MEDIEVAL LITERATURE I

1. THE MIDDLE AGES

The world of the Middle Ages is much more active and fascinating than it
might appear at first sight, disproving the name of dark ages.
Major changes occurring up to the 13th century:
Stability of political conditions;
Development of trade and agriculture, development of towns and the
gradual rise of the bourgeoisie;
Chivalry, the knights code, courtly literature with a taste for luxury
and extravagance;
Gothic architecture;
New religious orders coming with a new religious sensibility (esp.
expressed in the cult of the Virgin Mary);
Revival in the taste for classical literature (the 12 th century
Renaissance);
Development of education in cathedral schools and later in the first
universities (Paris, Oxford);
The Mediterranean Sea becomes more open to the Europeans (the
beginning of the Crusades) who become acquainted to the Muslim
world and, through them, with the Greek world, resulting in the
rediscovery of Aristotle and the start of the age of scholasticism.
2. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: GENERAL GUIDELINES
The Medieval period in England stretches from the Norman period
(1100-1150) to the end of the War of the Roses (1487). The Norman
Conquest was a conquest of the land but also one of the arts. The language
of the Anglo-Saxons, especially in the realm of politics, administration, law
and culture was replaced by the French language spoken by the new king
and his lords and by Latin, the language of the church. Therefore, for several
centuries, literature was trilingual, as French, Latin and English were used.
Many families were, for a while, bilingual, as they needed to learn the
language of the conquerors while they kept their own dialect.
By the second half of the fourteenth century the fusion between the
Normans and the English was already completed and English became official
language of the court and parliament. In 1362, for instance, the Parliament
opened its session in English. The increasing use of the English language also
comes as a result of the growing hostility between England and France.
However, even if during the reign of Richard II (1372-1398) English gained
equal literary importance to French, there was still no fixed English standard.
The great writers of the period: William Langland, Geoffrey Chaucer and the
Gawain poet, all three wrote in three dialects: the Worcestershire English, the
London dialect and that of the Stafford-Cheshire border, respectively. There
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were also other dialects in use. Even London English was a mixture of
dialects. The introduction of the printing press in 1476 helped spread a
literary standard, that of the London English, under the Tudors (1485-1603).
The Kings English was disseminated through religious boos, such as the
authorized version of the Bible (King James Bible, 1611), but the spelling
was fully standardized only after Dr. Johnsons Dictionary of 1755.
The Norman Conquest brought about a change in literary tastes as
well. The new aristocracy preferred a different type of literature, thus
widening the cultural borders of the Anglo-Saxon world towards a modern
literary model shared by other European cultures. There are formal changes
as well as thematic changes. Among the formal changes, the most evident
is the replacement of the old alliterative style with rhymed patterns, whereas
the aristocratic character of literature becomes evident in a different choice
of themes and characters, replacing the heroic and elegiac spirit of the
Anglo-Saxons with a courtly literature, romances of chivalry, whose focus is
on love and adventure, or allegories, in the search of deeper meaning, of a
moral or spiritual sort, under the surface of things.
For a long time, especially during the Anglo-Norman period, literature
was written mainly in French or in Latin, since literature was either produced
for the court, where French was used, or in monasteries and religious
centers, in which case Latin was favored.
It does not mean, however, that the Anglo-Saxon literary tradition
disappears completely. The Anglo-Saxon prose tradition represented by
Aelfric and Wulfstan influenced the writing of the Ancrene Wisse and
alliterative poetry is still present in Layamons Brut, for instance. The AngloSaxon tradition survived, but it no longer occupied the central position.
3. THE ANGLO-NORMAN PERIOD
The early Middle Ages in England are marked by the coexistence of the
Anglo-Saxon culture with the Norman culture. It is usually referred to as the
Anglo-Norman period, stretching from the Norman Conquest to the beginning
of the Hundred Years War (1337) a period of transition that is still extremely
important because of: a) the language change and the passage from Old
English to what is known as Middle English, clearly influenced by the contact
with the French language spoken by the conquerors and with the Latin used
by the Church; and b) the change in artistic taste, again clearly
influenced by the Norman and French aristocracy, with a stressed impact, in
literature, on the transformation of style, language, tone, themes and
characters.
3.1. THE NORMAN
WORLD

CONQUEST

AND

THE

ANGLO-NORMAN

The Vikings had not attacked only England, but also France. They had
already occupied the territory of upper Normandy, and the Franks had to give
them control over more land in present-day France. Their king was converted
to Christianity (912) and he adopted the language, customs, laws, religion,
political organization and war methods of the Franks. These Vikings started
being, henceforward, known as THE NORMANS, men of Normandy the land
of the Nordmanni or the Norsemen. They were those who, a century later,
would conquer England, subdue the Anglo-Saxons, and exert a tremendous
influence on all cultural, social and political aspects, from language and
literature to laws, administration, social structure. When they conquered
England, the Normans already had a hierarchical feudal system and a wellorganized army.
THE FEUDAL SYSTEM:
SYSTEM:
After the conquest, William was careful not to make the mistake of the
King of France and give too much land to the noblemen without keeping any
of it to himself. The result, in France, was that the lords, such as the duke of
Normandy, were extremely powerful and the King found it hard to control
them. So, William divided the land of the territory he conquered between his
lords and the Church, keeping also land to himself. The political system that
he introduced was relatively similar to the Anglo-Saxon system, since the
feudal allegiance of the vassal to his lord was in many ways similar to the
loyalty pledged by the thane to his lord.
The medieval system was a hierarchical system, the society being divided
in oratores, bellatores and laboratores, namely the clergy, the noblemen /
warriors and those who work. This division of the society and the justification
for the unequal separation of people in social groups is given with the help of
religion, regarding social inequality as part of Gods hierarchical ordering of
the universe from Him down to angels, men, women, animals, plants and
minerals. In this system, the King is the most important person, having the
loyalty of this subjects and the support of the Church that has the power to
ordain him.
The feudal system introduced by the Norman conquerors is such a
hierarchical system based on two rules: 1. the ownership of land; and 2.
the loyalty of vassals. The king was connected, as if through a chain to
all his people since, at each level of the society, a man had to promise
loyalty and service to a lord. This homage meant that, in return of the land
given by the lord, the vassal promises service and goods, namely military
service or rent and products. The lowest group of people were the serfs, who
did not have any land and were bound to the land of their lord, being little
more than slaves.
William wanted to know exactly who owned the land and he had a
complete economic survey made regarding the ownership of land, the
number of people, the livestock, and so on. This document was called the
Doomsday Book and is a valuable source of information about England at
that time.
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The Anglo-Norman kings strengthened their power, keeping the noblemen

under control and they consolidated their influence in France as well, where
they acquired even more territories, through conquest, inheritance or
marriage, up to the point when King Henry II controlled more land in France
and his lord, the King of France. Unfortunately, his followers were less
worthy, and his son, John Lackland, lost his fathers possessions, including
even Normandy. He was also forced to sign, in 1215, the document called
Magna Carta, through which the noblemen restricted the absolute authority
of the king marking the decay of the feudal system.
CULTURAL AUTHORITY
The culture and mentality of the time were dominated by a number of
institutions: the King and the noblemen, the Church and the Universities.
The Kings court as well as the courts of some powerful noblemen became
centers of culture. The kings commissioned artists, poets, musicians to their
court. Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122 or 1124 1204 ), king Henry IIs wife or
Richard II (1357 1400) were rulers who encouraged art, their courts
becoming cultural centers setting the trend in literature and art. The kings
and the noblemen became patrons of art and artists could create under their
support and protection.
The Church was, however, the most influential institution in the promotion
of literature and art. The growth of literacy was dependent on the schools
founded by monasteries, so learning was mostly religious. Other branches of
art such as architecture, sculpture, wood-carving, wall-painting, stained
glass, enamel, jewelry, embroidery, book production, writing, illumination
and music could develop under the patronage of the church. Medieval drama
developed from the performances destined to various church celebrations
and they were reenactments of biblical tales meant to spread the gospel to
the laity. The chronicles were written by monks, keeping the record of the
historical events of their time. There is no wonder, therefore, that some of
the best writers and writings of the time were religious, such as Langlands
Piers the Plowman, or Julian of Norwich.
Starting with the 12th century, the intellectual initiative passes to
Universities. Oxford university was founded in 1167 and Cambridge around
1284.
4. MEDIEVAL LITERATURE: GENRES AND MAJOR TEXTS
A. CHRONICLES
The chronicles preserve their importance from Anglo-Saxon times. The
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, for instance, was still updated in the 12th century, in
1154. The Benedictine chroniclers were the most active in writing chronicles,
at least until the end of the 13th century. Though many remain unknown,
history still preserved some names such as that of William of Malmesbury
(c.1196/96 c.1143), author, among others, of the Gesta Regum Anglorum
4

(449-1127). The chronicler sees himself as a continuator of Bede, of whom

he appears to be a great admirer and takes into consideration, in writing his
chronicle, both written sources and other types of evidence, such as visual
proof, material remains, architecture.
Another example is that of Matthew Paris (c. 1200-1259), who gave
ample details about contemporary life (he lived during the reign of Henry III:
1207-1272) in his Chronica Majora, though imbued with his own personal
ideas, which makes him rather unreliable, at times.
The last great Benedictine chronicles was Thomas Walsingham (d.
1422), covering mostly the events connected with the reigns of Richard II
(1367-1400) and Henry IV (1366-1413). In spite of a biased attitude, he is
still the major source of information on important events such as the
Peasants Revolt.
Probably the most famous chronicler was Geoffrey of Monmouth (c.
1100 - 1154), especially with his Historia Regum Britanniae (The History of
the Kings of Britain), an extremely famous history of England though, today,
considered unreliable. This chronicle is rather a compilation of various
sources gathered by the cleric and imbued with his own fantasy and not a
translation of an ancient book in the British language as the author
pretends. Whatever it might be and however unreliable it may be considered
nowadays, his text stands at the basis of other literary works that drew
inspiration from it (like those of Gorboduc, Lear and Cymbeline, for instance).
His greatest influence, however, remains in the creation of the Arthurian
myth, of the Round Table and of Merlin as well as of the legend that the
founder of Britain is Brut, a descendent of Aeneas.
B. MEDIEVAL ROMANCES AND COURTLY LITERATURE
The idea of courtly love was a widely-spread conception of the
Middle Ages that envisaged the love between the chevalier / the knight
and the mistress as being led by a set of complicated rules. In an aristocratic
world in which marriage had nothing to do with love, being often more
influenced by politics, the fulfillment of these emotions would be possible
only between unmarried individuals.
The complicated behaviors required by courtly love are connected with
the behavior accepted within the feudal system between the lord and the
knights. In other words, the relationship of loyalty and obedience established
between the lord and his knight is transferred to the relationship between
the knight and the lady he loves, the latter having the superior position of
the lord. The knight, therefore, has to demonstrate that he is worthy of the
ladys love through honorable and courageous deeds, and by doing whatever
is required of him. The texts combine love with the spirit of adventure. As far
as the English literary context, the Arthurian legends are the most popular
texts connected to the spirit of love and adventure required by courtly
literature.
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Henry IIs wife, Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine, was the one who brought
this conception to the English court, by encouraging the presence of poets
and troubadours to sing these love romances. It is very likely, therefore,
that French writers such as Marie de France and Chretien de Troyes might
have written some of their texts in England. Marie de France wrote one text
explicitly referring to the Arthurian cycle, entitled Lanval, whereas Chretien
de Troyes Yvain, Lancelot, Perceval or Le Conte du Graal, became so famous
that they were translated in English and influenced later writers of the Middle
Ages, such as Chaucer, Gower, or Thomas Malory.
The English romances are visibly influenced by the literary conventions
brought to England by the Norman and French noblemen and their artists,
but the most famous are connected to stories about the birth of the nation:
the legendary king Brutus, descendant from Aeneas and founder of Britain
and King Arthur and his knights.
LITERARY TERMS
ROMANCE. In OF romaunt/ roman meant approximately, 'courtly romance in
verse' or any popular book'. Thus romances in verse (and to start with most
of them were in verse) were works of fiction, or non-historical. In the 13 th c. a
romance was almost any song of adventure story be it of chivalry or of love.
Gradually more and more romances were written in prose. Whatever else a
romance may be (or have been) it is principally a form of entertainment. It
may also be didactic but this is usually incidental. It is usually concerned
with characters (and thus with events) who live in a courtly world somewhat
remote from the everyday. This suggests elements of fantasy, improbability,
extravagance and naivety. It also suggests elements of love, adventure, the
marvelous and the 'mythic'. For the most part the term is used rather
loosely to describe a narrative of heroic or spectacular achievements, of
chivalry of gallant love, of deeds of derring-do.
In medieval romance there were three main cycles:
(a) the matter of Britain, which included Arthurian matter derived from
Breton lays;
(b) the matter of Rome, which included stories of Alexander, the Trojan wars
and Thebes;
(c) the matter of France, most of which was about Charlemagne and his
knights.
(J.A. Cuddon, The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms)
The genre of romance is resistant to definition, nowhere more so than in its
manifestation in medieval England. Gestes, if the term refers to epic
narratives, can be seen as too heroic, the layes of the Breton tradition too
lyrical. It is not the purpose of this chapter to adopt any demarcation that
excludes such important contributions to the narrative literature of the
period; rather we will work with a recent definition that is also one of the
simplest, the principal secular literature of entertainment of the Middle
Ages. (The Cambridge History of Medieval
English Literature)
6
LAY/ LAI. A short narrative or lyrical poem intended to be sung. The oldest

The preference for romance characterizes the passage from the

Anglo-Saxon world, with its heroic epics to the Norman civilization. The epic
describes heroic battles and the heroes need to fight monsters to save their
kingdoms/communities. The idea of the hero includes that of savior of his
nation or tribe or clan. He needs to be valiant, skilful, honorable, just and
loyal and he fights because he must; there is no other choice to save his
nation. The romances pertain to a more refined age in which the quest, the
adventure and the danger in facing supernatural beings is a matter of choice
not of instinct of survival. The romance is a form of entertainment of the
aristocracy, and the hero no longer fights for his nation, but for an ideal.
The French chanson de geste stands at the basis of the later English
romances. The chanson de geste (song of deeds) describes the adventures
of the Carolingian noblemen, their wars with the Saracens or among
themselves, intrigues and rebellion. They are all based on a code of chivalry
reflecting the ages conception of the ideal relationship between the lord and
the knights connected with both social and religious duties. The medieval
romances are closely connected with the chansons de geste, and are
stories of adventure or of love including real and supernatural elements.
The first Middle English writing to discuss the legend of King Arthur and
the Knights of the Round Table is Layamons Brut (c. 1200). Layamon, an
English clergyman, was influenced by the French Roman de Brut composed
by the Norman poet Wace, who, in turn, based his text on Geoffrey of
Monmouths History of the British Kings. The poem is named after the
legendary Brutus of Troy, grandson of Aeneas and founder of Britain,
allegedly named after himself. A part of the poem is dedicated to the life and
exploits of King Arthur, a courageous and noble warrior, defender of
Christianity, of law and order, generous, courteous and sensible, with a
wondrous birth and a mysterious death. Layamon tries to unite the old
and the new, adapting the sound of the Old English verse to the new
requirements of rhyme and rhythm. He retains the Old English tradition being
also, the first one to make extensive use of the French material.
In general, however, English romances, which are, in general,
translations, adaptations, rewritings and copies of French romances are
simpler and more direct. They are closely connected to the French lays. The
first one that survived the test of time is King Horn (c. 1225), followed by
Floris and Blanchefleur (early 13th century), Haveloc the Dane (c. 1300),
Bevis of Hampton, Guy of Warwick and Sir Orfeo.
SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT (late 14th century)
Four texts are attributed to a poet whose name is not known, but who seems
to have composed four exquisite works: Pearl, Purity or Cleanness, Patience
7

and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Nothing is known of the life of the
poet, but his works are considered some of the finest English literary pieces
of the period, Pearl, an elegy, Purity and Patience, verse homilies or religious
meditations and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, a romance belonging to
the Arthurian cycle. Due to his knowledge of aristocratic literary conventions
as well as details of the life of the noblemen, from clothing, armors and
weapons, architecture, dishes and entertainment such as hunting, hawking
or chess, it is believed to be close to a noblemans court. He also knew the
Bible and was familiar to the language of the lawyer, courtier, priest, or lover.
The imagery that he uses in his poems is complex and sophisticated,
sometimes employing concrete images for abstract ideas (like the hunted
animals in Sir Gawain as symbolic for the three qualities of his souls). He also
alludes to allegory, drawing on the allegorical religious writings. His symbols
are sophisticated and complex, like Gawains shield that does not point only
to Gawains virtues but calls to mind the virtues of chivalric life and the
conflict between Christian virtues and love depicted in the poem. There are
several conjectures about his profession, from priest or chaplain to lawyer,
but nothing is certain except the fact that he had a daughter who died and
which prompted the writing of the poem Pearl.
The poems belong to the alliterative renaissance, which was a
fourteenth century revival of the old Anglo-Saxon alliterative poetic tradition.
In fact, the lack of manuscripts might suggest that the tradition of alliterative
poetry might have never disappeared in the Midlands (Northeast) and it was
only in the 14th century that it was written down. The very existence of such
poems is seen by some critics as a proof of the continuation of the AngloSaxon tradition. The existence of other alliterative 14 th century texts
suggests that the alliterative conventions used by the Gawain-poet are not
unique, but part of the tradition. However, his works also testify of a
remarkable talent and subtlety: The Gawain-poets work abounds with
sharply defined images, powerfully conceived scenes, richly sensuous details
colors, scents, textures. He is a master of suspense, irony, humor. His castles
are the noblest, most dazzling in English poetry; his gloomy woods are the
gloomiest; his ladies are the most alluring. In addition to all this, his poetry is
the most ornamental successful poetry in English. In Pearl, lines both
alliterate and rhyme, and verbal echoes link the stanzas. In all his poems he
echoes his opening lines in his closing lines; and his alliteration within
individual lines or groups of lines is ingenious. His organization of each poem
is remarkably complex, yet flawless, scene balanced against scene, image
balanced against image. (John Gardner)
Sir Gawain, King Arthurs nephew is, probably, alongside Perceval, the
most famous knight in the Arthurian cycle. In Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight, he appears as an ideal knight, an embodiment of chivalric values,
loyal, honest and courteous. During the story, Sir Gawain needs to past
through a series of trials that test different virtues that a knight is supposed
to possess.
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The story begins with Gawain proving his loyalty to king Arthur, by
accepting, in the place of his king, a game set by a mysterious Green Knight
and thus save the kings life while putting his own in danger.
Would you grant me the grace,
To be gone from this bench and stand by you there,
If I without discourtesy might quit this board,...
I am the weakest, well I know, and of wit feeblest;
And the loss of my life would be least of any;
That I have you for uncle is my only praise;
My body, but for your blood, is barren of worth;
And for that this folly befits not a king,
And 'tis I that have asked it, it ought to be mine,
And if my claim be not comely let all this court judge,
in sight. (Norton Anthology)
This is the first glimpse of his character, in which he demonstrates his
loyalty to the lord as well as his modesty.
The year passes quickly and saddened by the prospect of going to
death, he takes his horse and armor. He is given a shield: on the outside it
has a five-pointed star, the Pentangle, or endless knot, a symbol
perfectly appropriate for Gawain. Each point represents five virtues: he is
faultless in his five senses, unfailing in his five fingers, devoted to Christs
five wounds (received on the Cross), and supported by the five joys of Mary,
and he is a master of five virtues generosity, good fellowship, purity,
courtesy, and charity. (The pentangle is also, traditionally, a symbol used to
ward off black magic.) On the inside of the shield he has an image of the
Virgin, who gives him strength in battle. The shield becomes one of the
controlling symbols of the poem: The outside of the shield the side others
see shows the virtues and talents with which he defends social and religious
order; the inside the side Gawain sees is a reminder of that humility and
otherworldliness which ought to preserve him from involvement in the
worldly order he defends. (Don Howard).
He roams the country in search of the Green Chapel and he fights
monsters and foes, but the worst foe is winter as he needs to sleep in his
armor. He prays to the Virgin Mary to guide him to a resting place and soon
he sees a castle on a hill. It is strange and mysterious, all white as if cut from
a piece of paper. He is welcomed by the lord of the Castle, given clothes and
invited to the table. He also meets the two ladies of the castle: one is
extremely beautiful and the other is very ugly. The old ugly lady is a witch
(Morgan le Fay) and the young is the castles lady, Lord Bercilaks wife.
Bercilak tells him the Green Chapel is nearby and he can stay till the New
Year. In the meantime, being tired, Gawain can remain in the castle to keep
the ladys company while Bercilak rides out to hunt. However, he has to
accept a game of exchanging gifts with Bercilak whatever each wins in his
adventures must give it freely to the other. There are three days and tests,
and while the host hunts deer, boar and fox, the lady tempts Gawain. First,
lured by the lady, receives a kiss, then two, then three. When the host
9

returns, he exchanges the kiss(es) but does not tell how he got it. As the test
is continued, the advances of the lady are bolder. Gawain resists out of
respect for the host and concern for his good name (obeying the knightly
virtues). The lady persuades him to accept a gift, a magical sash or green
girdle who is supposed to protect the wearer. Even if he swore to exchange
gifts, Gawain does not give Bercilak the green girdle, thus failing to keep his
oath. There is a parallelism between the three hunted animals and Gawains
behavior, first he is scared like a deer, then he is bold like the boar in
resisting the lady, and then he is cunning like the fox.
On the New Years Day, Gawain leaves the castle to go to the Green
Chapel. He wears the girdle not out of vanity, but to save his life. If the shield
symbolized his virtues, the girdle symbolizes the fall, It represents
worldliness (the medieval sash or belt is used to carry money bags, keys, and
the like), and it probably also represents secrecy, Gawains loss of that
openness and courtesy which formerly distinguished him. But Gawains
worldliness, the poet insists, is tempered: he is not proud in the sense that
he craves worldly glory but only in the sense that, valuing his own life above
all other things, he forgets his higher nature. (John Gardner)
The Green Knight seems to but does not cut his throat, only scratches
his skin. Eventually, Bercilak reveals himself as the Green Knight and says
that the girdle was his property. However, he forgives Gawain for failing the
test, saying that he is an honorable man and that he was only trying to do
whatever he could to save his life. However, Gawain is devastated and
ashamed. The whole trick was planned by Morgan le Fay, the old lady, who
wanted to frighten lady Guinevere by sending the Green Knight to Camelot.
Upon his return home, King Arthur and the other knights do not
condemn him for this failure, considering that he emerged victorious from
the tests. However, Gawain holds the standard of knightly perfection
extremely high, and he is unable to forgive himself and to be rid of the sense
of shame and of failure. The green girdle that he received as a sign of
Bercilaks forgiveness for his trespassing is, for him, a symbol of his failure:
"But your girdle, God love you! I gladly shall take
And be pleased to possess, not for the pure gold,
Nor the bright belt itself, nor the beauteous pendants,
Nor for wealth, nor worldly state, nor workmanship fine,
But a sign of excess it shall seem oftentimes
When I ride in renown, and remember with shame
the faults and frailty of the flesh perverse,
How its tenderness entices the foul taint of sin;
And so when praised and high prowess have pleased my heart,
A look at this love-lace will lower my pride.
But one thing would I learn, if you were not loath,
Since you are lord of yonder land where I have long sojourned
With honor in your house-may you have His reward
That upholds all the heavens, highest on throne!
How runs your right name?-and let the rest go."
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In the readers eyes, it is only meant to make him more human. The
Gawain poet, however, does not make him err beyond pardon, since his
mistake is not committed for lust, but for the love of life, the less, then, to
blame. In the end, he is the one who cannot forgive himself, while, going
home, he presents the girdle as a sign of shame, the sin once committed, will
never be forgiven.
It is interesting to notice how the story is drawn in such a way as to
question the validity of ready-made ideals and constructions. The real test
for Sir Gawain is not the test that one knight would expect, a test in courage
and valor; he would have passed such a test. It is a test of his virtues, a
moral dilemma that he needs to solve: remain true to the promise made to
his lord or honor the requests of the noble lady, both being rules in the
chivalric code that he is supposed to obey. His failure suggests the frailty of
human constructions, Sir Gawain being disillusioned not only by his own
reactions and mistakes, but also learning that everything was a ruse set by
Arthurs step-sister and enemy, Morgan le Fay, who created a test for King
Arthurs court. So, in the end, everything was a game, but that game
revealed to himself his weakness and made it impossible for him to forget his
own transgression. By losing his blind trust that the chivalric code will always
support him and help him find a solution to any danger or dilemma, Gawain
loses his innocence. The laughter of the King and of the knights at the end,
when he presents the girdle and confesses his sin as well as their decision to
all wear green girdles sound rather ironic and seem to contradict Gawains
sincere distress and loss of faith in his own worth.
C. MEDIEVAL LYRICS
Poetry was the genre in which the linguistic change as well as that in
artistic taste was the most evident. The old alliterative style was replaces by
regular lines, containing a precise number of syllables and an end-rhyme.
As far as the tone and atmosphere are concerned, the somber,
melancholic vision of the Anglo-Saxons was replaced by a more joyful spirit,
a brighter view of life indebted to the French love and adventure poems.
The hundreds of poems that remained in manuscripts can be only
roughly dated, but the authors are unknown. In general, they are popular
songs and poems on different topics
The poem The Cockoos Song (c. 1250) is believed to be the earliest
English lyric and it is a good example of the shift in tone and atmosphere
from Anglo-Saxon poetry to medieval lyrics.
SUMER is icumen in,
Lhude sing cuccu!
Groweth sed, and bloweth med,
And springth the wude

Summer has come in,

Loud sing cuckoo!
Grows seed and blows mead
And blossoms the wood
now

nu--

Sing cuckoo!
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Sing cuccu!
Awe bleteth after lomb,
Lhouth after calve cu;
Bulluc sterteth, bucke verteth,
Murie sing cuccu!
Cuccu, cuccu, well singes thu,
cuccu:
Ne swike thu naver nu;
Sing cuccu, nu, sing cuccu,
Sing cuccu, sing cuccu,
nu!

The ewe bleats after the lamb,

The cow lowes after the
calf;
The bullock leaps, the buck
jumps,
Merily sing cuckoo!
Cuckoo, cuckoo, well singeth
thou, cuckoo:
Never cease now;
Sing, cuckoo, now sing, cuckoo,
Sing, cuckoo, sing, cuckoo, now

The change in the spirit of the poem is evident, the dark view of nature
that was visible in poems such as The Seafarer, is replaced here with the
beauty of spring and of the rebirth of nature, the joy produced by the
blossoming of woods and meadows, the spirit of youth and the energy
transmitted through the presence of playful animals and the regeneration of
nature with the mention of sheep and cow with their babies.
Formally, the drop of inflections allows the possibility of end-rhymes,
whereas the poem is organized in stanzas, with lines of approximately equal
number of syllables.
The poems had different topics. The Song of the Husbandman (c.
1350), for instance, is a satire against lords that own the land and impoverish
the country. It was probably connected to the spirit around the Peasants
Revolt (1381).
For might is right,
Light is night,
And fight is fight,
For might is right, the land is lawless,
For light is night, the land is loreless,
For flight is fight, the land is nameless.
The Owl and the Nightingale an anonymous poem from the middle of the 13 th
century (c. 1250) epitomizes the medieval spirit, with its scholastic
philosophy, based on debate and analysis, the preference for allegory and
the beast-fable form. The debate between an owl and a nightingale is a
debate between the old and the new, asceticism and joie de vivre, isolation
and social life. However, it is quite difficult to see it simply as an allegory,
since the two sides represented in the poem are just characters, neither one
being placed in a central and commanding position but merely exposing its
side of the story and so they function more like characters than emblems.
In a valley, in springtime, a poet once heard a quarrel between an own
and a nightingale. The owl, sitting on a bough covered in ivy appears to the
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nightingale that sits on a blossomed branch, as an ugly, gloomy, pompous,

dirty, nasty creature with a wretched howling that frightens all the other
birds. The poem ends with the decision of the two birds to find an arbitrator
of their dispute, one Nicholas of Guildford, since the owl refuses to engage in
useless verbal attacks against the nightingale, but the author of the poem
breaks of before we manage to find out the result, so, the dispute remains
opened to further debate.
D. POPULAR BALLADS
Fundamentally, the ballad is a song that tells a story. They are oral
compositions composed in an unaffected, simple, straightforward style to be
enjoyed by the simpler audiences. The medieval English ballads are popular
creations, anonymous and they were probably accompanied by music.
Though ballads have been composed through centuries, there are some
elements that are maintained: a) the beginning is often abrupt and, in
general, they deal with a single episodes, the events leading to the crisis
adding up swiftly; b) the story is usually dramatic: revenge, murder, war,
tragic love; c) the language is simple, the story is usually rendered through
dialogue and action and there is often a refrain; d) they are usually
structured in four-line stanzas.
There are different types of ballads, but Medieval English ballads can be
grouped in fie main categories:
1. Ballads of love and jealousy (The Nut-Brown Maid)
2. Ballads bout religious subjects (Judas)
3. Ballads about the supernatural events (The Wife of Ushers Well)
4. Ballads about outlaws (the Robin Hood ballads)
5. Ballads about the rivalry between the English and the Scots - the
Border Ballads (Chevy Chase)

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