Chapter 2. Hardware and Software Chapter 3 Organizing Data and Information Chapter 4 Telecommunications, the Internet, Intranets, and ExtranetsCHAPTER De PRINCIPLES vee Information system users must work closely with information system profes- sionals to define business needs, evaluate options, and select the hardware and soft- ware that provide a cost-effective solution to those needs. Systems and application software are crit- ical in helping individuals and organiza~ tions achieve their goals. Do not develop proprietary application software unless doing so will meet a com- pelling business need that can provide a competitive advantage. Choose a programming language whose functional characteristics are appropriate for the task at hand, considering the skills, and experience of the programming staff The software industry continues to under- go constant change; users need to be aware of recent trends and issues to be ef- fective in their business and personal life. fa NCO ieee) eed Adentity and discuss thmralé af the'essentiat hardware components ai s:computer system. {stand describe poputar classes of computer systems and discuss the role of each, Idennty and brielty descrive the functions ofthe two basic Kinds of software. ‘utling the rale ot the operating system and identity the features of several papular operat: ing systems. Discuss how application software can suppert personal, workgroup, and enterprise business, objectives. Identity three basic approaches to developing application software and discuss the pros and cons of each, Outline the overall evolution and importance of programming languages and clearly dfferen- tiate among the generations af programing languages. Identify several key Software issues and trends that have an impact on organizations and indi viduals.iriure ndsotwan | Ghaptees oF Information Systems in the Global Economy Po El-Al Airlines, Israel El-Al Adopts Software Solution for Scheduling Complexity ELA! is Israel's national airline and has grown into a prestigious international carrier with 177 sales offices worldwide. As with most airlines, El-AI's second largest operating expense isthe cost of ight crews, An airline can out expenses by efficiently scheduling fight crews ‘Although scheduling fights and crews might seem fairly straightforward, ‘casy task. The challenge is in the amount of variables to consider. The efficient scheduling of flights involves much more than planning which planes fly where and when. Round trips {for each of the crew members must also be considered. This involves many considerations, including legal requirements for rest and duty, equipment ratings, home bases, overtime, and crow preferences. Many of these variables directly affect cost. ELAI required an efficient way to build schedules that would reduce the variable costs ‘of fight crews as much as possible, The complexity of the variables made it imporsible to ‘create the schedules with simple software tools. BI-Al turned to professionals at IBM for & ‘sofware solution "The software solution had to satiaty all legal criteria, completely cover the Might sched leo, reduce costa, optimize resources, and be easy to use. Worlcing with IBM technicians, BLAl divided the problem into ite three primary challenges not an © Pairing. Creating the best pairing sequences of duty and rest periods for erew members ‘Assignment. Assigning crow members to the pairings Data management. Managing the roles and data required to solve the problem ‘The programming team then created code modules, or objects, to address each of the three challenges. "The software they created uses advanced mathematical models and algorithms that ‘work through the billions of possible scheduling combinations to find a solution that meets all the criteria. The processing is 60 intensive that it requires a parallel-processing com- puter system to run quickly and efficiently. 'EL-Al has seen impressive resulte since implementing the new scheduling system. They noted a 5-8 percent reduction in variable crew-related costs and an increase of 4-7 percent in crow usage. Also, scheduling iteelf takes much less time with the new easy-to-use software. ‘The positive reaults have’ been noticeable to others in the industry as well. BL Al was recently ranked as one of the world’s three most efficient air carriers by the International Air Transport Association (IATA). ‘As you read this chapter, consider the following: ‘+ In.what ways can hardware and software assist an organization to run more smoothly ‘and efficiently and develop new and valuable consumer servicgs and products? “© When it comes to acquiring new software, what options are available to businesses?a SNe roe UCIT pS ern erennl Sota hardware ‘Any machinery (most of which uses igital cicuits] that assists inthe Input, processing, storage, and ‘output activities of an information system ‘Today's use of technology is practical—ie’s intended to yield real business benefits, as demonstrated by EL-Al. Employing information technology and providing additional pro- cessing capabilities can increase employee productivity, expand business opportunities, and allow for more flexibility. This chapter discusses the hardware and software components of a computer-based information system (CBIS), beginning with a definition of hardware. Hardware consists of any machinery (most of which uses digital circuits) chat assists in the input, processing, storage, and output activities of an information system. When making hardware decisions, the overriding consideration of a business should be how hardware can support the objectives of the information system and the goals of the organization COMPUTER SYSTEMS: INTEGRATING THE POWER OF TECHNOLOGY To assemble an effective and efficient system, you should select and organize components while understanding the trade-offs berween overall system performance and cost, control, and complexity. For instance, in building a car, manufacturers try to match the intended use of the vehicle to its components. Racing cars, for example, requite special types of engines, ralancing how much ‘engine power can be delivered to the wheels efficiency and effectiveness) with how expensive the transmission is (ost), how reliable iis (control), and how many gears it has (complexity). Similarly, organizations assemble computer systems so that they are effective, efficient, and ‘wcll suited co the tasks thar need to be performed. Because the business needs and their importance vary at different companies, the IS solutions they choose can be quite different transmissions, and tires. Selecting a transmission fora racing car requir * Sailors from allied nations travel on U.S. Navy ships, and, until now, used separate personal computers and onboard networks to communicate with their own military branches. Recognizing that this system was unwieldy and knowing that such multinational missions will continue, the Navy is upgrading the hardware on its 160- ship surface fleet by replacing bulky personal computers with thin-client Sun Ray systems from Sun Microsystems, which are simpler, more secure, easier to administer, and can be used by multiple sailors. This wil decrease the number of computers cach ship needs, cut costs, save space, and reduce power equizements. ‘Like most airlines, American Airlines is under intense pressure to reduce costs and provide better customer service. As a result, management is replacing 35,000 computers in airports, hack offices, and at corporate headquarters with more powerful Hewlett-Packard{As auto manufacturers must match the intended use of avehice tots ‘components, 50 too must business managers select the hardware components ofan effective information system. (Source: © Mark Jenkinson! CORBIS. desktop computers so employees can run new applications that help them serve customers and receive training more efficiently. American is also working with Panasonic ‘Corporation to provide rugged laptop computers that can hold all the information maintenance workers need to work on a plane to increase worker productivity and improve on-time depastures.? ‘As these examples demonstrate, choosing the right computer hardware requites understand ing its relationship co the information system and the needs ofthe organization. Furthermore, hardware objectives are subordinate to, but supportive of, the information system and the current and futuce nceds of the organization. aT HARDWARE COMPONENTS ‘Computer system hardware components include devices that perform the functions of input, processing, data storage, and ourpue (see Figure 2.1). “The ability co process (organize and manipulate) data is a critical aspect of a computer _central processing unit (CPU) system, in which processing is accomplished by an interplay between one or mote of the __Partofthe computer that consists of central processing units and primary storage. Fach central processing unit (CPU) commiste _ three associated elements: he arithmetic/iogie unit, the controt of ewo primary elements: thearithmerc/logicunitand the conteol unit. Thearithmeticllogic Oy he segatr ares. unit (ALU) performs mathematical calculations and makes logical comparisons. The control tunit sequentially accesses program instructions, decodes them, and coordinates the flow of _arithmetie/logie unit (ALU) data in and out of the ALU, primary storage, and even secondaty storage and various output Part ofthe CPU that performs math devices, Primary memory, which holds program instructions and dat, is closely associated ematical calculations and makes aca logical comparisons. Now that you have leaned about the basic hardware components and the way they control unit fanction, you ate ready to examine processing power, speed, and capacity. These three at- _Partof the CPU that sequentially ‘tibutes determine the capabilities of a hardware device accesses program instructions, decodes them, and coordinates the tlowof data inandoutofthe ALU, the registers, primary storage. andeven ‘secondary storage and various out put devices.omnes | tee Lk = Hardware Components, ‘These components include the input devices, output devices, ‘communications devices, primary ‘and secondary storage devices, and the central processing unit (CPU, The controt unit the arithmetic! {ogic unit ALU, and the register storage areas constitute the CPU, clock speed ‘series of electronic pulses pro- duced ata predetermined rate that affects machine cycle time, PROCESSING AND MEMORY DEVICES: POWER, SPEED, AND CAPACITY ‘The components responsible for processing—che CPU and memory-~are housed together in the same box or cabinet, called the tem unit. All other computer system devices, such as the monitor and keyboard, are linked cither directly or indirectly into the system unit hous- ‘ng, As discussed previously, achieving IS objectives and organizational goals should be the Primary consideration in selecting processing and memory devices. In this section, we in- vestigate the characteristics ofthese important devices. Processing Characteristics and Functions Because efficient processing and timely ourput are important, organizations usc a varity of measures to gauge processing speed. These measures include the time it rakes to complete a machine cycle, clock speed, and others. Clock Speed Each CPU produces a series of electronic pulses at a predetermined rate, called the clock speed, which affects machine cycle time. The contro! unit executes an instruction in accor- dance with the electronic cycle, of pulses of the CPU “clock.” Each insteuction takes at least the same amount of time asthe interval between pulses. The shorter the interval between pulses, the faster each instruction can be executed. Clock speed is often measured in mega- hertz (MHz), oF millions of eyces per sccond. The clock speed for personal computers is in the multiple gigahertz (GHz), or billions of eycles per second, range. Physical Characteristics of the CPU ‘CPU speed isalso limited by physical constraints. Most CPUs are collections of digital circuits imprinted on silicon wafers, or chips, each no bigger than the tip of a pencil eraser. To turn a digital circuit within the CPU on or off, electrical current must flow through a medium (usually silicon) from point Ato point B. The speed at which it travels berween points can be increased by cither reducing the distance between the points or reducing the resistance of the medium to the cleteical current.vuronaeaastare | Cuapurs eh Memory Characteristics and Functions Located physically close to the CPU (to decrease access time), memory provides the CPU “with a working storage area for program instructions and data. The chief feature of memory is cha it rapidly provides the data and instructions to che CPU. Storage Capacity Like the CPU, memory devices contain thousands of circuits imprinted on a silicon chip, Each circuits either conducting electrical current (on) or not (off). Data stored in memory a8. combination of on or off circuit states. Usually 8 bits are used ro representa character, such as the letter A. Eight bits together form a byte (B). In most cases, storage capacity is measured in bytes, with I byte equivalent ro one character of data. The contentsof the Library of Congress, with over 126 million items and 530 miles of bookshelves, would require about 20 petabytes of digital storage. Table 2.1 lists units for measuring computer storage. Bye Bas 1 Kilobyte Ke 2" or approximately 1,024 bytes Megebte MB Por 1,026 kitobytes labour 1 mittion} Gigabyte 68 2 or 1,026 megabytes {about | billion) Terabyte 8 24 of 1,024 gigabytes: {about * triton! Petabyte Pe 2% or 1,026 terabytes {about t quadrittion) Exabyte eB 24 or 1,024 petabytes {about 1 bttion fr 1 quintttion} Types of Memory Several forms of memory are available. Instructions or data can be temporarily stored in random access memory (RAM). RAM is temporary and volatile—RAM chips lose their contents if the current is turned off or disrupted (asin a power surge, brownout, or electrical noise generated by lightning or nearby machines}. RAM chips aze mounted directly on the ‘computer's main circuit board or in chips mounted on peripheral cards chat plug into the computer's main circuit hoard. These RAM chips consist of millions of switches thar are sensitive to changes in electic current. Read-only memory (ROM), another type of memory, is usually nonvolatile. In ROM, the combination of circuit states is fixed, and therefore its contents ate not los ifthe power is removed. ROM provides permanent storage for data and instructions that do not change, such as programs and data from the computer manufacturer, including the instructions that tell the computer how to start up when power is turned on. byte 18) Eight bits that together represent 2 single character of data, i Units for Measuring Computer Storage random access memory (RAM) [Aform of memory in which instruc~ tions or data can be temporarily stored read-only memory (ROM) A nanvolatile form of memory.ee pata | Technology multiprocessing ‘The simultaneous execution of two for more instructions atthe same time. multicore microprocessor Microprocessor that combines two ‘or more independent processors intoa single computer sa they can share the workload and deliver a big ‘boost in pracessing capacity paraltel processing The simultaneous execution of the same task on multiple processors in order to obtain results faster grid computing ‘The use ofacallection of computers often owned by multiple individuals ‘or organizations, to werk in a coor: inated manner to solve a common problem, Multiprocessing “These area numberof forms of multiprocessing, which involves the simultaneous execution of two of more instructions. Multicore Microprocessor A multicore microprocessor combines rwo or more independent processors into a single computer so that they can share the workload and boost processing capacity. “A dual-core processor is ikea four-lane highway—it can handle up to twice as many cars sits two-lane ‘predecessor without making cach car drive twice as fas”? In addition, a dual-core processor cnables people co perform multiple tasks simultaneously such as playing a game and burning CD. AMD and Intel are batting for leadership in the multicore processor marketplace. In January 2006, Apple unveiled a new laptop computer called the MacBook Pro and ‘new 17-inch and 20-inch iMac computers based on the Intel Core Duo processor. The new computers provide roughly five times as much performance pee watt of power as the com parable computers that use the IBM PC Gé processor. In a statement at the Macworld Conference and Expo, Apple CEO Steve Jobs suid, “It's nor a secret we've been trying to shochorn a G5 {processor} into a notebook, and have been unable to do so because ofits power consumption.” These Intel-based Macs can run both Apple and Windows-based operating systems and software, providing ther users with great flexibility in the choice and use of software.> Parallel Computing Another form of multiprocessing, called parallel processing, speeds processing by linking several processors to operate atthe same time, or in parallel. The most frequent business ses for parallel processing ate modeling, simulation, and analysis of large amounts of data. In today’s marketplace, consumers demand quick response and customized service, so compa- nies ate gathering and reporting more information about their customers. Collecting and ‘organizing the enormous amount of customer data is no easy task, but parallel processing can help companies organize data on existing consumer buying patterns and process it more {quickly o build an effective marketing program. Asa result, company can gain a competitive advantage. For example, Merlin Securities LLC is brokerage firm that provides hedge-fund rmanagets with information on trading activities. By using parallel processing, Merlin can ‘ross-correlate a quarter-million stock exchange points each day and provide the results ro its clients by 8:00 each night—10 hours earlier than its competitors. The lead time is critical because it allows the Fund managers more time to plan their strategies and make crading decisions before the market opens: Grid Computing Grid computing isthe use of a collection of computers, often owned by many people or ‘organizations, to workina coordinated manner to solvea common problem. Grid computing is onc low-cost approach to parallel processing. The grid can include dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of computers that run collectively to solve extremely large parallel processing problems. Key to the success of grid computing is a central server that acts asthe grid leader and traffic monitor. This controlling server divides the computing task into subtasks and assigns the work to computers on the grid that have (at least temporarily) surplus processing power. The central server also monitors the processing, and if a member ofthe grid fils ‘complete a subtask, it will restart or reassign the task. When all the subrasks are completed, the controlling server combines the results and advances to the next task until che whole job is completed. Through the World Community Grid, more than 100,000 people donate unused time from about 170,000 computers to solve scientific problems and create public databases for scientific research. A project must hold potential for contributing to the greater good ro be eligible for sepport For example, the World Community Grd is currenely using its massive computational powers to test thousands of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) matations against tens of thousands of chemical compounds. The goal is to help scientists design ef- fective therapies to stop potential drug,resistant viral strains from causing AIDS.”Hardware and Sotware fee = 0 8 BG Part iran world community grid. What we ds: Whats ne Chapter? 68 Grid computing is used by the World Community Grid to solve scientific probiems and create public databases for scientific research (Souree: enuwwortdcommunitygrid org) SECONDARY STORAGE AND INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES As you have seen, memory is an important factor in determining overall computer system power, However, memory provides only a small amount of storage arca for the data and Thstructions the CPU requires for processing. Computer systems also need to store larger mounts of data, insttuctions, and information more permanently than main memory allows. Secondary storage, also called permanent storage, serves this purpose. Compared with memory, secondary storage offers the advantages of nonvolatility, greater capacity, and greater economy. Most forms of secondary storage are considerably less cxpensive than memory (see'Table 2.2), Because of the electromechanical processes involved imvusing secondary storage, however, itis considerably slower than memory. The selection of secondary storage media and devices requites understanding their primary character- istics access method, capacity, and portability "All forms of secondary storage cost considerably less per megabyte of capacity than SDRAM, although they have slower access times. A data tape cartridge costs about $.16 per igabyte, while SDRAM can cost over $100 per gigabyte. Access Methods Data and information access can be cither sequential or direct, Sequential access means that data must be accessed in the order in which its stored. For example, inventory data stored sequentially may be stored by part number, such as 100, 101, 102, and so on, If you want to retrieve information on part number 125, you need to sead and discard all the data lating to parts 001 through 124 Direct access means that dara can be retrieved directly, withoue having to pass by other data in sequence. With direct acocs, ic is posible co go directly to and access the needed ddata_-such as part number 125—without reading through parts 001 through 124. For this reason, direct access is usually faster than sequential access. The devices used to sequentially sequential access Retrieval method inwhich data must be accessed inthe order in which it ss stored direct access Retrieval method in which data con beretrievedwithoutthe need toread ‘and discard other data,mune | etter xk = =— Cost Comparison for Various Forms af Data Storage ‘Source: Office Depot Web site, waw.offcedepot.com, February 5, 2006.) Sequential access storage device [SASD} Device used to sequentially access secondary storage data direct access storage device (wasp) Device used for direct access of sec: ondary storage data xz = =— Types of Secondary Storage Secondary storage devices such as. magnetic tapes and disks, opticat discs, CD-ROMs, and DVDs are used to store data for easy retrieval at 3 later date \source: Courtesy of Imation Co ‘magnetic tape Secondary storage medium; Myiar fra coated with iron oxide with portions ofthe tape magiveliced te represent bits. magnetic disk Common secondary storage medium, with bits represented by "Otic Doar CO Seid we, “bv-non lake, Format, 70 ae hose ‘Ho 008 5 tape ori s to i mn art st ape, uo oo $a MPA 2 00a Corrie jos Sore a 0-0 ince with we ase ie eS sits es Depa 0. Reartesbined Spindle AZ em 9.69 Rewtable Oca Dink sas ‘fice Depot V0-R Recordin Med Sent a 127% ‘SanDiln Compa Fash Mery Cd ae ane Sani Memory Stk Fa Memory Cart ae sias08 ‘ir opin OG SORA Memerr Urea asi stan access secondary storage data are sim those used for direct acess are called called sequential access storage devices (SASDs) iect access storage devices (DASDs). Secondary Storage Devices “The most common forms of secondary storage include magnetic tapes, magnetic disks, and optical dises. Some of these media (magnetic tape) allow only sequential access, while others (magnetic and optical discs) provide direct and sequential access. Figure 2.2 shows some different secondary storage media. Magnetic Tapes ‘One common secondary storage medium is magnetic tape Similar tothe kind of ape found in audio- and videocassettes, magnetic ape isa Mylar film coated with iron oxide. Portions of the tape are magnetized to represent bits. Magnetic tape is a sequential access storage ‘medium. Although access is slower, magnetic rape 15 usually less expensive than disk storage. In addition, magnetic tape is often used 10 back up disk drives and to store data offsite for recovery in case of disaster. Technology is improving to provide tape storage devices with preater capacities and faster transfer speeds. In addition, the large, bulky tape drives used to read and write on large diameter reels of tapes in the early days of computing have been replaced with much smaller tape cartridge devices measuring a few millimeters in diameter that rake up much less floor space and allow hundreds of rape cartridges to be stored in a small area. Magnetic Disks Magnetic disks are also coated with iron oxide; they can be thin metallic placers (hard disks, see Figure 2.3) or Mylar film (diskettes). As with magnetic tape, magnetic disks represent bits by small magnetized areas. When reading from or writing onto a disk, the disk’s read/ee medium and allows for fast daa retrieval, For example, if manager needs informasion of speci story ofa custome, the information can be obtained in a matter of seconds if the data is stored on a ditect access storage capacity and portability device. Magnetic disk storage varies widely in RAID Companies’ data storage neds are expanding rapidly. Todays storage configurations 108, Cinly entail many bundkeds of gigabytes. However, putting the company's data online snwolves a serious business risk-—the loss of critical business data can put a corporation pvt Sraperation, The concern is thatthe mos cial mechanical enmponents side 2 disk Storage device-—the dik drives, the fans, and other inputourpu devices—can bre Gtganiarons now tequte ther data storage devices to be ful olerant—the bility v0 continee with litle of no loss of performance inthe event of 2 failure of one or more Key. Components. Redundant array of independent/inexpe disks (RAID) is a method of sear data so that fa hard drive fi the lost data on chat drive can be rebuilt, With it spor datas tved redundancy on diferent physical ik dives using echnique ced tiripping to evenly distribuce the data. Dell now offers an optional second drive for some enon computers for users who need ro miter csi data for les than $100 SAN Storage area network (SAN) uses computer servers di Jouted storage device, and networks wenecventhing together a shown in Figure 2.4 To increase the spect! of scoring 25d rereving data, high-speed communications channels are often wsed- Although SAN tech roles eae new a namber of companies are using SAN to sucessfully and eicintly a ical dava, The U.S, Navy linked data and software at che Navy's Surface Combar Spots Center in Wallops Island, VA and he Naval Sea Systems Command in nearby Dahlgren, VA using SAN technology. The Navy could then accelerate the cesting and cer tification of the weapons developed at these two locations.” computer 4 yu storage device 2 ~~ tevice3 | ee | Hard Disk Hard disks give direct access to stored data, The read/write head can move directly to the location of ‘a desired piece of data, cramatically reducirg access times. 95 compared with magnetic tape. (Source: Courtesy of Seagate Technology} redundant array of independent/inexpensive disks (RAID) Method of storing data that gener: ‘aes extra bits of data from existing dataallowing the system to create 1 "reconstruction map” so that fa hhard drive fails the systern can rebuid lost data, storage area network {SAN} ‘Teetnology that provides high speed connections between dato Srorage devices and computers over a network ee ise Sterage Area Network SAN provides high-speed connections between data storage devices and computers over 2 networkETHICAL AND SOCIETAL ISSUE Backup Storage Media and Identity Theft ‘Alter two weeks of internal investigations, Marriatt International reported that backup computer tapes had gone missing from its time-share division offices. The tapes contained credit card ‘account information and the Social Security numbers of about 206,000 time-share owners and Marriott customers and employ- ees. Company ofcals stated that twas not clear whether the tapes were stolen or lost. Al involved parties were notified in case ‘dentty thieves gained access tothe information. Identity thettis the crime in which an imposter uses stolen per: ‘onal identification information ta obtain credit, merchandise, or services in the name of the victim. Companies assume the respon sblity of keeping such information secure. Marriot isnot atone in neglecting to secure custorner recards. “Two weeks later. a computer tape fram a Connecticut bank con: taining personal data on 99,000 customers, including names, addresses, Socal Securty numbers, and checking account num bers, was lost in transit. In 2005 at least 134 such data breaches, affected 57 millon people. Many ofthese data braaches involved the loss of data on backup tapes. So far, no direct correlation has ‘been proven between such data breaches and cases of identity theft. However, there are about 10 million cases of dently theft each year witha total loss of about $53.bilion, The sources ofthe stolen data are often unknown. Itis assumed that much ofthe information is stolen from businesses. Cosy losses due to entity theft fram businesses has caused US. state and federat governments to fight for lighter secunty ‘measures. In 2003, California was the frst stale to pase 3 rigorous disclosure law requiring that organizations inform people when their personal information s compromised, Since then, many states have followed suit. The US. Congressis cansidering similar lews. Besides the danger to personel privacy, the companies respon. sible also suffer. Te pubtic embarrassment resulting from data theft detracts froma company's reputation and ability to wan cus tomers. Substantial costs are also imlved in notifying victims of the possible thelt. Companies could avoid this trouble and expense by using inexpensive methods of protecting data. Most companies emplay courier services to transpert backup tapes to and from storage. However, the backups are not always, safely delivered tothe storage faciity. la addition, accounting and inventory of backup tapes in storage can be slack, When tapes are lost, the courier or storage facility is usually to blame, leading to suspicions of theft Tobetter protect the dats stored for back up, it can be encrypt ed so that i stolen it remains unreadable, Encryption i a tech- rigue that converts data into secret cade. In-Line appliances can encrypt backup data prior to being writen to tape with litle effect con performance. Several tape drive manufacturers have intr duced data encryption into their products. Senices such as US DataTrust[wwusdatatrust com| also encrypt and back up data to secure locations aver the Internet, eliminating the need for Portable storage media all together. Because the data is encrypted prior to transport is secure intransit and in storage. ‘Some fel that for businesses to take this problem seriously. ‘government needs to apply pressure through addtional legislation, Others argue that data reported as lost lypically cannat be used on its own by thieves and is deactivated ar changed when the thefts realized anyway, reducing the need for legisatian, Imgravernents in networking and storage technologies will eventually solve this ilemma for those concerned about privacy. Untd then, thousands cof database recaris wil ikely be accessed without authorization due to the loss or theft of corporate starage media, Discussion Questions 1. How can the theft ofa credit card number, Sacial Security number, or bank account number be a danger to the 2. Whyis tape the most common medium used for tacking up data? Criticat Thinking Questions 1, Towhat extent should laws hold companies responsible {or the security of the data they keep? Shauld encryption. be required? 2. Ifyou were responsible for the safety of Marriott's backup data, what security measures would you take? SOURCES: Rosenwald, Michael, “Marriot Oscloses Missing Data Files ‘Wiasninglon Post December 28,2005, an. washinglonost com Damas Jim, "Do We Really Care About Storage Security? Computerwar, February 7. 2008, won computerwarid cam Lawson, Stephen, “Bonk Tape {Lost with Data on 0000 Customers,” Computerwera January 1, 2006, im conputerward comHardware ad Software | Chapter? 67 Optical Discs ‘Acommon form of optical diskis called compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM). After ddata has been recorded on a CD-ROM, it cannot be modified—the disk is “read only.” CD- recordable (CD-R) disks allow data to be written once to a CD disk. CD-rewritable (CD- RW) technology allows personal computer users to replace their diskettes with high-capacity (CDs that can be written on and edited. The CD-RW disk can hold roughly 500 times the capacity ofa 1.4-MB diskette. A popular use of recordable and rewritable CD technology is to enable users to burn a CD of their favorite music for their later listening pleasure. al Video Disk ‘A digital video disk (DVD) is afive-inch diameter CD-ROM look-alike with the ability 0 store about 135 minutes of digital video or several gigabytes of data (see Figure 2.5). Software programs, video games, and movies are common uses for this storage medium, Ata data transfer rate of 1.25 MBsecond, the access speed of a DVD drive is faster than thar of the typical CD-ROM drive. DVDs have replaced recordable and rewritable CD dises (CD-R and CD-RW) as the preferred format for shating movies and photos. Where a CD can hold about 740 MB of data, a single-sided DVD can hold 4.7 GB, with double-sided DVDs having a capacity of 9.4 GB. Unfortunately, DVD manufaccurers haven't agreed on a recording standard, so there are several rypes of recorders and disks. Recordings can be made on record-once disks (DVD-R and DVD+R) ot on rewritable disks (DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM). Norall types of rewritable DVDs are compatible with other types. Dell and Hewlett-Packard use DVD+RW; Apple, Gateway, and IBM offer DVD-R. Dell and other manufacturers use DVD+/-RW, “The two types of competing high-definition video-dise Formats are called HD-DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Both formats were originally based on blue-laser technology that stores at least hice times as much dara as a DVD now holds !? Traditional CD and DVD formats all use red lasers. Because the wavelength of blue light is shorter chan that of red light, the beam from a blue laser makes a much smaller spor on the recording layer of a disk. A smaller spor means less space is needed to record one bit of data, so more data can be stored on 2 disk. ‘The primary use for these new formats is in home entertainment equipment co store high definition video, though these formats can also store computer data Flash Memory Flash memory is a silicon computer chip that, unlike RAM, is nonvolatile and keeps its memory when the power is shut off. It gets its name from the fact that the microchip is ‘organized so that a section of memory cells (called a block) is erased oF reprogrammed in a single action, or “Rash,” Solid-state-memory disks (SSDs) that use flash memory are supple ‘menting or replacing traditional hard drives that employ power-hungry spinning platters with mobile read/write heads near data surfaces." The result is longer laptop battery life and more protection for data. Another advantage is that a flash memory system reboots faster than hard disks.” Digital music players and cameras use flash memory to hold music and photos. Compared with other types of secondary storage, flash memory can be accessed more Quickly and consumes less power and storage space. The primary disadvantage is cost. Flash ‘memory chips cost much more per megabyte than a traditional hard disk. compact disc read-only ‘memory (CD-ROM) ‘Acammon form of optical disc fon which data, once it has been recorded, cannot be modified. digital video disc (OVD] Astorage medium used to store digital video or computer data or Digital Video Disc and Player DVDs took ike CDs but have a greater storage capacity and can transfer data at a faster rate Isource: Courtesy of Toshiba ‘America Information Systems.) flash memory Asilicon computer chip that, unlike RAM, is nonvolatile and keeps its memory when the power is shutoffes arte | Tecmlony ‘Akeyboardand mouse are woof the ‘most common devices for computer input. Wireless mice and keyboards are now readily available. (Source: Courtesy of Hewett Packard Company | speech-recognition technology Enables a computer equipped with 3 source of speech input such as a ‘microphone to interpret human speech as an alternative means of providing data or instructions tothe pri “The overall trend in secondary storage is toward more dircet-access methods, higher capacity, and increased portability. The business needs and needs of individual users should be considered when selecting a specific rype of storage. In general, the ability to store large amounts of data and informacion and access it quickly can increase organizational effective- ness and efficiency. Input Devices Your fist experience with computers is usually through input and ourpur devices. These devices are the gateways to the computer system—you use them to provide data and in- Structions to the computer and receive results from it. Input and output devices are part of ‘a computer's user interface, which includes other hardware devices and software that allow you to interact with a computer system. ‘As with other computer system components, an organization should keep their business goals in mind when selecting input and output devices. For example, many restaurant chains tse handheld input devices or computerized terminals that let waiters enter orders efficiently and accurately. These systems have also cut costs by helping to track inventory and market tocustomers. Literally hundreds of devices can be used for data input, ranging from special-purpose devices used to capture specific types of data to more general-purpose input devices. We will now discuss several Personal Computer Input Devices ‘A keyboard and a computer mouse are the most common devices used for entry of data such, as characters, text, and basic commands. Some companies are developing newer keyboards that ate more comfortable, adjustable, and faster to use. These keyboards, such as the spit keyboard by Microsoft and others, are designed to avoid wrist and hand injuries caused by hours of keyboarding, Using the same keyboard, you can enter sketches on the touchpad and text using the keys, You use a computer mouse ro point ro and click symbols, icons, menus, and commands onthe screen, The computer takes a number of actions in response, such as placing data into the computer system. Speech-Recognition Technology Speech-recognition technology enables a computer equipped with a source of speech input such as a microphone to interpret human speech as an alternative means of providing data ‘or insteuctions to the computer. The most basic systems require you to train the system (0 recognize your specch patterns of ae limited 10a small vocabulary of words. More advanced systems can recognize continuous speech without requiring you to break up your speech intovsnareatsatwre | Chupir® — @ discrete words. Very advanced systems used by the government and military can interpret a ‘voice it has never heard and understand a rich vocabulary. ‘Companies that must constantly interact with customers are eager to reduce their cus- tomer support costs while improving the quality of their service. Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) serves 5 million electric customers and 4 million natural gas customers. The firm implemented speech recognition technology to automate the account identification process and to provide other customer self-service functions. Some 38% of customer service calls are satisfied using the system without speaking directly to a customer service representative, This yields a savings of nearly $3 million per year based on the average cost of $7 for a PG&E ‘customer service representative to handle a call!” Digital Cameras Digital cameras record and store images or video in digital form. When you take pictures, the images are electronically stored in the camera. You can download the images to a com- puter either disectly or by using a flash memory card. After you store the images on the computer's hard disk, you can edit them, send them to another location, paste them into another application, or print them. For example, you can download a photo of your project team captured by a digital camera and then post it on a Web site or paste it into a project status report. Digital cameras have eclipsed film cameras used by professional photographers for photo quality and features such as 200m, flash, exposure controls, special effets, and even video-caprare capabilities. With the right software, you can add sound and handwriting to the photo. The primary advantage of digital cameras is saving time and money by eliminating the ‘need to process film. In fact, digital cameras that can easily transfer images to DVDs have made the consumer film business of Kodak and Fujitsu neatly obsolete. Until film-camera users switch ro digital cameras, Kodak is allowing photographers to have i both ways. When you want to develop print film, Kodak offers the option of placing pictures on a DVD in addition tothe raditional prints. After the photosare stored on the DVD, they can be edited, placed on a Web site, or sent electronically to business associates or fiends around the world. Terminais Inexpensive and easy co use, terminals are input and display devices chat perform data entry and inpucat the same time, A terminal isconnected to a complete computer system, including 4 processor, memory, and secondary storage. After you enter general commands, text, and ‘other data via a keyboard or mouse it is converted into machine-readable form and trans- ferred ro the processing portion of the computer system. Terminals, normally connected directly to the computer system by telephone lines or cables, can be placed in offices, in warchouses, and on the factory floor. Touch-Sensitive Screens Advances in sercen technology allow display sereens to function as input as well as ouput devices. By touching certain parts of a sensitive screen, you can execute a program or cause the computer to take an action. Touch-sensitive screens are frequently used at gas stations for customers to select grades of gas and request a receipt, at fast-food restaurants for order clerks to enter customer choices, at information centers in hotels to allow guests to request facts about local eating and drinking establishments, and at amusement parks to provide directions to pattons. They also ate used in kiosks at airports and department stores. Bar-Code Scanners A bar-code scanner employs 2 laser scanner to read a bar-coded label. This form of input is used widely in grocery store checkouts and in warehouse inventory control. Often, bar-code technology is combined with other forms of technology to create innovative ways for cap- ‘uring data, digital camera Inputdevice usedwith aPCtorecord and store images and video in digital form,ro parte | Toctnotoay Radio Frequency Identification {RFID) technology that employs a ‘microchip with an antenna that broadcasts its unique identifier and location to receivers. RFID Tag ‘An RFID tag is small compared to current bar-code labels used to identity tems, |Source: Courtesy of Intermec Technologies Corporation.) Magnetic ink Character Recognition {MICR] Devices In the 1950s, the banking industry became swamped with paper checks, loan applications, bank statements, and so on. To remedy this overload and process documents more quickly, the industry developed magnetic ink character recognition (MICR), a system for reading this dara quickly. With MICR, data co help lear and route checks is placed on the bottom of 3 check or other form using a special magnetic ink. Daca printed wich this ink using a special character sec can be read by both people and computers. Pen Input Devices By touching the screen with a pen input device, you can activate a command or cause the computer to perform task, enter handwritten notes, and draw objects and figures. Pen input requites special sofewarc and hardware. Handwriting recognition software can cofvert hand- writing on the scren into text. The Tablet PC from Microsoft and its hardware partners can transform handwriting into typed text and store the “digital ink” just the way a person writes it, Users can use pen to write and send e-mail, add comments to Word documents, mark uup PowerPoint presentations, and even hand-draw charts in a document. That data can then be moved, highlighted, searched, and converced into text. If perfected, this interface is likely to become widely used. Pen input is especialy atractve if you are uncomfortable using a keyboard. The success of pen inpat depends on how accurately handwriting can be cead and ‘ranslaced into digital form and at what cost Radio Frequency identification ‘The purpose of a Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) system is to transmie data by a mobile device, called a tag, which is read by an RFID reader and processed according to the needs of an information system program (Figure 2.6). One popular application of RFID is to place a microchip on retail items and install in-store readers that tack the inventory on the shelves to determine when shelves should be restocked. Recall that the RFID tag chip includes a special form of EPROM memory that holds data about the item to which the tag isattached. A radio-frequency signal can update this memory as the status of theitem changes ‘The data teansmieted by the tag might provide identification, location information, or details about the product tagged, such as date manufactured, retail price, color, or date of purchase RFID The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is considering the use of RFID tags to help fight counterfeit prescription drugs by stacking shipping containers and crates of medicine, Privacy advocates feat that the FDA could also use the tags to track individ ual medicine bottles or even individual cablets. That, privacy advocates said, would bevursuresndsotwore | Cupane 71 Output Devices Computer systems provide ourput to decision makers at all levels ofan organization so they can solvea business problem or capitalize on a competitive opportunity. In addition, ourput from one computer system can provide input into another computer system. The desired form of this output might be visual, audio, or even digital. Whatever the oupur's content or form, output devices are designed to provide the right information to the right person in the right format atthe right time. Display Monitors The display monitor is a TV-screen-like device on which output from the computer is dis- played. Because tradicional monitors use a cathode ray tube to display images, they are fometimes called CR7s. The monitor works in much the same way as a teaditional TV sercen—one or more electron beams are generated from cathode ray tubes. As the beams strike a phosphorescent compound (phosphor) coated on the inside of the screen, a dot on the screen called a pixel lights up. The electron beam sweeps back and forth across the seen so that as the phosphor starts to fade, itis struck and lights up again. ‘With today’s wide selection of monitors, price and overall quality can vary tremendously. The quality of ascreen is often measured by she number of horizontal and vertical pixels used to create it. More pixels per square inch means a higher resolution, or clarity and sharpness fof the image. The distance between one pixel on the screen and the next nearest pixel is known as dot pitch. The common range of dot pitch is ftom .25 mm co.31 mm. The smaller the number, the better the picture with a dot pitch of 28 mm or smaller considered good. ‘The characteristics of screen color depend on the quality of the monitor, che amount of RAM in the computer system, and the monitor's graphics adapter card. The Color/Graphies ‘Adapter (CGA) was one of the first technologies to display color images on the screen. Today, Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA) displays are standard, providing vivid colors and hi resolution. Digital Video Interface (DVI) is designed to maximize the visual quality of digital display devices such as flat-panel LCD computer displays Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) LCD displays are flat displays that use liquid crystals—organic, ol-like material placed beeween two polarizers—to form characters and graphic images on a backlit screen. These displays are easier on your eyes than CRTs because they are flcker-free, brighter, and don't emic the type of radiation that makes some CRT users worry. In addition, LCD monitors take up less space and use less than half of the electricity requited to operate a comparably sized CRT monitor."* Thin-film transistor (TFT) LCDs are a type of liquid crystal display that assigns a transistor to control each pixel, resulting in higher resolution and quicker response to changes on the screen. TFT’ LCD monitors are rapidly displacing competing CRT technology, and are commonly available in sizes fiom 12 ¢0 30 inches. CCRT monitors are large and bulky compared to LCD monitrs {tat Aisplays (Source; Courtesy of Det Inc)Laser Printer Laser printers, available in a wie variety of speeds and price ranges, have many features, including color capabilites. They are @ popular solution fr printing hard copies of information, {ource: Courtesy of Lexmark International) digital audio player device that can store, organize, and pay digital music files, MP3 A standard format for compressing a sound sequence into a smal file Organic Light-Emitting Diodes Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) technology is based on research by Eastman Kodak Company and is appearing on the market in small electronic devices. OLEDs use the same base technology as LCDs, with one key difference: whereas LCD screens contain a fluorescent backlight and the LCD acts asa shutter to selectively block that light, OLEDs directly emit light. OLEDs can provide sharper and brighter colors than LCDs and CRTs, and because they don't require a backlight, the displays can be half a thick as LCDs and used in flexible displays. Another big advancage is that OLEDs don’t break when dropped. OLEDs are cur- rently limited to use in cell phones, car radios, and digital cameras, but might be used in computer displays—if che average display lifetime can be extended.'* Printers and Plotters, Hard copy is paper output from a device called a printer. Printers with different speeds, features, and capabilities are available. Some can be sec up to accommodate different paper forms such as blank check forms, invoice forms, and so forth. Newer printers allow businesses to create customized printed output for each customer from standard paper and data input using fall color. ‘The speed ofthe printer is typically measured by the number of pages printed per minute (opm). Like a display screen, the quality, or resolution, of a printer’ ourpuc depends on the number of dots printed per inch. A 600-dpi (dots-per-inch) printer prints more clearly than .300-dpi printer. A recurring cost of using a printer isthe ink-jet or laser cartridge that is used as pages are printed. Figure 2.7 shows laser printer. Laser princers are generally faster than inkjec printers and can handle more volume than inkjet printer. Laser printers print 15 to 50 pages per minute (ppm) for black and white and 4 t0 20 ppm for color. Inkjet printers print 10 to 30 ppm for black and white and 2 ro 10 ppm for color PPipaters a2 eye of hard-copy ouput devie wed for general design work. Businesses typically use these devices to generate paper or acetate blueprints, schematics, and drawings of buildings or new products onto paperor transparencies. Standard plot widths are 24 inches and 36 inches, and che lengch can be whatever meets the need—from a few inches to several feet. Digital Audio Player A digital audio player is a device that can store, organize, and play digital music files. MP3 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer-3) is popular format for compressing a sound sequence into a very small fle while preserving the original level of sound quality when its played. By compressing the sound file, i requires ess time to download the ile and tess storage space on a hard drive. You can use many different music devices about the sie ofa cigarette pack to download ‘music from the Internet and other sources, These devices have no moving parts and can storeHardware anaSotwae | Chapter 78 Apple's iPod, a digital music player for Mac and Windows, hasa 25-inch screen and can play video. CE Isource: Courtesy of Apple computer. hours of music. Apple expanded into the digital music market with an MP3 player (che iPod) and the ‘Tunes Music Store, which allows you to find music online, preview it, and download it in a way that is safe, legal, and affordable. In October 2005, Apple unveiled a new iPod with a 25-inch screen that can play video including selected TV shows you can download from the iTunes Music Store.!” These are dozens of MP3 manufacturers including Dell, Sony, Samsung, lomega, and Motorola, whose Roke product is the first {Tunes-compatible phone. COMPUTER SYSTEM TYPES Computer systems can range from desktop (or smaller) portable computers to mastive supercomputers that require housing in large rooms. Let's examine the types of computer EE Tate) deomegeenlrngerot apices forse pe of SE ‘computer systems. ‘Types of Computer Systems net tial rp Te ae eee ee ener emer some aie” adm fegoe—_Symee ssioomo 8280.00 38 Fas Mtr iat tke be ate ee ee stoves), m0, at ‘Polmsis Scola Egon ‘Elgon gan ‘Tive-ramer——‘etiguatr—_‘Religuratr a Succ Gis, SEB, ER, = Seine Sy mM oz som ele saonps./ | vavraton ‘ypcalOranss impo ‘rau. impr arom Peery Fare nace geet commer cree Se ET tora. nee Catt aus ata Bere ey REE Pace, SBT! iNeed” leon pose ramet ey tora suber BoE Peet ake Cong ae Panels MotonCompuins Me-sead Moc Sa eta ios espero Msg Comin eset er rae Hho Ralaoo se oan weer be Seen Pew = mrt Workstationm4 parte | Tectnolony handheld computer single-user computer that pro- vides ease of portability because of its small size, smartphone ‘phone that combines the function- ality of a mobile phone, personal digital assistant, camera, Web browser, e-mail teal, and other devices into a single handkield device portable computer Computer small enough tobe car- Fed easily, thin client low-cost, centrally managed com- puter with essential but limited capabilities and no extra drives, such as.a CD of DVD drive, or expan. sion sles. Handheld Computers Handheld computers are single-user computers that provide case of portability because of their small size—some areas small as a creditcard. These systems often inelude a variety of software and communications capabilities. Most are compatible with and can communicate with desktop computers over wireless networks. Some even add a built-in GPS receiver with software that can integrate the location data into the application. For example, if you click an entry in an electronic address book, the device displays a map and directions from your current location. Such a computer can also be mounted in your car and serve asa navigation system. One of the shortcomings of handheld computers is that they requite lots of power relative to thee size PalmOne is the company that invented the Palm Pilot organizer in 1996. The Palm Personal digital assistant (PDA) lets you track appointments, addresses, and tasks. PalmOne has now signed licensing agreements with Handspring, IBM, Sony, and many other manu. fcruers, permitting them to make what amounts to Palm clones. Asa result ofthe popularity of the Palm PDA, handheld computers are often referred to as PDAs, A smartphone combines the functionality ofa mobile phone, personal digital assistant, camera, Web browser, email tool, MP3 player, and other devices into a single handheld device. Smartphones will continue to evolve as new applications are defined and installed on the device. The applications might be developed by the manufacturer of the handheld device, by the operator ofthe communications neework on which it operates, or by any other third. party software developer. Portable Computers A variety of portable computers, those that can be cartied easily, are now available—from laptops, ro notebooks, to subnotebooks, o tablet computers. A laptop computer is a small lightweight PC about the size ofa three-ring notebook. The even smaller and lighter nove book and subnotebook computers offer similar computing power. Some notebook and subnotebook computers fir into docking stations of desktop computers to provide additional storage and processing capabilities Tablet PCs are portable, lightweight computers that allow users to roam the office, home, or factory floor carrying the device like a clipboard. They come in two varieties, slate and convertible. The slate devices have no keyboard, and users enter data with a writing stylus directly on the display scroen. The convertible tablet PC comes with a swivel sercen and can be used as both a traditional notebook or as a pen-based portable tablet. Acer, Fujitsu, Toshiba, ViewSonic, and others offer tablet PCs that weigh under 4 pounds and cost under $2,000. Portable computers are especially popular and useful in the healthcare industey. Forex: ample, New York Presbyterian Healthcare System has implemented an information system that uses data from patient histories and artificial intelligence sofiware to create suggested treatment plans for patients in the cardiac intensive-care unit. The system continuously te 900 Beyond Noiuraiandtnigont 1980 AF rom pay greater Fourth languages, x than 4; THEN pay the __amploype overtime pay. “The various languages have characteristics that make them appropriate for particular types ‘of problems of applications. Among the third-generation languages, COBOL has excellent file-handling and database-handling capabilities for manipulating large volumes of business data, while FORTRAN is better suited for scientific applications. Java is an obvious choice for Web developers. End users will choose one of the fourth- of fifth-generation languages to develop programs. Although many programming languages are used to write new business applications, morc ines of code are written in COBOL in existing business applications than any other programming language. SOFTWARE ISSUES AND TRENDS Because sofeware is such an important part of today’s computer systems, sss such as sofi- ‘ware bugs, licensing, and global software support have received increased attention. Software Bugs [A software bug is a defect in a computer progr that keeps it from performing as itis designed to perform. Some software bugs are obvious and cause the program to terminate unexpectedly. Other bugs are more subtle and allow errors to creep into your work. Com- puter and software vendors say that as long as people design and program hardware and Hardware and Software | Chapter 97 programming languages Sets of keywords, symbols, and a system ol rules for constructing statements by which humans can communicate instructions to be executed by a computer, syntax ‘set of rules associated with 3 pro- ‘gramming language. i ‘The Evolution of Programming LanguagesPart2 Technology software, bugs ae inevitable. In fact, according tothe Pentagon and the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, there are typically 5 to 15 bugs in every 1,000 lines of code—the software instructions that make sense only to computers and programmers. The following list summarizes tips for reducing the impact of software bugs. Register allsoftware so that you receive bug alerts, fixes, and patches Check the manual oF ead-me files for work-arounds. ‘Access the support area of the manufacturer's Web site for patches. Install che latest sofeware updates. Before reporting a bug, make sure that you can re-create the circumstances under which ‘When you can re-create the bug, cll the manufacturers tech suppor line, ‘+ Avoid buying the latest release of software for several months or a year until the software bugs have been discovered and removed. Copyrights and Licenses Moss softwate products are protected by law using copyright or licensing provisions. Those provisions can vary, however. In some cases, you are given unlimited use of sofware on one or two computers. This is typical with many applications developed for personal computers. In other cases, you pay for your usage—if you use the software more, you pay more. This approach is becoming popular with software placed on networks or larger computers. Most of these protections prevent you from copying software and giving it to others without re- strictions. Some software now requires that you register or activate it before it can be fully used. Registiation and activation sometimes put software on your hard disk that monitors activities and changes to your computer system. Software Upgrades Software companies revise their programs and sell new versions periodically. In some cases, the revised software offers new and valuable enhancements. In other cass, the software uses, ‘complex program code that offers little in terms of additional capabilities. In addition, revised software can contain bugs or errors. When software companies stop supportingolder software versions or celeases, some customers fel forced to upgrade to the newer software. Deciding whether to purchase the newest software can be a problem for corporations and people with a large investment in sofeware. Should the newest version be purchased when i is released? Some users do not always get the most current softwate upgradesor versions, unles itinchudes significant improvements or capabilities. Instead, they might upgrade to newer software only when it offers vital new features. Software upgrades usually cost much less than the original purchase price Global Software Support Large, global companies have ltee trouble persuading vendors to sell them software licenses for even the most far-flung outposts of their company. But can those same vendors provide adequate support for their software customers in all locations? Supporting local operations is one of the biggest challenges IS reams face when putting together standardized, company- wide systems. In slower technology growth markets, such as Eastern Europe and Latin ‘America, there may be no official vendor presence at all Instead, large vendors such as Sybase, IBM, and Hewlett-Packard typically contract out support for ther software to local providers.Hardware and Software ‘One approach that has been gaining acceptance in North America is to outsource global support to one oF more third-party distributors. The software-user company may still nego- tiate its license with the software vendor directly, bur ir then hands over the global support contract to third-party supplier. The supplier acts asa middleman berween software vendor and user, often providing distribution, support, and invoicing. American Home Products Corporation handles global support for both Novell NetWare and Microsoft Office appli- cations this way—throughout the 145 countries in which it operates. American Home Products negotiated the agreements directly with the vendors for both purchasing and maintenance, bus fulfilment of the agreement is handled exclusively by Philadelphia-based Softsmart, an international supplier of software and services, In today’s computer systems, software is an increasingly critical component. Whatever approach individuals and organizations take to acquire software itis important for everyone to be aware of the current trends in the industry. Informed users are wiser consumers. and they can make better decisions. Casper 2oo rate | Tecotoy SUMMARY a Principle Information system users must work closely with information system professionals to define business needs, evaluate options, and select the hardware and software that provide a cost-effective solution to those needs. . Hardware devices work together to perform input, process- ing, data storage, and output. Processing is performed by an interplay between the central processing unit [(CPUI and memory. Primary storage, or memary, provides working stor age for program instructions and data to be processed and provides them to the CPU. Together, @ CPU and memory pro- ‘cess data and execute instructions. Processing that uses Several processing units is called ‘multiprocessing, A multicore processor combines two or ‘more independent pracessors into a single computer so that they can share the workload and boost processing capacity. Parallel processing involves linking several processors to wark together to solve complex problems, Grid computing is the use of a collection of computers, often owned by multiple individuals or organizations, to work in a coordinated manner to solve 8 common problem Computer systems can store large amounts of data and instructions in secondary storage. which is tess volatile and has greater capacity than memory. Storage media can be either sequential access or direct access, Comman forms of secondary storage include magnetic tape, magnetic disk, optical dise storage, and PC memory cards, Redundant array of independent/inexpensive disks (RAID] is a method of stor ing data that allows the system to more easily recover data in, the event of a hardware failure. Storage area network (SAN] Uses computer servers, distributed storage devices, and net- works to provide fast and efficient storage. Input and output devices altow users to provide data and instructions to the computer for processing and allow sub sequent storage and output, These devices are part of a user interface through which humans interact with computer 5y5- tems. Input and output devices vary widely, but they share common characteristics of speed and functionality Akeyboard and computer mouse are the most common devices used far entry of data, Speech recognition technology enables 2 computer to interpret human speech as an alter native means of providing data and instructions. Digital cam- eras record and store images or video in digital form, Handwriting recognition software can convert handwriting on the screen into text. Radio-frequency identification {RFID} technology emplays a microchip, calleda tag, totransmit data which is read by an RFID reader. The data transmitted could include facts such as item identification number, location information, or other details about the item tagged. Output devices provide information indifferent forms, {rom hard copy to sound to digital format. Display monitors are standard output devices: moritor quality is determined by size, number of colors that can be displayed, and resolution. Other output devices include printers and plotters The main computer system types are handheld comput rs, portable computers, thin clients, desktop computers, workstations, servers, mainframe computers, and super computers, Personat computers (PCs) are small, inexpensive computer systems. Handheld (palmtop) computers are increasingly popular for portable computing and communi~ cations needs, Portable computers range from laptops. to notebooks, tosubnotebooks, totablet computers. Athinclient isa low-cost, centrally managed computer with tmited copa- bilities. Desktop computers are relatively small, inexpensive single-user computer systems that are highly versatile Workstations are advanced PCs with greater memory, pro- cessing, and graphics abilities. A computer server is a.com puter used by many users to perform a specific task, such a5 running network oF Internet applications. A mainframe com- puters a large, powerful camputer shared by dozens or even hundreds of concurrent users connected to the computer over a network. Supercomputers are extremely fast comput ers used to solve the most intensive computing problems. Principle Systems and application software are critical in helping individuals and organizations achieve their goals. Software consists of programs that control the workings of the computer hardware. The two main categories of software are systems sottware and application software. Systems soft- ware is 3 collection of programs that interacts between hard- ‘ware and application software, Application software can be proprietary or ofthe shelf, and enables peopte to solve prob- lems and perform specific tasks ‘An operating system (05} is a set of computer programs that controls the computer hardware to support users: com pniting needs, An 05 conwerts an instruction from an applica tion into a set of instructions needed by the hardware. This intermediary rate allows hardware independence. An OS also manages memary, which involves controlling storage access ang use by converting logical requests into physical locations and by placing data inthe best storage space, perhaps virtual memory ‘An OS manages tasks to allocate computer resources through multitasking and time-sharing, With multitasking users can run more than one application at a time. Time sharing allows more than one person fo use @ computer system at the same timeThe ability ofa computer to handle an increasing aumber of concurrent users smoothly is called scalability, a feature critical for systems expected to handle a lerge number of users. An OS also provides a user interface, which allows users to access and command the computer. A command-based user interface requires text commands to send instructions, «a graphical user interface (GUI), such as Windows, uses icons and menus, Software applications use the OS by requesting services through a defined application program interface (API), Pro- grammers can use APIs to create application software with ‘out having to understand the inner workings of the OS. APIs also provide a degree of hardware independence so that the underlying hardware can change without necessarily requir ing 2 rewnite of the software applications Over the years, several popular OSs have been developed, These include several proprietary OSs used primarily on mainframes, MS-DOS is an early OS for IBM: compatibles. Older Windows OSs are GUIs used with DOS. Newer versions, such as Windows Vista and XP, are fully functional OSs that do not need DOS. Apple computers use proprietary OSs such 45 the Mac OS and Mac OS X. UNIX is a powerful OS that can be used on many computer system types and platforms, from sersonal computers to mainframe systems, UNIK makes it ‘easy to mave programs and data ameng computers or to con: nect mainframes and persanai computers to share resources. Linuxis the kernel of an OS whose source code is freely available to everyone. Several variations of Linux are available, with sets of capabilities and applications to form a complete 0S, for example, Red Hat Linux 2/05 and MPE ik are OSs for mainframe computers. Some 05s have been developed to support consumer appliances such as Palm OS, Windows CE Net, Windows XP Embedded, Pocket PC. and variations of Linux Principle Do not develop proprietary application software untess doing so will meet a compelling business need that can provide a competitive advantage. Application software applies the power of the computer to solve problems and perform specific tasks. One useful way of classifying the many potential uses of information systems is, to identity the scope of problems and apportunities addressed ya particular organization or its sphere of influence. For most companies, the spheres of influence are personal, ‘workgroup, and enterprise User software, or personal productivity software, includes. {general-purpose programs that enable users toimprove their personal effectiveness, increasing the quality and amount of work that can be done. Software that heips groups work logether is often called workgroup application software, and includes group scheduling software, etectronic mail. and other software that enables people to share ideas, Enterprise software that benefits the entire organization can also be Hardware ondSotware | Chapter2 101 developed or purchased. Many organizations are turning to enterprise resource planning software, a set of integrated programs that manage 8 company svtal business operations for an entire multisite, global ergznization Three approaches to developirg application software are to build proprietary application so‘ware, buy existing pro grams off the shelf, or use a comtination of customized and off-the-shelf application software. Guilding proprietary soft ware fn-house or on contract] has the following advantages: the organization will get software that more closely matches its needs, by being involved with the development, the ‘organization has further contral over the results: and the organization has more flexibility ir making changes. The disadvantages include the following: itis Lkely to take longer and cost more to develop, the in-house staff will be hard pressed to provide ongoing support and maintenance, and there is a greater risk that the sofware features wil not work as expected or that ather performance problems will occur. Purchasing off-the-shelf soltware has many advantages. The initat cost is lower, there is alawer risk thatthe software will fal to work as expected, and the software is likely to be of higher quality than proprietary software. Some disadvan- tages are thatthe organization might pay for features it does not need, the software might lack mportant features requir- ‘ng expensive customization, and the system might require process reengineering ‘Some organizations have taken a third approach— customizing softwére packages. This aporoach usually involves 3 mixture ofthe preceding advantages and disad vantages and must te carefully managed An application service provider |ASP]is 2 company that can provide the software, support, and computer hardware on which to run the software from the user's facilities. ASPs provide contract customization of off-the-shelf software, and they soeed deployment of new apiications while helping 1S managers avoid implementation headaches. Use of ASPs reduces the need for many skillediS stall members and also lowers a project's start-up expenses Although hundreds of computer applications can help people at school, home, end work. the primary applications are word processing, spreadsheet analysis, database, graph- ics, and online services. Asoftwaresuite, such as SmartSuite, WordPerfect, StarOtfice, or Office offers a collection of pow erful programs, Principle Choose a programming language whose functional characteristics are appropriate for the task at hand, considering the skills and experience of the program- ming staff. All soltware programs are writlenin coding schemes called programming ianguages, which provide instructions, toa computer to perform some processing activity. The several classes of pragramming languages includesoe pact | Technology machine, assembly, high-level, query and database, and nat- vral and intelligent languages. Programming languages have changed since their initial development in the early 1950s. In the first generation, com- puters were programmed in machine language, and the sec- fond generation of languages used assembly languages. The third generation consists of many high-level programming languages that use English-like statements and commands. They also must be converted to machine language by special software called a compiter, and include BASIC, COBOL, FOR- TRAN, and others, Fourth-generation languages include database and query languages such as SQL. Users frequently use fourth generation and higher level programming languages to develop their own simple programs, Principle ‘The software industry continues to undergo constant change; users need to be aware of recent trends and issues to be effective in their b life. ess and personal Software bugs, software licensing and copyrighting, software Upgrades, and global software support are all important sott- ware issues and trends A software bug is a defect in a computer program that keeps it fram performing in the manner intended. Software ‘bugs are common, even in key pieces of business software. Software upgrades are an important source of increased revenue for software manufacturers and can provide useful new functionality and improved quality for software users. Global software support is an important consideration for large, global companies putting together standardized, company-wide systems. A common solution is outsourcing Global support to one or more third-party software distributors. CHAPTER 2: SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST Information system users must work closely with information system professionals to define business needs, evaluate options, and select the hardware and software that provide a cost-effective solution to those needs. 1, Non-1S managers have litle need to understand computer hardware and sofiwate. True or False? 2. Which of the following performs mathematical caleula- tions and makes logical comparisons? a. Control unit b. Register « ALU Main memory 3. The relative clock speed of two CPUs from different man- ufacturers is 2 good indicator of their relative processing speed. Truc or False? Systems and application software are critical in helping i viduals and organizations achieve their goals. 4. Which of the following is a Mac operating system? a XP b. Tiger « MSDOS Vista 5. The file manager component of the OS controls how memory is accessed and maximizes available memory and storage. True or False? Do not develop proprictary application software unless doing, so will meet a compelling business need that can provide a ‘competitive advantage. 7. Software chat enables users to improve their personal effec tiveness, increasing the amount of work they can do and its quality is called 44. personal productivity software Bb. operating system software culty software graphics sofeware 8. What type of software has the greatest porental to affect the processes that add value 10 a business because ie is designed for specific organizational activities and functions? 2. personal productivity sofware operating system software utility software application sofware 9. Off-the-shelf software is never customized. True or False?Choose a programming language whose functional charac- teristics are appropriate to the task at hand, taking into consideration the skills and experience of the programming seafl 10, Bach programming language has its own set of rules, called the of the language. 11. More lines of code for current applications are written in the programming language than in any other language ‘The software industry continues to undergo constant change: users need to be aware of recent trends and issues to be effec- tive in their business and personal life. REVIEW QUESTIONS vrdneansSobwere | Chapt 108 12,____are an important source of increased rev- enue for software manufacturers and can provide useful new functionality and improved quality for software users. CHAPTER 2: SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST ANSWERS (1) False (2) ¢ G) Balse (4) b (5) False (6) ¢ (7) a (8) (9) False (20) syntax (11) COBOL (12) software upgrades SS 1, What role does the server play in today’s business ‘organization? 2. Why is Apple's decision ro use Intel microprocessor chips a major breakthtough for Macintosh users? 3. What is RFID technology? How does ic work? 4. Identify the three components of the CPU and explain the role of each 5. Whatis the difference between secondary storage and main memory? 6. What isthe overall trend in secondary storage devices? ‘What is the difference berween systems and application software? 8. Give four examples of personal productivity software. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of fre- quent software upgrades fiom the perspective of the user of that software, How about from the perspective of the software manufacturer? 2. Imagine that you are the business manager for your uni- versity. What type of computer would you recommend for broad deployment in the universiy’s student computer labe—a standard desktop personal computer or a thin client? Why? 3. Which would you rather have—a PDA or smartphone? Why? 4, Ifcost were not an issue, describe the characteristics of your ideal computer. What would you use it for? Would you ‘choose a handheld, portable, desktop, or workstation com- puter? Why? Which operating system would you wane it 9. What are the ewo basic types of software? Briefly describe the role of each, 10, What is multiprocessing? What forms of multiprocessing are there? 11, What isan application service provides? What issues arise in considering the use of one? 12, What is open-Source software? What is the biggest stum- bling block with the use of open-source software? 13, What does the acronym API stand for? What isthe role of an APP 14, Describe the term enterprise resource planning (ERP) sys- tem, What functions does such a system perform? ae 5. Identify the thrce spheres of influence and briefly discuss the software needs of each. 6. Identify the two fundamental sources for obtaining appli- cation software. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each source, Define the term application service provider. Discuss some of the pros and cons of using an application service provider. 8. Inwhat ways isan operating system for a mainframe com- puter different from the operating system for a laptop computer? In what ways are they similar? 9. If you were che IS manager for a large manufacturing, company, what concerns might you have with the use of open-source software? What advantages might open- source software offer?noe Parte | Tectoology PROBLEM-SOLVING EXERCISES 1. Some believe thatthe information technology industry has driven the economy and in large measure determines stock marker prices—not just cechnology stocks but other stocks as well. Do some rescarch to find an index that measures the tock performance ofthe largest technology companies. Ploc that index versus the index for the S&P 500 for the past five years. What is your conclusion? 2. Use word processing software to document what your needs are as a computer user and your justification for selecting either a desktop of laptop computer. Find a Web site that allows you to order and customize a computer and select those options thar meet your needs in a cost-effective man- net. Assume that you have a budget of $1500. Enter the ‘computer specifications into an Excel spreadsheet that you ‘cut and paste into the document defining your needs. E-mail the document to your instructor. Usea database program to enter five software products you are likely to use at work, List the name, vendor or manu facturer, cost, and features in the columns of a database table. Usea word processor to writea reporton the software. Copy the database table into the word processing program. TEAM ACTIVITIES 1. With one or two of your classmates, visita real store that employs RFID chips co track inventory. Interview an ‘employee involved in inventory control and document the advantages and disadvantages they sec in this technology. 2. Form a group of three or four classmates. Identify and con- tact an employee of a local firm, Interview the individual and describe the application software the company uses and the importance of the software to the organization. Write a brief reporc summarizing your findings. WEB EXERCISES 1, Do research on the Web to identify the eurrent status of the use of RFID chips in the consumer goods industry. ‘Write a brief report surimarizing your findings. 2. Do research on the Web and develop a two-page report summarizing the latest consumer appliance OSs. Which ‘one seems to be gaining the most widespread usage? Why do you think this is the case? Do research on che Web about application sofewate that is, used in an industry and is of interest to you. Write a brie report describing how the application software can be used to increase profits or reduce costs. ell CAREER EXERCISES 1. What personal computer OS would help you the most in the first job you would like to have after you graduate? ‘Why? What features are the most important to you? 2. Think of your ideal job. Describe five application software packages that could help you advance in your carer. Ifthe software package doesn't exist, describe the kinds of soft- ‘wate packages that could help you in your carer.CASE STUDIES HardwaceandSotwere | Chapter2 108, Case One Staples Unwires Point-of-Sale Terminals Staples is the world's leading seller of affice products with over $14.4 billion in sales annually. Throughout the United States and Canada, 1,491 Staples retail stores offer more than 7,000 office products. Inits role as office product advisor, Sta- ples feels obligated to implement the best practices inits own business—to practice what it preaches. To do sa, Staples. must use the latest and greatest technology tools available to after customers every canvenience Staples analyzed the shopping experience in their stores tadetermine howit could be improved. One apparent problem ‘was the bottleneck at checkout. Stores such as Wal-Mart and others have worked to address this problem with self-serve checkout lanes. Staples decided to address it in another way, Staples recognized that checkout clerks stay busy while store associates working the floor often had free time, Staples’ goal was to use ail store personnel to their fullest potential while eliminating the bottleneck at checkout Staples decided to use a hardware device from Fujitsu called the iPAD as a solution, TheiPAD is a powertut handheld computer that uses an Intel Pentium M processor to provide mobile point-of-sale [POSI transaction processing. Weighing only 10 ounces, the PAD includes wireless networking capa bilities, a touch screen, builtin scanner for reading inventory data, and a magnetic stripe reader far processing credit cards. Using the iPAD, store associates can check out customers from any location in the store. In other wards, the PAD acts as an instant checkout station, Besides checking out customers from store aisles, store associates can access a wealth of store inventory data from the corporate database. Associates can retrieve up-to-date corporate data without leaving the floor, providing them with more time for selling and contributing te higher revenues. For example, if an iter isn't stocked on the shelf, the PAD guides the associate through astandard procedure ta satisfy the cus. tomer, saying “This item is out of stock but we have another, item that can serve the same purpose, or we can order your item and have it delivered to your hame within two days.” The associate no longer has to hunt downa manager for solutions, ‘The POS and handhelds are the tip of the iceberg.” says George Lemson, director of application development for Staples. “Their performance brings the information and applications to the store associate and the customers. The iceberg itselt is ati the work we're doing to streamiine the backend and the supply chain, It's the combination that's 50 powerful Staples contracted with Dallas-based Fujitsu Transaction Solutions, Inc. to handle the bulk ofits in-store IT needs and lite-cycle management. Fujitsu performs in-store POS con- versions, placing \PADs in the hands of store associates and setting up PCs as POS terminals at the front of the store. Managers and store personnel ca7 use the PCs ta check out customers or access other store systems. Fujitsu also inte- grates Staples’ in-store servers, and prepares and executes rapid-deployment store conversions and installations. In addition, Fujitsu offers a dispatch center that replaces or fixes system components within precise time allatments—four to-eight hours in many cases—anda warehouse operation that helps Staples collect, sort, and dispose of obsolete IT equipment, By turning over IT hardware management to Fujitsu, Staples can focus on business driers rather than on in-store IT needs. By integrating hardware components throughout the organization, the flaw of information through the supply chain—irom suppliers to store associates—is becoming seamless, Discussion Questions. 1. What new hardware technolecies made it possible for Staples to bring the cash register to the customer? 2. What benefits has Staples reaped by being one of the first to incorporate a mobile POS device? Critical Thinking Questions 1. What benefits and risks do you think are involved in out~ sourcing hardware procurement and maintenance as Staples has done? 2. What considerations regarding processing, storage, and input/output specifications do you think were involved in Staples’ choice of the iPAD device? ‘SOURCES: ntl Case Stusies: Staples Makes Buying tice Product Easy Intel Web ste, accessed February 12, 2006 won nel. com/business/ ‘casestuios/stalex pa Staples Corporate Overview, Staples Wed ite, accessed February 12, 200, now sloposcom/sba/contnt/about/medal ‘vernon hm. Fuss Case Studies, Fujibs Provides Staples wth Complete TT Litecyte Management,” Fujsu Web ste, accossed February 12, 7006, usu comfuseasestudesease Staples himL Case Two DreamWorks SKJ Goes Completely Open Source Steven Spielberg, Jelfrey Katzenterg, and David Geffen, launched DreamWorks SKG in October 199%. They have sub. sequently produced motion picture hits such as Antz, Shrek, Madagascar, Al, Galaxy Quest, Saving Prvate Ryan, and Wallace and Gromit - The Curse of the Were-Rabbit. DreamWorks was originally set up with expensive servers from Sun Microsystems and workstations from SGI running the UNIX operating system, high-end graphics software, and other specialized systems. Around the turn of the millennium, DreamWorks started experiment ng with Intel-based servers106 Parta | technology ‘unning Linux, the open-source operating system, Using InteU/Linux servers, DreamWorks produced Shrek in 2001 on a system that cost half as much and was four times 2s pow- erful as the SGI/UNIK system used to produce Antzin 1996. DreamWorks caught the open-source fever. Since then, DreamWorks has steadily transformed itself into a complete user of open-source software. The biggest Challenge has been finding the specialty software required for motion picture animation and production to run on the Linux platiorm, With title Linux software commercially available, DreamWorks has been writing its own, Working with third. party software partners and HP, DreamWorks has been translating, o porting, its software from its old SG/UNIK sys- tem to Linux. This is no small task considering that its in- house animation software includes millions of lines of code Alter DreamWorks ported its production software to Linux, it focused on its business applications, Recently DreamWorks replaced a dozen of its core legacy applications with custom-designed software using a service-oriented architecture, A service-oriented architecture, commonly known as SOA, defines the use of software services to support the requirements of software users, In an SOA environment, nodes on a network make resources available to network users as independent services that the participants access in a standardized way, ‘The systems that DreamWorks updated using SOA include tasks such as tracking copyright, accessing human resources ‘ata, and pulling information from back-end ERP systems, Linux provides the API and tools to make SOA easy to develop, Developers also used the jBoss Enterprise Middleware Suite for software development. JBoss isa global leader in open- Source middleware software and provides the industry's lead- Ing services and tools to transform businesses to SOA DreamWorks used these tools to develop a new service that authenticates employee roles and responsibilities against Company directories to provide access to applications. It also built new services-based copyright application that provides authorization and authentication for incoming feature film scrips. “Having 9 Linux operating environment and HP Linux Servers in racks saves critical data center space,” said Abe Wong, DreamWorks’ head of iT. “In the animation ward, data canter space is extremely vatuable, We've freed up space for the animation technology group to put in full racks of render- farms space to focus on fitms as opposed to running servers Not only has the move to open source freed space. but its Provided a more transparent and modular system architec- {ure that is easy to build on and maintain Discussion Questions |. What benefits has DreamWorks enjoyed since migrating to open-source systems? 2. What price di DreamWorks have to pay for adopting sys. tems that were not standard ta the motion picture ani- ‘mation industry? Critical Thinking Questions, 1. Why do you think the SGI special-purpose systems that DreamWorks formerty used were so much more expen- sive than the InteU/Linux systems it uses now? 2. How has open-source SOA systems provided Drearn- Works with @ unique edge aver its competition? SOURCES: Havestein, Heather, “DreamWorks Animation Aims for Open Saurce with SA Project." Comeutorwarte. February 2, 2008, en computerwortd com jboss Wed ste, accessed March 4, 2006, Aip// -shoss cam DreamWorks Web site accessed March 200s, vw drearmworks com Questions for Web Case See the Web site for this book to read about the Whitmana Price Consulting case for this chapter. Following are ques- tions concerning this Web case. ‘Whitmann Price Consulting: Software Considerations Discussion Questions |. What three types of software made the BlackBerry ideal for meeting the needs of Whitmann Price? 2. How did the choice of hardware affect options for software solutions? What difference would it make if Sandra and Josh picked a newly developed handheld device unknown in industry? Critical Thinking Questions |. For software other than that which comes on the Black- Berry, should Sandra and Josh look to BlackBerry All‘ance Pragram members or should they just plan to hhave their own software engineers develop the soltware? What are the benefits and drawbacks of either option? 2. What process would you use to evaluate software for the Advanced Mobite Communications and Information System? .vursmceanssetware | Chaps 107 ‘sources for opening vignette: “EAI: Optimized Scheduling Produces Sigficant Savings in Crew Costs,” {BM Case Study, March 14, 2008, Inipiiéorne research ibm camlodis/odisnstfpages/ease 05 hint LAL Alrtines Web site, accessed February 28, 2006, www ela.coit 1 Weiss, Tod. 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