Waveguide Metal tubing that carries the high frequency radio
waves
Antennae This directs the radio waves towards the objects and
receives the echoes
It makes it possible to work out the bearing of the
target
It collects the received echoes and directs them
towards the receiver
Scanners transmit energy from the magnetron in a
narrow beam, this horizontal width of beam is usually
defined as the angle between half power points
Receiver A device that detects the presence of any echoes
and amplifies them ready for display
Time base or Trigger - The means of measuring the travel time of the
pulse and echo
Display The means of showing the echoes in plan form The

Plan Position Indicator (PPI)

Horizontal beam width

P1
Side Lobes

Maximum Power

P2

Half Power

Main Lobe

Half Power

The angle P1 A P2 is the horizontal band width

P1 and P2 are the points which a receiver being moved across a beam at
a constant distance from the scanner would register half power
In the diagram above the horizontal band width is greatly exaggerated
an in reality it is less than 2
It is very difficult to design a scanner which only has a main beam and
much smaller less powerful beams exist side lobes
The scanner width and wavelength of the radar frequency determine the
horizontal beam widthThe wider the scanner the smaller the
Horizontal bandwidth
The shorter the wave length the smaller the
Horizontal bandwidth

Vertical Bandwidth

More complicated than horizontal bandwidth and the way scanners are
designed there is much more Vertical bandwidth than Horizontal
Bandwidth
The sea surface reflects energy breaking up the vertical pattern into
lobes - this is because the waves of energy and reflected waves of
energy are sometimes in phase and sometimes out of phase, this results
in lobes
The number of vertical lobes formed depends on the wavelength and the
height of the scanner
o By taking the length of the vertical line from the scanner to the
sea surface and dividing that length by half the wavelength used
in the radar pulse you can find the number of vertical lobes
The distance between the vertical lobes increases with distance from
the vessel

Radar Transmission
For a good echo to be produced the radar pulse must:
Have high energy
Be of short wavelength to enable to echo to be accurately timed
Be generated for only short periods of time to ensure echoes from
nearby objects are detected
Pulse length and Pulse Repetition Frequency
Typical pulse lengths:
Short
15m 0.5 sec
Medium
75m 0.25 sec
Long
300m 1.00 sec

A large number of these pulses are generated every second this is known a
Pulse Repetition Frequency
The interval of time between successive pulses is known as Pulse Repetition
Interval
Due to the high speeds of the pulses echoes from targets at a long range will
return before the next pulse is transmitted
RADARs Limitations
Due to the curvature of the earth there is a limit to what we can see with the
naked eye, because light is refracted we are able to see roughly 6% further
than the theoretical horizon.
RADAR waves are also refracted and because they are at a lower frequency
than light they are bent further so the RADAR can see 15% further than the
theoretical horizon.
Discrimination
Differentiation of targets depends on three factors:
1. Spot size
2. Pulse Length
3. Horizontal beam width
Spot size
The electron beam in the CRT is focused as finely as possible, the degree of
focus governs the spot size, this is very much dependent on the range scale in
use.
Pulse length
A detected echo produces an intensification of the electron beam
The duration of the bright spot on the screen is therefore a function of the
duration of the received echo the duration of the echo is the pulse length.
Targets which are on the same bearing and closer than half the pulse length
will appear as one target therefore we can say that Range Discrimination is
dependent on pulse length and spot size
Range and bearing accuracy
Bearing accuracy is governed by:
1. Horizontal Beamwidth
2. Scanner to trace sync
3. Heading marker
4. Aerial squint error
If the scanner to trace synchronization is not correct then there will be errors
in bearing:
One revolution of the trace on the CRT must happen in the same time as
one revolution of the scanner

The orientation of the picture on the screen must be correct to the

orientation of the heading marker
The heading marker is operated by a switch which is activated
every time the scanner passes it, this must be adjusted so that
the heading marker intersects the picture at the correct point

Squint error
This is in a slotted wave guide scanner and is caused when a magnetron
produces a slightly different RF pulse from that which the aerial is designed for
is introduced into the set.
Errors seen on the PPI
False Echoes
These echoes may appear on the screen when there is no real target there,
there are 6 types:
1. Indirect Caused by obstructions in the path of the radar beam, Think
masts on the Surf when targets would appear in the blind sector when in
fact they were ahead of you
2. Sidelobe When very good target are present at close range there may
be sufficient energy returned from the side lobes to generate echoes on
the screen, these echoes may appear in an arc on either side of the
target
3. Multiple caused by a radar pulse being reflected backwards and
forwards between two reflective surfaces before being received by the
scanner
4. Interference Caused by the radar picking up pulses of other radars
operating in the vicinity using a similar transmission frequency and
similar pulse repetition frequency. Normally causes a spiraling pattern on
the display
5. Second Trace returns In some cases the echo will return to the scanner
after the next pulse has been sent, the system assumes that the echo is
from the second pulse and will paint the target accordingly
6. Ghost This will occur when a vessel is approaching power cables which
span a channel, the appearance on a radar screen is that the target is on
a steady bearing, even with evasive action the target will remain on a
steady bearing
Automatic Radar Plotting Aids
This is a computer attached to a Radar which able to automatically measure
ranges and bearings of selected targets. From a series of ranges and bearings a
track history can be formed:
True track
True speed
CPA

 TCPA
Remember the ARPA shows you what the target has done NOT what it is doing
now.

Automatic Identification System

AIS is a shipboard broadcast transponder system operating in the VHF radio
band. It is designed to send the following information out:
Ship Identification
Position
Heading
Ship length, beam, draught
Hazardous cargo
Each AIS system consists of:
1 VHF transmitter
2 VHF receivers
1 VHF DSC receiver
Standard marine electronic communications link to shipboard display
systems
Positioning and timing information is taken from either an integral GPS
or and external one with a DGPS for coastal navigation
Each system transmits and receives over two radio channels to avoid
interference problems
The AIS transponder is usually working continuously whether it is near shore or
mid ocean.
Requirements
All passenger ships and cargo ships of 300GT or more
Ships constructed on or after 1 July 02 must have them
Ships built before then are to be phased in as follows:
Pax and tankers
By 1 Jul 03
Other Vessels 50000Gt+
By 1 Jul 04
Other Vessels 10 50000GT
By 1 Jul 05
Other Vessels 3 10000GT
By 1 Jul 06
Other Vessels 300 3000GT
By 1 Jul 07

Electronic Charts
Constructed using either Rasta Data or Vector Data

Raster Data:
Produced from scanning the master components used in the production
of a paper chart
The resultant image is made up of coloured pixels
It is basically a scan of our normal charts
You can not interrogate the objects on the charts to produce information
on it
Vector

Data:
Produced by giving digital values to each and every object on the chart
The computer can identify these objects
It is therefore possible to interrogate these objects to obtain
information on them
You are able to customize views as well due to the layering effect given

Display systems
There are two basic groups:
ECDIS Electronic Chart Display and Information System
RCDS Raster Chart Display System
ECDIS is a navigation information system which compiles with IMO performance
standards and which with adequate back-up arrangements can be accepted as
complying with the up to date chart required IMO. The regulations state that
you should be using Vector charts but as you can use Raster charts if there are
no suitable vector charts available.
RCDS should only be operated together with an appropriate folio of up to date
paper chart. There is no performance standard set out and therefore RCDS is
unable to meet the requirements listed under SOLAS V/20, 2001 and is
therefore not a legal equivalent to and an up to date paper chart

NAVTEX
This is a navigational telex service broadcasting safety messages on 518kHz
It is possible to receive Navtex on radio telex but you should really use a
dedicated system which comprises of the following:
Receiver tuned to the broadcast frequency
Printer and cash roll paper
A microprocessor control ensures that a routine message already received will
not be reprinted on subsequent transmissions
You are able to select services according to the users preference but the
following services are permanent:
Navigation Warnings

Meteorological Warnings
SAR information

Echo Sounders
An echo sounder sends short pulses of ultra sonic sound vertically downwards
from the vessel. When it is reflected off the sea bed it returns to the
transmission source. The time taken for the sound to return to the ship is
measured and with the knowledge of the speed of sound in water is converted
into a depth.
So basically an echo sounder is a time measuring device.
A trigger fires the pulse generator producing an electrical pulse 10kHz
250kHz
Part of the pulse is sent to the recorder / visual display producing a
mark on the paper or a blip on the screen
Part of the pulse is sent to the transducer where it is converted from AC
to Ultra Sound and is directed in a beam to the sea bed
The sound is bounced off the sea bed
The returning signal is received by the transducer and is converted back
to an AC current
An amplifier boosts the returning signal, which is much weaker than the
transmitted signal
A voltage is applied to the recorder or to the display painting a new
trace
The depth can be read off the scale
Possible Errors
Stylus Rate Error
The speed of pen arm or the belt being incorrect not synchronizing with the
transmissions. If the belt is too fast the depth recorded will be too great
Index Error
When the transmission or zero mark is not zero.
False bottom Error
False bottom readings may be obtained when the depth of water is such that
the time taken for the returning echo is greater than the time taken for the
pen to one or more revolutions and the next pulse has been transmitted
Multiple Echoes
These occur when the pulse bounces between the sea bed and the keel or the
sea surface, this will give multiples of the true depth.
Cone Effect

The transmission from the transducer is approximately conical shape this shape
reduces the loss of returns due to rolling and pitching, but it can lead to
incorrect readings when the bottom contour shelves steeply.
Side Echoes
These may be from an object not immediately below the vessel but whose slant
depth is less than the depth of water. This is due to side lobes from the
transducer and may occur in dredged or man made channels, when the echoes
return from the walls before the bottom.

Separation Error
When different transceiver and receiver transducers are used. When in shallow
water the limit with the vessel almost aground the depth recorded would be
half the distance between the TX and RX transducers.
Aeration
When the transmitted pulse encounters air bubbles up to 99.9% of the energy is
reflected it is therefore essential to position the transducer in a position
where the transducer is not going to be effected by bubbles e.g. not the bow
or stern.

Task Revision Notes: Magnetic Compass

General
All ships over 150 GRT must be fitted with a magnetic compass, they must also
carry a spare compass. This spare should be stored away from the bridge so it is
unaffected by any casualty disabling the bridge. It is the owner and Masters
responsibility to ensure the compass is in good working order.
Adjustments
The compass should be adjusted when:

They are first installed

They become unreliable
The ship undergoes structural repair or alteration
Electrical or magnetic equipment is installed or removed close to the
compass
A period of 2 years has elapsed since the last adjustment and a record of
deviations has not been maintained or such deviations are excessive

Changes in Magnetism during the life of the ship

Masters should check the performance of the compass if

Carrying cargoes with magnetic properties

Using electromagnetic lifting appliances to load or discharge
Major collision or electrical discharge

When the ship has been laid up for a period of time

Monitoring
Compass errors should be determined after each large alteration and at least
once a watch. A person holding a certificate of competency as compass
adjuster must make any adjustments. If the master deems it necessary a
person holding a Masters licence may make adjustment.
Deviation card
Deviations at points around the compass
Position of fore and aft magnets
Position of athwartships magnets
Size of the flinders bar
Position of Kelvin spheres from centre
Position of heeling magnets
Coefficient B
The fore and aft component of the ships permanent magnetism is known as
Force P. It effects the compass needle by attracting it forward (if does this then
the ship has a magnetically blue bow for this example)

The ships head in the diagram is the compass heading, therefore the north
seeking compass needle is always vertically upwards

The completed diagram shows that the deviation caused by the P force takes
the form of a sin curve and produces Easterly deviation on Easterly courses and
Westerly deviation on a westerly course
C rod
The c rod is the component of the ships vertical soft iron that has an effective
upper pole on the compass position. This is induced magnetism and is
dependant on which hemisphere you are in. The C rod is usually the ships
funnel as the heat coming out of the funnel creates induced magnetism.
As with the P force we see that deviation varies as the sin of the course

C rod diagram

Coefficient C
The solitary cause of the cosine component of the deviation is force Q and is
due to athwartships permanent magnetism. It is considered positive if it
attracts the compass needle to starboard

The diagram shows that the deviation caused by force Q takes the form of a
cosine curve. It causes westerly deviation on Northerly courses and easterly
deviation on Southerly courses
The deviation will increase with magnetic latitude.
This is corrected by the athwartships magnets.

Coefficient D
This deviation is the result of a combination of fore and aft and athwartships
soft iron. It occurs on the inter-cardinal headings.
The Soft iron spheres are used to cancel out this magnetism

Therefore:
Coefficient B is caused by force P and the C rod
Corrected using the Flinders bar and the fore and aft
Magnets
Coefficient C is caused by force Q
Corrected using the Athwartships Magnets
Coefficient D is caused by a combination of fore and aft and
athwartships soft iron magnetism
Corrected using the soft iron spheres
Why may there be some deviation left in the compass after it has been
adjusted?
The compass adjuster can only estimate how much soften iron there is
effecting Coefficient B so therefore he may have balanced the amount of
flinders bar and the fore and aft magnets correctly for the position the ship is
in. If the ship then proceeds over the equator the induced magnetism changes,
if there is excessive deviations on Easterly or Westerly headings then we can
assume that the compass adjuster got the amount of induced magnetism wrong
using the wrong length of Flinders bar.
You could adjust the fore and aft magnets to resolve this problem, or you could
take regular errors noting down the different deviations, and then present
these to the compass adjuster on your return. This is known as a split B
problem due to the split between Permanent and Induced Magnetism.
What is retentive error?
This is the resultant magnetism that a ship will acquire if on a heading for a
prolonged period for example when tied up alongside for any time.
This error is not permanent and will disappear gradually over a few days. This
should be noted when leaving port.
Suppose you were on a ship going from Southampton to the Far East, what
adjustments would you make to the compass, if any?
Adjust the Heeling Error Bucket as magnetic latitude changes
What is Heeling Error?
Deviation caused by the heeling (rolling) of the ship
What would you do if the spheres had been removed from the compass?
Check deviation card, marks on frame, etc.
What routine maintenance would you do on the compass?
Visual inspection, check no bubbles, verify position of
correctors, keep record of compass errors.
On what heading is heeling error most noticeable?

North or South

What scenario would require spheres placed in the fore and aft line?
Presence of coefficient E. Deviation caused by induction in
the ships diagonal horizontal soft iron.
What preparations would you take into consideration before performing a
compass swing?
Funnel at normal sea going temperature
Upright Vessel
Compass card tested for friction
Lubber Line coincident with fore and aft line
Azimuth prism aligned
Position of all deck equipment at normal sea going condition
Ships in vicinity more than 0.3M distant
Steady on each heading to prevent guassin error

Task Revision Notes: Chart work

Clearing Bearing
Clearing bearings must be so far from the Limiting Danger Line that if crossed
the bow / stern of the vessel will still be in safe water.
Limiting Danger Line
This should have additional safe water depth built into the depth so that if you
were to stray across it you would not go aground.
Clearing bearings / lines
Clearing marks are selected objects that when in transit or just open lead clear
of a danger.
When a clearing line is not available then you can use clearing bearings.

NLT 260

NMT 272

As long as the bearing of the church is not less than 260 and not more than
272 your vessel is clear of the danger.
Advance and Transfer
Advance = The amount the vessel has advanced along the original course after
the wheel over point has been reached
Transfer = The amount the vessel has moved in right angles to the original
course after the wheel over point has been reached.
To use Advance and Transfer you have to use the tables provided by the builder,
they are worked out for different speeds and rudder angles.

Find Tidal Stream

A ship steering 110 at 10kts departs from Position A at 0100 arrives at B at
0200, find the tide experienced during this period.

COG and SOG

A - 0100

B - 0200

10Nm long

Tide experienced,
Speed is over 1hr in
this case

Running Fix
The vessel below is steering a course of 110 at a speed of 10kts

0900 DR
0930 DR

0900 DR

Transfer the
0900 5nm
up the
course line

0930
position

Things to remember to put on the chart

Limiting danger lines
Clearing lines / bearings
Advance and transfer
Wheel over points
ETAs at wheel over points
Transit / compass errors
SBE time
Call master times
Astern propulsion check
Contingency anchorage
VHF channel for pilots / VTS
Expected visible ranges
Clear anchors
PIs
Expected tidal stream
Leading lights

Task - Revision Notes: Weather

Low / Depression
A low is an area of atmospheric pressure lower than its surroundings
A low may be referred to a cyclone.
High
A region of higher atmospheric pressure to that of its surroundings
A high may be referred to as an anticyclone
A ridge is the horizontal extension of the high away from its centre
Fronts
Zones of bad weather connecting with low pressure regions
Cold fronts bring cold air, good visibility and showers
Warm fronts bring warm air, poor visibility and showers
Occlusions are where cold and warm fronts merge, from this you get variable
weather.
The Atmosphere
The doldrums

At the equator there is a low pressure belt around the earth, the air at
this point rises to great height because it is strongly heated by solar
radiation, the air particles will also hold a lot of water.
Horse Latitudes
The air continues to rise until it hits a ceiling at about 15-20km up the
air then moves pole-wards as it moves northwards it cools and becomes
denser therefore it starts to sink. This occurs right round the earth and is
called the Subtropical high pressure belt.
Trade winds
The air which has descended in the Subtropical belt has to go
somewhere so it forms part of the trade winds. From 20 - 40 N the air
flows back into the equator in a layer close to the earths surface,
completing the circulation.
Polar High
At the pole there is an area of cold slow moving air. The pressure is
generally much higher than the other latitudes due to the air being very
cold and dense.
Westerlies
From the North the Polar air moves south assisted by the centrifugal
effect. Forcing against this is the air mass from the subtropical belt of
high pressure. This resists the spread of polar air causing unsettled
weather within the air mass due to the two air masses pushing forward
against one another. This is called the westerlies belt.
Wind
Wind is air in motion
If there is a steep gradient isobars are close together = fast flowing air
If there is a gentle gradient isobars are far apart = slow flowing air
Coriolis
The Coriolis force does not move air it only deflects particles as soon as they
start moving
If there was no Coriolis force air would move high to low by the shortest route,
Coriolis causes the air to rotate.
Northern Hemisphere
rotates anticlockwise about a low
rotates clockwise about a high
It is the other way round in the Southern Hemisphere
At the equator Coriolis is Nil and the air flows directly from high to low
At the poles Coriolis is at its highest deflecting air which wants to obey the
pressure balancing force this therefore prevents balancing highs and lows:
this means that the closer a low or high gets to the pole the longer its life is.

Formation of a cold front

When cold air pushes underneath warm air, the warm air must move upwards.
Because the air is forced up fairly quickly the result is the formation of clouds
Cumulus

Signs of a cold front passing

Cloud

Ahead of front
Low continuous
Status

WX

Fog & rain

Wind

Dir & Spd

Constant
Constant
High
Mod Poor
Falling

Temp
Humidity
Visibility
Pressure

In front
Nimbostratus &
some
Cumulonimbus
Hvy Rain and
Thunder
Dir variable /
gusty
Falling
Falling
Mod Poor
Steady

Behind front
Cloud separating
Isolated showers
Veers 180
weakening
Falling rapidly
Dry air
Good v good
Rising

Formation of a warm front

When warm air displaces cold air, it slides over the top of the cold air, the
result is the formation of layer clouds Stratus

Signs of a warm front passing

Ahead of front
Developing cirrus

In front
Cloud all over
nimbostratus

WX

Halo around sun /

moon

Wind

Increasing and
backing
Rising
Increasing
Worsening
Falling steadily

Rain increasing
then stopping
followed by fog or
mist
Freshening
veering
Rising
V high
Poor
Falling slowly

Cloud

Temp
Humidity
Visibility
Pressure

Behind front
Clouded all over
stratus or
stratocumulus
Fog patches &
drizzle
Dir + Spd constant
Constant
High
Mod
Steady then
falling

Depressions often form on a front on the boundary of two air masses warm &
cold

A depression appears on the chart as a series of isobars around a center point

of low pressure.
Depressions give unsettled weather and will often be accompanied by strong
winds
Main direction of movement for a depression is east in the Northern
hemisphere.
They travel at varying speeds although a larger decaying depression will most
likely be slower.
Fog
Fog is caused by air being cooled to its dew point (the point where air becomes
saturated by the water vapour within it) the condensation of this water vapour
produces fog.
Advection / sea fog
When warm moist air flows over a cold sea, the air is cooled to its dew
point and advection fog occurs.
It is often only a small thin layer and mast tops can be seen over the top
of it.
In temperate / high latitudes advection fog is most common in spring
when the sea is at its coolest.
It is particularly prevalent where prevailing winds transport warm moist
air over areas of cold water or major cold water currents.

Frontal fog
This may occur on warm front /occlusion if the temperature of the air
in front of the front is very low
Frontal fog occur due to the mixing of warm and cold air on the two
sides of the front
Arctic Sea smoke
This occurs in very high latitudes when cold air is blown over relatively
warm sea. Evaporation occurs but the cold air is unable to hold the
water vapour, so some of the water vapour condenses causing fog
Usually found in gaps in ice fields / glaciers
Radiation Fog
Radiation fog occurs over low lying land on clear nights. It is due to cold
air meeting relatively warm land
How to forecast fog
Warnings of fog can be observed by frequent monitoring of the wet and dry
bulb thermometers.

It should be closely monitored whenever the air temperature is slightly higher

or almost equal to that of the sea.
You should plot temperature against dew point. If the curves converge then you
can expect fog
Land and sea breezes
Best known in tropical and subtropical climates. It occurs when there is
unequal heating of the land and sea
By day the sun raises the temperature of the land but the sea temperature
stays very much the same.
Air in contact with the land rises very quickly expanding as it rises due to the
heating. The air from the sea flows into the gap and takes its place this creates
an onshore wind.

Offshore wind
At night the air over the land cools rapidly, causing it to become denser and
thus it starts to fall, this creates a pressure gradient causing air to flow out
towards the sea

These land /

sea breezes will be increased if:

The sky is clear
Calm conditions
Desert or dry barren coastline
High ground near the coast.

Katabatic wind
A Katabatic wind occurs when radiation on a clear night causes cooling over
sloping ground, the colder denser air will flow downhill producing a down slope
wind.

Tropical revolving storms

The requirements for a TRS are:
Unstable air
High sea temperature
High Humidity
Low wind sheer
Latitudes higher than 5 so that there is an adequate Coriolis
force
The approach of a TRS may be indicated by:
Rapid drop in pressure, more than 3mb below the seasonal
average,
Increasing wind speed
Change of wind direction
High (cirrus) clouds becoming Cirro-Stratus, Cumulus, and then
Cumulo-Nimbus

Long low swell from the apparent direction of the storm centre

If you believe there is a TRS nearby you can work out where your vessel lies in
comparison to the eye easily by:
Stop the vessel to find out the true wind speed and direction
Use Buys Ballots Law to estimate the storms centre The observer
should face the wind, the centre of the storm will be
approximately 90 to the right of the observer in the Northern
Hemisphere.
A rough distance of how far the storm is away from you can be
worked out by the wind force Force 7 = 150nm from the eye
Force 8 = 125nm from the eye
Force 10 = 75nm from the eye

Action to take in the Northern Hemisphere

If the wind is veering you are in the dangerous quadrant of the storm
Proceed at full speed
Put the wind 10 45 on the stbd bow
As the wind continues to veer alter to stbd with it
If the wind is backing then you are in the navigable semi circle of the storm
Proceed at full speed
Put the wind on the stbd quarter
As the wind continues to back alter to port with it
If the wind is steady then you are in the path of the approaching storm
Proceed at full speed
Put the wind on the stbd quarter and head into the navigable semi circle
Once you are well into the navigable semi circle alter course to port
with the wind as it backs

Action to take in the Southern Hemisphere

If the wind is backing then you are in the dangerous quadrant of the storm
Proceed at full speed
Put the wind 10 45 on the port bow
As the wind continues to back alter to port with it
If the wind is veering then you are in the navigable semi circle of the storm
Proceed at full speed
Put the wind on the port quarter
As the wind veers alter to stbd
If the wind is steady then you are in the path of the approaching storm
Proceed at full speed
Put the wind on the port quarter and head into the navigable semi circle

Once you are well into the navigable semi circle alter course to stbd
with the wind as it backs

If your ship is a situation where it can not out run the TRS then you should
heave too. In the northern hemisphere put the wind off the stbd bow and in
the southern hemisphere off the port bow. Adjust the engine speed so that the
vessel is able to maintain steerage way but no more.

Veering = Clockwise
Backing = Anti Clockwise
Uk Air masses

AM = Arctic Maritime air

Cold dry and stable
Warming as it travels South, humidifying and becoming less stable
Resulting in Cold and rain
PC = Polar Continental air
Cold dry and stable
Warming with some humidification over the north sea becoming less
stable and getting warmer
Resulting in cool / cold, dry / showery weather
TC = Tropical Continental air
Warm dry and unstable
Starts to cool therefore no humidification, stabilizing
Resulting in warm and dry
TM = Tropical Maritime air
Warm humid unstable air
As it moves it cools and becomes saturated stabilizing
Resulting in rain and fog
PM =

Polar Maritime air

Cold humid stable air
As it moves it warms and the humidity will increase becoming less stable
Results in cool wet weather

Currents
The surface and subsurface effect of wind in the generation of ocean currents

Surface

Wind blows over the water

Friction transfers energy to the water
The water initially moves in the same direction as the wind but
Coriolis deflects the water to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
The surface current speed is 1/40th of the wind speed
The surface current direction is 30 from the wind direction

Sub surface effect

Surface layer transfers energy to the next layer down
As the energy moves down to the next layer it is deflected by Coriolis
The speed decreases due to the viscosity
The next layers follow a similar pattern but the direction keeps
changing the further down you go due to Coriolis, this continues until
the direction finally becomes negative, this occurs at approx 50m

Ice Accretion
Fresh water ice
Forms at temperatures below 0C
Due to rain, snow, sleet, fog
Causes a problem by freezing to aerials, GPS antennae, Radars
o It will cause a Radar to turning (therefore keep it on when in
cold climates)
o Settles on GPS antennae and will weaken the signal
Salt water ice
Forms at temperatures below -2C
Due to wind creating spray (in excess of Force 6 required)

What can

It freezes on the foredeck

Causes listing, change of trim possible hogging, decreases freeboard
Increases KG
Decreases GM
be done?
Alter course
Decrease speed
Seek shelter
Head towards warmer latitudes

The process of freezing water and the effect of salinity

Cold air -10C

Cold surface water
Density of the water increases
Convection brings warm water to the surface
At 4C the Fresh water reaches its maximum density
Cools further, density decreases
Convection stops in fresh water, convection carries on in salt water
Fresh water surface looses heat and starts to freeze when the
temperature reaches 0C
Salt water continues to cool until it reaches -2C when convection stops
and the surface starts to freeze

Life cycle of North Atlantic Icebergs

Ice bergs are mainly formed from the glaciers of Greenland

East coast bergs are swept south by the east Greenland current
West coast bergs are swept north by west Greenland current
Easterly Bergs
When they are calved into the sea they immediately start to break up
Very few bergs survive past the south tip of Greenland as they melt in
the warmer water and are broken up by wave action
Westerly Bergs
Calved from the westerly glaciers they are swept north and freeze in the
sea ice during the winter in Baffin Bay
In spring the ice thaws and the bergs are released
Carried south by the Canada and Labrador currents
As they get further south they melt quicker due to the sea temperatures
increasing
Very few reach the shipping lanes
The ice limit is 40N 40 W

Monsoons
Summer over South China Sea

Land gets hot over the desert due to the low specific heat
Land is hot so the air heats up
Density decreases
Low pressure over the land
High pressure over the South Indian Ocean
Pressure gradient South to North
Coriolis Effect deflects flow right in the Northern Hemisphere = SW
Monsoon
Coriolis Effect deflects flow left in the Southern Hemisphere = SE Trades
Hot humid equatorial / tropical maritime air which is unstable
Orographic uplift causes heavy rain on the windward coast and where it
comes into contact with the mountains

Winter over South China Sea

Clear, cold and dry stable air

Land cold, air cold and dense
Pressure high over land
Pressure low over the equator
Pressure gradient North to South
Winds North to South Coriolis deflecting to the right creating the NE
Monsoon
The polar Continental air mass gives low temperatures and low humidity

The currents of the North and South Atlantic

Equatorial currents are propelled west by trade winds

North Equatorial currents are propelled by the NE trades
South Equatorial currents are propelled by the SE trades
Due to the low latitude i.e. on the equator Coriolis is not effective so
the current flows straight
As the equatorial currents flow west they meet the continental barrier,
this causes a high level to occur and a gradient to exist west to east
Gradient currents flow eastwards because of no Coriolis it flows straight
hence the counter current.

Mediterranean Currents

The med gets high levels of sunshine with hardly any rain
The imbalance between evaporation and rain lowers the level and a
gradient is formed
Surface water flows east through the Gibraltar Straights
This surface current is deflected by Coriolis causing the water to flow
anti clockwise around the Med
Because of the amount of evaporation the water is much more salty
resulting in denser water
At the Gibraltar Straights density pressure exists at low level so deep
water moves west (Think Submarines in the 2nd world war)

Task Revision Notes: Synoptic Charts

Wind direction
From High to Low pressure
Deflected to the right in Northern Hemisphere
Deflected to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
Crossing the isobars at the angle of indraft towards low pressure
roughly two points
The depression is face the wind and the depression is on the right in
the N hemisphere

The depression is face the wind and the depression is on the left in
the S Hemisphere

Wind Speed
Geostrophic wind scale on UK charts
Wind speed factors for other charts
Gradient Wind
Supergeostrophic around anticyclonically curved isobars
Subgeostrophic around cyclonically curved isobars
Surface wind
Two thirds of Geostrophic / gradient wind over water
One third of Geostrophic / gradient wind over land
System movement
Depressions move in the direction of Geostrophic wind in warm sector
Fronts move in the direction of the wind component perpendicular to the front
Large anti cyclones move very slowly if at all
A ridge between depressions moves with the adjacent depressions
Cloud and precipitation
Cloud is generally ahead of warm fronts and behind cold fronts
Precipitation is generally close to the front
Weather Routing
Weather routing services can be found on the web or in Admiralty List of Radio
Signals Vol 3

Task Revision Notes: Chain Register

The chain register is a record of all the testing done on all of the Ships lifting
gear connected with cargo work
Derricks their fittings, their attachment to decks, the masts etc
The mate keeps the register and records in it:
All tests
All replacements made
Usually the test certificates are kept with the register

All certificates and inspections of all the wire ropes

The register comes in 4 parts:

Part
1. Covers the annual and quadrennial inspections and thorough
examination of derricks and permanent attachments to the
derricks, masts and decks. The annual inspection is carried out by
ships personnel and the quadrennial inspection is carried out by a
surveyor.
2. This covers the annual thorough examination of cranes, winches,
hoists and accessory gear. This is usually provided by the Chief
Engineer
3. This covers the annual thorough examination of gear exempted
from Annealing which include: Gear made from malleable cast
iron, mild steel and any items having case hardened parts or ball
bearings and parts of pulley blocks.
4. Record of the annealing of Chains, Rings, hooks, shackles and
swivels - or less are annealed every 6 months and over
every 12 months
At no time should any attempt be made to lift weight s in excess of the safe
working load of the weakest part of the gear unless for a proof load
Regulations require the SWL to be one fifth of the breaking strain
The SWL of

various material are below:

3 stranded manila
3 stranded polypropylene
3 stranded terylene
3 stranded nylon
Flexible steel wire rope
Grade 1 chain

2d2/1800
3d2/1800
4d2/1800
5d2/1800
2OD2/3000
2OD2/3600

Task Revision Notes: Code of Conduct

The code of conduct is a set of rules for us to follow while we at sea, it is there
to give us discipline as is designed to help us improve an individuals
performance.
Paragraph 9
This covers acts of misconduct which if proved with reasonable satisfaction are
dismissible offences either immediately or at the end of the voyage. The
offences it covers are as follows:

Assault
Willful damage to the ship or any property onboard
Theft or procession of stolen property
Possession of offensive weapons
Persistent or willful failure to perform duty
Unlawful possession on distribution of drugs
Conduct endangering the ship or persons onboard
Combination with others at sea to impede the progress of the voyage or
navigation of the ship
Disobedience of orders relating to safety of the ship or any persons
onboard
To be asleep on duty or fail to remain on duty, if such conduct would
prejudice the safety of the ship or any person onboard
Incapacity through the influence of drink or drugs to carry out duty to
prejudice the safety of the ship or those onboard
To smoke / use a naked light or an unapproved electric torch in any part
of a ship carrying dangerous cargo or stores where smoking or the use of
naked lights or unapproved torches is prohibited
Intimidation, bullying and / or interference with the work of other
employees
Behaviour which seriously detracts from the safe working of the ship
Conduct of a sexual nature or other conduct based on sex affecting the
dignity of woman and men at work which is unwanted, unreasonable and
offensive to the recipient
Behaviour which seriously detracts from the social wellbeing of any
other person on board
Causing or permitting unauthorized persons onboard the ship whilst at
sea
Repeated commission of breaches of a lesser degree listed in Para 11.
after warnings have been given in accordance with the procedures in
Para 10.

Paragraph 10
Breaches of a lesser degree of seriousness may be dealt with by:

Informal warning given at an appropriate level lower than that of the

master
Formal warning by the head of department which will be suitably
recorded

Formal warning by the master recorded in the ships official log book
Written reprimand administered by the master and recorded in the
official Log

Paragraph 11
Offences which are suitable for the procedures outlined in Para 10. are:

Offences of the kind described in Para 9. which are not considered to

justify dismissal
Minor acts of negligence, neglect of duty, disobedience and assault
Unsatisfactory work performance
Poor time keeping
Stopping work before the authorized time
Failure to report to work without a satisfactory reason
Absence from the place of duty or from the ship without leave
Offensive or disorderly behaviour

Dealing with breaches of the code

A seafarer which breaks the code will first be seen by an officer designated by
the master. If the officer is satisfied that no further action is required / no
more than an informal warning is required the matter will be dealt with then
be regarded as closed.
If it is a more serious offence or it is not the first time it has been commited a
formal warning will be given recorded. The case may be referred to the Master,
any case falling under Para 9 MUST be referred to the master
A serious case that the master is required to deal with must be done with the
minimum amount of delay. The master must give the seafarer the chance to
admit that he has done something and allow the seafarer to call any witnesses
which may help the seafarer.
After careful and thorough investigation and having considered all evidence the
master will orally inform the accused of whether or not he finds him guilty of
the alleged breach.
The seafarer shall be given a copy of all entries made in the logbook relating to
his breach and shall acknowledge this by receipt. He shall be given a copy of
any report made to the company which relates to the incident for which the
seafarer is subject to disciplinary action .

Task Revision Notes: Code of safe working practices

The code is concerned with improving health and safety on board ship. The
code provides guidance on safe working practices for situations that commonly
arise on ships. It is a statutory requirement for the code to be carried on UK
ships

Section 1 Safety responsibilities and shipboard management

Chapter 1 Risk Assessment Who, what how
Chapter 3 Safety Officials Officer, reps, committee
Chapter 4 Personal Protective Equipment
Chapter 6 Means of access and safe movement pilots,
Section 2 Personnel Health and Safety
Chapter 8 Safety Induction - procedures
Chapter 10 Emergency procedures musters and drills
Chapter 11 Security onboard piracy, drugs, terrorism
Chapter 12 Safe movements WT doors, lighting
Section 3 Work Activities
Chapter 16 Permit to work Chapter 17 Enclosed spaces hazards, procedures
Chapter 18 Boarding Arrangements positioning, lighting, nets
Chapter 21 lifting plant use of equipment, hand signals
Chapter 25 Anchoring, Mooring & Towing
Section 4 Specialist ships
Dry cargo, tankers, Offshore, Ro-Ro, tugs

Task Revision Notes: Health and Safety

Employers must provide workers with all the appropriate health and safety
items taking into the risks to their health and safety.

On every ship with more than 5 crew a safety officer must be appointed

The point of the safety officer is to take an independent view of safety

on behalf of the company, although it is recognized that sometimes the
safety officer has other duties such as being chief officer and may well
need to conduct risk assessments also.
Safety Representatives must also be elected, these crew members must
have more than 2 years consecutive sea service since attaining the age
of 18
A safety committee should be established

Safety Inspections
The safety officer should make an inspection of each accessible part of
the ship at least once every three months.
Records must be kept of all inspections
Accidents
The safety officer should maintain a record of all accidents and
dangerous occurrences
The investigation of incidents is very important and must be done as
required by MSN 1584
Interviews should be carried out to try and determine what went
wrong / what happened
Statements should be taken, these should try and cover the facts rather
than opinions
Records should contain:
o Details of the incident
o Date
o Persons involved
o Nature of injury
o All statements
o Recommendations
o Any action taken
In addition it should contain:
List of witnesses, addresses, positions and occupations
Whereabouts of original signed statement
Date accident reports were sent to the MAIB
List of items collected, why and where stored
Index
Personal protective equipment
PPE must only be used when risks cannot be avoided or reduced to an
acceptable level by safe working practices that cause no health risk to
any worker

It is the employers responsibility to ensure workers are provided with

suitable PPE
And should be supplied at no cost
All workers required to use PPE should be trained in its proper use, and
must wear the equipment every time they are performing the task that
it was supplied for

Safety Signage
Safety signs should be used whenever a hazard or obstruction is present.
Employers should ensure that safety signs are displayed where
appropriate
Workers should ensure they understand the signage before starting any
work and
Means of Access
The master and the employer must ensure that a safe means of access is
provided between the ship and shore
When the access is provided by the port then it is still the masters
responsibility to ensure that the equipment meets the requirements

Task Revision Notes: Customs, Heath and Immigration

Customs on Arrival

All vessels arriving from outside the European Union must report to
customs
Vessel arriving from within the EU that are not on an authorized regular
shipping service which is a service is one that operates between EU
ports on a regular service these ships shall report to customs
The report to the customs house must be made within 3hrs of arrival
If there are Pax onboard then the master must inform the customs
before arrival that they were disembarking
Pax which are not EEA citizens must get the immigration officers
approval before disembarking
A customs officer will usually compare the contents on the bonded
locker with the list of ships store, if everything is in order he will seal
the locker until the ship departs
To obtain clearance the following documents must be completed
General Declaration
Ship stores declaration
Crew effects declaration
Crew list
Pax list if there are
Cargo Declaration

Customs on Departure
All vessels leaving a UK port for a destination outside the EU or for a free
zone within the EU must be cleared by customs before they leave
Vessels with a fixed pattern i.e. Ferries may be granted with a fixed
period clearance for specified voyages
To obtain clearance the following documents must be completed
General Declaration
Crew list
Pax list
Stores declaration - required if stores are loaded in the UK
Cargo declaration
Health clearance
Free pratique means that you are seeking permission to disembark and
commence cargo operations
A ship shall seek health clearance if arriving from a foreign port if during
the last 28 days there has been a death not from an accident, illness
where the persons temp is over 38C, rash, glandular fever, jaundice or
where the person has sever diarrhoea
The master must report any person suffering from an infectious disease,
any animals that may spread an infectious disease e.g. cockroaches
infestation

If a ships accommodation needs fumigating guidance can be sort from

the IMDG code supplement

Immigration
All pax must be listed on a passenger list, they will generally require a
passport
The pax may be required to complete a landing card but this is
dependant on how long the ship is going to be in the UK, type of voyage
etc

Task Revision Notes: Hours of Work Regulations

Under the safe manning, hours of work and watch keeping regulations 1997 all
vessels must have a schedule of duties and a record of deviations.
The schedule of duties must describe the work for masters and seamen whos
work includes watch keeping duties. It must also include the chief and second
engineer and the mate. This is to provide a guide so that they do not work
more hours than is safe for the ship or for their own performance of duty.
The schedule of duties should be displayed in a prominent place in the crew
accommodation for the information of all seamen
The schedule of duties must specify the maximum period of continuous watch
keeping, the minimum rest period between watches and the total daily, weekly
and monthly hours of work.
The minimum periods of rest allowed are:
In any 24-hour period there must be a minimum of 10 hours rest, which
may be divided into not more than two periods, one of which must be at
least 6 hours.
To provide for a minimum of 10 hours rest in any 24 hour period and 77
hours in any 7-day period and 4 weeks annual paid leave
Exemptions may be made to the above rules in the case of emergencies, drills
or overriding operational conditions (conditions where essential shipboard work
cannot be delayed for environmental or safety reasons or which cannot
reasonably have been anticipated at the start of the voyage)
Where the Master or crewmember has been required to work during a
scheduled rest period it must be entered into the record of deviations giving his
name and the reason why he worked during the rest period.
A copy of the schedule of duties and record of deviations must be kept by the
company and the Master. It should be kept for 5 years and be made available to
the MCA or proper officer if requested.

Task Revision Notes: ISM Code

The purpose of the code is to provide an international standard for the safe
management and operation of ships and for pollution prevention.
The Safety Management objectives for the company are:
Provide for safe practices in ship operation and a safe working
environment
Establish safeguards against all identified risks
Continuously improve safety management skills of personnel ashore and
aboard ships, including preparing for emergencies related both to safety
and environmental protection
The Safety management system should ensure:
Compliance with mandatory rules and regulations
That applicable codes guidelines and standards recommended by the
organization, Administrations, Classification Societies and maritime
industry organizations are taken into account
Every company should develop implement and maintain a safety
management system which includes the following functional requirements:
A safety and environmental protection policy
Instructions and procedures to ensure safe operation of ships and
protection of the environment in compliance with relevant international
and flag state legislation
Define levels of authority and lines of communication between shore and
shipboard personnel
Procedures for reporting accidents and non conformities with the
provisions of this code
Procedures to prepare for and respond to emergency situations
Procedures for internal audits
Safety and environmental Protection
The company should establish a safety and environmental protection policy.
Designated person ashore (DPA)
To ensure the safe operation of each ship and to provide a link between the
company and those onboard. The responsibility and authority of the DPA should
include monitoring the safety and pollution prevention aspects of the operation
of each ship and ensuring the adequate resources and shore based support are
applied as required

Masters Authority

The company shall clearly define and document the masters responsibility with
regard to:
Implementing the safety and environmental protection policy of the
company
Motivating the crew in the observation of the above policy
Issuing appropriate orders and instructions in a clear and simple manner
Verifying that specified requirements are observed
Reviewing the SMS and reporting its deficiencies to the shorebased
management
The company should ensure that the master is:
Properly qualified for command
Fully conversant with the Companys SMS
Given necessary support so that the masters duties can be safely
performed
Company verification review and evaluation
The company should carry out internal safety audits to verify whether
safety and pollution prevention activities comply with the SMS
The company should periodically evaluate the efficiency of and when
needed, review the SMS in accordance with procedures established by
the company
Personnel carrying out audits should be where possible independent of
the areas being assessed
Certification
The ship should be operated by a company with a valid Document of
Compliance
The Document of compliance is issued by the administration for a period
of 5 years
The Document of Compliance is only valid on for the ships indicated on it
There will be annual verification of the Document of Compliance by the
administration
A Safety Management Certificate is issued to each ship. It is valid for 5
years with and intermediate audit carried out between the second and
third anniversaries.
A copy of the Document of Compliance is also carried on board.
Safety Management Plan
The Safety Management System should include shipboard instructions and procedures
covering the following operations:
Shipboard Operation: General
Including Standing Orders, Watchkeeping, Security, maintenance, record keeping,
passenger control, safety committee

Shipboard Operations: in Port

Including embarkation and disembarkation arrangements, boarding card

systems, cargo operations, handling of dangerous goods, stability, harbour
watches, bunkering, storing, re-fit and dry-docks
Preparing for Sea
Including check-lists, assessment of stability, cargo securing, securing
hatches and other shell openings, testing of main engines, steering and
bridge equipment, passage planning, verification of pax and crew figures,
positive reports from departments, clearance, safety broadcasts for
passengers.
Shipboard Operations: at Sea
Including watchkeeping requirements, navigation, position fixing, use of
navigational aids, look-out, fire rounds, upkeep of log books, drills
Emergencies and Contingencies
Check-lists for all emergencies and contingencies including General
Emergency procedures, fire, collision, man overboard, equipment failure,
heavy weather, pollution, passenger control and broadcasts etc.

Task Revision Notes: ISPS Code

International Ship and Port Facility Security Code
Establishes communications between the MCA and shipping and port
industries to detect security threats and take preventative measures
Establish roles and responsibilities between the MCA and shipping and
port industries for ensuring maritime security
Ensure collection and exchange of security related information
Provide plans and procedures to react to changing security threat and
levels
The code applies to:
All pax ships
Cargo ships over 500GRT
Mobile offshore drilling
Port facilities engaged in international trade
The code requires all vessels to carry a ship security plan, to have a Company
Security Officer and designate a person onboard as the Security Office. The
code provides guidance to Masters and Security Officers. The plan must be
approved by the flag state and is revalidated every 5 years
Ship Security Officer
Every vessel must have a designated security officer who is accountable to the
Master. He is responsible for the security of the ship, monitoring of the security
plan and is the ships liaison with the Company Security officer and Port Security
Officer.
The ship security officer must:
Regular security inspections
Raise security awareness and provide training for the crew
Report non conformities and deficiencies to the Company Security
Officer
Maintain the security plan keeping records and proposing new
modifications to it
Liaise with Port Security and co ordinate security measures when
alongside
Company security officer
The company shall designate someone as the Companies Security Officer. He
will be responsible for checking and assessing each ships security monitoring
the security plan and liaising with the port and ship security officers.
He must
Advise threat levels to each ship

Ensure ship security audits are carried out

Ensure the maintenance and modification of the plan
Ensure that deficiencies and non conformities are promptly addressed
and dealt with
Communication and co-operation between Ship security Officer and port
Security officer

The master
The masters responsibility regarding the safety of the ship remains unchanged,
he is still able to make decisions and shall not be constrained by the company,
this includes denial of access to persons and refusal to load cargo.
If a conflict arises between safety and security requirements the master shall
give effect to those requirements necessary to maintain the safety of the ship.
The master shall implement temporary security measures if he thinks it is
necessary.
The government authority
The authority MCA is responsible for:
Setting the applicable security level
Testing approved plans
Surveying vessels compliance and issuing security certificates
The Ship security assessment
The process of developing and updating the security plan, it is the
responsibility of the Company Security Officer to ensure that the assessment is
carried out by a qualified person. The assessment should include:
Evaluating existing security measures
Evaluating key shipboard operations that require protection
Identification of threats and the likelihood of the occurrence
Identification of weaknesses
The assessment should be documented and retained by the company
The Ship Security Plan
The company Security officer is responsible for ensuring that all vessels carry
an approved ship security plan. Recognized companies may prepare this planor
your behalf. It should include:
Identifying restricted areas and protection for such areas
Measures for preventing unauthorized access
Procedures for responding to threats and instructions for governments
Procedures for evacuation of the ship
Procedures for reporting security incidents
Duties of security personnel
Procedures for training and drills
Procedures for auditing and reviewing the plan

Identification of Ship security officer and company security officer

contact details
Instructions and testing of security equipment
Locations of ship security alert system activation points and instructions
on their use

Training
The company security officer and the ship security officer shall have received
training in the contents of the ship security plan. Other personnel involved in
security duties should have sufficient knowledge to perfume their task.
The ship security officer is to ensure that regular training is carried out and
drills carried out at 3 monthly intervals. The Company Security Officer should
participate in exercises involving the ship and or government agencies at
intervals not exceeding 12 months
Certification
International Ship Security Certificate new ships and old ships once
they have proved they comply with the code
Renewal Certificate every 5 years
Intermediate Verification At least one intermediate survey to be
carried out between the 2nd and 3rd year
Security Levels
There are 3 levels and it is the responsibility of the government authority MCA
and applies to ships and port facilities
Security Level 1 Normal operational level
Ports and ships shall:
Check identity of all persons boarding the ship
Secure areas for baggage and car parks
Securing unattended spaces adjoining passenger areas
Manning access points to the vessel
Provide security briefing to ship staff
Random search of baggage
Security Level 2 Heightened
Additional personnel to patrol the deck
Limiting access points to the vessel
Boat patrols in the waterside of the ship
Establish restricted zones around the vessel on the shore side
Increased searches of personnel and baggage
All visitors to have an escort at all times
Full search of the ship
Security Level 3 Exceptional Imminent risk of security incident

Single access to the ship

No access to visitors
Suspension of cargo / embarkation operations
Evacuation of the vessel
Moving vessel to secure location or to sea
Ship Security Alert System
Ships built after 1st of July 2004 and passenger vessels and tankers must have
an approved ship security system fitted not later than the first survey of the
radio installation after 1st July 2004. For all other ships this is extended to 1st
July 2006
The alert system shall be able to:
Transmit a ship to shore security alert indicating that the security of the
ship is under threat or has been compromised
Be activated from the bridge and at least one other location
Not send the alert to other ships
Not raise any alarm on the ship
Continue to transmit until reset

Task Revision Notes: lifting equipment

The master and the employer must ensure that any lifting plant onboard
is:
o Good design
o Sound construction
o Fit for purpose
o Properly installed
o Properly maintained
o Not being used in excess of its safe working load
Systematic preventative maintenance programs should be carried out in
accordance with the manufactures instructions
Only trained competent people can use the lifting plant

Testing
Master and employer must ensure that no lifting plant is used:
o After manufacture or installation
o After any repair of modification
o Should not be used unless it has been suitably tested by a
competent person in the last 5 years
o Should not be used if it has not been thoroughly examined by a
competent person at least once in the last 12 month period
Competent person
Should be over 18yrs old and have practical and theoretical knowledge
required. This should include actual experience of the type of machinery
or plant concerned sufficient to be able to detect any weakness and to
assess their relation to the strength stability and functions of the plant
A thorough examination means a detailed inspection and any such
dismantling as the competent person feels necessary to remove any
hidden parts that would allow a thorough examination.
All lifting plant must be inspected every 12 months
Where the lifting plant is used very frequently more frequent inspections
may be carried out
Markings
The master and the employer must ensure that each lifting appliance is
clearly marked with its safe working load and a means of identification

Where the SWL varies with a cranes radius of operation it is required to

be fitted with an accurate indicator visible to the driver, showing the
radius of the load and the SWL corresponding to that radius
The requirement to mark the lifting gear will generally apply to lifting
beams, frames and other gear whose weight is substantial in relation to
the loads they lift

Certificates
The master shall ensure that a certificate is supplied within 28 days
following any statutory test or examination.
This certificate must be stored onboard for a period of at least 2 years
All reports and certificates should be kept readily available for dock
worker or shore employer using the ships plant
A register of lifting appliances and items of loose gear should be
maintained in a form based on the model recommended by the
International Labour Organization
Records and reports may be kept in paper or electronic format
Precautions to take prior to a heavy lift
Risk assessment
Adequate stability for the lift to take place. Increase the GM by filling
bottom tanks and remove any free surface from the tanks
Any additional backstays and preventers should be rigged
Full inspection of all guys, lifting tackles, blocks, shackles and wires. All
equipment should be within SWL
Lift gangway and have sailors standby at the mooring stations
Fenders rigged over the side
Winch drivers are experienced and competent
Remove ships rails
Release barges that may be tied up alongside
Inspect the load and confirm the lifting points
All unnecessary personnel clear
Take the weight, as the cargo leaves the dock the ship will heal over
Chief Officer to inspect all the rigging, once happy with everything then
he will hand the con over to the hatch foreman
Derrick Survey
Every 12 months by the chief officer
Every 5 years by a surveyor, the surveyor will pay particular attention to
the fittings on the derrick, mast and deck. He will check fro excessive
wear and corrosion
All blocks, shackles, links chains and wire will be examined to ensure
they are all in satisfactory condition

Task Revision Notes: MAIB

The MAIB Marine Accident Investigation Branch examines and investigates all
types of marine accidents to or onboard UK flagged ships and also UK ships
worldwide.
The MAIBs sole objective when investigating an accident is to determine the
cause with an aim of improving the safety of life at sea and trying to avoid
similar accidents occurring in the future.
The MAIB is not there to apportion liability or blame and does not enforce laws
or carry out prosecutions. They carry out separate investigations to those made
by for example the police.
What

to report to the MAIB?

Accidents
Major Injuries
Serious injuries must be reported within 14days
Near miss accidents do not need to report although the MAIB would
recommend for it to be reported so further lessons can be learnt

Statutory Instrument - 2005 No. 881

The Merchant Shipping (Accident Reporting and Investigation) Regulations 2005,
the purpose of this Statutory Instrument is make it law that the master / senior
surviving officer / owner / Harbor Authority / MCA must contact the MAIB after
any major accident or serious injury.
The report must be sent as soon as is practicable by the quickest means
available.
Is a MAIB investigation always required?
Not all accidents or injuries will be investigated by the MAIB, if the ships report
and investigation has been well executed then that is often good enough,
obviously for a more serious accident an external investigation maybe required.

Task Revision Notes: Pilot Ladders

Ladder must be secured properly and lie flat on the side of the ship
providing access to the ship from 1.5m to 9m
A single length of ladder should be used
The treads must be made of hard wood
Each tread should be made of wood without any knots
Each tread must be not less than 480mm long, 115mm wide and 25mm
deep
The steps should not less than 300mm nor more than 380mm apart
The steps should be secured in such a manner that the step will remain
horizontal
The lower 4 steps shall be made of hard rubber
No pilot ladder must have more than two replacement steps
The side ropes must be made of 18mm manila rope
Hard wood spreaders between 1800 2000mm long must be provided at
such intervals as will prevent the pilot ladder from twisting
A spreaders must be fitted not more than 5 steps from the bottom
Spreaders must be fitted at intervals of not more than 9 steps.

Task Revision Notes: Risk assessment

Risk assessment is the careful examination of what in the nature of operations
could cause harm
The aim is to minimize accidents by:
First establish hazards which are present at the place of work
Address risks to health and safety of workers
Advice on the use of personal protective equipment
Assessments will depend on ship types, the nature of operations and the
type and extent of the hazards and risks
Process of risk assessment should be simple but meaningful
What to assess?
Should cover the risks arising from the activities of workers on the ship
Risks that are reasonably unforeseeable need not be assessed.
Who carries it out?
In all cases the individual employers have responsibility for assessing
risks to their workers.
In practice risk assessment is a continuous process and should be done
every time before work starts
The main elements of risk assessment are:
Classify work activity
Identify hazards and personnel at risk
Determine risk
Decide if risk is tolerable
Prepare action plan if necessary
Review adequacy of action plan
Identifying hazards
Is there a source of harm?
Who or what could be harmed?

How could harm occur?

Determine risk
The risk from the hazard may be determined by estimating
The potential severity of harm
The likelihood that harm will occur
Once you have determined if there is a risk or not you must decide if it is
tolerable or not.
Once the significant risks have been decided upon an action plan should
be decided upon
All plans should be reviewed each time they are used to ensure that they
cover the specific job and hazard that is being done.
Guidelines can be found in the Code of Safe Working Practices chapter 1.

Task Revision Notes: Ships Certificates

Documents/Certificates for Masters Handover
Solas Certificates

Safety Construction (5 years)

Safety Equipment (2 years)
Safety Radio (1 year)
Passenger Ship Safety Certificate (PSSC) (1 year)

Marpol Certificates

International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPP) (5 years)

International Noxious Liquids Certificate (INL) (5 years)
IOPP Exemption Certificate

Loadline Certificates

Loadline Certificate (1 year)

Loadline Exemption Certificate

Other Certificates

Tonnage Certificate
Certificate of Registry
Certificate of Class
Deratting Certificate (6 months)
Safety Management Certificate
Certificates of Fitness for Type of Cargo, Document of Compliance for the
carriage of Dangerous Goods

Other items

Official Log Book

Crew List/Crew Agreement

Ships Accounts
Medical Log Book/Drugs
Stability Book
ISM Documents (SMS and DOC)
IBC Code, BCH Code
Charter Agreement
Safe Keys/Code
Oil Record Book
Garbage Record Book

Official Log Book

Sections
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Record of Seamen
Return of Births and Deaths (RBD1)
Musters and Drills
Inspection of Pilot Hoists/Accomodation Ladder
Draughts/Freeboard (FRE13)
OLB Entries

Pt IV Watertight doors

FRE 13
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Name
Registry
Official Number
Freeboard
Date-Port-Fwd-Aft-Freeboard-Density-FWA-DWA-Signature

Crew Agreement
The ALC documents include the OLB, and the Crew Agreement divided into
parts ALC1, ALC1(a), ALC1(b), ALC(c), ALC(d) and ALC6.
They are obtainable from the RSS, the MCA or a Proper Officer (e.g. British
Consul).
Once completed (at the closure of the crew agreement) the documents are
returned to the Registrar of Shipping in Swansea (RSS).
The ALC Documents
i)
ALC1 The outer card cover in which all the other documents are
fixed
ii)
ALC1(a) The List of Crew who are party to the crew agreement
iii)
ALC1(b) The List of Crew who are exempted fron signing the
crew agreemment (e.g. Master, office personnel, contracters etc.)
iv)
ALC1(c) List of Young Persons under 18.
v)
ALC1(d) The contractual conditions of the crew agreement and
clauses.
vi)
ALC6 The crew copy of the agreement, displayed in the ship for
the crew along with a copy of ALC1(d)

Certificate of Registry
1.
2.
3.
4.

Name
Ships details (Official Number, tonnage etc)
Owners (64 shares in a ship, owner of more than 34 is majority owner)
Port of Registry/Choice

Safety Radio Certificate

1. List of Equipment
2. Trading Limits

Safety Equipment Certificate

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Fire Fighting Eqiupment

Life-saving Equipment
Lights and Shapes
Magnetic Compass/Gyro
Signals (Whistle etc)
Charts and Publications (as listed in Solas, S.I.etc)
Pilot Ladder and Accomodation Ladder (gangway is part of Safety
Construction Certificate)

Safety Construction Certificate

1. Hull and Machinery

Certificate of Seaworthiness
This is an similar to an Interim Certificate of Class and is given by an
uninterested third party (Class 1 Deck or Engine) after repair before a full Class
survey.

Loadline Survey
1. Structure
2. Watertight Integrity
3. Freeboard (draught marks, loadline permanently marked, deck mark,
freeboard)
4. Safe Access
5. Watertight Doors/Weathertight Doors
6. Deadlights
7. Hatches (hose test, watertightness)
8. Shell Doors (indication, watertight integrity, cameras)
9. Stability Information

10.Ventilators (gooseneck, cowled or mushroom. May have flame arresters)

Difference between Watertight Doors and Weathertight Doors? Watertight
prevents the passage of water in both ditections, weathertight only from one
direction (usually into the ship)
Difference between an air pipe and a sounding pipe? The air pipe if at forward
end of the tank, sounding pipe is aft.

International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPP)

Survey of Ships structure, equipment, systems, fittings, arrangements and
materials in respect to the relevant provisions of Marpol Annex 1.
Equipment must be type-approved.
Check of Oir Record Book, manuals, certificates etc.

SOPEP
SOPEP is the Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan. Its main purpose is to set
in motion the necessary actions to stop or minimise the discharge and reduce
its effects on the marine environment. It should also contain Reporting
Requirements and contact names, addresses and numbers.

Oil Pollution Insurance Cerificate (OPIC)

Carried by all vessels carrying over 2000 tonnes of oil in bulk as cargo.
Insurance cover is provided by P&I Clubs (usually up to $500million) The
certificate is provided, once proof of insurance is verified, by MCA in London.

Passenger Ship Safety Certificate (PSSC)

A three-in-one certificate (construction, equipment and radio) issued as a
SOLAS requirement for all passenger ships on international voyages.
A Record of Equipment supplements the PSSC, listing details of LSA, FFA, radio
eqiupment etc.
The Passenger Certificate (PC) is a requirment for all UK registered passenger
ships on international voyages and includes the total number of persons
allowed to be carried on board.

The PC may also contain information regarding subdivision marks (C1, C2, as
appropriate) and the corresponding passenger and crew figures.
C1 is a one compartment ship, C2 is two compartment. If one or two
comartments are bilged, as relevant, the ship should not submerge the Margin
of Safety Line (or Margin Line) which is 3 below the bulkhead deck i.e. all
watertight bulkheads should extend 3 above the damaged condition waterline.

Task Revision Notes: SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea

Chapter 1
Chapter 2/1
installations
Chapter 2/2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Appendix

General Provisions
Construction: structure, stability, machinery, electrical
Construction: fire protection, detection, extinction
Life Saving appliances and arrangements
Radio Communications
Safety of navigation
Carriage of Cargoes
Carriage of Dangerous Goods
Nuclear ships
Management for safe operation of ships
Safety Measures for high speed craft
Special measures to enhance maritime safety
Additional safety measures for bulk carriers
Certificates

Brief Notes.
Chapter 1
Made up of two parts A & B
Part A Application + definitions
Part B Surveys and Certification
Passenger ships must have:
An initial survey before going into service
Renewal surveys every 12 months
Additional surveys when required
Passenger ship safety certificates shall not exceed a period of 12months
wheres cargo safety certificates shall not exceed 5 years before renewal
Chapter 2/2
This requires
At least 1 hose for each hydrant
Hydrants shall be in a position where there can be 2 jets not emanating
from the same hydrant and may reach any part of the ship normally
accessible to the pax / crew while the ship is being navigated
In pax ships for each pair of BA sets there shall be 1 fog applicator
Vessels carrying dangerous goods shall comply with the regulations, on
compliance the administration shall provide the ship with an appropriate
document of compliance of the construction and equipment with the
requirements of this regulation
Chapter 3

This requires
At least 1 lifebuoy shall be fitted on either side of the ship with a
buoyant lifeline equal to and not less than twice the height at which it is
stowed above the waterline when the vessel is in the lightest seagoing
condition or 30m whichever is greater.
Lifebuoys:
Under 60m
60 120m
120 180m
180 240m
240 +

8 required
12 required
18 required
24 required
30 required

Appendix
Certificates required for ISM
Document of compliance A Document of compliance shall be issued to
every company which complies with the requirements of the ISM code. A
copy of the document shall be kept onboard
Safety management A Safety Management Certificate shall be issued to
every ship by the Administration or Organisation recognized by the
Administration. The Administration or an organisation recognized by it shall,
before issuing the safety management Certificate, verify that the company
and its shipboard management operate in accordance with the approved
safety management system
Certificates required for Dangerous goods
Document of Compliance with special requirements for ships carrying
dangerous goods An appropriate document as evidence of compliance
with the construction and equipment requirements of that regulation
Dangerous Goods manifest or Stowage Plan Each ship carrying dangerous
goods shall have a special list or manifest setting forth, in accordance with
the classification set out in regulation VII/2 the dangerous goods on board
and the location thereof. A detailed stowage plan which identifies by class
and sets out the location of all dangerous goods onboard may be used in
place of such a special list or manifest.
A copy of one of these documents shall be made available before departure
to the person of organization designated by the port state authority.

Task Revision Notes: Taking over command

When a master arrives at a ship he should when walking up the gangway:
Note the state of the ships side and exterior including draught marks,
rigging of the accommodation ladder & safety Net, visible condition of
LSA and FFA equipment this will give him a good indication of the ships
management
He would expect at least the following from the outgoing master before he
takes over:
He should check his handover notes
The current manning levels and compare them with the safe manning
levels
The ships condition report
The SMS documentation
The standard of crew competency and training
Any voyage orders
Safe combination code!
When the crew and officers are to join after you the master should inspect the
following:
All crew have a valid medical certificate
All competency certificates are carried in original form and that they are
in date
All the crew receive there familiarization training as required by SOLAS
The master should then discuss the ships operations with the senior
management team
Navigation and voyage planning should be discussed with the Navigation officer
The master should sign himself on by completing the white spaces in the ALC(b)
noting the reference number on the inside cover of the Official Log Book
He should then:
Enter his name and COC No. on the front cover of the OLB
Check the ships documents and cash
Write in the narrative section that you have taken over from the
previous officer and that all the documents are in order and have been
handed over

Task Revision Notes: Stowage of Cargoes

Ref:

Thomas Stowage
Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing

Master and crew must exercise due diligence to ensure the ship is seaworthy.
Damage Claims
Claims may be made for the following reasons:
Chafe
Damage occurs due to the to and fro movement from the motion and
vibration of the ship causing the cargo to rub and chafe against each other,
against sharp projections and rough surfaces.
Baled goods are particularly susceptible
Temperature
Temperature fluctuations may cause condensation or accelerate
deterioration of cargoes.
High temperatures may affect cargoes:
Softening of chocolates, fats and coatings
Cause partial / full decomposition
Take a commodity up to its flash point therefore explosive
Expansion

Low temperatures may affect cargoes:

Freezing of fruits and vegetables
Freezing of bottled liquids can cause bursting
Hardening and cracking
Separation

Cargoes which are subject to damage due to heating:

Should be stowed away from local sources of heat i.e. away from engine and
boiler room bulkheads and casing
In the past large claims have arisen due to cargoes literally being cooked on the
top of tanks that are being heated.
Ventilation may be required to reduce the effects of heat build up
Damp or wet packages of all cargoes should be carefully examined and if in
doubt the cargo should be rejected.

Cargo Mixtures
Claims in this class are mostly in respect to bulk grain and seed cargoes. But
heavy claims have been given for mixtures of china clay and sliver sand, or oil
with ore.
To avoid such mixing careful regard should be given to:
Overstowing
Separations when different bagged goods are being carried
Separation within holds (This is at the Charters expense and
should be written into the charter party.
Dust and Stain
When loading dusty cargoes other cargoes in the vicinity should be well
covered, ideally you should load these cargoes first.
Packaged cargo at the bottom of the stow in a lower hold may become stained
by oil that may have gathered in the hold, this can taint and spoil the cargo.
Wooden bulkheads can be constructed to separate the cargoes. Bulkheads
should be made of wide planks to reduce the number of seams.
Rust Damage
Due mainly to moisture, rain, fresh or salt water. Steel cargoes may suffer
irreparable damage if rust occurs. Ventilation may need to be used to reduce
any cargo sweat.
Wet Damage
Condensation sometimes known as sweat can cause:
Rust
Discolouration
Mould
Caking or clogging
For condensation to occur the two following factors must be available Source
of moisture and a temperature gradient.
The source of moisture may come from:
The cargo
The packaging
The dunnage
Air trapped in the hold
Any air introduced in the course of ventilation
Discharging fire damaged goods
Such goods should be discharged under survey they should be divided into
separate lots:
1. goods damaged by fire and or smoke
2. goods damaged by water or steam used in extinguishing the fire

3. goods damaged broken or otherwise injured in obtaining access to the

seat of fire
Pilferage
In order to protect a ship from blame and responsibility for pilferage. Ships
officers should organize a close watch on the holds and other cargo liable to be
broached. When many holds containing broachable cargo are being worked
responsible ships personnel should carefully watch the loading process.
Frequent and regular visits by the OOW to the area being worked should be a
good deterrent.
As soon as possible broachable cargoes should be overstowed and hold
watchmen should not been removed until it is no longer possible to get at the
broachable goods.
Accurate and reliable tallying should be carried out
Sweepings and residue should be removed by responsible personnel
Attractive and high value good should be stowed in appropriate lock ups
or buried into the stow
Adequate lighting should be provided
Proper instructions for the safe handling of the goods should clearly
marked on the goods
Contents identification and advertising should be avoided
Tamper proof seals should be used
Correct documentation should be provided
Strapping and securing should be suitably strong
Rats and Mice
Rat guards must be fitted to all mooring lines
In the interest of health rat fumigation of holds and accommodation is at times
essential.
Ships must carry a valid De rat certificate which is issued by a competent
authority every 6 months.
Cleaning and Fumigation
Compartments and containers which have been empty of cargo must be made
suitable for the reception of the next load by being thoroughly cleaned. Where
evidence of an infestation exists the hold may have to be fumigated. Normally
this is done by a shore side team although ships staff may use smoke fumigants.
Some grain cargoes come with fumigants in them in the form of white pellets
these should not be touched or approached they produce phosphene gas when
they react with the moisture in the atmosphere.
It may be decided to fumigate the cargo upon completion of loading, if this is
the case it may be necessary to evacuate the ship. The master should follow
the instructions very carefully.
Regulations

Most countries have very strict quarantine regulations to prevent the import of
unwanted vermin. These regulations usually prohibit the importation of timber
with any bark still attached and timber entering the country has to be specially
treated.
Mechanical Damage
Lowering heavy slings of cargo into the hold too fast may be responsible for
damage to the cargo.
Dragging cargo out at the time of discharge may result in damage.
Use of cargo hooks on bags, packages, paper, furs etc should be prohibited
Crow bars may also be used when breaking out cargoes but it should be
prohibited when breaking out cargoes not designed to be handled in such a
way.
Try to use the correct equipment for the job at all times.
Sweepings
This refers to the original contents of a cargo which has been spilt. If second
hand bags have been used to hold the cargo then this will have been endorsed
on the Mates Receipt and on the Bill of Lading.
Torn or damaged bags do not come under sweepings and should be repaired and
put with the rest of the cargo.
To avoid the ship getting the blame for any sweepings that occur ashore after
discharge the ships sweepings should be bagged and tagged, weighed and
delivered as such. By getting a receipt there is no chance that the ship will be
blamed for any damage done out of there control this will reduce claims
against the ship.
Receiving Cargoes
If goods are delivered in an unsound condition then they cannot be delivered in
a sound condition either therefore a careful watch should be made during
loading to ensure that no, damaged, stained, torn, leaky, repaired etc goods
is loaded.
Mates Receipt
The mates receipt is a receipt of the goods actually received onboard.
It is often the ship owners first line of defense in defending a cargo claim. It is
therefore essential that the receipt are issued accurately and reflect the true
condition of the cargo. If there is a dispute over the amount of cargo loaded
then the smaller of the amounts should be recorded with a clause saying that
there may be an extra such and such amount of cargo.
On a bulker it might be impossible to do a draught survey to compare the
draughts with those supplied by the shipper. The mates receipt may then be
endorsed stating the fact that the draughts could not be read. A practical
method may be to seal the hatches with an inspector onboard remember to a
surveyor at the discharge port too to observe you unseal the hatches.
Keep a written sequence of events at the load port.

Cargo receiving at the ship in a damaged condition should be rejected,

obviously it is not always possible to view everything but as long as you do the
best you can are vigilant and exercise due diligence then there is not too much
of a problem.
Bills of Lading
Bills of Lading are internationally respected documents on which banks will rely
when advancing large sums of money.
If a master knowingly signs a bill of lading knowing that the cargo is
damaged or the description is wrong then his conduct will probably
render worthless any guarantee letters for any loss that has been
suffered.
The Master should always be aware of the condition of the cargo, if it is
impossible for him to inspect the cargo then the Bill of Lading shall be
qualified accordingly.
Additionally the master will often be under a duty to state the quantity
and weight of cargo shipped once he has signed the Bill of Lading to
state that, it will be very difficult to change the quantity
The intrinsic value represented by the bill of lading tends to give rise to
many disputes, and therefore if there is any doubt advice from P&I clubs
and owners should be sought.
Tallying
Where Tallymen are employed jointly by the shipper the tally clerks receipt
may take the place of the Mates receipt in these cases Spot checks are
advisable by the ships staff.
Delivering Cargo
If there are any reasonable grounds for anticipating damage to cargo before
opening hatches, protest should be noted.
This protest should be noted as soon as possible after arrival and not later than
24hrs.
It is always beneficial to the ship to have a surveyor standing by during
discharge.
1. When damaged cargo is sighted in a stow a sound practice is to make a
sketch or take a photo of the position of the cargo in relation to other
cargos in the stow
2. All packages found broken during discharge should be laid aside and
segregated
3. Care should be taken to replace back into position any cases bearings
marks and numbers that may have become displaced
4. It is worth gathering up and including with other discharged cargo all
torn slack or empty bags or packages especially where Bills of Lading
state as certain number of bags it is better to deliver that number of
bags even if some are empty.

5. Cargo should never be delivered except on production of a Bill of Lading

properly stamped and endorsed. When a cargo is consigned to order the
Bill of Lading shall bear the shippers endorsement and also that of the
merchant to whom it has been transferred.
6. Never deliver cargo against invoices, letters of guarantee or indemnity,
if in doubt seek advice from the Owners and P&I clubs.
Stowage Plans
Plans which show the disposition of the cargo loaded should always be
prepared.
Inaccurate plans may cause delay and costly unproductive employment
of stevedores.
During the passage stowage plans should be carefully checked so that
any inaccuracies can be sent a head
The plan should be large and should be able to show the comparative
volume of the stow. This may be the only means of conveying to agents
and other discharging ports the proportion and quantity of cargo in any
hold destined for that port.
Suitable info such as whether the cargo is on pallets, is stowed by a
forklift truck or whether or not it is pre slung should be mentioned.
For substantial consignments the marks quantities and position of the
cargo should be shown. If possible identification of individual Bills of
Lading in the stow can be useful.
A copy of the plan should be sent ahead to the discharge port
Bulk carrier plans must contain the total tonnage loaded into each hatch
Container plans are drawn up and delivered by the shore organization,
the weight of each container must be recorded and where appropriate if
the cargo is hazardous the IMDG code should be displayed.

Task Revision Notes: Cargo Handling Equipment

The Bale Sling Strop (Sling)
This is more commonly referred to as a sling or a rope strop. It is a neverending piece of rope, where the ends have been spliced together.
Used to sling cases or bales

Rope or Wire Snotters

Rope or wire snotters are used when general cargo is being discharged. Care
should be taken so that the wire is not allowed to slip along the smooth steel
surface, this can be reduced by the insertion of dunnage between the wire
snotter and the cargo.
The snotters should be spread evenly to share the load of the lift.
Used to discharge general cargoes

Cargo Nets
Cargo nets come in two types rope and wire rope. The wire rope cargo nets are
designed for carrying heavier loads with greater safety, and the net does not
tend to distort even under the most testing conditions.
Used for lifting stores, baggage etc

Pallets
Palletised slings of cargo can be prepared before the arrival of the vessel, to
reduce cargo handling time. The cargo is stacked on wooden pallets, which
allows easy handling and fork lift handling. The cargo stow may be covered
with shrink-wrapped polythene or banding straps to protect and secure.

Timber Dogs
These are used for the lifting of heavy logs. The weight of the log causes the
sharpened dog to embed into the end of the log. Caution should be observed
with this method to ensure that the dog is embedded before commencing the
lift.
Used for lifting logs

Drum or Can Hooks

When the chain is drawn the dogs are tensioned together by a single chain for
lifting steel drums.
Used for lifting drums

Plate Clamps
For lifting steel plates, if this method can be utilised then it should be
employed. Care should be taken that the load does not exceed the capacity of
the clamp.
When two clamps are employed the clamps should be mounted in the direction
of pull. Only one plate should be lifted at a time.
Used for lifting Steel plates

Braided Slings
These are used for heavy loads such as metal casings.
Extreme caution should be observed with any lift, but more particularly so with
a heavy lift. Timber bearers to provide a gap for the sling to be removed safely
should be employed when carrying loads of this nature.

Task Revision Notes: Coal Cargo

Ref: MGN 60
Properties of coal
Coal gives out Methane, Methane & air (5%+16%) = an explosive
atmosphere
Methane is lighter than air so it will accumulate in the top of the hol
Coal cargoes may oxidize resulting in high CO2 levels in the hold
Coal may self heat and therefore may be liable to spontaneously
combust, a sure sign of this self heating is increasing levels of carbon
monoxide within the hold
Coal may react with water and produce acid which may then produce
hydrogen. Hydrogen is also lighter than air and is very explosive
Segregation
Boundaries should be fire resistant and resistant to liquids
Coal should be separated from goods class 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in packaged form
and separated from bulk cargoes class 4, 5.1
Stowage of class 5.1 above or below a coal cargo is prohibited
Coal should be separated longitudinally by a complete compartment or
hold for class 1 goods other than division 1.4
Requirements

Prior to loading the shipper / agent should provide the master with the
characteristics of the cargo this will outline:
o Safe handling procedure for loading
o Safe handling procedure for transport
o Specifications for moisture content
o Sulphur content
o Size
Before and during loading the master shall ensure:
o Cargo space / bilge wells are clean and dry
o All electrical cables are checked and are free from defects
o Ships personnel are able to measure the methane content,
oxygen content, carbon monoxide content without entering the
hold
o Ships personnel are able to measure PH samples without entering
the hold
Ships staff must be familiar and fully trained on the use of this
monitoring equipment
If possible there are ways of measuring the temperature of the coal
The ship should carry the required BA sets
Smoking and the use of any other naked flames should be prohibited,
hot work must only be if the space has been properly ventilated
Prior to departure the master must be satisfied that the surface of the
coal has been trimmed level so that there are no spaces in the edges of
the hold gas pockets could form if there are spaces
The atmosphere above the space should be regularly monitored, the
frequency of this monitoring depends on the information given by the
shipper

Ventilation of the holds

Unless directed otherwise all the holds should be ventilated for the first
24 hours after departure
If after 24hours the Methane concentrations are acceptably low the
ventilators should be turned off
The master should as far as possible ensure that any gases emitted do
not accumulate in any adjacent spaces
o All spaces / passage ways should be regularly monitored for the
presence of methane, O2 and CO2, adequate ventilation should be
installed within these spaces
Regular bilge testing should be carried out, bilges should be kept dry if
there is any sort of PH risk evident
Any behavioral changes in the cargo with in the voyage should be noted
and should be supplied to the shipper
Methane emitting coals

Surface ventilation should be maintained but the air must not be

directed into the cargo itself
Ensure that the hold is ventilated fully prior to opening the hatch
When opening hatches it must be done carefully to avoid sparks
Personnel must not enter the space unless:
o It has been ventilated and declared safe
o Is gas free
o If it is an emergency then the Hold may be entered by trained
personnel wearing BA

Self heating coals

If analysis of the hold shows increasing carbon monoxide levels the
following shall be done:
o Close hatches immediately after completion of loading that hold
o Surface ventilation should be limited to the absolute minimum
time necessary
o Forced ventilation shall not be used
o Personnel should not be allowed to enter the hold unless wearing
BA and if vitally necessary
o If at the time of loading when the hatches are open the
temperature exceed 55C expert advice should be obtained
If Carbon monoxide levels still continue to increase self heating may be
occurring
o The space should be closed down
o All ventilation should be shut off
o Expert advice gained
o Water should NOT be used for fighting coal fires but may be used
for boundary cooling
Information to be passed on to the owners:
o Identity of holds
o CO, methane O2 concentrations
o Coal temperature
o Times of gas samples
o Times ventilators were opened and closed
o Quantity of coal in the hold involved
o Type of coal as per the shippers declaration
o Date loaded and ETA at the discharge port
o Comments and observations

Task Revision Notes: General cargoes

Carrying Dangerous goods
Hazards to ship and personnel
Risk of explosion when carrying flammable or explosive substances
Oxidizing Substances and Organic Peroxides burn easily giving off oxygen
which helps fuel the fire
Corrosive materials may cause damage to the ships steel work or create
an acid if water is allowed to mix with it
Minimization of the hazards
Reject leaking or damaged packaging
Poisonous substances to be handled with care, PPA should be worn and
BA should be standing by
Any strong smells indicating leakage should be investigated
Smoking to prohibited and flame arrestors to be fitted
Statutory Publications
Ships intending to carry Dangerous goods are required to have a
Document of Compliance
Statutory Instrument 19
IMO Code of Safe Practice for the Stowage and Securing of Cargo

Hold

Emergency procedures for ships carrying Dangerous goods

EMFAG
Code of Safe Working Practices
Preparations
To be cleaned, washed and kept free of moisture
To be ventilated regularly
All holds are to be watertight
Fire fighting systems to be operational
Lighting equipment is to be in good order

Cargo Handling
Persons handling the goods should be fully aware of the nature and any
hazards possible with the cargo
Loading and Discharge shall be done with the utmost care
If possible Dangerous Goods should be handled during daylight hours
Before loading all Dangerous Goods packages are to be thoroughly
checked
Water reacting cargoes must not be stowed on deck
Cargo Securing
All dangerous goods are to be tightly stowed and well secured against
any movement attention should be paid to ensure there is no chafe
Dangerous goods in containers are secured as with any normal container
Cargo

Care
Temperature and humidity should be monitored
Goods requiring proper ventilation should be ventilated
Soundings must be taken to ensure that there is no water in the holds
Check lashing regularly
Weather tightness of hatches to be checked

Refrigerated Cargoes
Hazards to ship and personnel
Deficiency of oxygen occurs when ozone is used to eliminate odors
Chemicals used inside the refrigerant are harmful to people
Very cold holds are a risk to personnel
Precautions to minimize the hazard
Use environmentally friendly chemicals

Proper entry checks made before entering into holds ventilate first
Thermal clothing to be worn

Statutory Publications
Code of safe practices for cargo stowage and securing
SI 19
Hold

preparations
Compartments to be taint / odor free
Insulation to be inspected
Ventilators leading to other compartments to be un plugged
Bilges cleaned and suctions tested
Dunnage to be pre cooled before use

Cargo

Handling
Cargo nets to be used for slinging meat or fruit
Walking on cargo is not allowed unless you use a walking board
Temperature in hold should be as per cargoes requirements
Constantly check C02 levels when loading C02 emitting cargoes

Cargo

Stowage
Boxes should be the self ventilated type
Distribute cargo uniformly over the floor
Temperature in hold should be as per cargoes requirements

Cargo Securing
Stow uniformly
Reefer containers to be lashed the same way as normal containers
Cargo Care
The temperature, humidity, C02 and OZONE levels to monitored
regularly
Eggs and butter are very liable to taint so do not stow with fruit
Defrosting should be carried out as per the shippers instructions
Good ventilation should be given to fruit to avoid C02 build up

Task Revision Notes: Timber Cargoes

Due to the high stowage factor a vessel will not be down to her marks when her
holds are loaded full of timber.
Two methods to bring the vessel to her marks:
1. Load ore into the bottom of the holds proper separation is required
to stop the timber absorbing moisture from the ore
2. Stow more timber on the deck if this is done you must follow
additional regulations:
Timber must be compactly stowed and secured by a system of overall
lashings of adequate strength with efficient and easily accessible
methods for quick release
If uprights are necessary then the distance between them must be not
more than 3m
The maximum height of timber above the deck if the vessel is in the
winter zone during the winter period remains 1/3 of the extreme breadth
of the vessel
When a vessel is loading as required by the timber load line rules the following
must be adhered to:

Timber to be stowed solidly in wells at least to the height of the focsal

If there is no superstructure at the after end of the vessel the timber
must be extended to at least the after side of the after most hatchway
The securing lashings shall consist of not less than 19mm close link chain
o These lashings shall not be independent of each other
o Not more than 3m apart
o Fitted with slip hook and stretching screws
o Wire rope lashings shall have a short length of long chain to
permit the length of lashing
The lashings are secured to eye plates attached to the sheerstrake or
deck stringer at intervals of not more than 3m. The end one is to be not
more than 2m from the superstructure bulkhead
If there is no bulkhead then eye plate lashings are to be provided 0.6
1.5m from the ends of the timber deck cargo
If the timber is in lengths of less than 3.6m the spacing of the lashings
shall be reduce.

Stability
The stability book onboard should have comprehensive calculations in it
regarding to:
The increased weight of the timber deck cargo due to
o The absorption of water in dried timber
o Ice accretion
o Variations in consumables
o The free surface effect of liquid in tanks
o The weight of water trapped in broken spaces within the timber
deck cargo and especially logs.
The master should:
Cease all loading operations if a list develops
Before proceeding to sea ensure that:
o The ship is upright
o The ship has an adequate GM
o The ship meets the required stability criteria
Ships carrying timber deck cargoes should operate as far as possible with a safe
margin of stability and with a metacentric height which is consistent with
safety requirements but such a metacentric height should not be allowed to
fall below the recommended minimum.
Excessive stability should be avoided as it will result in violent rolling motions
in heavy seas which will create large sliding and racking forces causing a high
amount of stress on the lashings.
Preferably GM should not exceed 3% of the breadth of the vessel.

Testing, examination and certification of the lashing equipment

All lashing gear used for securing the timber deck cargo should be tested
and marked according to the national regulations. Copies of certificates
should be kept onboard.
No treatments to the gear which could hide defects shall be applied
after the testing
A visual inspection of the gear shall be made at intervals not exceeding
12months
A visual examination of all securing points on the ship including uprights
should be performed before loading the timber deck cargo
Tightening lashings
Lashings should be tightened at the start of the voyage and then at regular
intervals throughout the voyage.
Any adjustments to the lashings shall be recorded in the ships log book.
A List
If a list occurs during the voyage it can normally be put down to three factors:
1. Cargo shift
2. Water ingress
3. Angle of loll
1. Cargo may have shifted below decks or may be apparent on deck. An
immediate examination should be made to determine whether the cargo
has shifted.
Ballasting of fuel transfer may have caused the list
Any cargo shift will in most cases occur during bad weather, so it will be
difficult and dangerous to send crew out to jettison cargo, this may be a
last resort as it is unlikely to improve the situation, as the cargo will not
jettison all at once and there is a high chance of damage to the
propeller.
2. Water ingress can be determined by sounding through the ship. Pumps
can be used to pump out any obvious water.
3. If the rolling of a ship prior to detection of the list has become very slow
and the ship returns to the upright position in a sluggish manner then
this will indicate that the ship has a small if non existent Metacentric
Height. The list is therefore due to the ship lolling from one side to the
other and having no righting arm to return it to the upright
This can be rectified by adding weight down below ballast or removing
weight high up jettisoning deck cargo.
With ballasting you should fill the lowest tank first so as to regain
stability quickly. If you were to fill the high side first then the ship could
roll to that side and then capsize.
Any cargo jettisoned a warning to other ships should be made by all available
means to let them know.

Means of lashing

Hog Lashings

Wire rope lashings

To securing eyes on deck

Snatch Block

Wiggle wire

Double lashing
Turnbuckle or
lever tensioner

To tensioning drums

Publication to refer to:

Code of Safe Practice for ships Carrying Timber Deck

Cargoes 1991

Task Revision Notes: Bulk Carriers

Due to the high risk nature of carrying cargoes in bulk the BC Code was
introduced IMO Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes
The aim of the BC code is to promote safety of stowage and shipment of bulk
cargoes by:
Highlighting the dangers associated with the shipment of certain types of
bulk cargoes
Gives guidance on the procedures to be adopted when the shipment of
bulk cargoes is contemplated
Listing typical materials currently shipped in bulk together with advice
on their properties and handling
Describing test procedures to be employed to determine various
characteristics of the bulk cargo materials
The BLU Code IMO code of Practice for the safe Loading and Unloading of
Bulk carriers

The aim of the BLU Code is to outline the procedures that must be followed by
the ship and bulk terminal prior to and during bulk handling operation. The
main idea of it is to create a standard method of operation.

BC Code
Section 1: definitions
Angle of repose the maximum slope angle of a free flowing granular
material
Cargoes that may liquefy materials which are subject to moisture
migration and subsequent liquefaction
Flow moisture point the percentage moisture content at which a flow
state develops under the prescribed method of test
Stowage factor the figure expressed that states the number of cubic
meters which one tonne of material will occupy
Section 2: general precautions
The main emphasis of this section is on stress and stability basically saying that
special attention shall be paid to ensure that the distribution of weight is such
that it avoids excessive stresses.
Section 3: Safety
This section is concerned with the safety of the ship and personnel, and refers
to MFAG of the IMDG code.
Section 4: Acceptability of consignments for shipping
The main emphasis is on the testing and sampling of the proposed cargo. And
that the shipper provides all relevant details concerning the cargo, including all
characteristics and properties of the material.
Section 5: Trimming Procedures
The general requirement that the cargo should be trimmed to a reasonable
level. For cargoes with an angle of repose of less than 30 the Grain Regs apply
Section 6: Methods of working out Angle of Repose
This gives guidance to ships officers to work out the Angle of Repose if the
figure can not be taken from ashore
Section 7: Cargoes which may liquefy
Cargoes received with a moisture content above the transportable moisture
limit should not be accepted and special care should given to ensure that water
is not allowed to enter the hold during the passage.
Section 8: Test procedures for cargoes which may liquefy
Guidance for ships officers on simple tests that can be performed on cargoes
which may liquefy

Section 9: Materials with chemical hazards

Most of these are covered in the IMDG code but many only become hazardous
when carried in bulk.
The section also covers the requirements for segregation between bulk
materials processing chemical hazards and dangerous goods in packaged form
and incompatible bulk materials processing chemical hazards.

BLU Code
Section 1: The terms associated with bulk cargo
Section 2: The suitability of ships and terminals
This discusses the obligations of the ship owner and manager when offering a
ship to carry a particular bulk cargo. Also the obligations of the terminal in
bringing the vessel alongside the berth
Section 3: Procedures between the ship and shore before arrival
Provides considerable detail of the load sequence, stowage by hold order of
loading and quantity to be loaded. Once the terminal has received that
information the terminal will provide the ship with the information regarding
the berth and the cargo operations.
Section 4: Procedure between ship and the shore after arrival but before
handling
This basically regards the Master / Mate relationship with the terminal
Section 5: Loading and handling of ballast
Brief details on what is expected from ships officers and the terminal
operations staff during the actual loading operation. On completion the code
requires the master and the terminal agree that the ship has been loaded
according to the plan.
Section 6: Unloading and handling of ballast
The same as section 5 but this time with regards to unloading the cargo

Planning the Load

Determine the amount of ballast to be on board at berthing or un

berthing
Determine the other weight onboard such as fuel and fresh water.
Calculate the total amount of cargo to be loaded
Calculate the individual tonnages if more than one grade or if more than
one loading / discharge port is involved
Plan the amount of cargo in each individual loading pour or discharging
sequence
Match the deballasting / ballasting sequence with the cargo operation to
keep hull stresses within the required limits

Write down the expected time intervals for each pour and ballast
operation to ensure the synchronisation
Plan for draft checks at critical points throughout the load or discharge
Ensure ballasting will be completed prior to the final trimming pour and
final draft survey
Plan the final trimming pour

Loading the cargo

Arrive within the port limits in ballast with any floodable hold empty
and all holds ready to receive cargo
Issue of the Notice of Readiness by the master
Holds inspected and Notice of Readiness accepted
Arrive at the loading berth, Chief Officer and Terminal agree on the
checklist and load sequence, the initial draft survey is conducted before
the hatches are opened and prior to starting deballasting
Loading and deballasting begins ensuring that the pumping and the
loading match the plan
Draught checks are carried out at various stages throughout the loading
for comparison with the terminals figures
Each hold is loaded with the correct number of pours in the correct load
sequence
Ballast completed prior to the final draught check and before the
trimming pours
Trimming pour completed to give desired trim and deadweight
Draught survey to ensure correct load tonnage and distribution of
trimming pours
Final inspection to ensure correct cargo levels and hatches are secure
for sea
Bill of Lading signed, time sheets and statement of facts agreed
Terminal received confirmation that the loading was completed as
planned
Port clearance give ship sets to sea

Ventilation of the holds

Ventilators should be directed as follows:
Leeward vents facing into the wind
Windward vents facing away from the wind

Hot to cold ventilate hold

Cold to hot ventilate not

Task Revision Notes: Container Ships

The standardisation of containers has been brought about by the:
IMO International Convention for safe containers.
The main goals being to maintain a high level of safety of human life in
handling and transport of containers done by providing strength requirements.
And to facilitate the international transport of containers by providing uniform
international safety regulations.
The outcome of the convention is that containers that have been safety
approved for international transport will have a safety approval plate on them.

CSC Safety Approval

[GB-L/749/2/7//75]
Date Manufactured

Identification No.

Maximum Gross Weight

Kg lb
Allowable stacking weight for 1.8g
Kg lb
Racking test load value
Kg lb

[GB-L/749/2/7//75] this code specifies the Country that approve the

container, the rest of the numbers are the approval reference
Month and year of manufacture
The Identification number is provided by the manufacturer
Maximum operating weight
The allowable stacking height the weight that the container can
support from above it
The load applied for transverse racking tests

Other types of container

General purpose container the standard container in use
Bulk container 20 container with three hatches in the roof for loading
bulk material
Ventilated container 20 with a passive ventilation system adjacent to
the top and bottom side rails
Open sided container 20 with an open side to it with a gate and a roll
down curtain, may be used to carry livestock
Open top container 20 or 40 used to carry large heavy, tall goods that
can be loaded through the roof rather than the door. Roof battens can be
fitted after the cargo is secured
Half height containers 20 or 40 used to load high density cargoes
when a full container would not be filled
Flat rack containers 20 or 40 with no sides or roof
Insulated containers used when there is blown air available from the
ship
Refrigerated containers similar to the insulated container but they
have a refrigeration supply fitted to them which can be plugged into the
ships power
Tank containers 20 or 40 framework steel tanks used for carrying
hazardous and non hazardous liquid
Cargo Planning
The cargo space on a container ship is well know due to it being made
up of equal slots so the basic plan is always the same.

Each container space has a 6 figure code which specifies the position of
it. And tells you the fore and aft position, the athwartships position and
the vertical position.
o The first two figures specify the row number which starts from
the bow. Odd numbers = 20 and Even numbers 40
Therefore a 20ft container in the furthest bay fwd would
start with 01, if it was in the next available bay then it
would start 03
If a 40ft container was in rows 1 and 2 then it have the
prefix 02
o The second pair of numbers tells you its athwartships location
starting from the centreline. Odd numbers = stbd and Even
numbers = port
Therefore 06 = the third cell from midships on the port side
o The third pair of figures tells us the vertical location, Full height
containers are Even numbers starting with 02 and half height
containers are Odd numbers. On deck the lowest tier is 82

For each bay a complex plan is drawn up which includes

Ports of loading and discharge
Contents
Weight
Container Number

This leads the planner to various other issues as he needs to know any
special requirements such as DG or Refrigeration
The weight of eachcontainer must be know to distribute the weight
evenly
Distribution of cargo must be planned carefully to avoid double handling
of cargo which discharging
Provision for oversized units

These various factors would make the planning very difficult for the ship
to do it as they are unlikely to have sufficient information, therefore it
is done by specialist planners

Loading the containers

Container ships are made up of cell guides below decks and sometimes above
decks this means that it is almost impossible to load the containers if the ship
is not upright. The ships therefore are fitted with automatic ballast systems
which trigger water to be pumped between wing tanks.

Securing Containers
The IMO Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing only requires
that ships that carry cargo in standardized stowage and securing systems
should:
Designed and equipped that the standardized cargo concerned can be
safely stowed and secured onboard under all conditions except during
the voyage
Provided with adequate information for the use by the master on the
arrangements provided for the stowage and securing of the specific
cargoes for which the ship is designed
Therefore it is necessary that the ship has an approved securing manual and
the necessary equipment onboard
Lashings must be checked before sailing to ensure that they are tight and then
again during the voyage.
If a master suspects that the cargo within a closed container has not been
properly secured within the container then a Cargo Stowage and Securing
Declaration should be sighted or refused

Task Revision Notes: Reefer cargoes

Conventional reefer ships still carry the majority of refrigerated cargo but are
also equipped to carry containers above and below decks. These ships generally
have a greater number of individual spaces than that of a general cargo ship.
This division of space means less containers in a stack so there is a greater
variety of cargo that can be carried. Due to the high amount of palletised cargo
that is carried the dimensions of the hold are generally in pallet sized
multiples.
Cargo is kept at its required temperature through a combination of efficient
insulation and refrigeration. The temperature control is performed by blowing
refrigerated air through the space into the cargo.
The main purpose of refrigeration is basically for organic reasons, as organic
material is prone to attack by micro organisms, bacteria and mould. These all
require warmth to be able to multiply.

Living organic matter omits heat and gasses, CO2 and ethylene which is
produced by ripening fruit ethylene will speed up the ripening process.
Loading
The space must be clean, dry, free of odour and be pre cooled.
Cleaning washing down with a disinfectant and deodoriser, perhaps
painting will be required, clean fans by running them in both directions
so that dust is blown from the trunking. Scuppers must be cleaned.
Clean dunnage must be laid out and the hold must be fumigated.
Freeing odour this will pretty much be done in the cleaning process
Pre cooling this is achieved by bringing the temperature down to
slightly below the carrying temperature and maintaining the
temperature for a period of 24hrs
The cargo must be fully inspected and the publication The transport of
Perishable Foodstuffs or Guide to Food Transport should be consulted.
The cargo should be in its transportable state as the ship is only there to
maintain the temperature not lower it.
The cargo should be loaded so that the air flow is not restricted if the cargo
has bellies they should be stowed belly to belly rather than in the gaps so air
flow is not restricted.
Dunnage should be used to keep the cargo away from ships sides and also to
ensure that the air is allowed to freely circulate.
Compatibility of cargo
Great care should be taken in mixing cargoes.
There should be sufficient overlap of temperature limits to allow normal
fluctuations in temp
Packaging and stowage patterns mixing items may cause stowage
problems and air circulation problems
Ethylene production / sensitive cargoes could lead to un acceptable
ripening of cargoes.
Odour emission and sensitivity of cargo
Care during transportation
The conditions of carriage should be strictly kept to, monitored and recorded.
Proper documentation of cargo space conditions will assist the ship owner if
claims are made against him.
Record:
Temperatures
Fans should run at speeds necessary to maintain temperature and meet
ventilation requirements, excessive ventilations could cause the cargo to
dry out

Ethylene levels should be controlled by venting a proportion of

circulated air to the atmosphere and replacing it with fresh air
CO2 may be injected into the circulating air to maintain required levels

Discharging cargo
Stevedores are generally experienced at the loading port but at the discharge
port will probably require more assistance.
When working a cargo which is below another cargo, screens should be
erected to stop heat getting in the hold
Spaces should be temporarily covered during short breaks and cooling
fans run
When required to walk on meat they should have clean boots on
Walking boards should be used when working on cartons or cases of fruit
Cargo slings should be made up at the edges of the hatch to prevent
damage
When damage is found in the stow all details should be carefully noted
so that the cause can be found and perhaps avoided in the future

Task Revision Notes: Ro Ro

The merchant shipping (carriage of Cargo) Regulations
The regulations require the shipper to provide the owner or master with a
description of the cargo, gross mass of the units and any special properties of
the cargo, so that they are able to ensure compatibility and safe stowage of
the cargo.
The regulations require the owner and master to ensure that appropriate
precautions are taken during the loading and transport of cargo units,
especially with regard to securing arrangements on board such ships and on the
cargo units and with regard to the securing points onboard.
There are additional guidelines in the Roll on Roll off ships, stowage and
securing of vehicles code of practice

Section 1
Principle sources of danger
Section 2
Considers the protection of personnel on ramps and vehicle decks
Section 3
Guidance on the use vehicle decks, ships ramps, lifting appliances and
securing arrangements
Section 4
Aimed at shippers ensuring vehicles are suitable
Section 5
Stowage and securing for ships officers
Shippers advice should be followed regarding the handling +
securing of vehicles
Vehicles should be aligned in the fore and aft direction
Stowed as closely together as is possible in the athwartships
direction, so as to restrict movement in the event of lashing
failure
Safe access to securing arrangements, stairways and escape
routes
Parking breaks to be on
Freight vehicles of more than 3.5T should be secured in all
circumstances
Vehicles on inclined decks should be chocked
Lashings should only be made on proper securing points at
equal tension
Securing operations should be completed before sailing
Section 7
Refers to the cargo securing manual
Details of fixed securing points, pad eyes, eye bolts and
elephant feet
Locations and stowage of portable securing gear
Examples of correct application of portable securing gear on
various cargo units, vehicles etc
Indication of the variation of transverse, longitudinal and
vertical accelerations to be expected in various positions
onboard
Design and operation

Closing and locking of doors prior to departure (enter in logbook)

Indicators and alarms showing the status of door
CCTV in cargo and door areas on the bridge
Passenger counting system
Provision of draught, trim and stability information before departure
Lightweight survey every 5 year (inclined of 2% difference)

Must have a Co-operation with SAR services plan

Compliance with stowage and securing of vehicles code of practice

Ballast
Due to the Ro-Ro vessels being able to load horizontally it is important that the
ship is kept so. Modern tractor units are capable of towing up an incline of
about 10 so it is important to keep it to about 6 so therefore it is important
that proper use is made of the ballast to keep the ship at an acceptable level.
A/Amax
The value given to a ship to indicate its survivability in the flooded condition

Task Revision Notes: Passenger Ship Operations

Passenger ship Safety Certificate
The PSSC is a SOLAS requirement and must be carried on all UK flagged Pax
ships engaged on international voyages.
It covers Construction, Equipment and Radios
Surveys are carried out each year.
Items

inspected on the initial survey

Construction, machinery and equipment
Safety equipment
Radio equipment
Sub division load lines these may be assigned for the use on alternative
service conditions. The line would depend on the passenger spaces in
use.

Some

of the things that can be found on the certificate:

Operational sea areas
Main and auxiliary machinery and boilers
Watertight subdivision arrangements
Fire system and appliances
Radio installation
Navigation equipment and publications
Lights shapes and sound signals and distress signals
Means of embarkation for pilots

A record of equipment detailing the LSA and FFA onboard as well as details of
the radio facilities must supplement the certificate.
Muster lists and Drills
Muster Lists
The Master is responsible for compiling the muster list and ensuring it is
updated and placed in places throughout the ship including the bridge, engine
room and crew accommodation. It shall have on it:
A translation into the working language of the ship
Contain details of alarm signals, communications and abandon ship signal
Show duties of each crew member
The survival craft assigned to each person
Ensure that a deck officer or qualified person is command of each
survival craft
Indicate a person capable of carrying out survival craft engine repairs
The location of passenger assembly points
The person responsible for the up keep of LSA and FFA
Drills
Each crew member must participate in at least one abandon ship drill and one
fire drill every month.
These drills must be held within 24hrs of leaving port if more than 25% of the
crew have not taken part in drills on board the ship.
Additionally on Pax ships these drills must be conducted weekly and as many
crew as practicable should take part, such that every crew member
participates once a month.
A muster of Pax must take place within 24hrs of their embarkation and they
must be give instructions on the following:
Actions to take when hearing the GES
Location of and how to put on a life jacket
GES and the signal to abandon ship
Importance of being properly clad

Dangers of jumping into the water

Watertight doors and fire doors

If a small number of Pax join after the drill there attention should be drawn to
the safety instructions in their cabins
These instructions should include:
Muster station
Action to take on hearing GES
Location and method of putting on a lifejacket
Requirements for crew dealing with passengers in emergencies
All crew nominated to assist pax in an emergency should receive additional
training to enable them to perform their duty. The crew should be proficient
in:
Communications Sufficent English to provide instructions, raise alarm,
report and notify
Life Saving Knowledge of the muster list, GES and areas of
responsibility and general ship layout
LSA Location of life jackets and blankets
First Aid basic first aid and transportation of casualties
Fire raising the alarm, initial containment, dangers of inhalation
Abandon ship Signal and use of survival equipment
Methods to improve and maintain crew proficiency
Practical training onboard
Familiarization i.e. repeated tours
Participation in drills
Exercises in use of equipment
Exercises in use of communication equipment
Evacuation exercises
Real life drills
Attendance of Crisis management and Human Behaviour courses
Crisis Management and Human Behaviour
Research has shown that:
60% of people will not know what to do and will become confused
and will require specific instructions + direction
25% of people will act rationally and will help others
15% of people will experience Spontaneous Incompetence
Basically wont be able to move or believe the seriousness of the
situation
Of the 25% rational people:
o 10% will look after themselves

o 10% will assist others

o 5% will try and deal with the emergency these people can
get in the way they may try and persuade others to do
what they say rather than listening to the crew retired
police, fire fighters etc
Information to the passengers
On sounding the GES make regular and honest announcements this will gain
confidence and trust.
Behaviour of the crew
The crew provides leadership and reassurance. Signs of fear will distress pax
best way to be is almost a dictator I am trained for this situation, heres
what we are going to do and if you follow my instructions we will all survive
Problems likely to be encountered
Elderly may be left to fend for themselves as some pax demonstrate
selfish and aggressive tendencies towards others to save themselves
Pax will demand to return to their cabins, if they are not allowed to
then they will become angry
Pax will attempt to bring luggage with them
List, smoke will confuse pax so expect them to be disoriented
Emergency information for passengers MSN 1409
The overall aim of providing information to pax keeping them sufficiently well
informed throughout an emergency.
It is essential that pax are informed of the of procedures that should follow in
an emergency this information should be communicated to pax on or before
departure.
There are 5 requirements to assist pax in an emergency these are:
1. Continuously illuminated signs to be provided in passageways and
stairways indicating direction to muster stations
2. All doors used for exits to open decks and all emergency escapes be
clearly marked to indicate their purpose
3. All vessels are provided with a public address system
4. Instructions on muster stations, lifejackets etc to be posted in cabins
and conspicuous places
5. Where a drill is not held on departure the attention of passengers is
drawn to the ships emergency instructions
Signs

Muster Station signs should be located at muster stations and readily

apparent to pax so they can readily identify the muster station
Muster station direction signs provided in alleyways, stairwells showing
how to get to muster station
Exit signs all doors leading to open decks and doors, windows etc
used for emergency escapes. Signs should be placed on door or in a
position to indicate the presence of the door
Deck identification the number / name of deck should be readily
identified by signs at each entrance and stairway

Public Address systems

These should be capable of broadcasting to all public spaces which
includes open decks.
It should be powered from the main electrical source and from an
alternative power source.

Decision Support System

Passenger ships Classes I, II and II(a) are required to have a decision support
system for emergency management.
The plan must identify all foreseeable emergency situations and for each
emergency have an emergency plan / procedure
Areas that shall be included in the system are:
Fire
Damage to the ship
Pollution
Security Threats
Serious accident to Pax and Crew
Whenever possible the drills and training onboard will make use of the decision
support system
Bomb threats
Reception and bridge have a set format of questions to ask the caller
What group is making the threat
What threat is there to the ship
Any time limit of the bomb
Demands of the group
What the group hopes to achieve
Male or female
Regional accent
Background noise
Calm or panicked
Rational or irrational

Task Revision Notes: Seaworthiness

The owner is obliged to provide a seaworthy vessel.
Common law recognizes that vessels can not be absolutely water tight in all
conditions and that owners can not guarantee the seaworthiness of a vessel
once she leaves port and is subject to the perils of the sea.
Perils of the sea: fortuitous accidents or casualties peculiar to
transportation on navigable water; stranding, sinking, collision, heavy weather
or other unusual forces of nature.

The requirements of common law as stated in the Hague rules and the Hague
Visby rules, that the vessel left her berth in a seaworthy condition as far the
owners, master and officer could tell by careful reasonable inspection.
A vessel will be deemed to be un-seaworthy if she set sail without:
Valid statutory certificates
Valid certificate of class
Proper stowage and securing of cargo
Cargo care system in good order
A properly qualified master and crew
The proper crew complement as outlined by the safe manning certificate
Appropriate charts and publications for the voyage which are corrected
and up to date
Sufficient bunkers for the voyage
Consequence of un-seaworthiness is breach of contract with the possibility to
terminate contract. If the cargo owner can show that his loss was caused by a
failure of the carrier to exercise due diligence to make the vessel seaworthy,
then the carrier will not be able to rely on any other clauses in the Rules which
reduce his liability. If the loss or damage was caused by un-seaworthiness on
the part of the ship the burden of proving that due diligence was carried out is
on the carrier or other person claiming exemption under Article IV. If the Hague
Visby Rules apply then there are 17 exceptions to liability that the carrier can
use to avoid being responsible for loss or damage. For example: act, neglect, or
default of the master, mariner, pilot or the servants of the carrier in the
navigation or management of the ship. So the carrier will be looking to show
that the ship was seaworthy for the voyage (HVR. Article III/1) and that any loss
or damage was caused by one of the exceptions to liability (HVR. Article IV/2).

Task Revision Notes: Load Lines

When a ship loads in a summer zone she can load to the top of her summer
marks this is also the statutory freeboard mark.
If the vessel is in fresh water then she can load to the top of her F fresh
mark, when she returns to the open sea (summer zone) the vessel will return to
the Summer Marks
Similarly if she loads in a winter zone then she can load to the W mark, then
when she returns to the summer zone she will sink to her summer mark

The ships dock water allowance is the allowance given to a vessel so that she
can load in Dock water, when she does this she will be over her Summer Marks,
but due to the fact Dock water allowance has been calculated the vessel will
be at her Summer Marks when she returns to open sea.
Dock water allowance = FWA x (1025 Density of the dock water)
25

tones

S is the position calculated from the Load line rules

W is one forty eighth of the summer load draught below S
T is one forty eighth of the summer load draught above S
F is an equal amount to Displacement
4T
above S
Displacement at the summer load draught and T is the metric
per cm immersion
TF is the position relative to T and is found in the same way as F relative
to S
WNA
This is used by vessels not exceeding 100m in length when in certain
areas of the North Atlantic Ocean during the winter period. When
assigned it is 50mm below the Winter marks

Diagram of a standard Load line

Timber ships
Certain vessels are assigned Timber load lines after they have met all the
required criteria.
LS is arrived at from the appropriate tables in the Load line Regs
LW is one thirty sixth of the summer timber load draught below LS
LT is one forty eighth of the summer timber load draught above LS
LF and LTF are calculated in the same way as F and TF except that the
displacement used in the formulae is that of a vessel at her summer
timber load draught.
LWNA is at the same level as WNA

Timber load line

Task Stability Notes: Angle of Loll

The angle to which a ship with a negative initial metacentric height will lie at
rest in water
An angle of loll can occur due to a number situations:
Deck cargoes absorbing moisture especially timber deck cargoes, you
should allow up to 15% extra for weight that will be absorbed during the
voyage when making the initial calculations.
Consumption of fuel and water thus creating Free Surface and a rise in G

Ballast tanks may lower if water is lost through the vent pipes during
rough weather. Ensure that ballast tanks are kept pressed up.
Poor cargo and ballast tank management is the usual cause of angle of
Loll.
Heavy lift operations causes an instantaneous loss of GM when the
weight is lifted off the deck, such a large increase in KG should be
considered prior to the lift.
Shift of bulk cargo

It is not always easy to work out if the ship is listed or is lolled, and if you are
in any doubt always treat it as though the vessel is lolled.

Once you are satisfied that the weights are distributed evenly then we can
assume that the list is due to negative GM.
The main priority is to lower the Center of gravity so it goes below M the
initial metacentric height. All slack tanks should be pressed up as this will stop
a rise in G due to free surface effect. Anything on the ships decks should be
lowered for example Derricks should be lowered. Oil in tanks should be
transferred to bottom tanks.
If the ship has high ballast tanks then these should be emptied high side first,
as the high side will lower G the most.
Once this has been done and there is a still a list there what can we do???
If there are empty bottom tanks we could fill these, but in the process of doing
this there will be free surface effect with will cause an increase in the negative
GM thus creating a greater angle of loll. If it is possible to fill tanks then you
should consider filling the smaller tanks first.
If there is a tank with a split at the centre which side do you fill first and why?
If you were to fill the high side first then the ship would roll upright then would
quickly roll over to the other side creating an angle of loll on that side, there is
a high chance that the ship could capsize as it rolls over.
So fill the lower bottom tanks, this will initially list the ship over further but it
is being done in a controlled manner, as you move the center of gravity
downwards the list will eventually start to decrease, when this starts to happen
you can start filling the other sides bottom tanks and bring the ship up right in
a controlled manner.
A ship with a negative initial metacentric height is unstable when inclined, As
the heel angle increases the center of buoyancy B will move out so it
becomes directly below G this is called the angle of Loll, at this time the
capsizing moment has gone.

When the angle of Loll and the GZ is zero G remains on the Center line. If the
ship continues to heel past the angle of loll B will move out to vertically under
the low side thus allowing the ship to return to the angle of Loll. If B does not
move out far enough the ship will end up capsizing.
ALWAYS only fill 1 tank at a time.

Task Revision Notes: Bilge and ballast systems

Bilge system
Is designed to remove excess wather from the bilge and pump it to a holding
tank or over the side via an OWS
Ballast system
Is designed to fill or empty water ballast tanks from the sea, or allow water to
be transferred via tanks for trim /stability purposes.

Cargo Ships
All cargo ships are provided with pumping and piping arrangements so that any
watertight compartment or watertight section of a compartment can be
pumped out when a vessel has a list of up to 5 and is on an even keel.
In machinery spaces they may be pumped out through 2 suction pumps:
1 from the main bilge line
1 from an independent power driven pump
Also there must be an emergency bilge pump
Passenger Ships
Passenger ships must provide the capability to pump out each compartment or
section following a casualty under all practical conditions whether the ship is
listed or not.
There must be at least 3 bilge pumps and must where possible be in separate
compartments. The pumps and lines must be kept within 20% of the ships beam
and pipes must be fitted with non return valves. These requirements are
designed to try and prevent any compartment from becoming flooded during a
grounding.
Bilge lines
Bilge lines are fitted with strum boxes at mouth of the line. The strum box is a
box which covers the end of the pipe and has small holes in it up to 10mm in
diameter. The point of the strum box is to stop any dirt or debris being sucked
into the lines.
In machinery spaces and the shaft tunnel, the bilge line is led to a mud box,
there is a fine mesh in the mud box which collects sludge and foreign objects.
Scuppers
Scuppers are fitted at the ships side to drain the decks.
Below the freeboard deck scuppers are led to bilges rather than over the side
unless they are fitted with non return valves.

Task Revision Notes: Bilged Side compartment

A box shaped vessel of length 120m, beam 18m floats at draft 6m in salt water.
The vessel has a mid ship side compartment of length 20m calculate the angle
of list if the compartment becomes bilged
120m

18m
20m

Find bodily sinkage

Increase in draft

Find new KB

KB

= Lost volume
Intact water plane area
= 9 x 20 x 6
(120 x 18) (9 x 20)
= 0.55m
= New T 2
= 6 + 0.55 2
= 3.28m

Find the shift in B

Whole
Damaged

Area
18 x 120
- (9 x 20)
1980
Shift in B

Dist of centroid
0
4.5
= -810
1980
= -0.41
120

18m

Shift in B
4.5

Moments
0
-810
-810

Find BM
BM

=I

Igg

= Ixx (A x h2)

Ixx

= L x B3
12

but I = Igg because this is for a

box shape

= 120 x 183
12

- l xb3
3
- 20 x 93
3

= 53460m4
Igg

= Ixx (a x h2)
= 53460 (1980 x 0.412)
= 53127.16

BM

= Igg
= 53127.16 (120 x 18 x 6)
= 4.10m

GM

= (KB + BM) KG
= (3.28 + 4.10) 5
= 2.38

List

= Tan = Shift in B
GM
= Tan = 0.41
2.38
= 9.77 angle of list

Task Revision Notes: Bilging a side compartment with

permeability
Find the angle of list when a side compartment is bilged and the compartment
has a permeability of 0.7.
KG = 5.8
130

11

6
17
Find GM in the damaged condition
GM
= (KB + BM) KG
Find KB

//Sinkage

= lost vol
(includes Permeability)
intact WPA
= 6 x 11 x 17 x 0.7
(130 x 11) (11 x 17 x0.7)
= 0.6m

New Draft

= 6.0 + 0.6
= 6.6m

KB

= 6.6 2
= 3.3m

Find BM

BM

= LB3 lb3 x permeability

12 12

= 130 x 113 - 17 x 113 x 0.7

12
12
(130 x 11 x 6)
= 1.53m

Now you can find GM

GM
= (3.3 x 1.53) 5.8
= - 0.97
Find Heel
Tan

= 2 x GM
BM
= 2 x 0.97
1.53

Negative GM
therefore there is
an angle of Loll

= 48.39

Task Revision Notes: Bilging an end compartment

Find the fwd and aft draughts when an end compartment is bilged
KG = 5.0m
115
14

57.5

13

51

LCF
B

57.5

Centroid

//sinkage

= lost vol
intact WPA
= 8 x 13 x 14
(14 x 115) (13 x 14)
= 1.02m

Draft at LCF

= 8 + 1.02 = 9.02m

Change in trim

= Trimming Mom
MCTC

TM
Buoyancy force

= LCB
LCG = 57.5 51 = 6.5m
= x P = (8 x 115 x 14) x 1.025
= 13202T
= 6.5 x 13202
= 85813Tm
= Lost vol x P
= 8 x 13 x 14 x 1.025
= 1492.4T

Distance from the LCF to the Centroid of the damaged compartment is 57.5m
MCTC
GML

= x GMl
100 x LBP
= KB + BMl KG

KB

= New draft 2
= 9.02 2 = 4.5m

BMl

= Inertia Longitudinally
= BMl3

12

3
= 14 x102 12 (8 x 115 x 14)
= 96.12m

GMl

= 4.5 + 96.12 5
= 95.63

MCTC

= 13202 x 95.63 (100 x 115)

= 109.78

Change Trim = 85813 109.79

= 781.68cm
= 7.82m
Draft aft

= T x W Trim x LCF LBP

= 9.02 7.82 x 51 115
= 5.55m

Draft fwd

= Taft trim
= 5.55 + 7.87
= 13.37m

Task Stability Notes: Freeboards

A change in freeboard could occur if:

Loading and discharging a cargo causing a change in draught

Loading and discharging of ballast, fuel or lube oil
Ice accretion
Absorption of moisture by deck cargo
Ingress of water in a damage situation

Shipping heavy seas

The increase in freeboard will result in the following:

The initial GM will be unchanged

GZ values will be increased at angles of heel beyond the angle of heel
at which deck edge immersion takes place for small free-boarded ships
Dynamical stability is increased at angles of heel beyond the angle of
heel at which deck edge immersion takes place
The range of stability is increased; if freeboard were to be reduced
then GZ values would similarly reduce

Assignment of Freeboards
Type A ships freeboard is extracted from Freeboard Table A
Type B ships freeboard is extracted from Freeboard Table B
The freeboard is increased by a tabulated amount relating to length if the ship
is fitted with portable hatch beams, covers and tarpaulins.
The freeboard can be reduced by 60% of the difference of Type A & B if:
More than 100m in length
Fitted with steel gasketed hatch covers
Will remain afloat when loaded to the summer load line if one
compartment is bilged
The ship will then be referred to as a Type B60 ship
The freeboard can be reduced by 100% of the difference between Type A & B if
the vessel complies with the requirements for a Type A ship:
Machinery casing protected
Freeing arrangements and gangway access
Will remain afloat when loaded to the summer marks with 2
compartments bilged
The ship is then referred to as a Type B100 ship
The freeboard is increased if the length is less than 100m

Correction for depth, if the depth for freeboard exceed L/15

Correction for position of the deck line is made if the deckline is not
placed at the depth corresponding to the depth for freeboard

Standard height and length of superstructures are tabulated against

ships length

A standard sheer profile is defined by ordinates measured as a function

of the ships length

Minimum bow height this is the distance at the forward perpendicular

between the summer load line and the top of the exposed deck at side.
Freeboard will be increased if the bow height is less than the minimum
bow height until they are equal

The result of these calculations will allow the freeboard to be assigned.

Timber freeboards
The summer freeboard is calculated as for a type B ship with weather tight
pontoon or steel hatch covers without the -60% or the -100% allowance

Task Revision Notes: Freeboard Assignment

Type A vessel
Designed to carry liquid cargo in bulk
Has small watertight steel gasketed hatches
High watertight integrity of decks
Low permeability of cargo

Type B vessel
All other types of ship
Assignment of freeboard
Tabular freeboard in found in tables A and B of the Loadline regs
This is multiplied by a correction for block coefficient which gives you
the basic freeboard
Next:
1. Sheer if there is an excess beyond the basic template then there
is a reduction in freeboard
2. Superstructure the structure provides additional buoyancy and
therefore the freeboard can be reduced
3. Trunks and forepeaks these again provide extra buoyancy so the
freeboard can be reduced
4. Minimum bow height the vessels freeboard is increased until
the minimum bow height is reached
5. Correction for effective deck edge
6. Depth correction freeboard is increased if Length Breadth is
greater than 15
Once all the corrections have been made the freeboard can be assigned
The freeboard is increased by a tabulated amount related to length if the ship
is fitted with portable hatch beams covers and tarpaulins.
Type B60 ships
The freeboard can be reduced by 60% of the difference between the freeboards
extracted from the Tables A and B if the ship is
More than 100m in length
Fitted with steel gasketed clamped hatch covers in Positions 1 and 2
Will remain afloat when the loaded to the summer load line with one
compartment flooded other than a machinery space.
If the vessel is more than 225m then the machinery space is considered a
floodable compartment
Type B100 ships
The freeboard is reduced by 100% of the difference between the freeboards
extracted from the Tables A and B if the ship additionally complies with the
requirements for a Type A ship
Machinery casing protection
Freeing arrangements
Gangway and safe access
The ship must remain afloat when loaded to the summer draught and
two adjacent compartments are flooded other than the machinery
compartment

In vessels over 225m in length then the machinery space is considered a

double compartment

Task Revision Notes: Change in Draught

A vessel displacing 8000T in SW has a TPC of 10.5cm The vessel moves into FW
then loads 340T Calculate the change in draught.
FWA

=W
4 TPC

FWA

= 8000
4 x 10.5
= 190.47cm

Load cargo in FW
= 340 x 1025
10.5
1000
= 33.2cm
Total change in draft
= 190.47 + 33.2
= 52.24cm
Example 2
The statutory Summer Freeboard of a vessel is 4300mm. At a certain time in RD
1006kg/m3 in a summer zone the freeboard on the port side is 4290mm and on
the stbd side is 4280mm.
The FWA is 175mm and TPC salt water at and near the load draught is 25.2.
How much more cargo can be loaded?
Freeboard
Freeboard

Port
Stbd
Mean
Statutory Freeboard
DWA

=
=
=
=
=

4290mm
4280mm
4285mm
4300mm
15mm (Therefore S line is 15mm below the surface)

= FWA (1025 d)
25
= 175 x (1025 -1000)
25
= 133mm

Change of draught

=
=
=
=
=

133 15
118mm
W TPC
Change of draught x TPC
11.8 x 25.2 x 1006
1025
= 291.85T

Example 3
Calculate the amount of cargo to load so that the ship will sail at her maximum
draughts

Present draught

Fwd = 9.37m
Aft
= 9.89m
In water RD 1.010. Cargo to discharge = 540T and load 970T of bunker.
FWA 210mm
Summer draught in SW = 9.98m
Mean TPC 63
Present Draught

= 9.37
= 9.80
mean = 9.63

DWA

= 210 x 15
25
= 126mm

= 0.12m

Summer Draught SW
Summer Draught DW
Permitted sinkage

=
=
=
=
=

Increase in

= 47.6 x 63 x 1010
1025
= 2955T

Loaded and Discharged

Bunkers +
Cargo Net
Cargo to load

9.986m
10.106m
Summer draught Mean present draught
10.106 9.63
0.476m

= 970T
= 540T
= 430T
= Net loading
= 2955 430
= 2525T

Task Construction Notes: Forces

Vertical Shear Force
Vertical shear forces are the forces which occur in sections where there is non
uniform excess buoyancy or excess load.
Due to the vessel being intact these vertical upwards and downwards forces
will slightly distort the vessel.

Longitudinal shear forces compliment the vertical ones.

If the ship has excess weight at either end the vessel tend to Hog and if there
is excess weight amidships the ship will Sag. Similarly if a ships on a wave and
she is supported amidships she will Hog.
Torsion
When a body is subject to a twisting moment which is normally referred to as
torque.
For Example a ship heading across waves at a 45 angle will be subject to
righting moments different at either end creating a twisting effect. Most ships
have very small torsion moments, but container ships special torsion box
girders are fitted to the high sides of the ship. These girders are specifically
designed to reduce this twisting effect.
Static loading
A transverse section of a ship is subjected to static pressure from the
surrounding water in addition to the weight of cargo.
Although this transverse stress is not a major issue, but if inadequate stiffening
was not present then major structural distortion would occur.
To resist the transverse stresses, transverse bulkheads, floors in double
bottoms, deck beams and side frames are fitted
Vibration Stresses
Vibration from machinery onboard is constantly there, it can result in fatigue
to localized items, although not a major problem it can lead to lead to a more
general collapse.
Panting
The tendency for the shell plate to work in and out because of fluctuating
pressures on the ends of the hull when passing through waves. Additional side
stringers are fitted to strengthen the areas liable to panting
Pounding
Local Stresses occurring on the bottom shell framing forward when the vessel is
driven into head seas. Most common when a vessel is in light ballast. Additional

Task Revision Notes: Find the List after discharge

A vessel 10300T, KG 5.2m is listed 4 to port. 742T is loaded 2.8m above the
keel and is divided equally 4.58m each side of the CL. If KM is constant at 5.8m
what is the final list?
Find Heeling moment

= Tan = W x D
x GM
GM

HM

= KM KG
= 5.8 5.2
= 0.6m
= Tan 4 = HM
10300 x 0.6
= Tan 4 x 10300 x 0.6
= 432.15Tm to port

Use Load table to find KG

10300
+ 742

KG
5.2
2.8

11042
KG
GM

Moment
53560
2077.6
55637.6

= 55637.6 11042
= 5.04
= 5.8 5.04
= 0.76m

Find Heel
Heel = 432.15
11042 x 0.76
= 2.95 to port

Task Revision Notes: Free Surface Effect

If a tank is completely filled with liquid then the tank effectively can be
considered as a solid mass with its centre of gravity acting through the centre
of the tank.
If the tank is then drained to only partly filled, the surface of the liquid is free
to move. The inertia causes a virtual change in the centre of gravity of the tank
to some point above the theoretical centre of gravity in the tank. This effect

on the ships Centre of Gravity G will be as if the weight of the liquid in the
tank where to be raised from the centre of the liquid to position of the virtual
centre of gravity.
In the initial upright condition everything is pretty much normal but as the ship
is heeled by an external force:
A wedge of liquid is transferred to the low side of the ship
As the weight shifts G moves in parallel
This reduces the righting lever GZ and makes it the same as what the

Task Stability Notes: GZ curves

Dynamical Stability at any angle of inclination may be defined as The work
required by the external forces such as wind and waves to the ship to that
angle of heel.

Transverse Statical stability is the term used to describe a ships ability to

return to the upright in still water.
So for a ship heel for example 25 it is necessary for all the external forces to
be over come the sum of all the righting moments.
When assessing the transverse stability of a vessel a GZ curve is drawn.
GZ is the measurement of how far G and B are apart horizontally

The shaded area of

the Curve
represents the
external forces
necessary to over
come the righting
lever to cause the
heel

Dynamical stability is the area under the curve, wheres statical stability just
measures a horizontal line from the curve to GZ, this results in figures being
the same in this case 25 & .
We can therefore say that dynamical stability is determined by the area under
the curve up to the angle of heel
This dynamical stability is measured in tonne meter radians.
Dynamical Stability will continue to increase with heel as long as there is a
positive righting lever. Once it reaches the Angle of vanishing the ship will
capsize.
When drawing the GZ curve it is normal to draw a vertical at 53.7 which is 1
radian and a horizontal for GM on the GZ axis. Now draw a line from 0 to point
where the line cross, this allows you draw the smaller angles of heel at the
start of the curve.

Intact stability criteria for cargo ships with assigned freeboards under the
Load Line regulations

The area under the GZ curve should not be less than 0.055 meter radians
up to a 30 angle of heel, and not less than 0.09 meter radians up to 40
or the angle of down flooding which ever comes first

Angle of down flooding is the angle of heel at which openings in the hull /
superstructure which can not be closed weather tight become immersed

The area under the righting lever curve between the angles of heel of
30 to 40 or 30 to the angle of down flooding should not be less than
0.03 meter radians.
The righting lever GZ should be at least 0.20m at an angle of heel equal
to or greater than 30
The maximum righting arm should occur at an angle of heel not less than
30
The initial GM should not be less than 0.15m

Intact Stability requirements for Passenger ships

Passenger ships shall comply with all the same regulations as Cargo ships but in
addition:

The angle of heel on account of all the passengers standing on one side
shall not exceed 10
The angle of heel on account of turning should not exceed 10 when
calculated.

Intact Stability Criteria without Sails for the MSY Wind

Surf

The area under the GZ curve shall not be less than 0.055mr between 0
and 30 heel
The area under the GZ curve shall not be less than 0.090mr between 0
and 40 or the angle of down flooding if less than 40. (The angle of
down flooding is the angle at which openings in the hull, superstructure
and deckhouses which cannot be made weather tight become immersed.
The area under the GZ curve between heel angles of 30 - 40 (or the
angle of down flooding if less than 40) shall not be less than 0.030mr
The righting lever GZ shall be at least 0.020m at an angle of heel of 30
or greater
The maximum GZ shall occur at an angle of heel not less than 30
The initial GM shall be greater than 0.15m

The following GZ curves demonstrate the intact stability Criteria.

Area greater than 0.055mr

GZ

57.3
HEEL

Angle greater than 0.030mr

GZ

57.3
HEEL

Maximum GZ occurs at more than 30

GZ

57.3
HEEL

Angle greater than 0.090mr

GZ

57.3
HEEL

Minimum 0.020m at 30

GZ

57.3

Initial GM not less than 0.300m

GZ

HEEL

57.3

Task Revision Notes: Free surface effect

A vessel length 130m and beam 12m is floating upright in salt water at 4.2m
draught. A deep bottom tank extends across the beam of the vessel Length
30m, breadth 12m and depth 5m. There is a centerline division and the port
side of the tank is full of oil RD 0.95
KG is 4.3m
Calculate the angle of list if half of the oil in the tank is pumped into the stbd
tank such that the tank is level.

Find the heeling moment caused by moving the oil across the vessel
Weight of fuel

= half the volume of the tank x RD oil

= (5 x 30 x 6) x 0.95
= 855T

Moment

=WxD
= 855 x 6m (centroid of the tank is 3m from the side)
= 5130tm

Heeling moment
Find Final KG

= volume x density
= (130 x 12 x 4.2) x 1.025
= 6715.8T
Item
Ship
Oil out
Oil in
Total

Final KG Solid

6715.8
-855
855
6715.8

KG
4.3
3.75
1.25

Moment
28877.94
-3206.25
1068.75
26740.44

= 26740.44 6715.8
= 3.98m

Find KM of the vessel

KB

= KB = half the draught

= 4.2 2
= 2.1m

BM

L x B3
12


= 130 x 123 12 (4.2 x 12 x 130)
= 2.86
KM

= KB + BM
= 2.1 + 2.86
= 4.96

GM

= KM KG
= 4.96 3.98
= 0.98

Calculate Loss GM due to FSE

Loss GM

= I x RD
x n2

I for tank

= L x B3
12
= 30 x 123
12
= 4320m4

Loss GM

= 4320 x 0.95
6715.8 x 22
= 0.153m

Final GM

= GM loss GM
= 0.98 0.153
= 0.827

Calculate final list

Tan

=wxd
x GM
=
5130
6715.8 x 0.827
= 0.924
= 42.7 to stbd

Task Revision Notes: Find the Heeling moment causing

the list
A vessel displacement 10000T is listed 6 to stbd
KM 9.5m (constant) KG 5.52m
Calculate the list and the GM after loading the following:
85T at KG 6.5m and 6m to port of the CL
25T at KG 8.0m and 2m to stbd of the CL
Find Initial Heeling Moment
Tan 6 = w x d(hm)
10000 x 0.04
Tan 6 x 10000 x 0.04 = w x d
= 462.46tm
Find final Heeling Moment
85 x 6 to port = 510
25 X 2 to stbd = 50
Net Heeling Moment

= 462.46 + 50 -510
= 2.46tm to stbd

Find the final KG

10000
+85
+25
10110
KG
KG

GM
GM

= Mom

= 55952.5
10110
= 5.53m
= KM KG
= 5.96 5.53
= +0.43m

KG
5.52
6.5
8

Moment
55200
552.5
200
55952.5

Find Final List

Tan = Heeling moment
x GM
Tan = 2.46tm
10110 x 0.43
List

= 0.03 to stbd

Stability Notes
A vessel is said to be heeled when inclined by an external force wind, waves
A vessel is said to be listed when inclined by an internal force weight shifted

The centre of buoyancy moves from B to B1

The centre of gravity G does not change as no weights have been moved
The righting lever GZ
The Moment of Statical Stability = Displacement x GZ
Height of the Metacentre = KM

KM = KB + BM

In the diagram above

G is below M and the vessel has a positive GM
The vessel has a positive righting moment

Neutral Equilibrium
This vessel when heeled by an external force will remain at that angle

G and M are the same therefore GM is zero

GZ is therefore zero
Righting moment is zero

Unstable Equilibrium
This vessel when heeled over will continue to heel further

G is above M so there is a negative GM

GZ is therefore negative
There is a capsizing moment
Stiff vessels have a large GM and a short rolling period they are very stable but
violent rolling could result in a cargo shift. Low center of gravity ships such as
Bulk carriers
Tender vessels have small GMs and long rolling periods vessel may be barely
stable and may become unstable during the voyage as G moves up due to
bottom weights (fuel water etc) being used up or if there is an increase in top
weight (timber taking on water)

GZ curves
(C)

(E)
GZ
(A)

(B&D)

57.3
(F)

HEEL

A) From the curve you can get GZ for any angle of heel. From this you can
calculate the righting moment using (W x GZ)
B) Angle of vanishing stability, this is the angle at which the GZ value
reduces to zero and becomes negative
C) Maximum GZ
D) Range of stability. This is the range of angles for which GZ is positive, for
all the angles of heel in this range the vessel will return to her initial
position when the external force is removed
E) Initial GM only really a guide as you should use the fluid GM
F) Angle of deck edge immersion where the curve changes from concave to
convex
Because this area is negative we can
identify this GZ curve as a curve for a
vessel with an angle of loll
GZ

HEEL

Loading and discharging weights

When a weight is loaded G moves in a direction directly towards the

loaded weight
When a weight is discharged G moves in a direction directly away from
the discharged weights position
When a weight is shifted onboard G moves in a direction parallel to the
shift of the weight

The weight is moved horizontally, G moves in parallel

As the weight is suspended it acts at the derrick head, G moves vertically

upwards

As the weight is swung out over the dock, G moves parallel with the move

With the weight on the dock G moves directly away from the derrick head.

Heeling due to wind age

Centroid of wind age

area

B
Wind Heeling moment = windage area (m2) x Distance C to B x 48.5kg/m2
1000

Righting
Moment

Area A

Area B

GZ x Displacement

Wind Heeling
moment x
1.5

Wind Heeling
moment
HEEL
15 roll
Static angle of
heel

Angle of down flooding

Area A represents the energy developed by a combination of wind gusts and

rolling
Area B represents the ability of the vessel to absorb some energy
Requirements for compliance
1.
Static angle of heel must be less than or equal to 0.65 x angle
of deck edge immersion
2.
Area B must be greater than or equal to Area A

Stress and Bending Moment Question

A vessel has 5 equal compartments, LBP 200m each compartment being
40m. In the unloaded condition Draught = 4m and Beam is 45m
We load:
1. 10000T
2. 12000T
3. 40000T
4. 12000T
5. 10000T
a) Find the maximum Shear force
b) Find the maximum Bending moment
i)
Find the mass of the ship
Displacement = (200 x 45 x 4) x 1.025
= 36900T
mass / m
= 36900 200
= 184.5t/m
ii)
Find buoyancy
Work out the total weight of the ship when loaded weight of the cargo +
displacement
Buoyancy
= 120900T 200
= 604.5t/m
iii)
Find out the mass of the cargo
Hold:
1. 250t/m
2. 300t/m
3. 1000t/m
4. 300t/m
5. 250t/m
For the loading diagram
1. 604 250 184 = 170
2. 604 300 184 = 120
3. 604 1000 184 = -580
4. 604 300 184 = 120
5. 604 250 184 = 170
See diagram over leaf

Loading diagram

Mass /m

Hold 1

Hold 2

Hold 4

Hold 5

Length of
vessel

Hold 3

The shear force can be calculated at any point along the vessels length by
calculating the area under the loading diagram
For example:
1. 170 x 40 (length of the hold)
= 6800
2. 120 x 40 + 6800 = 11600
3. -580 x 40 + 11600 = - 11600
4. 120 x 40 + -11600 = -6800
5. 170 x 40 + -6800 = 0

Maximum Shear
Forces

The bending moment experienced by a vessel at any point along its length can
be calculated by calculating the areas under the shear force diagram.
Because the loading diagram is made up of triangles and rectangles it is easy to
calculate the area under the shear force diagram, see below
1. 20 x 6800 (half the base x the height) = 136000
2. 20 x 4800 (4800 = 11600 6800) = 96000 + 136000 + 40 x 6800 ( area
of the rectangle below it = 504000
3. Etc

Bending moment is expressed in Mega Newton meters to convert tm to MNm

multiply by 9.81 x 10-3

Calculating Drafts

Calculate the LCG

= longitudinal moment displacement (taken from load table)

From the ships hydrostatic tables obtain:

Reference keel draft
MTM moment required to trim the vessel 1m
LCB
LCF

Calculate the trim between perpendiculars

= displacement x (LCG LCB) MTM

Calculate the draft at the aft perpendicular

= Reference keel draft (trim x (LCF 12) LBP)

Calculate the draft at the fwd perpendicular

= Reference keel draft + (trim x (LBP LCF +12) LBP

Calculate mid ships draft

= (aft draft + fwd draft) 2

Calculating KG and GM

Calculate the vertical CofG using the load table

KG = vertical moment displacement

Calculating KG corrected for free surface

= KG + free surface moment displacement

From the ships hydrostatic tables using the reference keel draft obtain:
= Vertical transverse metacentre KMt

Calculating the metacentric height above KGc to give GM

= GM = KMt KGc

Using the ships Max KG table obtain the Max KG for the reference keel
draft.
= Max KG

Calculate the margin to ensure that it is positive and therefore safe to

go to sea.
= Max KG - KGc

Load table will have the following titles

Description

Mass

LCG

Longitudinal
moment

VCG

Vertical
moment

When plotting a GZ curve you calculate GZ by:

GZ = KN KG x Sin Heel
KN
-0.017
0.909
1.82
2.702
3.559
5.197
6.578
7.362
7.705

KG x Sin
Heel
0.7434
1.4812
2.2077
2.91743
4.265
5.4829
6.5343
7.3871

Heel
0
5
10
15
20
30
40
50
60

The GZ figures can then be plotted against heel

GZ
-0.017
0.1656
0.3388
0.4943
0.6416
0.932
1.0951
0.8277
0.3179

Free
Surface
Moment

Task Revision Notes: Synchronous Rolling and Pitching

Synchronous Rolling
This occurs when the natural roll period of the vessel is the same as the arrival
period of the waves
Dangers:
Vessel may capsize
Major structural damage
Loss or shift of cargo
Injury to crew or passengers
Discomfort
What to do:
Change course
If unable to change course:
Change speed if waves are not from the beam
Change the GM ballast or move cargo
Change KM ballast wing tanks or move cargo outboard
Synchronous Pitching
This occurs when the natural pitching period of the vessel is the same as the
period of the waves.
Dangers:
Damage to the bulbous bow
Damage to hatches
Damages to the propeller due to cavitation
Damage to the engine bearings due to the propeller racing when it
leaves the water

Task Dry Docking

It is a requirement that all ships shall be dry docked for inspection and
maintenance below the water line at periods not exceeding 2 years.
When a ship is being dry docked additional forces act upon the keel, to what
normally would be present due to the up thrust as result of the vessel taking to
the blocks. These forces can produce excessive loads on the stern structure of
the ship and can ultimately lead to a loss of stability.
When a vessel enters a dry dock she should be floated in with a small aft trim.
The ship is usually aligned to the blocks with the help of a diver, once in
position the dock gates can be closed and the water pumped out.
The critical point for the ship occurs when the aft section of the ship touches
the block, this is when a loss of stability will occur.
As the water continues to fall the vessels mean draft will start to decrease as
more weight is taken on the after section of the vessel, the up thrust that is
given by the blocks on the stern section is known as the P force.
The P force will continues to increase as the buoyancy of the vessel is lost so
basically the role of the buoyancy force, which normally would support the ship
is taken by that of the P force.
As more water is pumped out the vessel will become supported along its length
by all the blocks this is know as the critical instant, once this occurs the
problem of loss of stability is no longer such an issue and the critical period is
over, when this occurs the P force acts uniformly along the vessels length this
force continues to increase as the buoyancy is further reduced.
Once the ship is fully dry i.e. the blocks are supporting the full ship the P force
will be equal to that of the vessels displacement.
It is possible to calculate the P force at any time during the operation
P force is calculated using the following formulae
P force = Reduction in True Mean Draft (cm) x TPC
During the critical period prior to the bow section taking to the blocks the P
force will be acting on a single point on the stern frame of the ship. This stern
frame is specially designed and strengthened for this purpose but for obvious
reasons there is only so much force that this frame can take. If this limit is
exceeded structural damage to the stern frame will occur.
The easiest way to avoid damage to the stern frame from too higher P force is
to limit the aft trim; this is because P force is directly proportional to the
change in trim so therefore if you keep the trim to a minimum then the
maximum load experienced by the stern frame will also be decreased. It is

therefore fair to say that the bigger the vessels displacement the more
important it is to keep the trim to a minimum.

Task Revision Notes: Trim and Stability

Trim is also known as Longitudinal Stability and it is measured as in changes in
draft rather than in degrees.
When the vessel is on an even keel G and B are in a vertical line and the ship
will be displacing its own weight in water. If a weight is moved aft of the
center of flotation the center of gravity will also move aft, the ship will now
trim until G and B are once again vertical.
Water density change
When a ship passes from one density water to another the mean draft will
change. If the ship is heavily trimmed the trim will change also.
As it passes from say sea water into fresh water the ship will sink down due to
being in denser water and the Center of gravity changes causing B to move so it
is once again vertically below G and once again in Equilibrium. This in turn will
cause a change in trim.
Loading
If a cargo is loaded at the center of flotation there will be no trimming moment
and the drafts will increase uniformly
If the weight is now shifted fwd / aft of the center of flotation it will cause the
vessel to trim.
Trim and stability booklet
With every new ship a trim and stability book is produced, it contains the
following:
Ships particulars
Inclining experiment report and results
Capacity, VCG, LCG and particulars for all holds, tanks etc
Deadweight scale data
Hydrostatic curves
Example conditions
o Lightweight
o Full load
o Heavy ballast
o Medium ballast
o Light ballast
All these criteria can be built around a computer which will allow the Officers
to input data before loading or discharging to ensure that the all stability
criteria are met first.

Stability change during flooding

When a compartment is bilged the mean draft will increase. The change in
mean draft causes a change in the position of the center of buoyancy and the
initial metacentre. KM changes but KG remains constant, GM changes also.
Permeability
Permeability is the percentage of space which can be occupied by water when
a space is flooded.