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Marine

Biological

Woods

Hole,

Laborolory Library

MossQchusetls

VOL

HYDRODYNAMICS
IN SHIP DESIGN
VOLUME TWO
by

HAROLD
Captain, U.

E.
S.

SAUNDERS

Navy, (Retired)

Honorary Vice-President, The Society of Naval Architects

and Marine Engineers
David

W.

Taylor Medalist

Published by

The

Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers

74 Trinity Place, New York 6, N. Y.
1957

Copyright,

l'.)')?

by
The Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineers

If

man permits

it,

the water of the seas does things for him

surf canoe riding

an incoming wave toward Waikiki

Beach.

Photograph by courtesy

of

Photo Hawaii, Honolulu.

Acknowledgements
This section supplements a corresponding secAcknowledgements in Volume I, to be

Dott. Ing. Emilio Castagneto, Superintendent

the

Rome Model

Basin

(Vasca

Navale;

tion on

of

found on pages vii-xi of that volume.

The author takes this occasion to express his

Instituto Nazionale per Studi ed Esperienze di

number

appreciation to a

of his associates

and

friends

who have been most helpful in the prepara-

tion of

Volume

II.

Listing their

names and accom-

plishments briefly

Mrs.

Claudette

author's

Leveque

Horwitz,

of

the

in preparing the three sets of indexes for each of

Volumes I and II
Mr. W. C. Suthard and the staff members of
the Photographic and Reproduction Division of
the David Taylor Model Basin for taking the
model and flow photographs of TMB models
reproduced throughout this volume; Mr. G. R.
Stuntz, Jr. and Mr. M. S. Harper of the Ship
Powering Division of the TMB Hydromechanics
Laboratory for finding them among the vast
assortment on hand at Carderock
Mr. Werner B. Hinterthan, of the TMB staff,

who

translated

many

of the titles in the

German

references listed in the present volume,

and who

many German

technical

helped the author find

references

Margaret M. Montgomery, for her

and ever-ready help in finding books for
the author and in guiding him around the TMB
Miss

cheerful

library

Mrs. Ruby S. Craven, head of the Aeromechanics Laboratory library at the David Taylor

Model Basin,

for her assistance in looking

many references in aerodynamics and

up

aeronautical

engineering

Mr. C. A.

information concerning models tested in that

basin.

In particular, the author wishes to express his

appreciation for the useful ideas and information

especially for her invaluable help

staff,

Architettura Navale), for assistance in furnishing

Ryman and

other

members

of the

and Shafting, Bureau of Ships,

Navy Department, for calculating the

staff of Propellers

U. S.
weight of the screw propeller designed for the

ABC

ship in Chap. 70 of this volume

Dr. Hans F. Mueller, for his help in furnishing
valuable information in the rather limited field
of rotating-blade propellers

Mr. William H. Taylor, managing editor of

Yachting magazine, who has gone out of his way
to render as.sistance to the author where information from small craft would be of value

found in a number
written during the
titles and Russian
listed
throughout
references are

made

of Russian technical

past decade.

books

The Russian

authors of these books are

the

text

wherever

direct

to them.

In over four decades of experience while

working with others, the present author has been
blessed with constant and heart-warming cooperation to an unexpected degree. Nevertheless, he is
compelled to take this occasion to express his
admiration and gratitude for a superlative
measure of cooperation in the printing and engraving projects on this book. Mr. Richmond
Maury, Mr. W. W. Tompkins, Mr. David G.
Wilson, Captain Horace F. Webb, Mrs. Janet
Jones, Mr. Orvrille W. Harrell, Mr. Henry F.
Drake, Jr., Mr. John L. Moore, Mr. Stuart M.
Holmes, Mr. Raymond C. Jones, and other staff
members of The William Byrd Press, Inc., of
Richmond, Virginia, designers and printers of
the book, as well as Mr. Jay R. Golden, of the
staff of the Industrial Engraving Company,
Easton, Pennsylvania, have contributed with
their efforts and their talents a friendship that
will always be treasured.
Every reference inserted in the text of the book
"is intended as a tacit acknowledgement of assistance rendered by the author, book, publisher, or
organization mentioned in that reference. The
present author and The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers are grateful for
permission to make quotations from and adaptations of material developed by others, whether
published or unpublished. Specific acknowledgements are made in the cases listed hereunder.
The reproductions in Sees. 18.3 and 18.4 of
Chapter 18 in Volume I, of John Scott Russell's
admirable drawings of a boat running in confined
waters, from the Transactions of the Royal

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Society of

lAliiiliurgli,

ns wvll ns the (luoUtion in

See. 48. rj on page 182 of

by

vohuno, arc made

(iiis

Hrpriut-s

CJ.

lished in the

of papers by William
Bottomiey, originally pub-

portions

of

and

II.

1870 1S71 and

l'.:{.")

Proceeding.s.

respectively, of the Institution of Civil Engineers

in

Cin^at

Volume

Britain

and

and included

in

Sec.

37.4 of

Sec. 71.7 of \'olume II, arc repro-

duced by courtesy of the Institution.

The adaptation in Fig. 32. D on page 450 of
Volume I, and the fiuotation on page 557 of
that volume, arc made by permission of E. and
F. N. Spoil, Limited, publishers of the book
"Marine Propellers," by Sydney W. Barnaby,
4th edition.

I'JOO.

The drawings

fouling-resLstance graphs of E. Y. Lewis,

are embotlied in

pormiiision of the Council of that Society.

I'roiuic

The

adapted from the

of the magnetic lines of force in

Figs. LB and I.C of the Introduction to Volume I,

on page xxvi, are reproduced from the publication

"Mo<lem Engineering Practice," edition of 1902,

by permission of the American Technical Society
of Chicago.

volume by permission

of

and

45. L

The

LOG

following books, copyrighted on the dates indicated,

are

by permission

New

Sons, Inc., of

Durand. W.

F.,

of

"Resistance and Propulsion of

Pcabody, C. IL, "Naval .Uchitecture," IU04

Rou.se, IL,

"Elementary Mechanics of Fluids,"

194f.

The quotation from the Reports and Memoranda of the (British) Aeronautical Research
Committee, in Sec. 49.8 on page 195 of the
present volume, is reproduced by permission of
Majesty's
the Controller of Her Britannic

lishers, Limitefl, of

I'iuiei

.Mechanics,"

edition, 1947

Rouse, H., editor, "Engineering Hydraulics,"

The

firm of Hutchinson

and Company, Pub-

178-202 Great Portland Street,

London, W.l, England, in generously granting
permi.ssioii for the use of material from books

by them, advises that the book on

by Juan Baader of Buenos Aires (in
Spanish) is to be i.ssued by them in an English
edition in 1957. It is to be an improved and
enlarged version of "Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces,"
published in 1951; the Enghsh title will be
I)ul)li.shed

Stationery Office.

The c|uotation in Sec. 30.5, on page 127 <if

Volume I, is reprinted from "Elements of Yacht
Design," by Norman L. Skene. Copyright 1927.
1955 by Quentin H. Skene.

publication rights to the book "Sail

John Wiley and

Y'ork:

Ships," 1903

1950.

(now Marine

1950 cnlition of "TheoHydrodynamics" are by permission of The

Macmillan Company of New York, publishers of
the American edition, and of Macmillan and
Company, Limited, publishers of London, for the
British and other world markets.
The quotations and adaptations from the

Vennaril,.!. K., "l-^icnicatary

1

Ixjg,

of this

(Quotations from the

bridge Philosophical Socictj'.

of

The

i.ssuc

retical

2Md

The

1948
45.

Engineering/ Ixig).

on page 299 of
The quotation in Sec. 20.
Volume I, is from the Proceedings of the Cam-

Renewal

May
Figs.

and

iiiotorboats

Power," by UlTa Fox, are held by Peter Davies,

Limited, of London. The quotation in Sec. 40.3,
on page 3 of this volume, is published with their
permis-sion. Rcjidei-s will be interested to know'
that this firm maintains a stock of the I'fTa Fox

"Cruisers and Speetlboats."

books on jachting.

the text.

Mr. Thomas D. Bowes, consulting naval archiand engineer of Philadelphia, made it possible
to embody the photograph of the fircboat in

tect

action, reproduced as Fig. 7G.II on page 775 of

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
SOURCE ABBREVIATIONS FOR REFERENCES

xix

xx

PART 3 PREDICTION PROCEDURES AND REFERENCE DATA

CHAPTER 40 BASIC CONCEPTS UNDERLYING ALL CALCULATIONS AND PREDICTIONS
40.1

40.2

Calculation of Ship-Design and Performance Data

Useful Formulas Embodied in Theoretical

The

Hydrodynamics
40.3

40.4
40.5
40.6
40.7

Present Limitations of Mathematical Meth-

The

Principles of Similitude

Dimensions

of Physical Quantities

....

3
4

Terms

Double or Multiple Solutions to the Equations of Motion

The Derivation and Use

of "Specific"

ods

CHAPTER 41 GENERAL FORMULAS RELATING TO LIQUID FLOW

41.1
41.2

The Use of Pure Formulas

The Quantitative Use of Dimensionless
Numbers; The Mach and Cauchy NumThe Euler and the Cavitation Numbers
The Froude Number and the Taylor Quotient
Calculation of the Reynolds Numbers
.

Application of the Strouhal

The

Number

Planing, Boussinesq, and

Weber Num-

bers

41.8

Derivation of Stream-Function and Velocity-

Formulas

for

Typical

Two-

Diniensional Flows

41.9
7

bers

41.3
41.4
41.5
41.6
41.7

Potential

8
11

17

Velocity-Potential
and
Stream-Function
Formulas for Three-Dimensional Flows
The Determination of Liquid Velocity
.

41.10

Around Any Body

20

Conformal Transformation

24
25

Quantitative Relationship Between Velocity

and Pressure in Irrotational Potential Flow

25

Tables of Velocity Ratios, Pressure Coefficients,

Ram Pressures and Heads ....

30

r.ONTENI'S

viii

C'HArTKU
43.6

43.7

The

DKl.lNKAlluN

;{

Construclion

ol'

SolUCK-SIXK FI.oW OlAt iKAMS

Two-Dimensional
Stream Piitterns from

of

Stronm Forms iiikI

Liiu* Sources and Sinks
Flow Pattern for tlie T\vo-Dimeniiionnl
Doublet and the Circular Stream Form
Graphic Const met ion of Three-Dimensional
Stream Forms and Flow Patterns ....
Variety of Stream Forms Produced liy
Sources and Sinks
Source-Sink Flow Patterns by Colored
Liquid and Kleetric Analogy
.

43.8
43.9
43.10

CH.-VPTEH 44 FORCE,

MOMENT. AND

4:i

11

Cuntimifd

I'ormulas for the Calculation of Stream-Form

Shapes and the Flow Patterns .Vround

Them

51)
13.

12

67

The Forces Exerted by or on Bodies .\round

Sources and Sinks in a Stream; Lagally's

CI

Theorem
13

()2

-13.

(')7

43.14

G8

Partial Ribliography on Sources

and Sinks
70

and Their .\pplieation

Selected Heferences on I.Kigally'3

FT.OW DATA Fni; TIvnUOFOTT.S

Theorem

AXO

71

EQI'IV-

ALENT FORMS
44.1
44.2

44.3

General; Scope of Chapter

Formulas for Calculating Circulation, Lift,
Drag, and Other Factors
Test Data from Typical Simple .Mrfoll.-* and
Hydrofoils

44.4
44.5
44.6
44.7

Polar Diagrams for Simple Hydrofoils

Test Data from

Flow Patterns
Pitching

Compound

.-Vroiind

Moment;

Hydrofoils

N'floi'ity

aiul

Pressure

Fields

.\round

It. 10

Spanwise Distribution of Circulation and

44.11

Kffective .\.spect Ratio for Equivalent Ship

Lift

75
5

75
5

78
8

Typical Hydrofoils

14.9

Hydrofoil

Hydrofoils
44 12

44.13

Center-of-Prcssure Loca-

tion

44.8

10
80

Design Notes and Drag Data on Hydrofoil

Planforms and Sections
Quantitative Data on Cascade and Interference Effects

Distribution of Velocity and Pressure on a

Hydrofoil

80

CHAPTER 45 VISCOUS-FLOW DATA AND FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

45.1

82
83
8.3

83
84

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 46 REFERENCE DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEX MOTION Continued
46.6
46.7
46.8

Phenomena Around Geometric

and Non-Ship Forms
Vortex Streets and Rehited Phenomena
Vortex Streets and Vibrating Bodies

Separation

CHAPTER

46 10

ber to Singing and Resonant Vibration

References on Eddy Systems, Vortex Trails,

141

141

and Singing

143

144

AND EFFECT OF CAVITATION ON

-THE INCEPTION

47-

Practical Applications of the Strouhal

Num-

46 9
140

SHIPS

AND

PRO-

PELLERS
47.1
47.2

47.3
47.4

of This Chapter
General Rules for the Occurrence of Cavitation on Ships and Appendages
Vapor-Pressure Data for Water

Scope

Numbers
The Prediction
47.6

Nomogram

Tables of and

for

145

146

Cavitation

147

47.9
47.10

on Hydrofoils

of Cavitation

and Blades
Cavitation Data for Bodies
and Other Bodies

47.7

145

The

Effect of Cavitation on Screw-Propeller

Performance
Photographing the Cavitation on Model and
FuU-Scale Propellers
Propeller Cavitation Criteria

Hub

Predicting

of Revolution

47.11
47.12

151

153
154

Cavitation and

Hub

Vor-

texes or Swirl Cores

149

152

155

Prediction of Cavitation Erosion

156

Under Supercavita-

Propeller Performance

156
157

tion

Selected Cavitation Bibliography

CHAPTER 48 DATA ON THEORETICAL SURFACE WAVES AND SHIP WAVES

48.1
48.2

Purpose of This Chapter

Theoretical

Wave

Patterns

Surface

48.3

Hogner's Contribution to the Kelvin

Summary of the Trochoidal-Wave Theory

Standard Simple and Complex Waves for

Design Purposes

160

48

Delineation of a Synthetic Three-Component

161

48
48
48

161

Elevations and Slopes of the Trochoidal

Wave
48.6

48

Wave

System
48.4
48.5

160

on a Water

Complex Sea
Tabulated Data for Actual Wind Waves

Tabulated Data on Length, Period, Velocity,

and Frequency of Deep- Water Trochoidal

Waves

166

Orbital

48.8

Water Waves
Data on Steepness Ratios and Wave Heights

Velocities

for

Trochoidal

for Design Purposes

Formulas for Sinusoidal Waves

48
48

166

48
169

170

Bibliography on Subsurface

48

175

176

Wind- Wave Patterns and Profiles by Modern

Methods
Comparison Between Waves in Shallow
Water and in Deep Water
Shallow- Water Wave Data
General Data for Miscellaneous Waves; The
Tsunami or Earthquake Wave
Bibliography of Historic Items and References on Geometric Waves

48

Deep-

48.7

172
.

The Zimmermann Wave

163

171

Waves

....

177

180
181
181
182

185

CHAPTER 49MATHEMATICAL METHODS FOR DELINEATING BODIES AND SHIP

FORMS
Scope

This Chapter; Definitions

....

49.1
49.2

The Usefulness of Mathematical Ship

49 3

Existing Mathematical Formulas for Deline-

49.4

Mathematical and Dimensionless Represen-

of

Lines

ating Ship Lines

Summary

49.9

....

of Dimensionless General

tions for Ship

49.7
49.8

199

49 14

by Mathematical Methods
Example for Fairing the Designed

199

191

Illustrative

192

49. 15

Practical

49.16
49.17

The Geometric Variation

Application of the Dimensionless Surface

Equation to Ship-Shaped Forms

49.6

....

189

Section-Area Curve
Longitudinal Flowplane Curvature
Checking and Establishing Fairness of Lines

198

49.12
49.13

49 10

187

tation of a Ship Surface

49.5

49.11

Graphic Determination of the Dimensionless

Longitudinal Curvature of any Ship Line
Mathematic Delineation and Fairing of a

186
186

Equa-

Forms

Limitations of Mathematical Lines

....

Value and Relationship of Fairness and

Curvature
Notes on Longitudinal Curvature Analysis
.

Waterline of the

193

of

ABC

200

Ship

Mathematical Formulas for

Faired Principal Lines

192

195

Use

Selected

196

References

of Ship

Relating

matical Lines for Ships

Forms
to Mathe.

203
204

204

CONTENTS

CIIAPTKU 50-MArili:MAII("AI, MI'miODS OF CALCULATIXC TIIK PUKSSlIiK KESISTANCK OF SHIPS

50.4

General
&irly KfTorta to Analyze and Calculate Ship
Resistance
Mo<lern Developments in the Calculation of
Pressure Resistance due to Wavemaking
Assumptions and Limitations Inherent in

50.5

Presenf-Day Calculations
Formulation of the Velocity-Potential Ex-

60.1
oO 2

50 3

pression

50.6
50.7

The Calculation of Wavemaking

ComjKinents of the Calculated Wavemaking
Resistance

C'llAl'li;i;

51.2
51.3

51.4

I'ltol'oiM'lOXS

.-.1

50.8

Compiirison of Calculated and Experimental

Resistances
._

207

50.9

Other Features Derived from Analytic Ship-

210

50.10

Ship Forms Suitable for Wave-Resistance

212

50.11

N'ocessarj'

211
215

50.12

Practical Benefits of Calculating Ship Per-

Wave

AM)

Improveraenta

210
in Analytical

and

formance
50. Ki

223
223

223
228

DATA
51.5
51.6
51.7
51.8
51.9
51.10

Hofercncc Material on Theoretical Rcsistanrc Calculations

l-'oR

2115

217

Mathematical Methods

SIIAI'E

General Comments
Parent Form of the Taylor Standard Series
References to Tabulated Data on Principal
Dimensions, Proportions, Coefficients, and
Performance of Ships
References to Tabulated Data on Yachts
and Small Craft

Relations

Calculations

2IG

Retii.st:incc

51.1

200

219
220
221

rVPR'Ar> SHU'S

Designed Waterline Shapes and Coefficients

Reference Data for Drawing Section-.\rea
Curves
"Standard" Body Plans
Single-Screw Body Plans
Twin-Screw Body Plans
Multiple-Screw Sterns

228
230
231

234
236
236

CHAPTER 52 ANALYSIS OF FLOW DIAGRAMS AND PREDICTION OF SHIP FLOW

P.VTTERNS
52.1
52.2
52.3
52.4
52.5

52.6
52.7

Scope of Chapter
Typical Ship- Wave Profiles
Wave Profiles Alongside Models

239
239
241

General Rules for Wave Interference Alongside a Ship

Estimate of Bow-W'ave and Stern- W'ave
Heights and Positions
Prediction of the Surface- Wave Profile

Typical

Lines-of-Flow

Diagrams

for

52.10
52.11

244
246

Ship

Models
52.8
52.9

243

Analysis of Model Surface-Flow Diagrams

Observation and Interpretation of OfT-theSurface Flow Data on Models

Elstimating the Ship Flow Pattern on the
Body Plan
Prediction of the Ship Flow Pattern at the

218
250
254

255

52.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 54 ESTIMATING THE AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS Continued

54.5

Notes

on

Wind-Resistance

Models

and

54.6

Bibliography
Tests

54.7

Drag

of

Model

Wind-Resistance

Coefficients for Typical

Hulls and Upper

Abovewater

Works

54.8

Comments Concerning Wind-Friction Re-

64.9

Drag and Resistance with Wind on the Bow

sistance of

64.10

278

Testing Techiniques

an Abovewater Hull

CONTENTS

xii

CIlAITICll
58 4
58.5

oS UrNMXC.-ATTrn

AND SHIP-MOTIUN DIAGRAMS CoiUimu-d

1)K

DatA on Sinkngo and Change of Trim iu

Shallow and Restricted Waters
ChanRis of Attitude and Trim of Sliips with

CHAPTER 59-PREDICTIX{;
59 2
59 3

59.5
59.6
69.7
59 8

Open-Water Test Data

i>;i:2

References to Published Uat^i

Craft with Spceii and Other Factors

:J29

SM

Performance
Devices

59.11

.\rea Hntios,

333

Performance Data from Scrcw-PropcUer

Design Charts
Performance Dat:i on Puddlcwheels and
Sternwheels
Bibliography on Puddlewheels
Test Results on Rotating-Blade Propellers
Available Performance Data on HydraulicJet, Pump-Jet, and Gas-Jet Propulsion
Performance Data on Controllable and Re-

59.12

335
59.13

335
335
337

of

Miscellaneous

Propul.sion
.339

Blade Widths, and Blade-Heli.x

.\nglesof Screw Propellers
Pertinent Data on Flow Into PropulsionDevice Positions
Data on Induced Velocities and Differential
Pressures

59.11
59.15
59.10

337
338

OF PROPULSION DEVICES

10

.j'.l

332

Model Screw

for

Devices

59.9

58.7

:i!I(>l!MA\CE

Relationship to Other Chaptor.i

I'^timatvof Propulsion-Dcvioc KITioienoics
Propellers

59.4

Variation of Attitude and Position of Planing

320

Fat Hulls

59.1

58

328

59.17

versible Propellers

The Thrust-Load Factor and Derived Data

of Screw-Propeller Thrust
from Insuflicienl Data
Relation Between Thrust at the Propeller
and at the Thrust Bearing
Estimates of Thrust and Torque Variation
per Revolution for Screw Propellers

341)

341

343
345

.\pi)ro.>;imation

346
347

348

CHAPTER 60SHIP-POWERIXG DATA FOR STEADY AHEAD MOTION

60.1
60.2

General
Estimation or Calculation of Effective and

60.3

Effect of Displacement and

60.4

on Effective Power
Methods and Factors Involved

Friction

Power

tXJ.9

tJO.lO

Merit Factors for Predicting Shaft Power

Shaft-Power Estimates by the Ideal-Effi-

358

00.15

358
300

00.10

Estimating Sliaft Power for a Fouled- or

Rough-Hull Condition
IiiiTcasing the Power and Speed of an

Three-Dimensional Wake-Survey Diagrams

Interpretation and Analysis of the

....
.

(il THE

ciency

TMB

Three-Dimensional Wake Diagram

Estimating the Ship-Wake Fraction
Prediction of the Thrust^Deduction Fraction
Finding the Relative Rotative Efruiency

Ships and Propellers

Axial-Component W'ake-Fraction Diagrams

CHAPTER
61

355

60.13
60.14

in Predicting

60.8

Determination of the Propulsive Coefficient

Data from Self-Propulsion Tests of Model

354

at Propulsion-Device Positions

60.6
60.7

60.11
00.12

Trim Changes

Shaft I'ower

60.5

354

00 17

302

308
370
374

OU.IS

Method

Existing Ship
Powering for Two or More Distinct Operating Conditions
Backing I'ower from Self-Propelled Model
Tests

PREDiCTIOX OF SHIP RE1IA\ lOR IX COXFIXED WATERS

375
377
380
383

385
387

388

388

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 61 THE PREDICTION OF SHIP BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS Continued

Data on Power and Pro-

61.16

Lack

61 17

Data on Confined- Water Operation

of Reliable

pulsion-Device Performance
.

critical

61.18

Data on

Running

and

Positions

Steering in a Channel

61 19
.

Unexplained

61.21

Summary

Restricted

412

Speeds
Offset

61.20
411

at Super-

Prediction of Ship Resistance in Canal Locks

Anamolies in Shallow and

Water Performance
and Restricted- Water

Effects

414

Partial Bibliography on the Effects of

61 22
.

413
413

fined

414

of Shallow-

Con-

...

Waters on Models and Ships

415

CHAPTER 62ESTIMATING THE ADDED MASS OF WATER AROUND A SHIP IN UNSTEADY MOTION
62.1
62.2

62.4

General
Added-Liquid Masses for Some Geometric
Shapes and for Selected Modes of Motion
Comparison of a Vibrating Ship with a
Vibrating Geometric Shape
The Change of Added Mass Near a Large

Boundary

417

62.5

419

62.6

423

62.7

432

62.8

Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients of

Vibrating Ships in Confined Waters
Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients for
Vibrating Propulsion Devices
.

Added-Mass Data for Water Surrounding

Ship Skegs and Appendages
Partial Bibliography on Added-Mass and

Damping

Effects

433

436
438
439

PART 4 HYDRODYNAMICS APPLIED TO THE DESIGN OF A SHIP

CHAPTER 63BASIC FACTORS IN SHIP DESIGN
63.1

Definition of Ship Design

63.2
63.3

Application and Scope of Part 4

General Assumptions as to

63.4

The Fundamental Requirements

442
442
Propelling

Machinery

443
for

63.5
63.6
63.7
63.8

Every

Ship

Design as a Compromise

444

The Essence of Design

The Design Schedule for a Ship
The Field for Future Improvements

444
444

De-

in

444

sign

443

CHAPTER 64 FORMULATION OF THE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS INVOLVING HYDRODYNAMICS

64.1

General

64.2
64.3

The

First

Task

446
446

of the Designer

Statement of the Principal Design Requirements

64.4

Absolute Size as a Factor in Maneuvering

64.5

Requirements
Tabulation of the Secondary Requirements

452
452

446

CHAPTER 65 GENERAL PROBLEMS OF THE SHIP DESIGNER

65.1

65 2
.

Interpretation of Ready-Made Design Requirements

Departures from the Letter of the Specifieations

65 3
65 4
65 5
.

Design and Performance Allowances

....

Basis for the Selection of Ship Dimensions

Determination of the General Hull Features

65.6

Limits for Wavegoing Conditions to be Encountered

65
65.8
65

The Bracketing Design Technique

454
.

454
454
457
457

Adherence to Design Details in Construction

Guaranteeing the Performance of a New Ship
Design

458
458
459
459

CHAPTER 66STEPS IN THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN

66 1
66 2
66 3
66.4
.

General Considerations
Analysis of the Hydrodynamic Requirements

Probable Variable- Weight Conditions

First Weight Estimate

460
460
463
463

66

Approximation to Principal DimenThe Waterline Length and Fatness

Ratio

First

sions;

66.6

The Longitudinal Prismatic

Coefficient

464
467

COXTIXTS

xiv

CHAPTER 6C STEPS

IN

Maximum-Section

rill-:

66.7

The

608

Draft Hiid lU-nm

Finit Ktini;itc of Hull Volume

66.9
06.10
00.11

l'i;i:i.l

Tlio

Coefliciont;

First Approxlniiilion to Shaft I'ower

Secoiiil l'>tim:itv of

l'rin('i|>:il Wi'iglitjt

Second Approximution to

Ml \ M; V

Dimen-

I'rinoipiil

Proportions

sioiiM uiul

66.12
00.13

Selection of Hull Shape

00. 14

First llstimnte lU-hiting to Motuccntric Sta-

06.15
00.10
00.17

First Skeloh of Designed Wiiterline

Layout

Contour

of Mu.xinuim-Scction

bility

66.18
06.19
66.20
60.21
66.22

I'j!timiitfd

Shape

Draft Variations

Sketching

Section-Area

the

The

Curve;

Miuximum-Area Position
Middlebody
Bulb-Bow Panimeters
Transom-Stern Parameters
P:irallcl

The Preliminary Section-Area Curve

I/ongitudinal

Position

of

the

Center

of

Buoyancy
66.23

Preparation
S<MMi()nM

of

Small-Scale

Profiles

and

DESIGN Continued

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 68 LAYOUT OF THE ABOVEWATER FORM Continued
68.14
68.15

Shaping and Positioning of Superstructure

and Upper Works
Design of Facilities for Abovewater Smoke
and Gas Discharge

68.16

Reducing the Wind Drag

Spars, and Rigging

68.17

Consideration of Increased Draft Through

the Years
Preparation of Hull Lines for Model Tests

561

563

68.18

of

Masts,

the

566

566
566

CHAPTER 69 THE GENERAL DESIGN OP THE PROPULSION DEVICES

69 1
69.2
69 3
69.4
.

69 5
69 6
69.7
.

Introductory

Comment

Type and Number of Propulsion Devices

Positions and Limiting Dimensions

....

Type and Design of Propelling

Machinery
and
Number
Position of the Engines
Use of Systematic Wake Variations ....
Rate and Direction of Rotation of Propul-

69 9
.

69.10

Graphic Representation of Powering Allowances and Reserves

576

69.11

Selection of Feathering, Adjustable, Reversible, or Controllable Features

578

69 12

Propulsion Devices to be Used with ContraVanes, Contra-Guide Sterns, and Contra-

69 13

Disadvantages of Unbalanced PropulsionDevice Torque

Propulsion-Device Design to Meet Maneuvering Requirements
Relation of Propulsion-Device and HullVibration Frequencies

580

....

612

Calculating the Thrust-Load Factors and

the Advance Coefficients

613

Effect of

sion Devices

69.8

567
667
568

570
570
572

Rudders
.

572

Design to Equalize or to Apportion the

Powers of Multiple Propellers
Powering Allowances

69.14
573
574

69.15

579
579
580

CHAPTER 70SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

70 1
70 2
70.3
.

General Considerations
Design Requirements for a Screw Propeller
Comments on Available Design Methods
and Procedures

70.4

Requirements

70.5

Comments on and Comparison

for.

Availability

Listing of Propeller-Series Charts

70.7

70.8
70.9
70.10
70.11

70.12
70.13
70.14
70.15
70.16
70.17

....

Preliminary-Design Procedure, Employing

Series Charts
Modification of Series-Chart Procedure for
Other Design Problems
Preliminary Comments on Propeller-Design
Features
Selection of Propeller Diameter

Determining the Rate of Rotation ....

The Proper Pitch-Diameter Ratio; Pitch
Variation with Radius
Choice of Number of Blades
Use of Raked Blades
Propeller-Hub Diameter; Hub Fairing
Determination of Expanded-Area Ratio;
Choice of Blade Profile
Selecting and Applying Skew-Back ....
Design Considerations Governing Blade
.

70.21

Type of Blade Section ....

Shaping of Blade Edges and Root Fillets
Partial Bibliography on Screw-Propeller
Design
Design of a Wake-Adapted Propeller by

70.22

ABC

70. 19

70.20

Selection of

the Circulation Theory

70.23

70.24

Ship Propeller Designed by Lerbs'

1954 Method
Choice of the Number of Blades for the
ABC Design
Determination of Rake for the ABC Propeller

583

70.27

First Appro.ximation of the

70.28

Second Approximation of /3, and the Radial

Thrust Distribution
Determination of the Lift-Coefficient Product
and the Hydrodynamic Pitch-Diameter
Ratio
Finding the Blade-Thickness Distribution
Blade-Section Shaping by Cavitation Cri-

Hydrodynamic

Pitch Angle and the Radial Thrust Dis-

584

615

tribution

589

Width
70.18

Propeller-Disc and

of Propeller-

Series Charts

70.6

70.25
70.26

and

of,

Hub Diameters

582
583

592
596

596
597
597

617
620
621

teria

Procedure

616

When

Cavitation in

Not Involved

625

Corrections for Flow Curvature and Viscous

Flow
598
599
600

625

Final Blade-Section

ABC

Shapes for the

Design by Lerbs' Method

627

Introducing Skew-Back in the

601

ABC

Blade

Profile

Drawing the Propeller

Calculating the Expected Propeller Efficiency

627
629
629

602
603

Summary

630

605

Method; Schoenherr's Combination

Avoiding Air Leakage with Inadequate Sub-

605
606

mersion
Design Comments on

631

606

Design of Bow Propellers,

Free-Running

609

Open- Water and Self-Propelled Model Testa

Mechanical Construction; Tjrpe of Hub;
Shaping and Finish of Blades
Blade Strength and Deformation
Propeller Materials and Coatings to Resist

of

Design Steps for Lerbs' Short

.

Supercavitating

611

612
612

70 46
.

Propellers

for

the

Range

631

Coupled and

Erosion
Prevention of Singing and Vibration

....

632
632
633
634
635
636

CONII.NIS

xvi

CHAPTKK
71

71

TllK 1)KSU;N Ol' xMlSL"KLLANKt)r.S ruoi'l

1,S1(JX

DIOVICKS

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 74 THE DESIGN OF THE MOVABLE APPENDAGES AND CONTROL SURFACES
74.1
74 2
.

706
706
708

General
Positioning Rudders and Planes

74.3
74.4

Single or Multiple Rudders?

74.5
74 6
74.7

Design Procedure for Conflicting Steering

Requirements
First Appro.ximation to Control-Surface Area
Determining the Proper Areas of Various

715

74.8

Control Surfaces
Positioning the Stock Axis Relative to the
Blade; Degree of Balance
and Proportioning of Chord wise

720

74.9

Selection

Sections
Structural Control-Surface Design as Affected

722

74 10
74 1 1
74.12

Design Notes for Motorboat Rudders

Design of Close-Coupled and Compound

the Rudder
Portion of the Ship

Shaping

and

the

Adjacent
709

by Hydrodynamics
.

Rudders

713
713

723
724
726

74.

c:()N rr;\ IS

niAi'iiiK
1

2
3

Tin:

iivDitonvNAMic" dksicn of a MontiiUoAT

l'l;l;I.I.\ll^Ali^

Scope of This Chapter

General Considcmtions Rcluting to Motorboat DesiRn
S|)oci!il
ncsinn Features for Small-Cnift

-I

Ppsikh Notes for Displacemcnt-Tj'pe Motor-

Scmi-rinniiig and Planing Small Cnift

Operating Requirements for Planing Forms

Gcncril Notes on the Powering of Small Craft
Principal llequirementa for a Preliminary

l>0!its

...
.

Design Study
".I

in

.Viialysis of

the Principal Requirements

Tentative Selection of the Tj-po and Proportions of the Hull

First Space I.,ayout of the 24-Knot Planing
Hull

12

13
.14

Weight Estimate; Weight-Estimating

Procedure
Second Weight E.stimato
First .\pproximation to Shaft and Brake

.15

Selecting the Hull Features; Section Shapes

.16

Risc-of-Floor Magnitude and Variation

.17

Chine Shape, Proportions, and Dimensions

Buttock Shapes; The Mean Buttock ....
Trim .\nglc and Center-of-Gravity Position;
Useof Trim-Control Devices
Spray Strips
Stem Shape

19

.20
.21

78 3
78.4

C'll.\l'li:i;

78.1
78 2

77.25
77.26

Design Check on a Basis of Chine Dimensions

Second Estimate of Shaft Power, Bac<l Upon

823
823
824
824

77.28

825
826

77.29
77.30

Effective Power
Running Attitude and Fore-and-Aft Position
of the Heavy Weights
First Space T^ayout of the 18-Knot RoundBottom Hull
First Weight Estimate for the 18-Kiiot Hull
First Power Estimate for the 18-Knot and

820

7S

Interdependence of Hull-Design Features

I.,ayout of the Lines for the ABC Planing.

Type Tender

14-Knot Conditions
the 18-Knot

827

Selecting

827

Layout

828

77.33

831

832
835
83C
837
839

77.34
77.35
77.36
77.37
77.38
77.39
77.40

840
841

77.41

843
846
847

850
852
853

and
854

of the Lines for the

ABC

Round-

Bottom Tender
Example of a Modern Round-Bottom UtilityBoat Design
Design for a Motorboat of Limited Draft
.

Estimate of Screw-Propeller Characteristics

Propeller Tip Clearances; Hull Vibration
.

Still-Air

842
843

853

Shape

Hull

Characteristics

First

Power

18

Deep Keel and Skeg; Other .\ppendage8

822

Hulls
.

77.22
77.23
77.24

819

Dnigand Wind Resistance

....

Design of Control Surfaces and Appendages

Third Weight Estimate
Self-Propellod Tests for Models with Dynamic Lift
Partial Bibliographj' on Motorboats
.

....

855

858
858
859
859
862
862
863
864
865

842

MoDEI^TESTING PROGRAM FOR A LARGE SHIP

Preliminary

Model-Test Data Desired for a Major-Ship

Design
Model-Test Notes for Preliminary ABC
Designs
Use of Stock Model Propellers for First Self-

78 5
78 6
78.7
78.8

Displacement and Draft Conditions

Resistjinee Tests

78 9

Sclf-Proi)elled Tests

78 10

Open-Water Propeller Tests

78.11

Neutral
Tests

868

78.12
78.13
78.14

Controllability Tests in Shallow

869

78. 15

870

Propulsion Tests

....

Wave

Profiles and Lines of Flow

Flow Observations with Tufts; Sinkage and
Trim; Wake Vectors

Rudder

8G8

871

78.16
78.17

872
873

78.18

874
875
876

Wavegoing Model

.\ngli'

iind

Maneuvering

Water

Testes

Vibratory Forres Induced by the Propeller .

Reporting and Presenting .Mwlel-Test Data
Test Results for Models of the ABC Ship
Comments on Model Tests and Analysis of
.

876
876
877
877
877
879

Data

78.19

Proposed Changes in Final Design of ABC

Ship
Comments on Illustrative Preliminary-Design Procedures of Part 4

APPENDIX

Symbols and Their

Al'i'KNDIX

:i

Mcchanieal Properties of Water, Air,

APPENDIX

Uaoful Data for Analysis and Comparison

898

900

Titles

aiui

Other Media

915

926

PERSONAI^NAME INDEX

933

SHIP-NAME INDEX

911

SL'HJECT

INDEX

918

Introduction
Taking

for

granted a knowledge of the material

in

Volume

it

aside temporarily

a reader or user

I,

calculations for

is

enabled to lay

and make the estimates or

the preliminary hydrodynamic

Scott Russell, Rankine, and other contemporaries

in stretching to the

of

hydrodynamics

architecture.

utmost our existing knowledge

in

its

They made

application

to

naval

incorrect assumptions

tours, graphs, diagrams, tables,

some instances, and arrived at solutions which

had to be corrected, but there is no doubt
that in doing so they advanced both the analytical
and applied phases of the art.
A good measure of care is called for in the
application of data derived from past practice
and observations, in both ship operation and
model experiment. As Sydney W. Barnaby
observed in his book "Marine Propellers," written

makes

in 1900,

design of a ship, or the parts thereof, as well as

to carry through such a design, solely

to

Volume

II.

The

by reference

latter is to be considered a

reference or design volume, containing

little

or

no

theory or exposition and only sketchy descriptions

phenomena

of the

or physical laws involved.

The

publication of these experimental and reference

data in a separate volume, in the shape of conit

and other aids,

from Volume I much of
quantitative data which would have

possible to omit

the strictly

interfered greatly with the continuity of its story.

Many

of

the aspects

hydrodynamics as

of

in

later

"No

table can supply the place of judg-

ment and experience." By a generous

practical examples, in
ulas, graphs,

insertion of

which the use of the form-

and procedures

is

illustrated in the

applied to ship design have not yet been investi-

preliminary hydrodynamic design of a hypothet-

gated analytically, or else only the easiest and

simplest of the problems have been solved. In

ical ship,

these cases

it

is

necessary to

fall

back upon

derived.

experimental results and empirical data. It must

be admitted that in some respects our knowledge

of naval architecture has not expanded greatly
its position of nearly a century ago. At that
time the renowned hydrodynamicist, naval archi-

from

Wilham John Macquorn

and engineer,

tect,

Rankine, was moved to observe that:

"Owing

principally to the great antiquity of the art

and the immense number of practical

experiments of which it has been the subject, that part
of it which related to the forms of water-Unas has in many
cases attained a high degree of excellence through purely
empirical means. Excellence attained in that manner is
of an uncertain and unstable kind; for as it does not
of shipbuilding,

spring from a knowledge of general principles,

it can be
perpetuated by mere imitation only" ["On Plane WaterLines in Two Dimensions," Phil. Trans., Roy. Soc,

London, 1864, Vol. 154,

Nevertheless,

p. 386].

when

necessity demanded,

kine himself was forced to

data, as

is

fall

evidenced in his

Ran-

back upon empirical

book "Shipbuilding:

In general,

made with
primary units of pounds, feet, and
seconds. Ship speeds may be given in knots in
the statement of the problem but are entered as
feet per second in the calculations.
Wherever practicable, curves and graphs are
supplemented by simple diagrams illustrating the
coordinates or parameters.
It is pointed out in the Introduction to
I,

and repeated

relationships
equalities,

every possible instance, an effort

is

made

Volume

that the formulas and

used in this book for expressing

and the like are, with very

ratios,

certainty as to units, physical concepts,

as, in

here,

few stated exceptions, in what is known as pure

form. That is, they involve only physical concepts and basic relationships between these
concepts. The units expressing them are kept
entirely separate, to be selected by the one using
the relationship. This procedure leaves no un-

No

volume, especially

calculations in examples incor-

English

factors

apologies are therefore offered for following

all

porated in this volume of the book are

Theoretical and Practical," published in 1866.

this procedure in the present

embodied in Part 4, the reader may see

what sort of answers and solutions are

for himself

which

may

and other

be hidden in a mixed equation.

case in point is the former use of 1.00 for 0.5p

in salt water, in the English pound-foot- second

system.

The pure form

also facilitates checking

to tie in these data with physical laws governing

for dimensionality because all physical quantities

the motion of liquids.

stand out clearly. Furthermore, the relationships

are dimensionally consistent, so that equalities

Nor

are any apologies offered for following J.

ABBRl

SC)1 RC.l.

have

pliysioal

Kjinu'

till*

aro

nititts

iliinoiisioiis,

lONs lOR Rl

tunipio iiuiitlH>n<, niui mi on.

any systoni

l'mploy^^^ witli

Ih

with any i-onthinations of

may

tlierffort'

of inwusuriMnont or

unit.s in

I.

SIS horses.

as follows:

The

(a)

EfToctive

(h)

Fatness mtio

-'

(O.IO/,)'

tion

of

To

(water

times

gravity)
gh.

indicate

that

or

*,

example

= L

veliH'ity

times (distance))"

The

is

L.t.

elimination of mixeti quantities in power

0. 15I>5

no nuxlern application.

lias practically

necessitates the use of

It

and 550, the use

the term horse as a puir unit, and strict con-

arbitrary figures such as

formity of numerical

I^^.IXH)

vniits

short ton of 2,(KH) (Hiuniis

freiiuoiu-y in

with tho.se

lijiuivs.

naval

simple solution

is

to use the large

and nnich handier unit, for the

system at least, would bo KHH) pouiul-

of a metric ton.

volumes the author

has introduced some historical highlights where
they seemed to be appropriate, and has mentioned
the

names

often

of

The

Finally, throughout both

done by a horse served conveniently as a

it

could iw

weight unit of structural mechanics, the kip, or

kilopound, equal to 1,(K)0 pounds. It is O.o of a

Witli

point of r'ferenco a contviry ago;

much ambiguity

of a standard lar^e weight unit.

short ton, O.lUVl of a long ton of 2,211) pounds,

((acceleration)

((L//')L)"

to

conu' in

architecture and shipbuilding on inland lakes and

formulas represents somewhat of a ilepartm-e fron>

standanl practice. The rate at which work could
Ih'

u.se

appearing with incn^ising

and

= "Vgh =

may

is

dimeiisionally ctinsistent
c

kind

((accelera-

depth))"

this

this

long ton o{ 2,JI() pounds and the metric ton

pounds are of the sjxme order of maKiiiludo

waterways.

wave =

SihhhI of a shallow-water

(c)

by the

but are not equal.

voliuno dividinl by (a con-

decimal .simplicity

and equivalent

J,'Jt)5

times sjMvd, or

RV

stant times IcngllO'

of
rt'sistaniv

change of

.\

its

kilowatt

the meantime,

In
siveil

similar in

the futunv

a particular

sysloni. Brii'f oxaniplos of thosi- applications arc

power =

Rl \t;i:s

the well-known

to

T\\v purv' foriuula.s uiul oquiitiuns

fool-.>i'coiul units,

of pioneers in various hues of endeavor.

many developments now

tiiken for granted,

(he people responsible for originating

them are

the words of an

unknown
when

forgotten.

eiiitorial

In

writer of

some

three decades ago,

discussing an article about the originator of the

set of Simpson's rules:
'AVo

wi.sh

iireliiUvtun'

vastly simpler

!uliln>.ss

F^nglish

;i.i

well

.'iiul

iux

on

tliiit our futuri' :ulv;inci'<l

n\il
on iiiival
would follow llu- tlictuf of Or. Wolch's
us, with ilui- |in>portion, on nu'u
!.;.<

oiilighti'ii
tliii\>'.'<"

(SUSli,

l.'i

Nov

I'.C'a,

pp. O00-4i01|.

SOURCE .\BRREVI.VriONS lOR REFERENCES

The

soun^e abbreviations employe*.! through-

.Ml.\

out the text and listed here are formetl by combining the first letters of the principal wonis

composing the
the

like,

titles

or of the

of books,

names

groups wliich have publishetl

ceodings,

The

and reports

re.sulting

alphabetic

one

of

tniiisiictii>ns,

tion, AS of 19511, to
citetl

ics,"

and
and
pri>-

kiiui or another.

abbreviations an> set

orvler, ttigether

the references

periiniicals,

of organizations

down

Ilill.

in

.\M

permit the reader to look up

or to get in touch with the

nue,

York. 1934
Motorship, Diesel

New York

I\il)-

Ave-

N. Y.
Research Committee,
16,

ARC

.\eronautical

.\SCE

.Vmerican Siniety of Civil Engineers,

threat Hritain

"Aerotlynamic Drag," by S. F. Iloerner, 11)51 publi.sheil by the author,

lis Uusteiil, Midlan.i Park. X. J.

X\ West ;59th Stn>et,

IS,

AKW

New

(.\mericaii)

lications. Inc., 192 Ix'xington

with suHicient informa-

organizations concerneti.

AD

Hydro- and .\eromwhaiiby L. Prandtl and O. G.

Tietjens, translatetl by J. P. Den
Ilartog (substantially an English
translation of II.\M). Enginwring
Societies Monographs, Mctlraw-

".\pplitxl

.\dminilty KxiH'riment Works,

lar, (IiKsport,

IIsus-

Ham|islure, England

.V.sJME

New York

N. Y.

.\merican

Sm-iety

Engintvrs, Xi

New York

IS,

of

\\\M
N. Y.

Mechanical
;t9tli

Stre<t,

SOIIRCF, AHI5KKVIA
ASNl'l

American

ASTM

BuildinK,

1012

14Lh

Street,

by Dr.

FD

"Fluid Dynamics," by Dr. Victor L.

son Street, Iloboken, N.

FIIA

1936
(formerly

BEG

Bassin

neering

FMTM

cenus,

Germany
des

6,

HPSA

Kempf and

Scientific

British Shipbuilding Research Assoc-

Chesterfield

iation,

5,

Curzon

Street,

jjj)

USVA

land

C and R

Bureau

of

(prior to 1940)

jj'p

Comptes

CIT

California Institute of Tcclmology,

Academic

Rendus,

U.
D. C.

Office,

25,

Hamburgische

Pasadena

Schiffbau

Navy,

S.

Versuch-

EAAT

"Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew

Theory," by H. Glauert, Cambridge

7,

ICSTS

University

2nd

Press,

Cam-

edition, 1948

by a conference
2nd ICSTS

Ship

of

held at

The

"Congrfes

in

London

in 1934.

International des

Direc-

teurs de Bassins, Paris, Octobre

"Engineering Hydraulics," edited by

Dr. H. Rouse, Wiley, New York,

1935" (Published by the Imprimerie Nationale, Paris, 1935)

1950

Experimental Model Basin, Washington (prior to 1941)

"Elementary Mechanics

Conference

Hague, Holland, 1933. This conference was preceded by a preliminary meeting of the superintendents of European model basins
in Hamburg in 1932, and followed

D. C.

bridge, England,

International

Tank Superintendents

4, California

David Taylor Model Basin, Wash-

SNAME,

Transactions,

1943
1st

DTMB

ington

Historical

des

Sciences, Paris

EMF

Hydrographic
Washington

(Hamburg Shipbuilding
Experimental Establishment),
Hamburg, Germany (prior to 1945)

Construction and Repair,

OR

EMB

"Hydro- und Aeromechanik," Vols.

I and II, by L. Prandtl and 0. G.
German), Julius
(in
Tietjens,
Springer, Vienna, 1934 and 1931
"Hydrodynamics," by Sir Horace
Lamb, Dover Publications, New

sanstalt

Navy Department, Washington

EH

Hamburg,

York, Gth edition, 1945

fj

Gardens,

London, W.l, Eng-

E. Foerster,

des

G.

Editors,

1932

HAM

York, 1953

Barnaby, Hutchinson's

Probleme

"Hydromechanische
Schil'fsantriebs,"

"Basic Naval Architecture," by K. C.

and Technical Publications, London and New York, 1948. A new

edition was published in 1954.

BSRA

by Prof. George F. WisliMcGraw-Hill, New York,

1947
Car&nes,

Mechanics of Fluids," by
Hunter Rouse and J. W. Howe,

New

Monographs,

Societies

"Fluid Mechanics of Turbomachinery,"

"Basic

Wiley,

BNA

Hydro- and AeroPrandtl and

of

McGraw-Hill, 1934

Boulevard Victor, Paris (15me),

France

BMF

"Fundamentals

O. G. Tietjens, (in English), Engi-

only

Paris, France
American Towing Tank Conference
Versuchsanstalt,
Aerodynamische

d'Essais

New

mechanics," by L.

ATTC
AVA

Volkenrode,

Publica-

York, 1948

lioulevard Haussmann,

1,

McGraw-Hill

J.

tions in Aeronautical Science,

Association Technique Maritime et

ATM),

New

Wiley,

ETT

Streetcr,

A6ronautique

Rons(!,

IT.

York, 1940
Experimental Towing Tank, Stevens
Institute of Technology, 71 1 Hud-

Pa.

ii,

"Aerodynamic Theory," by Dr.

W. F. Durand, series of six
volumes (in English), Julius Springer, Rerlin,

ATMA

IONS K)R RKFERENCES

lOiifri-

N.W., WaHlihiKton 5, D.C.

American Society for Testing MatePhilarials,
19l() Race Street,
delpliia

AT

NiiviU

Suite lOO'l, (JoniiiuMi-

neci's, Inc.,

tal

of

Hooioi.y

3rd

ICSTS

"Internationale

der
of Fluids,"

Tagung der

Leiter

Schleppversuchsanstalten,"

Berlin, 1937

SOURCE .\BHRL\1\I
Ith

ICSTS
M'STS

lOR

(This conferoiico was to liave been

Home

held in
r,tl.

li)\s

in 19;?9)

Intoniafional Conference of

"Fifdi

9,

MKSR
MESA

Tank Superintendents," London, I'JIS (Piil)lishetl by H. M.

Stiitionery Odicc,

ICSTS

London, 1949)
Conference

International

"Sixtli

Tank Superintendents,"

of Sliip

1951 (Published by
SNAMl-:. 1953)
"Seventh International Conference
on Sliip Ilydrodj'namics," Scandinavia, 1954 (Published by SSPA,
1955, Rep. 34)
WatihiiiRton,

7tli

ICSII

ICT

International

Graw-Hill,

ME

lESS

Critical

New

PT

abbreviation

of

is

for

this

"I.E.S."

Hydraulic

Iowa City, Iowa

Institution of Naval Architects, 10,
Upper Belgrave Street, London,
S.W.I, England
Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnol6gicas,

MU

neering,

Ann

NA
NACA

NBS

National

Bureau

Standards,

of

Wa.siiington 25, D. C.

NECI

Coast

Xortli-East

Institution

of

SSo Paulo, Brazil

Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

Towing Tank Confer-

ence, formerly
of

ASME,
York

ICSTC and ICSH

Applied

NN

Towing Tank, Hydraulic Laboratory, Newport News Shipbuilding

and Dry Dock Company, Newport

NPL

National Phy.sical Laboratory, Ted-

NSP

Nederlandsch

Mechanics,

33 West 39th Street,

18,

New

News, Virginia

N. Y.

Journal of Research, National Bu-

D. C.

dington, Middle.sex, England

Aktiebolaget Karlstads Mekaniska

Developments in Fluid
Dynamics," Vols. I and II, edited
by Dr. S. Goldstein, Oxford Uni-

Whitehall Te.lini<:il

Pn-.s,s,

(Netherlands

Exijcrimcnt

Ship-

Establish-

ment), Wageningen, Holland

NW

Model

Ba-sin,

The Technological

In-

Northwestern University,
Evanston, Illinois
Office of Naval Research, Navy Department, Wiushington 25, D. C.
On nance Research Laboratory,
Pennsylvania State University,
stitute,

ONR

versity Press, 1938

"Marine Engineering," Vols. I and

II,
e<litc<J
by II. L. Seward,
SNA ME, 1942 and 1944
Marine Engineer and Naval .Vrcliileet,

building

KaMeWa)

"Modern

Scheepsbouwkiindig

Proefstation

Werkstad, Kristinehamn, Sweden

(.sometimes called

Eng-

land

reau of Standards, Washington 25,

MENA

Langley Air Force

Laboratories,

Base, \'irginia.

Engineers and Shipbuilders, Bolbec

Journal

ME

University of Michigan,

Arbor, Michigan

Pra9a Cel. Fernando Prestcr, 110,

lAM

MI>11>

and Shipping Age,

Marine Engineering, and more
recently Marine Engineeruig/l.,og,
30 Church Street, New York 7,
N.Y.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 39, Mass.
".\ Manual of Naval Architecture,"
by Sir William H. Wiite, Van
Nostrand, New York, 1900
"The Modern System of Naval
Arcliitecture," by J. Scott Russell,
3 vols., London, 1805 (out of print)
Naval Tank, Department of Naval
Arcliitecture and Marine Engi-

basins at the Langley Aeronautical

Institute

International

KMW

Ma-

York, formerly

Re-

Iowa

riTC

.Ill

New

search, State University of Iowa,

official

Institution in Great Britain

Review,

"Naval Architecture," by C. H.
Peabody, Wiley, New York, 1904
National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, 1512 H Street, N. W.,
Washington 25, D. C. Also model

The

\A

MSXA

Elmbank

Crescent, Glasgow, C.2, Scotland

MNA

York, 1926

Marine Engineers, 85,

Minories, London, E.C.3, England
Institution of Engineers and Ship-

Institute of

builders in Scotland, 39,

IIIIR

MIT

Mc-

Tables,

Catherine Place, S.W.I, Lundun

EnRincering and Shipping

.Marine

rine Engineering

Sliip

Gth

kl 11 Ri;Nt:K.S

ORL

University Park, State College, Pa.

OTT

llyilraniic

Labiinitory,

Division

of

SOURCE ABBREVIATIONS FOR REFERENCES

Mechanical Engineering, National
Research Council, Ottawa, Canada

PD

Model

Propeller

Data

sheets,

SNAME

RandM

Naval Architecture,"
by H. E. Rossell and L. B.
Chapman, SNAME, 1939, Vols.
I and II
Reports and Memoranda of the
"Principles of

ARC, Great

RD

SBMEB

Builder,

33,

Street,

STP

"Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Prac-

many
tical,"

SD

"S.

&

S.

TABLAS

Vols. I

SEE

SH

and

II,

by

G.

S.

Baker,

"Theory

adjective only)
of

Prof. A.

and

Naval Architecture," by

M. Robb,

Charles Griffin

USNI

London, 1952
Taylor Standard Series of models
United States Naval Institute, An-

WRH

napohs, Maryland
Werft-Reederei-Hafen; combined

Co., Ltd.,

with Schiffbau und Schiffahrt into

Liverpool, 1933

und Hafen, C. D. C. Heydorns

Buchdruckerei, Uetersen bei Ham-

1866

TNA

"Ship Efficiency and Economy," by

G. S. Baker, Liverpool, 1946
Schiff

M. Rankine,

TMB

TH

"Ship Design, Resistance, and Screw

Propulsion,"

J.

"Semejanza Mecanica y Experimentacion con Modelos de Buques,

Tablas, Canal de Experiencias Hidrodinamicas, Madrid, Spain, 1943
"Theoretical Hydrodynamics," by
L. M. Milne-Thomson, Macmillan,
New York, 1950. A third edition
was issued in 1955.
Taylor Model Basin (used as an

TSS

R."

by W.

(out of print)

The customary contraction for the

name of this periodical in Great Britain
is

Gote-

STG

Westminster,

London, S.W.I, England

Establishment),

Sweden
Schiff bautechnischen Gesellschaft,
Albert Ballinhaus, Hamburg, Ger-

House, 10,
Terrace, Newcastle-

Tothill

sheets,

borg,

Townsville

Shipbuilding and Shipping Record,

Data

Seamanship, and SmallBoat Handling," by C. F. Chapman, Motor Boating, 572 Madison

periment

Cartington
on-Tyne, 6, England

SBSR

N. Y.

6,

Self-Propulsion

Avenue, New York, 1951 edition

Statens Skeppsprovningsanstalt
(Swedish State Shipbuilding Ex-

ing of Ships," by

RS
SandP

New York

Trinity

SSPA

"Resistance, Propulsion and Steer-

W. P. A. van
Lammeren, L. Troost, and J. G.
Koning, Amsterdam, 1948
Royal Society, London
"The Speed and Power of Ships,"
by D. W. Taylor, 3rd edition,
U. S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D. C, 1943
Shipbuilder and Marine Engine-

74

"Piloting,

and Propulsion of
by W. F. Durand, Wiley,

York, 1903

and

Architects

SSBH

"Resistance

New
RPSS

Model

Naval

Engineers,

SNAME

Britain

Model Resistance Data and Expanded Resistance Data sheets,

Ships,"

of

Place,

SPD

SNAME
RPS

Society

Marine

edited

36,

Germany

SNAME
PNA

Hamburg

burg, Neuerwall 32,

und Werft in
und Hafen
Journal of Zosen Kiokai, The Society
of Naval Architects of Japan.
the periodical Schiff
1943; see

ZK

SH,

Schiff

PART

Prediction Procedures and Reference Data

CHAPTER

40

Basic Concepts Underlying All Calculations

and Predictions
40

The

Calculation of Ship-Design and Perform-

ance Data
Useful Formulas Embodied in Theoretical

40.2

Hydrodynamics

40.4

The

40.5
40.6
40 7

The Derivation and Use

Present Limitations of Mathematical Methods

40 3
.

The

40.1

Calculation

Performance Data.

The

of

Ship-Design

reader

who

and

first

part

The second

part

is

Double or Multiple Solutions to the Equations

of Motion

of "Specific"

how much and how many. Nor will a

how explicit, point the

story alone, no matter

way

out of the hydrodynamic tangles that

may

be expected to confront the naval architect and

marine engineer of tomorrow. He must have better

and sharper tools with which

more puzzhng problems.

in general form, considering a

is

simple or schematic ship.

3
4

Terms

answers of

progresses

this far in a consecutive perusal of the book has

found a word and a graphic picture of the flow
phenomena associated with the motion of a ship.

The

Principles of Similitude

Dimensions of Physical Quantities

in

more detailed form, having to do

newer and

to face

derivations, processes,

This third part of the book, therefore, is devoted to an exposition of the methods whereby
flow and its phenomena may be deflned in
graphical, mathematical, and numerical terms. It
gives a description of the methods, formulas,

omitted from the

procedures, and other aids whereby the influences

successively

with the behavior and

and

its

To

effect of

an actual ship

many components.

avoid breaking up the story, mathematical

and formulas are purposely

two parts, except in a few
The reader has been asked to take

special cases.

first

and

the story largely on faith, with copious references

if

his faith appears to

There

is

waver at any

second of D.

W.

when

Indeed,

Manifestly,

it is

the ultimate aim of

architecture, to develop

be

all

those

who

and to

refine

methods

of

computation and calculation by which any aspect

of the performance of a ship or any of its parts
may be predicted on paper and in the design
stage. The modern hydrographer can not afford
to wait on the spot to see what the height of the
tide and the strength of the tidal current will be
at Point
ten years hence; he has designed and

p. 246]:

"... The problems of stream-line motion have hitherto

been almost out of the reach of everybody except practical
mathematicians; not because all such problems are too
abstruse for anyone but a practical mathematician to
understand, but rather, because all treatises dealing with
those subjects have been condensed and written, so to
say, in a language which no one but practised technical
mathematicians can understand."

ship, nor

may

take a deep interest in these phases of naval

discussing the

Taylor's papers on stream forms

1895 [INA, Vol. 36,

and 2

the ship designer.

point.

another reason for this procedure, well

expressed by R. E. Froude

effects described in Parts 1

predicted or calculated in quantities useful to

machine that predicts it for him. The

modern owner, operator, and naval architect, by
the same token, can not wait, with a ten-million
built a

a story alone can not design a

meet those modern needs which demand

dollar ship at stake, until it runs sea trials to

1

HYHROnYNAMICS
fiiul

out whether

tjpitil

of the twentietli centurj' at his

io wontii-rs

eommand,

this respect, especially

in

the help of model tests. However,

it is

with

not wise

much on nunlel results that analytic

and prediction procedure sufTer by con-

to rely so
ability

sequence.

Useful Formulas Embodied in TheoHydrodynamics. The amazingly large

40.2
retical

grouj) of naval architects, engineers, scientists,

and mathematicians, manj" of them of great

renown, who devoted their thoughts, energies,
and talents to a study of the mechanics of fluids,
have tackled the problems confronting them
along two general lines. Some have conducted
experiments, analyzed data, and evolved theories
explaining the fluid action obser\'ed. Others have
started with certain basic assumptions and
premises, like the principles of continuity and
conser\'ation of energj- and the laws of mechanics,
and have succeeded, bj' reasoning and intuitive
processes, in deriving fundamental mathematical
expressions for the behavior and flow of ideal
liquids.

By

is

lines of endeavor, there

can be derived

in

too

known
where

of the well-

kinetic-energj- formula for solid

E =

ii.bmV^, and

maintains the

sum

energies constant,

ram pressure

is

tliird

sure 7 = O.opf/". The modern engineer uses this

formula, as he does many others like it, without

a moment's hesitation as to
certainly without requiring

its
its

accuracy and
experimental

confirmation.

hydrodynamics

The

by the mathematics of classical hydrcxlynaniicsare

to the mfKJern naval architect and marine engineer
ju.st HO many u.seful tools. This is the reason why
the chaptirrs which follow are given over to a
presentation of formulas gathered from many
.s<jurce,
without including the mathematical
proofs or derivations

among them. The

may

upon the mathematics as a

continue to

mearm

to

an

|(M)k

end,

without

rendering

engineer
iiimself

of

them can best be

architect

himself.

The

them

or to

of the ship.

who

reader

wishes to familiarize himself

with the mathematical theoiy and processes of

hydrodynamics is referred to a number of textbooks and other publications. The authors, titles,
and other data on these books, listed in Sec. 1.3
of the Introduction to

Volume

I,

are repeated

here for convenience:

R. C, "Fluid Mechanics," Prcntice-llall,
York, 1947. A third edition appeareti in 1955.
Vennard, J. K., "Elementary Fluid Mechanics,"
Wiley, New York, 2nd edition, 1917. A third
edition appeared in 1951.
Rouse, II., and Howe, J. W., "Basic Mechanics of
Fluids," Wiley, New York, 1953
Rouse, H., "Elementary Mechanics of Fluids,"
Wiley, New York, 194G
Prandtl, L., and Tietjens, O. G., "Applied Hydroand Aeromechanics," McGraw-Hill, New York,
Binder,

New

(2)

(4)

(5)

1934
Rouse,

New
(7)

II., ICtlitor,

"Engineering Hydraulics," Wiley,

York, 1950

Dryden, H. L., Murnaghan, F. D., Bateman, H.,

"Hydrodynamics," National Research Council,
Wasliington, 1932

(S) Slrceter,

V.

L.,

"Fluid

DynainicM," McGraw-Hill,

New

(9)

York, 194S
Binder, R. C, "Advance*! Fluid Dynamics and Fluid
Machinery," Prentice-Hall, New York, 1951

(10) Goldstein,

In this respect, the everyday formulas derived

many

naval

formulate better ones can be omitted from the

knowledge of one who aims to specialize in the

(C)

a body of revolution. Here the

Uquid-strcam velocity is zero, and the ram pres-

the

mathematical derivations in this

part should not be taken, therefore, as an

at the stagnation point in the center

of the nose of

to say that

bj'

indication that the ability to derive

of the potential
it

mean.

the}'

omi-ssion of the

bodies,

by the tlieorem which

and kinetic
possible to deduce the

much

derived

(3)

numerical tenns.

work. However,

Furthermore, as the science of ship propulsion

and ship motions progresses, more and more new
formulas are needed. Many of them can be derived
only through mathematical processes. It is not

a surpri.sing store of mathematical

For example, by the application

know what

engineer shoulii

expressions by which data on the flow of real

licjuids

ilaiiy

to apply these or other formulas intelligently, the

(1)

aviiilablt!

exjircssions, like the ram-pressure

formula, that help him in his

a judicious combination of the results

stemming from these two

Src. 40.2

vulnerable, as long as .someone cLso continues to

work out new

methods

nuHlerii t^hip designer, with all the

and data
can

mniiitnin a reasonable

stomiy weather.

ill

The

will

it

1\ SHIP Dl.SlGN

S.,

"Modern

Developments

in

Fluid

Mechanics," Vols. I and II. Oxford Prcts, 1938

(U) Milne-Thomson, L. M., "Theoretical Hydrodynamics," .Macmillan, New York, 2nd edition, 1950
(12) Lamb, Sir Horace, "Hydrodynamics," Dover, New
York, 0th

40.3

rcvisetl e<iition, 1915.

Present

Methods.

Limitations

of

Mathematical

.Matlicmutical and jiiialytical nicduxis

in their present state,

even though stretched to the

utmost, can by no means .supply all the an.swers

wanted l.v llif nindrrn marine nrcliitecl. Thi-y

BASIC CONCEPTS FOR CALCULATIONS

Sec. 40.4

can not, in fact, supply any but incomplete

answers in cases where the physical phenomena
are not as yet fully understood. Friction-drag
formulas for ship plating are a case in point.
Despite an enormous amount of time and energy

expended on the problem of friction flow, both

in air and in water, the mechanism of fluid
friction is still incompletely understood. Formulas
much better than those now in use can not be
expected until this knowledge is achieved.
Heretical as it may seem to mathematicians,
the use of mathematics, in both science and
engineering, must always be tempered by good
judgment. In fact, it is a generous gift of this
same good judgment that makes a good engineer

(as for the lapt foot of the 50-foot plank) throughout

the last 250 feet of the surface, or to cease entirely after
50 feet; while it is perfectly certain that the truth must lie

somewhere between these assumptions."

According to E. V. Telfer and F. H. Todd, as

described in the reference cited:
".
believing the truth to lie between them, but
unable to decide on which was nearer to the absolute truth,
he (Froude) compromised by taking an exact mean curve."
.

A more modern example might arise

architect were called

upon

if

a marine

to estimate the hydro-

conditions,

dynamic resistance of the balsa-log raft of South

American design, called Kon-Tiki and used by
Thor Heyerdahl and his companions in their
voyage from Peru to the South Pacific Islands in
1947 [Heyerdahl, T., "Kon-Tiki," Rand-McNally,
1950]. Assuming that he could approximate the
drag of one log, moving end on, he would with

always

reasonable certainty estimate that the total drag

any line of work.

must be recognized that mathematics is
always based on some kind of assumptions and
in

It

which the mathematician hopes are

complete and correct. They may be
neither. This is Avhere judgment enters, in advance
as well as in the wake of the mathematics.
It may be interesting to quote here the comments of one well-known designer on this phase
of the subject [Fox, Uffa, "Sail and Power,"

New

York, 1937,

person who has

the sense to use the right formula and start with the true
value. Too many mathematicians today multiply an unknown quantity by an illogical factor, and arrive at proportions that a man with discerning eyes can see are
wrong, even though the mathematicians believe the answer
to be correct if the mathematics are correctly worked."
It

must be

of value to the

said in defense of mathematicians

that they are by no means the only people

"multiply an unknown quantity by an

who

illogical

was

less

than nine times

know

that the drag was more than that of a box-shaped

body having the same planform,

the

same

general dimensions, and the same volume dis-

placement.

p. 20]:

"Mathematics are only

of the nine logs abreast

the drag of one log. Similarly, he would

By

a series of approximations of this

kind he could narrow the probable resistance to

within rather close limits.

The

diversion in this section

as a caution,

and

is in

as a discouragement.

space

is

no sense

The

is

intended partly

to be looked

upon

fact that considerable

devoted in the chapters following to

means for deriving quantitative data should serve

as an indicator of its importance in this line of
work.

For an intelUgent and proper use

of the data,

the reason for inserting some

however, a certain amount of preliminary knowl-

mathematical cautions in a design book for naval

architects and marine engineers. Nevertheless, it
becomes necessary at times to venture far afield
in one's need for arriving at some kind of numerical

edge is necessary, and a few specific rules are to

be observed. These are described briefly in the

factor." This

is

answer.

example

of this

by William Froude

kind was well de-

in his reports of the

early 1870's to the British Association [Todd,

SNAME,

F. H.,

1951, p. 316],

when

discussing

the means of extrapolating his 50-ft plank friction

The

Principles of Similitude.

comments

of similitude,

The

dynamic

similarity of flow

in parentheses are those of the present

utilizing

the dimensional-analysis methods ex-

data to ship lengths of 300

ft

or more.

author:
"...

A knowlforming the basis

of all model-testing procedures, is not necessary
for an understanding of the calculation, prediction,
and ship-design methods described in Parts 3 and
4 of this book. However, for the marine architect
who is interested in knowing the conditions for
40.4

edge of the theory

classic

scribed

sections following.

it will

make no very great difference in our

estimate

of the total resistance of a surface 300 feet long, whether

we assume such

decrease to continue at the same rate

and motions, and in

pounded by Lord Rayleigh, the n Theorem of

Riabouchinsky, and elaborations upon them by
R. C. Tolman, E. Buckingham, P. W. Bridgman,
and others, a background of general knowledge of

HYDRODYNAMICS
\\\c

thion- ami principles of similiUuie

IN SlllP Dl-.SKiN

assuredly

is

iiecessan'.

who

refresh his

method,
menmry, or look up doubtful points, a

partial

of references

Fur

reader

tlie

list

wishes to study

is

lliis

-to.

(Princeton Univ. Press, 1950, pp. 182-183|

I,., "Dimensional Analysis and Theorj'

(24) I.,!inghaar, H.

New York, 1951

"Dimensional Analysis," Macdonald,

of Mmiels," Wiley,
(25) Huntley, H. E.,

given:

Sec.

accompany a chapter on modeling and

dimensional analysis in his book "Hydrodynamics"
subject, to

Ivondon, 1952
il)

(2)

(3)

HiBbourhinsky, D., "M^-thodc den Variables dc

Dimcndion Zero ct son Application en Af rodynamiquc (DimensionleRR \'arial>los and Their Uso in

AiToilynamics\" A6rophilo, 1 Sep 1911

Rayli-igh, IajmI, Brit. Adv. t'omm. Aero., Ann. Rop.,
1::JS. 1010: 2:20, 1911; 3:30, 1912
Tolmnn, U. C, "The Principle of Similitude," Phys.

BuckinRliam, Iv, "On Phy.sically Similar Syplems,"

Phys. Rev., 1914, Vol. IV, p. :}45
(5) Tolman, R. C, "The Principle of Similitude and the
Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity," Phys.
Rev., 1915, Vol. VI, p. 219
(4)

Buckingham,
of

(7)

(8)

E.,

"Model

E.\i)eriment8

Empirical Equations," Trans.

(11)

Slocum,

S. E.,

SNAME,

102-106, from Buckingham's

pp.

(4) of this series

ref.

Discussion of

of the basic

(10) of this series,

ref.

Dryden, H. L., Muriiaghan, F. D., Bateman, H.,

"Hydrodynamics," Nat. Res. Council, Wa.shington,
19:J2, pp. 4-6
(13) Buckingham, E., "Dimensional Analysis of M(mI(I

ASNE, May

Pages 107-198 of this paper

1936, pp. 147-19S.

list

24 references on

the subject.

"Dimensional Analysis,"

Bridgman, P. W.,
University

(15) Rouse, H.,

Pre.ss, rev. edition,

Mechanics

"Fluiil

PNA,

Yale

19;J7

for

architects

O.

Applie<l

1939, Vol. II, pp. 67-58,

(10)

"Experimental

Fluid

60, pp.

Dynamics

NECI, 1943-

to I'^ngincering Practice,"

HM4, Vol.
(IS)

A.,

24-25

or a

(20) Vcnnjird,

Wiley,

No. 1
Mechanics,"

19-16, Vol. 13,

"Elementary Fluid
York, 2nd eJitiori, 1947, pp. 142 153

K.,

J.

New

(21) C1inrp(^nticr,

ASME,

H.,

"Introduction

aiix

NK'thodes Di-

merurionnelloK (Intrmluclion to Dimensional

O.U)."

ATMA,

UM7.

and engineers are derived

may

list

Better

still,

(22) Roiwc. H., i;il, IBM), Appx., pp. 1MI5 WS. 1001 lOW
(23) O. BirkhofT givoo a lint of cightMn references on this

bj' relatively

be kept handy for ready reference.

may be derived each time they

they

(lix 2.

and tangents

X;itural sines, cosines,

of angles

are perhaps the simplest examples of dimensionless

Others are pitch

ratios.

and aspect

engineer, or so he

ratio.

may

blade-thickne.ss

ratio,

Unfortunately for the

think, there are no limits

to the coni])iexity or intricacy of other dimensionless

Among

combinations.

the particular 0-diml

exprc.'^sions of interest to the

na^al architect are

the comijlete set of hull-form and ])ropcller-form

Froude luimber /' the Reynolds

and the cavitation index (^(sigma).
All of these are important, and they arc in constant
use in one form or another.
coetficients, the

number

The
sions

//

opposite sides of

(House,

EH,

II.,

all

etiviations involving

must have the

10.50,

pp.

.sjune

dimen-

i)'.l.'-)-!)!)8).

formula for a (luantity must have the dimensions

Take

of that (luantity.

the familiar

2gh.

g is an acceleration having the

dimensions of a length // divided by a time I
is 0-<linil;

and the height h has the dimensions of

= (L/l'){L) = // l' =
/.. Hence
(/y//)' = v. Another example is the formula for
lift force /., which is L = r',.(()..'ip).t f '', where .1 is
the |)rojected area of lui airfoil or hydrofoil and f/

stiuared,

a length

Mcth-

Vol. 46, p. 156

of

are needed by the procedure described in .Vppen-

Here 2

Rouw, H., EMF, 10^16, Appx., pp. 'AhX'ATA

Van Driest, Iv R., "On Dimensional .'Vnalysis and
Prc!(,-ntatinn of Data in Fluid Flow Problems,"
Jour. Appl. Mcch.,

The dimensions

simple processes and are tabulated in full in

Appendix 2 of Volume I. They may he memorized

physical (]uantitie.s

00-61
(17) Hnnkins,

terms

dimensions of length, mass, and time,

described elsewhere and employed constantly in

Hydraulic Engi-

neers," McGraw-Hill, 1938, Chap.

(10) Davidson, K. S. M.,

Quantities.

not versed in dimensional

needs to be clearly visualized. Only in this way

can the dimensionless (0-diml) relationships

(12)

(14)

is

analysis or the theory of similitude, the concept

ratio,

1923, pp. R0-S7

Proi-ller Tests,"

or

is

York, 1953.

Physical

of

the various physical quantities in general use by

pp. 99-106, which include the deduction of the

n Theorem on

Wliellier one

New

Martin's Press,

Dimensions

40.5

the book be well understood.

1915,

Phys. Rev., 1910, Vol. VIII, p. 423

(9) Buckingham, E., "Notes on the Methml of Dimensions," Phil. Mag., 1921, Vol. 52, p. ti<)6
(10) Tavlor, D. W., "Propeller Design Based upon Model
E.\i)eriments," SNAME, 1923, pp. 57-109: csp.

paper,

"Physical Similarity and Dimensional

ASME,

W., "Tolman's Principle of Similitude,"

P.

J.,

.\n:ilyi8," St.

and the Forms

Vol. 37. pp. 263-296

Tolman, R. C, "Note on the Homogeneity of Physical
Equations," Phvs. Rev., 1916, Vol. VIII (Ser. II),
p. 8
Bridgman,

Duncan, W.

of the dimensions of a physical ciuantity, in

Rev., 1914, Vol. Ill, p. 244

(6)

(26)

is

the fluid velocity

tilt!

pa.st

it.

Since

(",. is

0-<liml. for

reasons given in the section following, with

the dimensions of unity.

BASIC CONCEPTS

Sec. 40.6

Force

L =

FOR CALCULATIONS
in simple numerical form, the ratio of (1)

the
drag force on a given body, moving at a relative
speed U, at a certain attitude and under given
conditions in a liquid, to (2) the force that would
be exerted on the body if the ram pressure

(1)(0.5)

niL

L'f

The

last expression

has the dimensions of a force.

The Derivation and Use of

Terms. The term "specific" as now
40.6

ship resistances of various kinds

to marine architects

come

is

"Specific"

q (or 0.5pU^) acted uniformly over

projected area A. Here

applied to

not a

Drag
^ ^

new term

by any means but

it

has

into extended use only during recent years.

be encountered more frequently in

The term expresses, in 0-diml
numbers or as a ratio, the relationship between
some quantity under consideration and a quantity
having the same characteristics which is taken
as a standard or reference.
The best-known use of this term is in the

Still

It will surely

the years to come.

another familiar specific resistance

Here the specific gravity of any liquid is represented by the 0-diml ratio of (1) the weight of
unit volume of liquid to (2) the weight of unit
volume of standard fresh water. In this case,
is

taken as a reference because

readily available, widely used,

and

its

it is

weight per

coeflGicient

that for friction resistance, expressed by Cf

This 0-diml coefficient is again the ratio of (1) the
is

Rp

friction resistance

to (2) a ram-pressure force,

but the reference area in

surface
area.

of the

this case is the

body rather than

its

wetted

projected

Hence

expression specific gravity, as applied to a liquid.

fresh water

entire

its

Rf

Cf

SU'
Provided the flows around two bodies are in
respects dynamically similar, and the bodies
are geosims (geometrically similar), it is possible
to determine from model tests and to tabulate for
ready reference the drag coefficients of objects
having many different forms and running at
all

volume is easily determined.

Another familiar but unfortunate term is the
one known as specific weight; unfortunate because
it is not truly dimensionless. It signifies the weight
of a substance per unit volume and is expressed
by the symbol w. While it does have a reference

in the specific-coefficient formula. Similarly, the

basis of sorts, it has nevertheless the dimensions

coefficients

a weight divided by a volume. Broken down

into its dimensional elements, explained in

When

unit

of

Appendix

2,

and with a weight given the dimenw = Force/L^ = {mL/f)/L^ =

sions of a force,

m/{LH-).
Practically

all

the customary specific resistance

terms now employed in naval architecture and

marine engineering are dimensionless. An example
is

various attitudes,

as

in

Fig.

55. B.

The

tests

may

be made, furthermore, in any convenient

medium by using the proper mass-density value
apply to motion in any other medium.

and using specificmost important that the

reference length, area, or volume be carefully
understood and defined. For example, in the
devising, calculating,

resistance terms,

it is

expression for the

lift

coefficient of

a hydrofoil or

a rudder, Cl = L/(0.5pAU^), the area A is that

of the projected or lift-producing area. In other

words,

it is

the area of the planform or the lateral

the specific pressure coefficient, often called

area of the blade bounded by the profile, as

This expresses

projected on the plane of the base chords. In the

simply the pressure

coefficient.

Cd =

the ratio between (1) a pressure difference Ap (or

an absolute pressure) at a given point on a body

expression for hydrofoil drag coefficient,

and (2) the ram pressure q developed at the

forward stagnation point of that body at the
relative speed U. In the form Ap/(0.5pC/^) the
pressure coefficient is also known as the Euler
number E^ In the form (p e)/(0.5pf7^), where
e is the vapor pressure of the liquid, it is the

projected area as before, notwithstanding that

cavitation
^

number

Another example

Cd

o-(sigma).
is

the specific drag coefficient

or simply the drag coefficient. This expresses.

D/{0.5pAU^), the area

this area is projected

usually remains the

on a plane Ijdng generally

at right angles to the direction in which the drag

force

is

exerted. In the expression for the specific

friction-resistance coefficient of either rudder or

hydrofoil,

Cf

where

tangential forces are involved,

Rf/(0.5pSU^). Here

is

the superficial or

wetted area of both sides of the rudder blade or

hydrofoil.

IIVDRODNX VMICs
Double or Multiple Solutions

40.7

Equations of Motion.

pos.-jiMc for

is

It

to travel from one port to luiothor

more

and

under

Kest

its

own

S1(;N

10.:

.ship

lie

the

particular comiiina-

Double lightning

paths to qroun*

found that nature, in

her role as a canscr\er of enerRj-, cau.ses water
and other liquids to flow b}- difTerent paths from
one point to another whenever there is a good
reason for doing so. Speaking in terms of mathematics this means that there may he two or more
solutions to the ecjuations of motion which govern
tion of circumstances. It

1)1

two or

l)j'

may

which

difTerent routes, each of

easiest

i\

1\ Mill'

the

to

is

Position

Time A

the action of the liquids or the bodies in (juestion,

two solutions

just as there are

^f-

to the ordinary

quadratic equations in algebra.

Nature does

not

these

select

solutions

at

random but chooses them in strict accordance

witii some secondary' or lesser cause, which maj'
appear only after the most careful examination
or extended study. A case in point, although
admittedly not pertaining to liquid flow, is the

Flow
pattern

changes

(^

to

form large
vortexes on
alternate sides

multiple paths taken by high-voltage discharges

and by lightning
to another.

encountered

----~-^ '^////////yy,,..

darting from one fixed point

pattern frequently

that which takes place around

is

and behind a

in

shifting flow

which

cylindrical stick

is

^T7^7777777777777777777777

Ce&el

drawn

rapidly through the water at right angles to its

^-

40.A depicts the manner in which a

double row of vortexes known as the B(5nard or
KirmAn vortex trail or vortex street is formed in
the wake of a 2-diml rod, when drawn through
a liquid in a direction normal to its axis. Here
large vortexes roll up, first behind one quarter
and then behind the other quarter of the rod as

separation
on alternote

mey occur
sides

Fig.

axis.

moves along.
The lowest diagram
manner in which a jet
it

nozzle with a flared

shows the
of water i.ssuing from a
exit cone clings to one side
the

in

figure

or the other of the cone, as the nozzle

is

flicked

Fin. 40.A

Taken from Xaturb

DoCBLE SOLUTIONS OK THE Egt'ATIONS
OF Flow

Sevbrai. Exampi.ks

iM-f.STRATlNG

In the top diagriim clectririty flows through the two

paths simultaneously. In the middle iiiid bottom diagrnms
the schematic flow patterns change with time or other

circumstances; these illustrations are

indicate that the flow patterns can and

intended only to

do change while the

surroiMulings remain the same.

quickly from side to side.

IjOss familiar cases

mf)dcl

Ijasins

in

are those encountered by

the transition region between

laminar and turbulent flow, where the nature of

the flow may and does change with position and
time. Similar situations often occur

when investiThe water

gating the flow around ship models.

passing through a given region on the model at

timcfl

follows

one

without reason,

|)ath

anrl

suddeiily

path, finly to return to the

BH

it

been

then,

changes
first

ai)parently
to

another

as unexpectedly

from it. This phenomenon has often

upon as a matter of instability in the

cleparl<-d
l(Mike<l

flow but

it

can jut aa well be regarded ob a uhifling

flow condition causcil

li,\'

two suiulions

to

the

equations of motion.

As a consequence of this situation it may be

expected that any of the real solutions to a set
of equations of motion may be encountere<l in
actual practice. Considerable study may be
to determine which of these solutions
apply under conditions which arc apparently
identical in every respect. There is on record the
case of the fast man-of-war which, at a given
speed, rudder setting, and trim, would !ip|)iireiitly
make its own on-the-spot decision as to whether
nece.s.sarj'

will

it

Would turn

in

;i

loose circle or a tight ipmc

CHAPTER

41

General Formulas Relating

41.3
41.4
41.5
41.6
41.7
41.8

The Use of Pure Formulas

The Quantitative Use of Dimensionless Numbers; The Mach and Cauchy Numbers
The Euler and the Cavitation Numbers
The Froude Number and the Taylor Quotient
Calculation of the Reynolds Numbers
Application of the Strouhal Number
The Planing, Boussinesq, and Weber
Numbers

Formulas for Typical TwoDimensional Flows

Stream-Function and Velocity-Potential Formulas for Three-Dimenaional Flows ...
The Determination of Liquid Velocity
Potential

7
7

41.9

15

16

11

41.10

Around Any Body

Conformal Transformation

24
25

Quantitative Relationship Between Velocity

and Pressure in Irrotational Potential Flow

25

41 13

Tables of Velocity Ratios, Pressure Coeffi-

16

The Use of Pure Formulas. The ahnost

employment of pure mathematical

20

41 12

cients,

41.1

17

41.11
.

Derivation of Stream-Function and Velocity-

Liquid Flow

to

in

Ram

Pressures and

...

Heads

which they are generally used. Table

30

2. a is

exclusive

repeated as Table 4 La in this volume for the

formulas in this book, described in Sec. 1.7 of the

Introduction to Volume I, is emphasized here.

convenience of the reader.

Unless specific exceptions are mentioned, these

formulas contain only symbols representing

interest in the analysis of underwater-explosion

physical concepts and dimensionless ratios, and

cially in

they are dimensionally consistent. They may be

used as given, with consistent units belonging
to any system of meas urement.

explosion.

Examples are
velocity

of

y/gLw/^Tz for the celerity or

trochoidal surface wave, and

= kw{Bx/LE){Vy2g)

for the predicted height

of the bow-wave crest on a ship. Substituting the

dimensions of the physical quantities in the first,

The Mach number

phenomena

may

ilf

in liquids is of

primary

or high-order impact studies, espe-

the immediate vicinity of the impact or

The Cauchy number C

related to

it,

eventually be found of interest in studies of

cavitation erosion on propeller blades

objects.

Taking account

and similar
and mass

of the elasticity

density of the material,

it

may

be useful in

analyzing shock-wave erosion on different propeller materials.

As a study

of high-order impact and of the

shock-wave erosion is somewhat beyond
the scope of this book, the treatment of the Mach

details of

f=[Hr=

or

There

no

whatever upon the units

used in these and other formulas like them,
is

restriction

provided they are consistent.

example,

may

are in

The wave

be in mi per

hr,

celerity, for

kt, ft

per sec,

what not, so long as g and Lw

the same units. The examples in the sec-

meters per

Cauchy numbers

in this section is limited to

examples giving the derivation of the shock-wave

velocities in salt water and propeller bronze. For
the first of these examples it is assumed that salt
ocean water at an average temperature of 60

For the second,

sec, or

tions following illustrate the use of pure formulas.

deg

possesses an elastic

temperature, from Table

wave

The Quantitative Use of Dimensionless

Numbers; The Mach and Cauchy Numbers.
The ten dimensionless numbers or relationships
hydrodynamics, previously described in Sec.
and listed in Table 2.a, are expressed briefly
here in quantitative terms to illustrate the manner

of Sec.

at that

X3.7

of

Appendix 3, of 340,000 psi, or 144(340,000) lb per

ft^. The mass density of salt ocean water, for the
examples quoted here, may be taken as 1.9903
slugs per ft^. The celerity c of an elastic shock
in ocean water

is

41.2

of

2.22

modulus

X3.m

4,960

ft

then

["

144(340,000)

1.9903

1"
J

per sec, approx.

is the speed of sound in the ocean water

under the conditions described.

This

FIVDROnYNAMICS

For a propeller hroiize

of 519 lb per

ft',

liaviiiK a

10. 13 slugs

the elastic nuxhilus

that

per

of

ft'.

this

2.33:

bronze

is

wave

in

The Euler and the Cavitation Numbers.

The Euler number K >r the prc.s.sine cocliicient,

[E.

\p

r i5(10")144

l,.")7l ft

41. a

is

a relationship between

Ap

Ap

P y2

^n =

(2.xviii)

Sum.nhkv of D.\ta on Dimensionless Relatio.vships

a duplicate of Table 2.a

is

pres-sures of

known,
the fonn

also

per sec.

TABLE
This table

The

is

it

1(3.13

1.

41.3

as

Srr. -//J

between the two values of

as a matter of interest, is 1 1,574 4,960 =

reiation.ship

celerity,

is

"

DESIGN

Assuming

15(10*) psi, the celerity r of a shock

bronze

The

weinht density
the mass density p(rho) at sea

level is 5 H), 32.174

IN SHIP

down

in

Volume

I,

inserted here for the convenience of the reader.

by J. K. Vennard |"Elemcntary Fluid Meclianica,"

York, 1947, pp. 144-145] and by H. Rouse (E.MF, 1946, pp. 02, 104, 322, 344). The forces mentioned are unit
forces in each case, and the inertia force is the same as the inertia! reaction.
Wiley,

ratios of the forces set

in this table follow the listing

New

Name of

Symbol

Relationship

Mathematical

Relationship between Physical Quantities

Expression

Mach

Af.

Ratio of

Cauchy

C.

Velocity
-
r^

of

phenomenon

;;

in

Velocity of compression

Cb

Ratio of

Inertial reaction

in

wave

any medium

any given medium

Elasticity force

Ap
Euler

Accelerative or pressure force

E.

Ratio of
Inertial reaction

Accelerative or pressure force

Cavitation

Ratio of

(sigma)

Inertial reaction

Froude

VJl

Reynolds

R.

UL

V^

'

VL

Ratio of

Inertia force
;
:

in

a deep, unlimited body of liquid

Gravity force

UD

Inertia force

Ratio of
Viscosity force

Drag

Planing

Dynamic-lift force

Stroubal

Ratio of

u
WilIH-T
j

force or resistance

Ratio of

Ln

Longitudinal vorte.K spacin g in a vortex stree t

Body diameter

Inertial reaction to

W,

transverse to flow

an accolerative force

Ratio of
Surface (tension) force

ylfi
Inert ial reaction
lkMtininfac|

ih

VgR

Ratio of
'

VgRii

Gravity force

within bnundiirioit of dimincl

of hydraulic

rmhua

liu

GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 41.3

rh

-Pressure at Stagnation Point Q

Pressure Indicator

Rom P ressure -

O.SyoV^

Atmospheric

plus
Hydrostatic Pressure
Due to Head h

^^

Po,r^

-f

phe
Pressure

-5.58

= Ap

= -0.3455

16.15

If a model of the ship, with a scale ratio of 25

and a corresponding speed ratio of 5, were being
run in an endeavor to obtain dynamically similar
flow, the Euler number E would be the same
but the ram pressure q would be, as indicated in
diagram 3 of Fig. 41. B,

Pressure Dio

?Mod'"

fj

2 I

(gship)/25

Fig. 41. a

Schematic Layout and Pressure

Diagram for Pressure Observation on a
Ship

0.646 psi.

Rudder
Overall Lencjth for Calculating

and

R,-,

F^ of

As applied

to the rudder section of Fig.

4LA, and

Rudder

as an

Independent

Bod-^

specifically to

conditions at the orifice P, the

Chord Lenqlh for Rud der as

measured pressure at that point is p, with the

ship underway at the speed V. Assume that, at
rest in fresh water at a temperature of 59 deg F,
the submergence h of the orifice is 8 ft, and that
the atmospheric pressure Pa at the time

is

Subm e

a!

14.69

psi absolute.

To find the hydrostatic pressure at the orifice,

with the ship at rest, it is noted from Table X3.a
of Appendix 3 that the weight density w of the
fresh water is 62.366 lb per ft^, equivalent to a
pressure of 62.366/144 = 0.433 psi. At a depth
of 8 ft the corresponding hydrostatic pressure

Ph
Pa

8(0.433)

is

-h

3.464

Ph = P^

3.464 psi.

The ambient

at the orifice

is

pressure

then 14.69

i^^ (48.98)'

p-po^^ -Ap=-5.58

2,325 lb per

^^

p'

Vapor
---.>. ^ -.^ E 0.25
.^k"' Pressure-^t^
_

Absolute Zer&

psi
a
r

2
S:-,^

llllllllllllllTlTlllllllllllllllllMlllllllhllllllllllNllllll!

FOR

MODEL
Ram

Hydrostatic

y-'

then

,o-l2.57 psia

Neoative Differential Pressure,

18.15 psi absolute.

Assume next that the vessel of Fig. 41.A is

underway at a speed of 29 kt, or 48.98 ft per sec.
From Table X3.a the mass density p of the fresh
water is 1.9384 slugs per ft^. The ram pressure is

Observed Pressure at
Orifice. Absolute

Atmos-l

TotaV"^

T"

p^tPH +

15.475

psia

Pressure <\^^ 0.64-6 ps

plus AttnospherJc

^Pa^Phhi

T-

pheric-

ft'

T~
0.084 psi
.

~T^I'*-606
"^
psia

Negative Differentia

16.147 psi,

Pressure p-po^

say 16.15 psi.

small pressure diaphragm back of the orifice

P on

the rudder,

connected to an indicating
of the rudder stock,

mechanism at the top

shows a pressure drop

--Ap'-Q223

psi

Ordinate for Atmospheric

Pressure is Compressed to
0.22 of its Proper Heiqhl
Compared to Other Ordinates
on this Diaqram

of 2.12 psi helow atmospheric

when running. The negative differential pressure

Ap below the ambient pressure p^ at rest is
then -3.464 - 2.12 = -5.58 psi. The absolute
pressure at the orifice

is

14.69

2.12

Vapor Pressure^

12.57 psi.

These values are shown on the pressure diagram

2 in the middle of Fig. 41. B. The Euler number
E or the pressure coefficient at the orifice P,
when underway, is

Zei
''Absolute
A bsolute .Lero

^
X.
llllllIlllllllllllllllTlTllMlllllllllllllllMlltllllllllllMII
'

Fig. 41. B

Details and Pressure Diagrams for a

Pressure Measurement on a Rudder

HVDRODVN \MICS

10

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec.

Multiplying this by tlu- luilcr numher E, =

0.3455 gives -0.223 psi ns the - ^p to be

of the

expect<Kl at the corresponding orifice position on

readily calculated from the expression

tl>e

rudder section at the point

number

ff(sigma)

model rudder. The submergence of the orifice,

S/2o = 0.32 ft, and the

witli tlie nuKJel at rest, is

hydrostatic pressure there

3.404/25

is

Hence, from the equaUty p

psi.

(14.69

y)

(14.G9

0.139)

1',

-t

the captation

the flow at that level

for

1.3

P-- _E:

is

(2.xix)

= 0.139
= ^p,

p,
-0.223, as

from which y = (0.223 - 0.139) = 0.084

below atmospheric pressure at the orifice.

Here the ambient pressure p.

befor,

or

14.69

psi

vapor pressure

-f-

3.464

18.15

is

3.464 psi gage

psi absolute.

The

the pressure indicator on the model, on the basis

water at 59 deg F, with

a small amount of dissolved air, may be taken
from Table 47.a as about 0.25 psi absolute. The

that the flow

dynamic pressure q

This

is tlie

pressure that should be registered by

is

djniamically similar.

Another way of expressing the state of pressure

at the orifice P on the ship (or on the model) is
to say that it is equivalent to 0.3455g. Assuming
that the test medium is the same, and that the
nature of the dynamic flow does not change (it
would change if cavitation set in on the ship but
not on the model), this pressure coefficient is
independent of the stream velocity. If a different

medium

test

is

used, of a greater

mass density

in

order to obtain greater pressure differences, the

value of the pressure coefficient E

would

still

= 0.3455g

be the same, for dj'^namically similar

In the same way, tests to determine the

flow.

pressure coefiicients over a series of points along

the section contour of a model rudder,

by

itself,

could be

made

in air or

mounted

they could be

mercury, whichever was most convenient.

when tests are run in a different
medium, to set the speed at such a value that the

run

in

It is customarj',

dynamic pressure of the test is the same numerically as the dynamic pressure in the medium in
which the full-scale body is to run. As the mass
density of mercury is about 13.60 times that of
fresh water, the velocity-squared term C/J would
have to be decreased by this ratio to keep the
dynamic pressure the same. This w ould involve
a red uction

in velocity to

a value of

V2, 399/ 13. 60

=
170.4 = 13.28 ft per sec, corresponding to
a ship speed of 7.86 kt for mercury instead of
29 kt for water. For a scale ratio of 25, and a
corresponding speed ratio of 5, the test speed for
the model would be 7.80/5
If,

1.57 kt.

as maj' be expected, the pressure coefficient

changes with rudder angle {(delta) and with the

thickness ratio

t.x/c

of the section, it is convenient

and for design purposes to plot the

prciwure CKcflicicnt for any desired point or points
on a basis of rudder angle and of thickness ratio.
A Himilnr procedure i.s followed for other variables.
for teating

If

the liability of cavitation nrima in a study

psi.

The

e of fresh

the

is

cavitation index

i:

This index

as before, 16.15

now

18.15

_E=

same

is

0.25

1.108

16.15

7'

a measure of the pressure avail-

is

able to create a gradient which will (or will not)

cause the water to follow the rudder section.

Since

it

exceeds numerically the negative-pressure

Ap/q =

coefficient

there

is

0.3455 at the orifice P,

more than enough pressure

create a gradient which

toward the rudder.

No

\vill

cavitation

therefore at the point P, nor

at

somewhat higher

is

available to

turn the water in

any

is

taking place

to be expected

speeds.

look at pressure diagram 2 of Fig. 41.B,

plotted to scale in psi absolute, explains

is so.

The numerator p
expression

coefficient

negative distance from

5.58
the

psi.

The

terra

expression

for

p^

is

represented

P to H,

p
the

or 12.57

e in

is

this

by

the

18.15

the numerator of

cavitation

represented by the distance from

tation

why

A73 in the pressure-

number

is

to E. Cavi-

not to be expected until the absolute

P drops to E, at which time both

pressure at

numerators would be equal. Therefore, as long as

p p is smaller numerically for a given speed
than p c, cavitation does not occur at that
speed. This is also evident directly from the fact
that the absolute pressure p at the orifice P,
14.69 2.12 = 12.57 psi absolute, is far above
the vapor pressure e of the water, taken as 0.25
psi absolute.

Unless one

is

working constantly

in this field,

the calculation and use of pressure cix-fficicnts and

numbers can become confusing and

is recommended that, in these
cases, the calculations be supplemented by graphic
diagrams drawn ap|)roximatoly to scale, corresponding to those at 2 nud 3 in I'^ig. 11, B.
cavitation

exasperating. It

GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 41.4

a help to remember that the -pressure

is a function of body shape, because it
embodies the pressure p which is found or measured on a body under given flow conditions. The
It is also

coefficient

cavitation

number

is

a function of the flow conditions

trim by the bow, due possibly to damage, the

topmost rudder sections in Fig. 41. A lie at the

surface of the water instead of below it, then
wavemaking and gravity effects come into play
and the Froude number is appHcable. Here

of the liquid in the stream; this can be re-

and

membered because it embodies the vapor pressure

The critical cavitation number (tcr occurs
e.
when the cavitation number of the flow drops

Assuming the length of these rudder sections

ft, and the reduced speed as 12 kt, or
20.27 ft per sec, the Froude number for the rudder

same numerical value as the pressure

coefficient of the body at the point of lowest

as 14.6

absolute pressure on the body.

only

the

to

11

is

customary in some quarters, when con-

It is

venience dictates the change, to derive the Euler

number E and the

number a by using
pressure. The expression

20.27

cavitation

values of head instead of

-En

The corresponding Taylor quotient

h^
(41. i)

the dynamic or velocity head

is

undisturbed liquid. With a vapor-pressure

head hv

the cavitation

number

the

ft, is

2g

in the

for

rudder only, based upon speed in kt and length in

becomes

for the former then

where Ul/(2g)

0.935

V32. 174(14.6)

12

\/14.6

The Froude number F and

3.14

the Taylor quotient

Tj are related to each other by the constant ratio

is

VL

1.6889 ..
(-f

and

T =

(F)

1.6889^

"'^

fey

(41. ii)

where
29

per

Employing the same data as

for the preceding

is 1.6889 ft per sec. If g is 32.174 ft

as in the example given, then F =

kt

sec',

0.2978r, and T,

3.358F

For mental calculamay be taken

examples, and taking g as 32.174 ft per sec^, the

tions or rough approximations, F

dynamic

and T, as (10/3)F
There are certain applications, such as in
planing craft, in which the conventional Froude
number is modified by using the beam B as the
length dimension rather than the length L, or in
which ^'^ is used for L as the length dimension.

or velocity

hu

head

2,399

=
2g

as 0.3T,

is

37.28

ft.

2(32.174)

The measured gage

pressure at the orifice

of 2.12 psi below atmospheric corresponds to a

= -4.896

negative head of -2.12/0.433

pressure coefficient

Ap

-8.00

is

The head

4.896

0.346, as before.
F,

is

14.69/0.433
is

33.93

ft.

based upon a vapor

head of 0.25/0.433 or 0.57

index is then

ft

(33.93 -f 8.0)

of

water.

0..57

The

1.109

37.28

2g
This

is

41.4

equal to the value previously derived.

The Froude Number and

Quotient.

derivation of the numerical values for the

modified F^ and

Fv numbers

and

corresponding to the atmospheric

cavitation index a

h^

The

is

obvious from the

corresponding expressions

pressure of 14.69 psi

The

The

then:

37.28

ft.

If it is

the Taylor

assumed that at an excessive

Fy =

VgV

There are set down in Table 41. b a series of

Froude numbers F covering a range of speed
from 2 through 100 ft per sec, equivalent to 1.18
through 59.21 kt, and embracing a range of
model and ship lengths from 5 through 1000 ft.
A first approximation to the Froude number for
a given speed and length, based upon a standard
g-value of 32.174 ft per sec', is obtained by
inspection from this table. More accurate values
are calculated by using the formulas in preceding
,

paragraphs of this section.

]i\

12

TABLE
Velocity

41.b

DRODN

\ \\li(

|\ sllil-

1)1

M(.\

Proudb Numbers for Ship and Model Speeds and Lenoths

.SV(

11. -f

GENERAL LIQUID FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 41.4

TABLE
Velocity

41.b

^Feoudb

Numbers for Ship and Model Speeds and Lengths

13

Continued

IIMiRonVN XMICS

14

TABLE
Velocity

l\ sllll' 1)1SI(;\

41.b Froudb Nuubbrs fob Ship and Modbl Spbbds and LbnotiisCondu/M

Sec.-fl.-f

GENERAL LIOUID-FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 41.5

Calculation of the Reynolds

41.5

many

Although

rudders

partly

lie

Numbers.
or

within the boundary layer of the main hull,

wholly
it

be assumed in Fig. 41. A that the point

may
P is

At the orifice position

assumed to be that due to

outside (below) that layer.

the boundary layer

is

flow over the rudder alone.

For a ship speed of 29 kt, the velocity U in the

Reynolds-number expression UL/v{rm) for the
rudder only is again 48.98 ft per sec and the

L of the rudder section, at 8 ft

below the at-rest WL, is 10.2 ft. From Table
X3.h the kinematic viscosity v of fresh water at
59 deg F is 1.2285(10"') ft' per sec. Hence, for
the rudder section as a whole, sketched in diagram

or

body diameter

15

48.98(10.2)

41.

of Sec. 41.6 it is the

say 1.72

1.2285(10"')

is

The

ft.

diameter

of the head,

relationship so formed

is

called

the rf-Reynolds number, represented by

Rd
For a ship speed

= UD

(2.xxii)

of 14 kt, or 23.64 ft per sec,

this is

Rd

flow encountered. For this reason, a

dimension transverse to the flow rather than one
parallel to the flow is used as the space dimension
in the numerator of the Reynolds number. For
the case of the underwater sound head of Fig.

41.B,

Rn

length

its

viscous

significant length

1 of Fig.

rather than

the determining factor in the type and nature of

= UD ^

23.64(1.72)

1.2285(10"')

40.66(10")

3.3(10')

There are several other Reynolds numbers in

As the Reynolds number

rarely

needs to be

its value for a speed of

about 49 ft per sec, and for a length of
10.2 ft, may be taken by inspection from Table
45. a. This gives about 40(10**), almost exactly
the same as by computation.
If the flow at the orifice position P is to be
studied, the significant Reynolds number is the
x-Reynolds number R^ at that point, indicated in
Fig. 41. B. It is customary, in asymmetrical as
well as symmetrical shapes of this kind, to measure
the x-distance from the leading edge along the
base chord or other convenient dimension parallel
to the direction of flow. In this case it is measured
along the meanline. It is customary, also, when
the velocity of the hquid along the boundary is
not accurately known, to consider it equal to the
undisturbed stream velocity. Here Ua, = V.
If the orifice at P lies opposite a point 2.84 ft
downstream from the leading edge, then the

expressed in exact terms,

29

kt, or

a;-Reynolds

number

use by hydrodynamicists, such as the 5-Reynolds

number Rs

In this case the thickness 8 of the

boundary layer replaces L as the space dimension
in the expression UL/v.
One of great importance is the blade-Reynolds
number R^ for the blade sections of screw and
rotating-blade
built

up

R.

Vix)
V

^
~

propellers.

in the

This

expression

manner shown by

Chord Length at 0.7

Blode

is

Fig. 41. C. It

R=

c q.yr

Section
Qt 0.7 Rodiusl

\-

Blade Rev/nolds
Number Reiode
^/.[2rrn(0.7R)]t-^(co.,,)

Tonqential

Velocitij

Nominal Blode Velocity

{v/t[a^n(o.7R)]2)0-5

2-rrn(0.7R)

is

Lonqitudmal

48.98(2.84)

11.32(10''')

Fig. 41. C

by

the leading edge, the a;-Reynolds

number

is

VA

Effect

of

Small

Angle of Attack
is

1.2285(10"')

calculation or 11.2(10') from inspection of

Table 45.a. For the 1/25 scale model, run at a
speed equal to 48.98/5 = 9.79 ft per sec with the
test point 2.82/25 = 0.113 ft downstream from

Velocity

Nei^lected

Definition Sketch and Formula fob

Blade Reynolds Number

utihzes as the length dimension the chord length c

of

a typical blade section, at 0.7i2 on a screw proand a nominal velocity generally parallel to

peller,

R.

9.79(0.113)

1.2285(10"')

0.09(10')

the base chord of the blade. For

In the case of flow around a body of short

length, broadside to the stream, the

body beam

TMB

model pro2294 shown in Fig. 78. L, where the chord

length c at 0.7R is 2.682 inches or 0.2235 ft, the
value of 0.7R is 3.378 inches or 0.2815 ft, Va is
peller

innuoDNA

16
(lAstinml as

rpm

ft.

or 10. S.}

07

ft

t\)!>.

Ci'A)

and the Strouhal numi)er S,

a sonu'wiiat lower range of

a J-value of l'^/ (nD)

l.l.i

kt, aiid u as

0.80 works out as

diagram
...^

1(6.97)'

0.371(10')

of Fig.

1942, Fig. 8, p.

17).

sponding S, value
I

|6.2832( 10.83)0.28151'

'(0.2235)

is

L.,

l/.f,

this is available for

the left-hand

fi^ in

[House. H.,

4().('i

Landweber,

i:U);

94, p.

^^_ \Vl+[2M0.7R)]r\c...,)
^

Srr.

liladr-Ht-ynolds lumilitT for

prr sec or

'I'lic

\Mi(.s i\ Mill' ni su.x

EH,

19.50, Fig.

TMIJ Rep.

485, Jul

Assuming that the corre0.0, and using Kq. (2.xxiii)

of See. 2.22,

1.228,5(10-*)

41.6

For

Application

.sound m'ar .show

tlio rc'triU'taliif

Number.

Strouhal

the

of

II

in

{'"ig.

Direction of

0.0

wlicrc the ciidy frc(|uency

I.I),

/ = O.G

M
Motion]

^=

S,

23 01

D
J-

'

(0.0)

14.8 cycles per sec.

0.90

|-^

Ke el of Vesse j^

the frequency of resonant transverse vibra-

If

tion

the

of

sound-gear

cylindrical

assemblj',

taking the added ma.ss of the entrained water into

account,

is

close to this value, the vibration caused

by the periodic alternating transverse force

accompanying the eddy pattern in the vortex

To avoid resonance
diameter of the .sound gear,
the extension below the hull may have to be
diminished, or the maximum speed reduced.
41.7 The Planing, Boussinesq, and Weber
be greatly magnified.

trail will

without a change

Numbers.

in

Tlie planing

application. It

Definition Sketch a.vd Foiimi

Eddy Fiu:giEN'cv

in a

liead

(or total resistance

hhi

of

ment

^'ortex trails of eddie.s having fore-

b, and bj on each side are

behind the two parts of the device.

and-aft spacings of

left

A (delta)

is certain to be encountered at some speed,

and the Strouhal number .S' is of interest in this
phenomenon. Tlu; situation depicted in Fig.
4 .D is complicated by a neck and head of dilTerent
diameter, so for the jiurpose of this example it is
assumed that the head diameter A>, is reduce<l

to the neck diameter

/->,

This

of the (/-Reynolds

at Hay 14 kt or 23.04

ft

is

taken as

number

O.'JO ft.

lij is

numerical

in

the

is

supported

l\v

the

becomes

expression

values

for

given

case

harilly

example here.
The Houssinesci number, similar to the Froude
an

illustrative

number with

tlu>

waterway as

its

length dimension,

R.

hydraulic radius Ri, of a conlined

is

expressed by

u__

(2.XXV)

\ <jR

The
radius

method
is

of

The Weber number

As

it is

calculating

described and illustrated

the

hydraulic

in See. 01.14.

\\\ is described in Sec. 2.22.

not employed in anj' of the chapters

this volvmie,

in

an illustrative example of the metho<l

computing and applying it is omitted.

again emphasi/ed that, although normal
engineering computations of the various dimensionle.ss numbers would not take account of all
of

23.64(0.96)
1.8.5(10")

1.228.5(10
It

or weight IT

Dr;]V. Expressing the planing nunil)er

then,

per sec in standard fresh

water.

It is

')

Hum been found by experiment that here

between the HeynoIdH iiumber

n-lutiuiMihip

planing speed,

full

Dt/^ =

UD

at

zero and the entire displace-

lift,

Vibration of the neck and head in a transverse

H. -

is

dj'namic

reciuires

plane

The value

of liniilcd

occurs around the after sides of both the neck

and the head,

the buoyancy

is

(1) the total drag Dt

Rr) of a planing fonn and
Lg produced by that form.

(2) the dynamic lift

When, as usually occurs

Tkaii.

diameter D, ami a
of diameter D^
.separation

having a cylindrical neck

cylindrical

Vortex

i.a

/-"

between

2.22, as the ratio

Fio. 41.

number

expressed, as described in Sec.

is

is

/{j

tlu!

signilicant ligurcs in the preceding examples,

GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 41.S

they are retained here to insure that the same

answer is obtained by different methods of

2"-Diml

f-^

Source

calculation.

q\

In view of the dimensionless character of the

'i

parameters described in this section they have

the same numerical values when derived by
consistent units in the metric or any other system
of

two liquid flows is discussed briefly in Sees. 2.11 and 2.14. To illustrate
how this procedure is employed in analytic
hydrodynamics a brief outline is given of the
of

the

equations for

the

resultant

stream functions and velocity potentials for flow

about the following simple forms:

(a)

Single-ended 2-diinl body with a single source

body

in the nose;

Combination of these two

--Uoo V <-m9-U ooRsir

^~~-Reference
Axis

Definition Sketch and Formulas for

Stream Function and Velocity Potential of
Combination of Uniform Flow and Single Source

of

respectively, of

formation

V-q for

Fig. 41. E

Stream-Function
and
Velocity-Potential Formulas for Typical TwoDimensional Flows. The combination of the
stream functions '/'(psi) and the velocity potentials
Derivation

<^(phi),

Smijle E-DimI

f<"-

'^SO

0s= -Uxtmlo(5gR= -UooRco5e*mloijeR

measurement.
41.8

17

l^u for Uniform Flo

axis parallel to the flow.

partial longitudinal section

shown by the heavy

through this body

is

line in Fig. 43. B.

Adding the two gives the stream function

combined flow
^s

me = - UR

sin 6

function for

+ mB
=

^,5

for the

(41.ivx

outlines

a single-ended body, of which a portion of one half

pictured in Fig. 43. B.

The values

of ^.9

= 1,

2,

3, and so on, produce resultant streamlines

around the body.

similar section

through such a body is drawn in Fig. 43. D.

(c) Two-dimensional circular cyhnder or rod,
with its axis normal to the flow, illustrated in
diagram 1 of Fig. 41.G
(d) Two-dimensional circular cylinder with its
axis normal to the flow, and about which circulation is taking place, corresponding to diagram 3
of Fig. 14.E in Volume I.

= - U^y

The 2-diml stream

is

Two-dimensional Rankine stream form developed around a 2-dinil source-sink pair whose

(b)

axis is parallel to the flow.

stream of velocity U listed under (a) of the

preceding tabulation. The liquid in the stream is
moving from right to left, as in Fig. 4 I.E. Here
the 2-diml stream function fso for the single
source is m9 (theta.) from Eq. (3.xi). The 2-diml
stream function ^pu for the uniform flow is U^y.

The 2-diml

velocity potential

m loge

<j)s

o for

the single

That for the

uniform flow is U^x. Adding the two gives the
velocity potential for the combined flow
source

is

4>s

R, from Eq.

= U^x

+m

= - Ua.R

COS e

(3.xii).

log,

+m

log,

(41. v)

of

Take next the case of the 2-diml Rankine

stream form, produced by a source-sink pair,
lying in a uniform stream having a direction of

these five classes of bodies enable the coordinates

flow parallel to the stream-form axis, as listed

The formulas given

for the

and ^-values

yp-

for their potential-flow streamline patterns to

determined

and

the

resultant

velocities

pressures at selected points to be calculated.

methods

be

and

The

of developing the formulas in the text

may

be followed for formulas applying to bodies

shapes. For all of these bodies, the
mathematical expressions characterizing the contours and the flow can be manipulated with
mathematical operators to derive other useful
of varied

purely mathematic steps in the derivations

of this section

from the
I.

It

is

under (b) preceding.

the stream function
<l>)

convenient to take

in Fig. 41.F.

the case of a

in a

The stream

diagrammed
obtained by
the source and

function

is

adding the stream functions of

sink. For the source, ypso = fn tan"' [y/{x
for the sink, ypsK

= in

tan~' [y/(x

-(- s)],

s)];

where

the origin of the cartesian coordinates

the midlength of the source-sink axis and

is

at

s is

the stream function for the source and sink gives:

= m
first

(and the velocity potential

for the source-sink combination,

and the one following are omitted

text.

single 2-diml source of strength

It is necessary first to derive

\f/

the half-distance between the two. Combining

data, practical as well as analytical.

The

II.

uniform

tan

= m tan

tan

L-.^^]

in

18

Satnt-ond- Sink

I1R()|)^

AMKs

IN Mill'

<t>.i

sK.N

1)1

['-X

Sec. 11.

+ Jm

log.

l(x

ay

(11. ix)
j/'J

For the 2-diml circular cj'linder diagrammed

41.0 and tabulated in (c) preceding,
it is shown in Fig. '.i.M that this form can be
represented by the resultant flow from a 2-<liml
doublet and from a uniform stream. It is explained
in Sec. 3.10 that a doublet is formed by moving
the source and sink so close together that they
almost coincide, but never do. At the same time
the source and sink strength is increased so that
the product of the distance 2s separating the
source and sink times the source strength m
remains finite [Glauert, H., EAAT, 1948, p. 29).
Stated mathematically, Ai(mu) = 2ms as s
approaches zero, where n is finite and is called
the doublet strength. The stream function of a
III.

Reference
Axis
." Sourte.

Adding th% SUtotn Function -y

^5K--mlogeRsK

ftirSinh,

fcrSooree-SmW

Riir,

A<Jdinq th Velocity

j^c "

-U^y

JJjo"

for the

inlfln'-jf?j-

Uniform Row,

-05mloq jjx.s)'*/]

T'^'^^e

(t

Moitiol ^u'-Ua>^

'e""

the Uniform

Flow,

>[l^]

*3--U>.*-Z-"'l'

at

in Fig.

doublet

F Definition Sketcfi and Formulas voh

Stream Function and Velocity Potential ok
CoMBrNATION OF UNIFOR.M FlOW AND SoORCE-SiNK

Fifi. 41.

the limit as s diminishes to an infini-

is

tesimally small distance in Eq. (41.vi), the stream

function of a source-and-sink pair. Expressed in

.sjTiibols,

Pair
J/D

Ailding the stream function

uniform flow

^,/

= Uy

lim

tan

HI

in the direction of the sourcc-sinlv

^n

-U.y+ wtim-

r , J'-'!
Lx + 2/

,1 (41.vii)
'

Adding

The ova! body shape for a value of ^.,- = 0,

and the streamlines for ^., = 2, 4, and so on,

\l/u

To

M.V

X-

= m

(t>so

log.

for a sink

-m

Rso = \m

sY

Setting

ny
+ x'
-i
+ y'

\l's

-\m

log. [(x

sY

is its

L(x

sY

(41.viii)

soliij 'J-dinil

rod,

-T^
X + y

(41.xii)

Hence the flow takes place around

/? where /?,, = 'Vti^l\,

radius

The
J-diml

a cylinder of

.stream function

it-s

yf/s

cylinder

circular

axis

can

of the flow
in

around a
stream

uniform

be written

in

several

alternative forms:

v'j

the velocity potential

<f>i,

= f

'...x

for a uiiifurin utrcam, the velocity potential for

2-dinil miiirce-siiik pair lying in a

parallel to the source-sink axis is

value at the reference

;/]

nomial to

thi.M

which

U.y =

^c = \m log"
to

0,

(41.xi)

if]

where the relationship of the coordinates is as

shown in Fig. 41. H of Sec. 41.9. Adding the
two Rvalues, the velocity potential for the field
set up by the source-sink pair is

Adding

surface, in this case that of the

is

log. /?.,K

stream function

becomes

-V~y

log. [{x

(n.x)

y-

the function of the coinliiacd flow

determine the velocity potential for the

2-diml source-sink pair of Fig. 41.F, that for a

source is

That

to this the uiiiform-flow

U^y,

are delineated in Fig. 43. D.

Sim

2-diml combination

<t>iiK

2msy

+r -

Lx-

gives for the stream function of the entire

a.xis

^.

"-

'

of the

unifonn stream

^. = -r..,/

= -I'Ju -

=-f.(i-^;)

S'')^*"

(41.xiii)

GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS

Sec.41.R
y^-n

/yi

^.

of Doublet

whe
where

R'X^

is

';

y-y for Uniform Flow

H e nce

the doublet strength

is

is

-Ua

l^s-- U<V^^^^

Plane of Paper

15

^r^ Plane

throuqh Reference Axis

>!-Dfor 3-Biml Doublet
/jsin^6

V-U ' -0.5 Uqo R^sin^e

where yr for this Cose is
Q 3-Diml Axisymetric Function

Then

Sphere

-i/r'

11

51

-Reference
Axis

n ^6

-0,5UR^3in'^e+^^^-f^
/Licos9

i=

-URcos6--=S;?

G Definition Sketch and Formulas for

Stream Functions and Velocity Potentials
for 2-Diml Rod and 3-Diml Sphere

Fig. 41.

The

velocity potential

whose strength

ix

</>/,

= 2ms

limit of Eq. (4Lvui) as s

of a 2-diml

doublet

found by taking the

approaches zero. This

is

gives
^1

cos 6

in polar coordinates

(41.xiv)

IXX

X-

The

y'

in cartesian coordinates (41.xiva)

velocity potential of a uniform flow from

right to left in

diagram
4>u

of Fig. 41.

is

= U^x

Combining the two algebraically

gives, for the

resultant flow around the rod,

(4Lxv)

(41.xva)

(41.xvb)

HYDRODYNAMICS

20

In a similar manner, the velocity potential

is

the

ol)tainel Ity adding; tlie velocity potentials of

separate flows. For circulation alone,

^^ =

i\

+J

tUi

~e

r,}{ de

(ii.x.x)

IN

derived

potential,

+ ^e

1^') cas

(U.xxi)

either the velocity potential or the stream

function, the velocity at the surface of the cylinder

is ol)tainetl

from the relationships

4+1).

U,

in e

Hence, at the surface, where

/?

.T

/?

streamline

licjuid,

The

by

is,

Ec].

the present section carries out

the

same derivation

(a)

A
A

for the flow around:

3-diral sphere

Dioqram os Droivn

(2.xvi),

2r.

'<-

V"

sin d

velocity

pressure in

and hydrofoil flows around a

its axis normal to a uniform

diagrammed

is

1^

k^
*

for the 2-Dimensionol

the 3-DimensionQl Cose

in Fig. 41. H,

[*

s...

Cose It Serves Also for

b>( Rototmq It to on^

Ilesired Anqle About the

"^^slr^^" ~---

|"~-

Souae-Sinh Axis

^IS!i"=t) ftint

local

(ll.xxii)
27r/f

pressure at any point on the surface of the

2-diml cylinder

function,

and

velocity,

spherical coordinates,

U = 2r. sin

ran<foriiiatioii,

3-diml bodj' with a head of ovoid shape,

formed by placing a single .3-diml source in a
uniform stream. A partial longitudinal section
of such a bod}' is illustrated in Fig. G7.II. Only
that flow is considered which is symmetrical
about an assumed x-axis through the center of
the sphere and of the body described. By using

= U,

Rdd

the stream

for

2-diml rod with

(b)

1^

11.11.

local

stream of

From

Sec

41.9 Stream-Function and Velocity-Potential

Formulas for Three-Dimensional Flows. Paralleling the expositicjn uf Sec. ll.S, where formulas

the

i = -{.(/<

"irc.-il.O

other section shajjcs by confoniial

dcscribeil in

are

For the comliinetl hydrofoil How,

D1.S1(;N

Sllll'

VI
(41.xxiii)

Upon

over the sur-

integration of this pressure

Source
Axis

face to obtain the resultant force in the //-direction, the lift

// is

obtained.
Fin. 41.

sin
-fvR.
Jo

= prr

e (le

As a matter of iiif(jnn;ition, llio npproximalc

value for the stream function in the case of a
2-diml cylinder of radius R in the middle of a
2-diml water passage of width .1, as workcil out
by

II.

I^mb,

where the

"'"

.Rl
17-

through the

2tt/

cosh

cos

2x1
r-

is

IXA,

1808, Vol. XI., p. 28).

he

text

appar-

plot

is given by Ilele20 on Plate XI of the reference'.

Knowledge of the stream function or velocity

need be used to

and

axis,

any one longitudinal plane

parallel

to

the direction

of

|)iii|inscs

this sei-li(in, as for use in

ciT

and reference books, the

(liuiiitity

is

3-diinl

stream

l/(27r)

rate of flow

in

with a uniform velocity of

^Blok..

a "rod" of radius

('

ij,

is

= -V^Ttf

in Fig.

potential

great

A'

times the Stokes stream

function described in the concluding paragraphs
of Sec. 2.12, on page 32 of \'oluine I. Hence the

fimction

of the streamlines for this ca.se

Shaw

coordinates

liie

for a selected point in

most

origin of cartesian coordinates

II. S.,

only

define the flow, although the cartesian coordinates

l''or

ently taken at the center of the cylinder [Ilclc-

Shaw,

Definition Sketch for Cartesian and

Coordinates ok Source-Sink Pair

uniform flow, are shown for convenience.

is

2irx

^ =

Spiikuicai.

fii.xxiv)

the

for

value

in

2-<iinil

circular s<'ction

deriving corrcspondinn

is

dat.'i

of
for

However,

for the 3-diml

stream function used here

GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 41.9

The first case considered

The relationships between
I.

is

that of the sphere.

the stream function,

the velocity potential, the radial velocity

and the tangential velocity

Ub

are,

for

Ur

the

axisjonmetric case in spherical coordinates [Milne-

Thomson,

L. M.,

TH,

^=

1950, pp. 403-404],

-U,R sin

21

To

obtain the doublet,

niul

/i',,A

/^,<,

HVDROUVNAMiCs
O^o Osk * 6.

DISIGN

1\ sll||>

Sec. 11.9

0.

4>

/I

cos
(ll.xxxa)

=
-MX

Tlicii. for llic :>-(liinl (i..ul)li't,

It.

COS

(ll.xxxiv)

siir

II.

For the case of the :5-diinl bodj' of ovoid

formed by placing a 3-diml source of

shape,

(U.xxxb)

strength

rn in

a uniform stream of velocity

f/.

as in Fig. 07. H, the .3-diml velocity potential and

Coml)ii>iiig tlie cloul)let and the uniformstream veloeity potentials and stream functions
gives, for the streamline flow around a sphere in

a uniform stream of velocity

depicted in

the

stream

3-diml

function

are

obtained

as

by adding the values of

and
respectivcl.v, for the two flows. Then,
from Eqs. (41.xx'via) and (U.xxviia),
previouslj' explained,

<f>

}f/,

diagram 2 of Fig. 41.G,

-U^R

4>

- U^R

= -o

^3.d.=.i

,-,o

,,

n cos 8

cos 8

R-.

f^/?"sm-

+
,

cose

(41.xx.xva)

j^

(U.xxxia)

From

u sin' 8

...

i/-

(41.xxxib)

Iv|.-;.

(41.xxvib) and (4l.xx\iib),

= .Jf//2"sin"

- m

cos B

(41.xxxvb)

whence
Setting

^ =

at the .spherical .surface,

/I

I l\R' sin=

72'

= 1^ =

"'- RdB

= (1^)"'

ii-o

To
where Ro

is

the radius of the sphere about which

the flow takes place. Stated in another way, the

flow around a sphere of radius Ro

adding a uniform
doublet of strength

Substituting m
for

(f>

and ^

a.din..

\^3-dllI>l

1/

\U,.,R\

is al.so

Ur

and

equal to zero since the nose

[/

the stagnation point.

to

IB-diml

7^

t//?o into the expressions

Hence the nose

cos 8\R

[/. sin' 8

{Rl

= -

+
-

^j

(41 .xxxiia)

R')

(li.xxxiil))

[/ sin

Ro =

0,

The 3-diml stream

nates,
'

8 dfi

at

the surface of the .sphere,

tlic (I Illation of

the surface

Ro

is

08

ft

Uk =

0,

cas

U sin'

6)

(11 .xxxviii)

For the points abreast the source, where

= and sin 8=1, whence
90 dcg, cos

local velocity is

U =
The

R =

function value which passes

through the stagnation point is ^ = ;. But

this stream function is also the surface of the
body. Hence, in axisymmetric spherical coordi-

R sin

is

R-

whence the

Then

i/ cos e

2?/i(l

On

(41.xxxvii)

the coordinates of the nose of the

find

body, set

[/sin 8

Eqs. (41.xxA-a) and (41.xxvd),

f/,

(41.xxx-A-i)

obtained by

is

2ft

From

fLcosO

gives:

= - 1/.

stream
/x

=^-

=f|

R
or

7?^

t/

sin^ 6

If/.sin e

prcKHure cocilicicnt at any point

jnirfncc of the Hphere

Im,

by

F'lq.

Rio

(41.xxxiii)

(2.xvi),

on

l!ic

From
Till'

2m

or

Rt

2.
it appears that Ron =
/?o
Inmsvcr.se radius of a 3-dinil ovoid such as

this

GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 41.9

To

23

satisfy the condition that the ovoid is to

a transverse "base" radius

distance of 10 ft abaft

its

Rb

Yj

Rb

of 6.5

have

ft,

at a

nose.

cos 63

10

and

Rb

sin Ob

6.5

where Rb and 63 are the coordinates

the ovoid at

of

Rb

foregoing for

in

of the

rim

Substituting in the

base.

its

terms of 6b and m, gives

2m(l

tan 6b

cos

61b)

10

(7.

and
2m(l

cos Qb)

4
From

6.5

the second equation,

42.25C7,
2(1

Resultant

Velocitij

Point

at

Ship Speed

j<{^a2^

in

Plane of Poqe

'

that in Fig. 41.1 or Fig. 67. H, formed by placing

a single 3-diml source in a uniform stream,

approaches as an asymptote a limiting value of

4.596

ft

abaft the nose

it is

ft

per

10

error gives 6b

135

cos 6b)

428.4

ft'

per sec.

(2) (1.707)

The equation
R'

of the desired ovoid is

(2)(428.4)(1

34.62 sin'

The

6.5

coordinate origin
is

and

trial

(42.25) (34.62)

that the ovoid shape have a transverse radius of

Fig. 41.1

42.25(7.
2(1

desired

ft.

in the first

Then

suppose that it is desired to develop the coordinates of an ovoid shape for the bulb bow of the
ABC ship of Part 4, resembling the ovoid for

the designed ship speed of 20.5 kt or 34.62

6.5

tan 6b

cos 6b

Solving for 6b by
deg.

2Rq at an infinite distance downstream.

As an example of the use of the formulas,

which a fore-and-aft section is drawn in Fig. 67. H.

Assume that the stream velocity U is equal to

equation gives

Vl -

and that at 10

cos Bb)

Substituting this expression for

Construction of 3-Diml Ovoid by Inserting

Single 3-Diml Source in Uniform Stream

Fig. 41.1

sec,

U,

cos
6

6)

24.75(1

sm"

cos

6)

distance of the nose of the ovoid from the

is

a longitudinal section through the

axisymmetric ovoid of this example, indicating

the initial dimensions given and including the
ovoid shape derived by the methods described
here.

The equation of the ovoid, from Eq.

R'

2m(I

cos

(41.xxxviii),

B)

C/ sin^ d

'

R =

sin 6

2m(l

cos

e)

Knowing the value of the 3-diml source strength

m, the radial and tangential velocity components
for any point P in the field, beyond the ovoid
surface, at a radius R from the source and an
angle 6 from the axis, are found by substituting
the proper values of m, R, cos 6, and sin 6 in
Eqs. (41.xxxvi) and (41.xxxvii), with the fixed
Combining these radial and axial
[/co
components vectorially gives the velocity and

value of

ll^ i)R()i)>

HI
ninRiiitiHlf

i>i

ilir rc.-iilliiiit

For pxamplr. assume

the volofity

point

r_
of

or 34.tV2

are 9

is

it

ft

per sec.

The

85 deg and

7?

1'.

roqniriMl to find

cos e

W
The

U,

The

re.'^ultant

34.7

ft

17- sin 6

velocity

per sec.

resolve themselves, directly or indirectly, into the

the liquid velocity at any or

ft.

Then from

ft

(34 .62) (0.0872)

from Eq.

(4

34.02(0.9962)

33.49

ft

is 1(3:^.49)'

.x.xxvii),

"Doubtless

(8.88)']"

of tan"' (8.88/33.49) is

and sink are both involved, as shown in Fig. 43.J,

the stream function of each, and of the combination,

has a value of zero at the source-sink

axis.

WTien representing 3-diml sources and sinks

of

apply only to motion in ideal

flow, as in

through the center of

The

The

sources and sinks are

Sec. 2.20

sitik.

axi.sj-mmet ric with respect to the j-axis for either

methcKi of representation but in the latter case

the characteristics of the flow can be represented

by the two spherical coordinates R and B.

As far as the shape of the streamline pattern
and the evaluation of liquid velocities at any
point are concenied, it makes no difference where
the reference line or plane is chosen. Hut changing
the reference of a source or sink changes the
stream-function value of a given streamline.
Thi.s is the reas<^>n

why

the stream-function value

which represents the surface of the

in Fig. 07.11 is zero,

while

representation of the

same

in

3-(linil

flow, K(|. (41.xxxvb),

I

he ovoid

of Liquid

Velocity

the Mlreain function at the surface of

hft.s

a value of

41.10

ovoid

the mathematical

m.

The Determination

lifiuids.

Fortunately,

it,

explained in Sec. 5.15. Potential

an ideal liquid, is then a.ssumed to

exist around this expanded form, in the manner
depicted by Figs. 7.1, IS.A, and 18.0.

(or the source-sink axi.s)

the source or

whereas most
formulas

procedures and

some adjustment is possible by expanding the

body or ship form so that it includes the displacement thickness 5* (delta star) of the boundary
layer around

a plane perpendicular to the x-axis

the naval architect,

their parts involve real liquids,

the mathematical

forms of and the flow around axi.s^Ttimetric bodies,

it is much more convenient to take as the refer-

come when

Analytic and design problems concerning ships

and

mathematically, e.specially when developing the

ence for ^

will

surface.

actual ships."

0-valued stream function coinciding

positive x-axis. If a 3-diml source

day

That day is not yet, but the present

knowledge of the mechanics of fluid motion
is such that we can determine completely, under certain
conditions, the pressure and velocity in a perfect fluid
flowing past botiies whose lines closely resemble tho.se of
immersed

In Fig. 67.H of Sec. 07.7 the 3-diml source

used as a means of constructing the ovoid shown
its

tlic

given the lines and speed of a ship, will be able to ralculato

the pressure and velocity of the water at everj- point of the

the point P.

the

on the

[p. 38.51:

per sec.

state of our

with

point.s,

Taylor, in his paper "On Ship-Shaped Stream

Forms," for which he was awarded a gold medal
by the Institution of Xaval .Architects in London
in 1894, prefaced his remarks i>y the following

about 14.9 deg. This means that the direction of

the resultant velocity makes an angle of
(90 - 14.9) = 7.5.1 deg with the radiu.s R to

there has

all

Once the velocity is

known, the pressures, forces, moments, and other
factors are derived by relatively simple and
expeditious methods. Xaval Constructor David

W.

per sec.

=
The value

of the problems arising

around a IkmIv or ship

surface and in the vicinity.

S.SS
is,

of iicpiid

determination of the magnitude and direction of

0.0

'

from the flow

^^ -

Many

Around Any Body.

spherical coordinates

tangential velocity

StT.H.lO

ni si(.\

1'

the

for

(41.xxvsi'> the radial velocity

Eq.

11

speed equal to

and diroction

niaRiiitinlo

\\ii( s i\ SI

vclocii y at llic|niiiii

tliat

Fig. 41.1. at a ship

in

flow net for 2-diml bodies, described in

and constructed by graphical, electrical,

is one way of
finding the velocity. Another method is to .shape
the body by a combination of radial and uniform
flow, employing sources and sinks. Then by cal-

or other convenient procedure,

culation or graphic procedures the velocities in

the surrounding

field

are derived.

Methods

of

following the latter procedure arc described in

and 41.9. The steps for obtaining the

by the second method are described
in Chap. 43. Both methods give the velocity
throughout the field as well as at the body surface.
Sees. 41.8

desired data

If

a velocity jjotential

<t>

for the field

amund

any body or ship form is a.ssumed or can be set

up, by the methoils outlin<'d in Sees. 41.8 and
41.9, or by any other methods, expres-sions for
the comi)onent velocities u, v, and are derived
by partial difTcrentiation of

4>

^^ith

respect to

GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 41.12
X,

and

y,

z,

respectively.

Substituting selected

values for the coordinates in the region being

25

geometric figure that preserves geometric similarity of infinitesimal parts of the figure. This

investigated, the

component velocity values are

comments apply equally
to the stream function f, and to 3-diml as well

means

readily calculated. These

responding lines are the same in the original

figure and in its conformal representation"

as 2-diml forms.

[Wislicenus, G. F.,

Data on

velocity

and pressure

fields,

already

calculated or otherwise available for a considerable

number

of typical

body shapes, are referenced

in

several of the sections of Chap. 42.

FMTM,

M. Milne-Thomson

L.

all

angles between cor-

1947, p. 582].

gives an excellent illus-

tration of conformal transformation, or conformal

mapping, as it is sometimes called [TH, 1950,
p. 140]. This:

Baker and J. L. Kent give an example of

D. W. Taylor's method of using line sources and
sinks to delineate a 2-diml ship-shaped body and
to determine the magnitude and distribution of
pressure around it in an ideal liquid [IN A, 1913,
Vol. 55, Part II, pp. 50-54]. They describe an
adaptation of this method to a determination of
the same features around a ship-shaped form in a
G.

in particular that

S.

afforded by an ordinary map on Mercator's

is well known that the angle between two
measured on the map is equal to the angle at
which the two corresponding lines intersect on the earth's
surface; in fact, it is this property which renders the map
".

is

projection. It
lines as

useful in navigation.

"In particular the lines on the map which represent the

meridians and parallels of latitude are at right angles. If

we

confine our attention to a small portion of the map,

know

that distances measured

on the

map

we

restricted channel with straight walls parallel to

also

and equidistant from the ship axis.

A. F. Zahm, in NACA Report 253 of 1926,
entitled "Flow and Drag Formulas for Simple
Quadrics," gives calculated and obsei-ved pres-

represent to scale the corresponding distances on the

globe, but that the scale changes as the latitude increases."

sures for a series of geometric forms, including a

an elliptic cylinder,
prolate and oblate spheroids, and a circular disc.
He also gives diagrams of isobars and isotachyls
about some of these forms, and discusses velocity
and pressure in oblique flow.
4L11 Conformal Transformation. An ingenious mathematical process, involving complex
variables, was utilized by W. Kutta in the early
sphere, a circular cylinder,

determine the flow characteristics

around typical or schematic airfoils [Kutta, W.,
111. Aeronaut. Mitt., 1902; AHA, 1934, p. 173].
1900's

to

Knowing the flow characteristics in the region

surrounding some simple geometric form such as
a circular rod, by the doublet construction illustrated in Figs. 3.M and 43. J, the circular form
and the flow pattern are transformed simultaneously into the form and pattern desired.
However, the nature of Kutta's method restricts
its

is

effected

by

retaining the

blunt nose and a somewhat pointed

flow pattern

determined.

Stated

mathematically,

the

modified

same general laws

irrotational flow, namely

picture obeys the

and

for

du
dv

+=
dx

dv

and

dx

dij

du
Tdy

as the original flow picture from which

derived [Wishcenus, G. F.,

FMTM,

flow

for continuity

it

was

1947, p. 193].

Wislicenus gives a brief discussion of conformal

transformation in Sec. 44 of the reference, pages
211-218. H. Rouse gives a more complete treatin Chap.

draulic

of "Fluid

Engineers"

Mechanics

[McGraw-Hill,

for

New

Hy-

York,

pp. 96-124].
excellent presentation of this subject is the

one by A. Betz, entitled "Konforme Abbildung

(Conformal Representation)," pubhshed by Juhus
Springer in Germany.

in

or

conformal

Quantitative Relationship Between Veand Pressure in Irrotational Potential Flow.

Having determined the magnitudes and directions

defined "as a distortion of a

of the velocity at selected (or at all) points in the

as conformal transformation.

way,

conformal
is

The

Put

of the flow net is reduced, the process is

known

representation

tail.

or transformed with

for the transformed pattern are fully

teristics

An

"mesh"

flattened

is

the rod so that the velocity and pressure charac-

19.38,

presei'vation of angles in each small area as the

mapping it is possible,
and the accompan}dng

to flatten the rod into a hydrofoil section with a

the flow net around the typical body as the size

from visible to infinitesimal dimensions. Taking its name from the

of

2-diml flow pattern of Fig. 3.M, depicting a field

in which the velocities and pressures are known,

essential shape of the "curvilinear squares" in

of these squares is reduced

method

this

starting with a circular rod

ment

use to 2-dunl problems.

The transformation

By

will

transformation

another

41.12

locity

HYDRODYNAMICS

26

motion

field of rvlnlive liquid

next practical step

is

aroiiiui

ii

luKiy. the

usually to determine the

pressures at thtvse points. For irrotntional potential flow in an ideal liquid without viscosity, at
a depth where the hydrostatic pressure remains
sensibly constant, this is a rather simple, straight-

fonvard process.

From

the basic assumption, explained in Sec.

any stream tube

which the flow is

steady and continuous the total pressure remains
constant along the tube, the relationship between
the dynamic pressure q and the pumping pressure
p at two reference points 1 and 2 is expressed bj2.7, that in

Pi

V\

Pi

If the point

undisturbed
infinity,

V\

or

p,

from the point

li(inid

then the preceding equation

p.

?,

VI =

P,

2,
i.s

p,

taken at a great distance

is

in

in

9,

IN

HI

SI1I1

Assume

SIGN

Sec. -11.12

that for the 2-diml flow net around the

blunt-ended 2-<liml

.section of Fig. 41. J

(adapted

from Rou.se, H., E.MF, 1940, Fig. 21), p. 50), the

stream-tube width An. is 0.25 in. .\nd that at the
point A on the fonvard shoulder the width An is
narrowed to 0.20 in. Then An,/An is 0.25/0.20 =
1.25, whence (An^/An)^ = 1.5G25. The pressure
coefficient or Euler

thus 1.000

The values

number E, at

1.5()25 or

thus derived for any selected

down

of points are laid

is

number

graphically in several

ways, depending upon what

by the

this point

-0.5625.

is

to be represented

and negative diiTerential

pressures + Ap and Ap are to be emphasized the
scheme followed in diagnini 2 of Fig. 41. J is
plot. If the positive

the

say at

written as

c/^

Transposing,

v.-v^ = livl-v^ =

l(x-^

whence, omitting the subscripts "2,"

= ^P =

^r <'-^)

This gives the relationship derived in Eq. (2.xvi) of

Sec. 2.20,

namely

-^ = :^=
The

expressed

equalities

--^
in

Eq.

(2.xvi)

(2.xvi)

are

mast important and useful. They can with profit

be memorized by everyone who works with this
subject. The left-hand and middle terms in this
equation are expressions for the pressure
expressing the
cient or Euler number 7?,
,

coeffi-

difTer-

encc in pressures between that at any select<>d

point 2 and that at infinity, as a proportion of
the ram pres.sure O.TypUl which could be set uj)
in the unlimited, undisturbed stream.

The ratio U/U.. is exactly that given l)y the

^n./^n in the 2-diml How net described in

ratio

Sec. 2.20.

Hence

and subtracting

sf|unring the fraction

it

An. /An

from unity gives directly the

pressure c<H'(ficient for any selected portion of

flow pattern.

IM

larger in

coefficient

'I'his

ratio

is

larger than I.O

magnitude than l\

^p/q

is

then negative.

The

In-

when

pressure

F"io.

41.J

Bbtween Veixjcitv and Pressure

OK AN Ideal LiguiD .\koi:nd a Body

Uki.ation

IN Fixjw

preferable.

Here the normal vectors representing

the combination of atmospheric and diiTerential

l)re.ssures

are laid

as a reference

o)T

line,

from the solid-surface contour

with the

-f

Ap

vectors directed

toward the surface and the

Ap ones away from

However, the practice

drawing vectors inside

the

.solid

is

of

not recommended for general

it.

u.sjige

crowded together in n-gions of

sharp cur\'ature and the solid may be too narrow
to lay them down at a conveniently large scale.
becau.se they are

GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 4 1.1

27

the total pressures on the sohd surface are to be

emphasized the preferred method is to draw a
hue outside the solid surface, everywhere equidistant from it at a distance which represents
conveniently the ambient pressure p or that of
the undisturbed liquid at infinity. A variation of
this method is illustrated in diagram 2 of Fig.
2.B, where the atmospheric pressure Pa on the
hydrofoil section corresponds to the ambient

as in the right-liand portion of diagram 2 of

pressure p of Fig. 41. J.

customary pressure
is sometimes used
when investigating the proper location for a
pitot-type velocity indicator or a speed meter.
As the entire velocity head in the liquid is converted to pressure head at the nose orifice of the
pitot tube, this velocity is measured as a pressure
when the region under consideration is being

If

using the length along the x-axis of the body as

the a;-coordinate. This method

2.V,

illustrated in

is

depicting the velocity and

pressure

variation at a stem section on a ship.

third

method is to use the developed distance along the

boundary or contour of the body (or an expansion
of

it)

as the distance basis, erecting the velocity

and pressure vectors normal to

TABLE
The data given

The

this

41. c

contour

line,

pressure relationships are frequently ex-

pressed and plotted as fractions or as multiples

of the

ram

pressure 0.5p[/J

Ap

at the point

coefficient

of

or Euler

the

number

By relating (1) the pitot pressure

observed at any selected point in the field, as

surveyed.

registered

on an instrument mounted in a fixed

(^)'

T^Ul
for potential flow in

an

ideal liquid.

They apply

The dynamic

A is 0.5625?.

variation

Velocity Ratios and Pressure Coefficients

_ Ap =

q.

motion are then referred to as so many "q's,"

plus or minus. For the previous example the

here are plotted from Eq. (2.xvi),

Ap

caused by body or liquid

pressure variations

This

In addition, of course, the pressure coefficients

may be plotted on the usual x-y coordinates,

Fig.

Fig. 41. J.

to a liquid (or a fluid) of

any mass

density.

iiM)R()i)\ \

28

wiK

i\ Mill' nrsir.N

Sec. -11.12

Oi^^Mrt'3t*OiOOCO^

o<e<otoe""''30<C'<5-""" Musc!

3B

S.i

oo

Sn

U3

3e

CO

3C

-r

I- I-

* M X

"5

'C ci

c;

o o
_
M
-

"5

i~
_ _
CO "I r<

-J"
i>-

"ft

'400a>aoi^t^to>0'4<comci^oa>a>aor>c8>o>a'Tt<nc4i-4r4oa>ao

O
O ? C7 m
cs (N e^ N M N e*

OpQOQQOQOOOOQQOQQPOOOOQQOQpp

Ml.
2 ZC *jS.^
PC
**>

Z.

')>oooooowr-e<30ii^or-"-'<o-Hoo>rt'Oiot^C3e<50>incoMe^^

cscccococc*^'r^"5-'5iccot*h-oooocoC5C500-^c^c*<Mrc-?'*ro

-^^
5
<
^ t^ 2

>

"

oe>Ju5ooe>j^e^05ffl'<ooooc5MiooCi-<>oomo
-^cO'^iooodc5-^c^^ipr^Oi^cO'i'eoooocoot>-C5C^'t*t>-OM-ft>'

Ei

lO

S.C-

c5

-,.

00 C^ "3

CO

r-t>.r-aoooooo>c>

0-<C^''OOOCJCi5"5r0-HC>5-t"OOOOC^-H<iOr^OCOU3t^OOON

'r^b^^odojoc>^co'l<u^td^ojo-^e^co'OtDI>^ccooc^M">5tiocic>

..l

-5-s S

ag

li:

^2fS

6"3

-^
< = -

-3

_5

e<'<'OcoQN''<?coON-3'co'ococj-i>!Soop5ig;ooQe>''oop
v^">"'">5'OiO'SS5oo3r-i~i~r^i-ooao<(o6oososao90

-r-T35<ot5^o>ooo-'c5iraocco5c5 (Nci5

oc>doodb^-H^^c^co^5^^ou5^^cooc>^*u5o6o"cj'*

i"N ff^'OCOMCitoooior-.tpocoMM
c^ooo-rcoM-rioo cc<5"riotoooc3-<ro''5i0'-i"><cixi<oMOooi~i>-i-oo
3

a.

ddddddoc>ddO'-<'^'--">-'"e>4C>iMc<5W'S'>o<btdi'-odo>o

&^

cot>OMOi>oo>ooraaoo>-i>M<-<ot^>-ine4a>e<3U3

II'

t-wSS

i-Slo i-SS'*

NoooN'*ooa>-He<5u5h-

III

e<W''0t^or)Oo-"CcoT'0!or<o>Ofj'i"sRWQ2<3C2

GENERAL LIOUID FLOW FORMULAS

Sec. 41.12

T3 -*

t;

O
o

f-T'i-^

lO

a.

03

29

nVDRODVNAMlCS

30
position
ship,

t*>

ami
(2)

at a lixinl nttitinie
tlu-

on

Ixxly or

tlie

nnn prrssure which would

lie

registered in tlie direction of motion at an infinite

distiince, a

simple relationship q,./q

is

established

which greatly facilitates plotting experimental

data. Contours of pitot-pressure coeflicient of
1.00, with allowable limits on each side, indicate
the regions where the pitot orifice of the instru-

ment can be

located

to give accurate

under the coiulitions established.

If the flow remains steady and free

of rotation,

hold regardless of scale, velocity, liquid density,

upon the sj'stem.

A pressure determination from known velocity
magnitudes and direction is much less determinate when the flow is complicated by viscosity
overall pressure

41.13

variation in velocity are plotted for the potential

flow of an ideal li(|uid around
ll.c

gives

the variation

pre.ssure coeflicient

Tables

of

Ram

Velocity

Ratios,

Pressure

and Heads. To
facilitate the preparation of diagrams in which the
distribution of dilTercntial pressure and the
Pressures

of

any body. Table

Euler number or

with velocity ratio as deter-

mined by the following relationship derived from

the Bernoulli Theorem:

Ap

-^='-^ = '-(^)"

'--'

This relationship applies to liquids of any mass

density p, provided the values on both sides of
the equality sign are for the same liquid.

The ram
calculated

pressures corresponding to 0.5p6'i

for

q,

both standard fresh water and

standard salt water, are set down in Tables 4l.d

and 41.e, respectively. These are given in both

supplemented by the
noted that the
laller value is the same for water (or other liquid
or fluid) of any mass density. The range of velocities covers those normally encountered in model
tests and ship design.
lb per ft^

and

lb per in',

velocity head in

effects.

Coefficients,

Srr. 11.13

results

and if vi.scosity effects are neglected, the pressure

and velocity relationships are dimcnsionlcss and
and

IN sniP i)tsic;.\

ft.

It is to be

CHAPTER

42

Potential-Flow Patterns, Velocity and

Pressure Diagrams
42.1

42.2

Around Various Bodies

Various Methods of Drawing Streamlines

Around Bodies
Flow Patterns Around Geometric and Other

31

Shapes; Published Streamhne Diagrams

31

42.5

42

Constructing a flow net

made up

of streana-

lines

Determining the streamlines mathematically

construction, if the body shape is
one that may be formed by placing one or more
sources or sinks, or source-sink pairs, in a uniform
stream

by graphic

(c)

Plotting the equip otential-line pattern in an

electrolytic

tank and constructing the streamline

pattern from

it

(d) Plotting

the streamline pattern as an equi-

potential-hne pattern in an electrolytic tank

(e)

Placing

the

body

in

circulating-water

channel and observing the streamline pattern by

one of several methods
(f)

By

irrotational,

a flow net for

potential flow in

two

dimensions in an ideal liquid can be constructed

for a great variety of boundary shapes, channel
boundaries, or both. Flow nets are reproduced in
Figs. 2.0, 2.P,

Fig. 2.X;

and

2.W; in diagrams
in Fig. 41.J.

They

1, 2, 3,

and 4

of

are to be found

frequently in the literature, as hsted in Table 42.a.

31

47
48

limitation to

an

49
for

50

ideal liquid, the

practical usefulness in applied hydrodynamics.

There are many instances in the course of ship
design or in the analysis of ship behavior where
an approximation to the flow pattern by this
method is most illuminating. For example, before
surface wavemaking has become pronounced, the
flow around the uppermost waterlines of a ship
is predominantly 2-diml in character, expecially

abreast the forward part of the vessel. Several

examples are to be found in Figs. 2.S and 4. A.

Other examples are the 2-diml flow patterns
around a sharp 2-diml bend in a duct, illustrated
in diagram 2 of Fig. 2.X, and around the stem
bar of a ship, shown without the equipotential
lines in diagram 1 of Fig. 2.V.
Three-dimensional flow nets can be constructed
[Rouse, H., EH, 1950, Fig. 26 (lower), p. 33] but
the technique becomes complicated, as described

them

following the relatively simple sketching

continuous,

its

46

2-diml flow-net technique has a rather extensive

in Sec. 2.21. Practical

Utilizing conformal transformation.

process described in Sec. 2.20,

Despite

43

48

Studies

43

(b)

or

11

40

the streamline pattern. Listed briefly, these are:

and equipotential

of Revolution

42.1
Various Methods of Drawing Streamlines
Around Bodies. For 2-diml potential flow around
a body of any shape, at any orientation with the
stream, there are several methods of determining

(a)

Analogy
BibUography on the Electric Analogy
Flow Patterns

39
40

Two- and Three-Dimensional Bodies

lines

42.14

42.10

Velocity and Pressure Diagrams for Various

42.7

Delineation of Flow Patterns by Electric

39

Velocity and Pressure Distribution Around

Body

42 13

Ideal Liquid

42.6

42. 12

Distribution of Velocity and Pressure

About an Asymmetric Body
Flow, Velocity, and Pressure Around Special
Forms
Velocity and Pressure Distribution Around
Schematic Ship Forms
Pressure Distribution Along a Vee Entrance
Use of Doubly Refracting Solutions for Flow

42 9

Flow Patterns in Ducts and Channels ...

Flow Patterns for an Ideal Liquid Around
Simple Ship Forms
Flow Patterns About Yawed Bodies in an

42 3
42.4

The

42.8

methods

for constructing

are not considered here.

It is important to note, as mentioned on page

44 of Sec. 2.20, that since the flow in a separation
zone is not potential in character, it can not be
represented in a flow net. Furthermore, this
technique does not take account of centrifugalforce effects as the liquid changes direction around
bends and corners in channels and ducts. These

forces

42.2

may

be appreciable at high velocities.

Flow Patterns Around Geometric and

lI^llR()l)^

S2

TABLE

Type
or

of

Body

Shape

wiK

i\ Mill"

1)1

si(;n

Data kor Line Diww is<is of Fix)w Pattbrnb Around

Gbombtric and Ornsn SiMrix Shapes

42.ft IlErKRESCE

Src. 12.2

POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS

Sec. 42.2

TABLE
Type
or

of

Body

Shape

42.a (Continued)

33

IIM)R<)in \ \MI(

S4

TABLE

Type of Body
orShapo

IN

Sllll'

l)ISI(;\

42.b IlKFEiuiNcE Data x)h riioTuiauriis ok Flow Patterns Abound

GeOUBTRIC AND OrilKli Sl.Mfl.K SlIAI'liS

Sec. 42.2

POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS

Sec. 42.2

TABLE
Type

of

Body

or Shape

42.b (Continued)

35

in

.Si

DKODN

UJI.K rj.r Ukkkhkncb

Tvpo

of PtiMaRO

Data

WIU

I\ sllir

koii Ligi'ii>-Fu)W

1)1

Pattkhnk

sl(.\
in IJiu-rs anii

Set. 12.2

Ciianneui

Sec. 42.2

POTENTIAL FLOW PATTERNS

TABLE

Type

of Passage

42.C (Continued)

37

nvnRonYN.\Mic:s

38
1931,

\i.l.

I,

pp.

;i;n

:31.

Tli.-

contains oxcoUent photogruplis of

hitter

'J-tlintl

paper

i.\
3.

objectij

moving through glycerin with alununum powder

on the surface to show the flow patterns.
The Ueynoltls number in Tietjens' experinjents
paper points out

251).

tliat

The

discussion of the

vortex

1907 and
first

or street,

trail
liy

R<5nard in

paper on

The

now

calletl

Wagner, O. Flamm, and F. Gebers,

also made in Germany. The results were embodied
in the following papers and books:
by those

1.

of R.

Wagnor,

R.,

"Versuche mit

Schifrsschrftul)oii utul litTon

praktisohe Ergcbnisse

(Tests with Ship Propellers

and Their

Results),"

Practical

STG,

lOOG,

pp.

2&4-366, esp. pp. 293-295, 302, 310-323. This paper

embodies many flow diagrams and flow patterns

around propeller blades and propellers.

2.

Flamm,

O., "Beitrag zur

der

wcise

peller),"

opp.

p.

STG,

TABLE
of

Body

(Contribution

to

the

Ship Pro1908, pp. 427-438, esp. Figs. 1-12

Gebers,

F.,

EfTectivene.ss of the

Tests),"
p.

758,

42.d

"N'euc Proi>ellerversuchc (New Pro|)cllcr

1910, pp. 729-7S1, esp. Fig. 12, opp.

STG,
and

Figs.

1,

2,

and 3 on

p.

782; also

INA,

1910, pp. 69-70.

In the course of the last half-century, since

most

of the foregoing references appeared, a

multitude of flow-pattern photographs have been

taken, a large number of flowiine diagrams have

been drawn, and a great many of i)oth have been
published. Reference data on some of these are

presented in two groups in this section, and in

other groups in the sections to follow:

Table

432

or Shape

Entwicklung der Wirkungs-

SchifTsschrauben

Development of the

Type

5.

this subject in 1911.

34ti.

".Vbwehr der Kcmpfschcn AngrilTo und

einiges mehr iilx-r seine und meine Propellerversuche
(Defense of Kempf's Method of .-Vtt.'ii'k and .\dditional Information on His Projvller Tests and
Mine)," SchilTbau, 28 Feb 1912, pp. 388-396. On
pp. 390 and 391 there are a.xial views of model
propellers showing some of the flow paths over the
widths of the blades, on both faces and backs.
F.,

the

Some of the Flamm pliotngraplis

STG, 1909, Vol. 10, Figs. 1 through

1909.

page

7, opjxisitc

Gebers,

was noted by Mallock in

190S, prior to von Kiirmiin's

and flow diagrams

were supplemented a few years later

Berlin,

4.

propeller photographs

of Alill)orn

<)., "Die .SchilT,s.si'liraubc uiid iliru Wirkung auf

daa Wnsser (The Screw Propeller and Ifa .\clion in
Water)," published by R. OldenlKJurg, in .Munich

arc published in

the double row of vortexes

leaving the blunt-ondetl bodies,

Sec. -12.2

Flanim,

and

sprinkletl

varied from 0.25 to

ship dksign

Rekkrknce Data for Fixjw Patterns

42. a

.\Rot:.Nn

Reference data for line drawings of

Simple

Siiapi-:.s

When Yawed

POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS

Sec. 42.4

data for photographs of

flow patterns around geometric and other simple

b.

42. b Reference

To

save space in Tables 42. a and 42. b of this

Table 42.c of Sec. 42.3, and in Table

d.

been made with reflecting particles sprinkled on

the liquid surface or suspended within the Uquid

marked "Al. Powder," regardless of whether

aluminum powder was used in every case.
"Normal" means that the long dimension of the
section or body was across the flow, normal to it.
"In line" means that the long dimension was
are

or not

parallel to the flow.

Of the streamline diagrams derived by analytic

methods, among the first to be published were
those of W. J. M. Rankine, appearing in the

Naval Architects

literature of the Institution of

Great Britain), in
the period 1862-1872. Stemming from the work
of Rankine were the analytic streamlines about
ship-shaped and other bodies pubUshed by D. W.
Taylor in the references Usted in Sees. 3.8 and

and

of the

Royal Society

(of

Volume II
"The Speed and Power

43.6 of the present book, and in

of

the 1910 edition of

of

Ships."

Many more
source-sink

streamline diagrams evolved from

combinations have been pubUshed

Among the references,

America, may be hsted:

since then.
in
(i)

not well known

ATMA,

1933,

Vol.

pp.
of flow nets
37,

number
and diagrams giving streamline and equipotential395-410. This paper contains a
line patterns for
(ii)

a series of flow conditions.

Brard, R., "Les M6thodes pour

le Trace des Lignes de

Courant dans les Ecoulements Thfeoriques ou Reels.
Leur Role en Hydrodynamique (The Tracing of
Streamlines in Theory and Practice. Their Role in
Hydrodynamics)," ATMA, 1938, Vol. 42, pp.
65-83. So far as known this paper is not translated
into EngUsh. A full understanding of it involves a
working knowledge of complex variables and con-

formal transformation.

and

airship models were

in the technical Uterature.

a.

inverted position.

T. B. Abell published some unusual photographs of the wakes abaft simple ship-shaped
bodies, using filaments of colored Uquid and air
bubbles as indicators ["A Contribution to the
Photographic Study of the Mechanism of the
Wake," INA, 1933, pp. 145-152 and Pis. XVII,

XVIII].

N. W. Akimoff pubUshed the results of some

and wave studies about vertical
circular-section rods and elongated forms suspended in a moving current of water ["tJber das
Wesen des Mitstroms (On 'the Behavior of the
Wake)," STG, 1934, pp. 149-163].
42.3 Flow Patterns In Ducts and Chaimels.
The naval architect and marine engineer are
flow-pattern

interested in the details of liquid flow within

pipes, ducts,

and channels, as well as

of the flow

Flow-net diagrams for the motion of an ideal

Uquid within typical open and obstructed passages

shown

are

in Fig.

2.X

of Sec. 2.20.

Table 42. c Usts reference data for what might

be termed "inside" Uquid-flow patterns, subject
to the notes in Sec. 42.2 applying to Tables 42.

and

42.b.

paper by H. S. Fowler and V. Walker,

"Fluid Flow in Turbo-Machinery"

entitled

[lESS, 1953-1954, Vol. 97, pp. 113-152], contains

informative diagrams of air flow through

many

ducts, bends,

and

axial-flow turbine

and blower

blades.

In the early 1910's, representations of the wake

patterns and streamHnes alongside and abaft
surface-ship

e.

outside of bodies and objects of varied shape.

Legendre, R., "Hydrodynamique Graphique (Graphic

Hydrodynamics),"

Methods of the Flow Past Plates and

Models," ARC, R and
58, Mar 1912, pp. 97-99
Baker, G. S., "Methodical Experiments with Merchant
Ship Forms," INA, 1913, Part I, pp. 162-180, esp.
pp. 167-168 and PI. XVIII. This plate shows four
photographs made at the stern of totally submerged
models, each composed of the underwater body of a
ship form with its mirror image superposed, in
graphic

42.d of Sec. 42.4, the authors' names in the references are omitted. All photographs which have

in

c.

section, in

and Models

shapes

Table

39

a Current of Water," ARC,

R and 31, Mar 1911, pp. 48-49
Booth, H., and Eden, C. G., "The Wind Resistance of
Some Aeroplane Struts and an Examination of Their
Relative Merits," ARC, R and
49, 1912, pp. 95-96
Bairstow, L., and Eden, C. G., "Experiments on
Airship Models," ARC, R and
55, 1912, pp. 48-51
Eden, C. G., "Investigation by Visual and PhotoPlates

flow patterns around geometric and other simple

pubUshed

brief Ust follows:

Eden, C. G., "Apparatus for the Visual and Photographic Study of the Distribution of the Flow Round

42.4 Flow Patterns for an Ideal Liquid Around

Simple Ship Forms. Available flow diagrams
around forms resembUng those of ships are relatively scarce. Such as do exist are limited to the
more-or-less 2-diml flow about the designed waterline, and that in an ideal Uquid only.
Other than those embodied in Figs. 2.S and 4.A

Volume

of

book thiTc mny be

of this

listed the

following:
()

Two-dimensional ship h.'iviiiR n li-titiciihir form of

walorlinc, for which the flow puttcrn was derived
and publiiihiHl l>y D. \V. Taylor in:
(1)
(2)

INA. isoi, Vol.

S and P, 1933,

35, Fig. 14, PI.

LXXI

Fig. 4, p. 4; practically the

sanio figure aa in (1)

(3)

same
(b)

S and

P,

1943, Fig.

4,

0; practically the

p.

figure aa in (1).

How anJ

forward shoulder waterlines of a 2-diml ship

generated by a uniform line source in a uniform

stream. Derived and published by H. Futtinger in

STG,
4S,

1924, Vol. 25, Fig. 11,

May

Same

(c)

as

p.

306;

TMB

Transl.

1952, p. 14.

preceding e.\cept that the line source

(b)

increases linearly in strength from the stem.

lished in

48,
(d)

(e)

May

STG,

1924, Fig. 12, p. 307;

TMB

Transl.

1952, p. 15.

Complete 2-diml ship with waterlines generated by

the combination of a bow line source and a stern
line sink, each of constant and equal strength.
Generally similar to (c) preceding. Published by
F. Horn in "Theorie des SchifTcs," Vol. V. Reproduced in RPSS, 194S, Fig. 2, p. 15, including diagrams giving the variation of p and U along and
beyond the .ship a.\is.
Three-dimensional ship having a lenticular form of
lateral plane, for which a schematic flow pattern
was pubUshed by D. W. Taylor in:
(i) INA, 1895, Vol. 36, Fig. 0, PI. XVI. It is to

axis.
(ii)

S and

figure as in
(iii)

as for

P, 1933, Fig. 5, p. 4; practically

(i)

same

(i)

S and P, 1943, Fig.

5, p. 6;

.\ii

same comments

preceding.

Ship-shaped forebody, 2-diml in character, introduced

a uniform stream flon-ing parallel to the ship a-xis.
S. Baker and J. L. Kent give a plot of 2-diml
streamlines ahead of and abreast this forebody,
when there is no limitation on the extent of the
surrounding water ["Effect of Form and Size on the
Resistance of Ships," IXA, 1913, Part II, pp. 37-60,
and Pis. Ill, IV, especially Fig. 5 on the latter
plate). The lower portion of Fig. 5 gives graphs of
pressure variation with distance along the longitudinal axis for two stream surfaces fairly close to
in

G.

More recent data, applying to pressures rather

than streamlines around a yawed body, may be
found in Admiralty Research Laboratory (Great
Report ARL/Rl/G/HY/19/1 of April
Campbell and R. G. Lewis, entitled
"Pressure Distributions: Axially Symmetric Bodies
in Oblique Flow." A copy of this report is in the
Britain)

1954 by

I. J.

TMB library.
42.6

and

Velocity

Aroimd a Body

of

having

revolution

same as

Pressure

Revolution.
appreciable

Distribution

For bodies of
diameters,

for ships with appreciable

Flow Patterns About Yawed Bodies

42.5

Liquid.

pattern.s

'Iho

about yawed

itJcaI-lif|ui(i

in

an

potential-llow

bodie.s in a stream, avail-

able in the publi.Hhcd literature,

amount

to only

worked out for

axial flow. A partial list of references embodying
these patterns is presented in Table 42. d. One
HUch patt:rn is that around the incUncd flat plate
in diagram
of Fin. 3.IJ in Volume I.
a very small fraction of those

the
it is

part of the book.

AVhen working with 3-diml rather than 2-diml

around a body of revolution,
it is important that the nature of the 3-diml flow
pattern be clearly understood. In a number of
pubhshed diagrams in standard works of reference
the streamUnes approaching and leaving the
3-diml bodies of revolution have, apparently as
a matter of convenience in drafting, equidistant
radial spacing from the principal body axis. This
flow, as with that

is

equivalent to equidistant transverse

.-ipacing

when a longitudinal section through the body axis

is diagrammed [Prandtl, L., and Tietjens, 0. G.,

AHA,

1934, Fig. 58 on p. 109, Fig. 59 on p. 110,

and 64 on

p. 120,

and

Fig. 65

Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1910, Vol.

Ideal

beams,

customary to plot velocity and pressure distributions on a basis of body or ship length along the
principal or x-a.\is. This scheme is followed in
Figs. 4.C and 4.D of Volume L However, when the
diameter is large in proportion to the length, or
when one end or the other is blunt, the velocity
and pressure distributions are plotted to much
better advantage on a base of length along the
section contour, as in diagram 2 of Fig. 2.B of
Volume I or in the diagram of Fig. 4LJ of this

Figs. G3

the ship.

Sfc.-f:^

excellent source of analytic information in

this particular field is the work of A. F. Zahm,

embodied in NACA Report 253, 1927, entitled
"Flow and Drag Formulas for Simple Quadric.-*,"
pages 517-537. Fig. 3.C of Volume I of this book
is adapted from Fig. 23 of the Zahm report.

Pub-

be noted in this figure that the streamlines are not

spaced from the body a-xis at distances corresponding
to cquidifTerent stream functions in tubes about the

(f)

DKSIGN

HVl)R()l)V.\A.MIC:s IN Mill'

10

on

II,

p. 122;

Fig. 20;

S and P, 1943, Fig. 5 on p. 6). The streamlines

so depicted do not correspond to cquidifTerent
3-diml stream functions, as do the traces in
diagram 2 of Fig. 2.M of Volume I, and those of
Figs. 42.A, 42.B, 43.M, and 43.0.
Consider the symmetrical 3-diml flow of an
ideal liquid along a solid rod of circular section of

radius Ro

with

of flow, in a

its

axis parallel to the direction

stream whose undisturbed uniform

POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS

Sec. 42.6

41

mean

in proportion to the increase in its

radius,

to maintain the relationship of Eq. (42.i).

When

the flow takes place around some body

of revolution

which has a varied section along the

axis of flow, such as the sphere in Fig. 42.B, the

elocity

in all

tubes

Schematic Diagram of Uniform ThreeDlMENSIONAL FlOW AeOUND A STRAIGHT CIRCULAR

Rod With Equidifferent Stream Functions

Varying liquid velocity

at different rad

Fig. 42.A

Longitudinal Section Through ThreeDlMBNSIONAL FlOW ArOUND A SPHERE, WiTH

Equidifferent Stream Functions

Fig. 42.B

velocity

42.A,

is

is

?/

This situation, pictured in Fig.

derived immediately from the 3-diml

diagram 2 of Fig. 2.M

an
operation which does not change the flow pattern
around it. The immovable quantity of frozen
liquid, extending out to radius Rq
is then
subtracted from the whole. It is convenient in
stream-function

by

lA(psi) in

freezing the hquid within the central rod,

this process to retain the rod axis as the reference

axis for measuring the 3-diml stream functions.

If

the thickness of the

first,

second, or

any other

is no longer constant
but changes with distance along the x-axis. In

velocity in each stream tube

fact,

there are three variables in the stream-

x, namely R,
measured normal to the
axis of the uniform stream flow. It then becomes
necessary to make use of some rather involved
procedures to dehneate the stream surfaces. For

function expression which vary with

An, and U, where

is

tube of hquid is represented by An, and its mean

radius from the axis by R, then the increment of

two 3-diml bodies

hquid volume AF passing tlurough it in the

time At is represented approximately by

nates are worked out in Sec. 41.9.

A =

-U{2ivR)An

(42. i)

including the

of revolution,

sphere, the stream functions in spherical coordi-

3-diml stream form, especially one derived

from a

single

source-sink pair,

lends

to

itself

graphic construction of the flow pattern around

where the velocity

the tubes. If
cyhndrical

Ra

[/ is constant
is

throughout

all

the radius to any selected

stream surface,

function of that surface

the

3-diml

stream

is

The

is

Ro)

zero.

subdivision of the uniform liquid flow into

stream tubes of equal area means that the normal

spacing between the tube-wall traces in any
longitudinal plane through the axis is no longer a
direct measure of the velocity in each tube, or

even of the relative velocity, as it was in the

case. For equidifferent values of the
volume increment per unit time or of the stream
function, the tube thickness diminishes inversely
2-diml

When so constructed, the radii -Ri

and the stream-tube thicknesses An^

Eq.

the soUd cylindrical surface of radius Ro the

3-diml stream function

pattern.

R2

AUi

are

are determined,

and the accompanying pressures p derived from

(42. ii)

At

as well as to calculation of the elements of this

measured, the local velocities

= \~){-u:)-k{ri-r^:)
{Ra

it,

(2.xvia).

The graphic

scribed in Sec. 43.8

and

construction

is

de-

illustrated in Figs. 43.L,

43.M, 43.N, and 43.0. The formulas for a 3-diml

sphere are set down in Sec. 41.9 and in diagram 2
of Fig. 41. G.

Fortunately for the physicist, marine architect,

and others, certain staff members of the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt (AVA) at Gottmgen,
Germany, have worked out the pressure distributions over 12 forebodies and 59 fuU bodies of
revolution, of a great variety of shapes and proportions. These bodies were created by placing
various combinations of point and hne sources
and sinks along an axis, and then superposing
upon this combination a uniform flow of ideal

IlVDROnVNAAflCS IN SHIP DESIGN

12

liquid parallel to the axis.

streamlines adjacent

the

to

also given in their Report

December

few of the 3-diml

12

available in

1944,

I-nglish

Translation 220, issued in April

AVA

forebcKlies

11)47.

VU

Report

English

by

3106,

of

Riegels and

M. Brand, mentioned on page

Reference 2 on page 7 of

lation 220,

i.><

on

library at the

file

T.MB

as

An

translation

listed as

are

I'M 320G, dated 30

TMB

F.

and

Trans-

in the AercMlynainics Divi.sion

David Taylor Motlel Basin.

L Source- Strength
SinW-Strenglh

Distribution

Distribution

---.^miniTMl^

Ratio of x/L from Nose

1.0

ai

0.9

0.8

a?

ae

o.s

0.4

0.3

0.2

qi

-0.1

-02
Fio. 42.C SouHCB-SiNK Strength Distmbution,
AXISTMMETRIC BODT FoR.M, AND DISTRIBUTION OF
Pressure CoEFnciENT Around an Aircraft Fuselage

Srr. 42.6

POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS

Sec. 42.8

Flow About Elongated Bodies of Revolution,"

TMB Rep. 761, Aug 1951. On pp. 59-61 the author

(14)

lists 28 references, some of which are given here.

Campbell, I. J., and Lewis, R. G., "Pressure Distributions About Axially Symmetric Bodies in
Oblique Flow," ARL (Admiralty Research Laboratory) Report (ACSIL/ADM/54/254) of Apr 1954.

Velocity

42.7

Various

When

and Pressure

Diagrams

for

Two- and Three-Dimensional Bodies.

the body shape, form, and contour can not

by some type of mathematical

when the liquid flow around a body

be expressed
equation, or

can not be expressed in the form of a given stream

function

\}/

or velocity potential

sions for the velocity

<^,

analytic expres-

and pressure can rarely be

established or derived. It becomes necessary, as

back upon experimental observaupon data previously derived, assembled,

and pubhshed by other workers.
a

rule, to fall

tions, or

Some

references

containing

these

data

for

various 2-diml and 3-diml bodies, usually with

graphs of both velocity and pressure, are given

under the appropriate categories in Table 42.e.
Could this list be made complete, for all published
works, the marine architect might find readily

hand a great amount of data that would be

directly useful and occasionally most valuable.
42.8 The Distribution of Velocity and Pressure
About an As3mimetric Body. Many underwater
craft, such as submersibles and submarines, have
shapes resembUng roughly a body of revolution
at

43

1, with a uniform flow of

velocity C/ taking place parallel to the longest
axis, has been investigated by H. Chu, P. C. Chu,

axes in the ratio of 6 2

:

and V. L. Streeter [Illinois Inst. Tech., Report

on Project 4955, sponsored by ONR Contract
47onr-32905, dated 15 Mar 1950]. They found
that around the elUptic midsection periphery the
surface velocity parallel to the stream axis had
a constant value of 1.0714f7

At the

quarter-

lengths the velocity around the girth of the body

by only about one per cent from the mean.

The uniformity of tangential surface velocity

varied

the undisturbed

at the midlength,

parallel

stream direction,

a sign that the surface pres-

is

to

around the midsection girth is hkewise

everywhere the same. However, at a constant
given distance from the body surface, in the plane
of the midsection, the velocity and pressure do
vary around the girth. This variation has been
investigated by R. K. Reber for the elhptic
ellipsoid having axes in the ratio of 6 2 1 [unpubl.
memo of 13 Apr 1950 to HES], lying with its
sure

Circular

A,'^

stream-tube boundarvj

Port streamline

but they almost invariably possess transverse

asymmetry, at least above and below the principal
longitudinal axis. Submerged bodies, and craft
of the type mentioned, usually possess asymmetry
in a fore-and-aft direction as well, reckoned about
the midlength.

However, considering first the geometric forms

having asymmetry about the principal axis, it so
happens that formulas are available for computing
the velocity and pressure distribution about

may be termed

elUptic elhpsoids.

the profiles, planforms, and sections are

elliptic

first,

all

of

shape, as in diagram 2 of Fig. 42. D. Indeed,

this particular

form

is

in that the flow of

special in

an

Typical Schematic Flow Abound

AxiSYMMETRIC AND ELLIPTIC ELLIPSOIDS

Fig. 42.D

what

For these bodies,

two

ideal fluid

respects;

around

it

longest axis parallel to the uniform stream.

results are

shown

in Fig. 42.E.

Here

it is

that, in the plane of the midsection, the isotachyls

lends itself to computation, and second, in that,

or loci of constant velocity (parallel to the

when placed with one

axis

axis in the direction of

uniform flow, the velocity at the surface is

constant everywhere around the girth of the
midsection.

The

latter

feature

appears to be

inherent in these elliptic shapes only.

The

flow around an elhptic ellipsoid having

The

noted

and

body

to the stream direction) he closer than

the average distance to those portions of the

transverse midsection having the sharpest curvature. Opposite the portions of least curvature
they are farther from the body. The transverse

velocity gradient

is

therefore greater in

way

of

]\\

TABLE
The
Type

RltrERENCKS -m

42.0

DRODN

\ WIK.s 1\ Mill'

1>I

^1(.\

iiijsiu;i> Data on Vki/ity am> Tukssi hk

Two- AND Timr.K-DlMKVBIOSAI, BoDIKS

I'l

Src. f2.S

isiiium ih.n

direction of How.
2-diml bodiea liatod have conitant aoctiona along an axia normal to the

of

Body

or Sliapo

k.k Vahioi's

POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS

Sec. 42.8

TABLE
Type

of

Body

or Shape

42.6 (Continued)

45

11M)R()I)VX A.MICS IN SHIP DESIGN

16

asymmetric hcxlies of tin- kind shown

by Fig. 42.F. Nothing lias as yet been lieveloped
to take its place. For the time being it appears
useful to retain the enveloping stream surfaces,
such as those of diagrams 1 and 2 of Fig. 42. D,
along which the direction of flow is everywhere
tlie

caw

of

tangent to the direction of those surfaces.

They

are qualified, however, as surfaces for which the

tangent velocity

ponent

not

necessarilj' the axial

of that velocity

is

com-

constant around the

trace of the stream surface in

any transverse

plane of the body. For any such section, these

traces form what are describetl in Sec. 1.4 and
illustrated in Fig. l.B of

Volume

I as isotachyls,

or contours of equal velocity. Unfortunately, they

do not define the flow completely because the

direction of the constant-velocity vector must
also

be specified for every point around

the

some
by adding vectors alongside the

periphery. This can be done, at the expense of

complication,

Direction ond Moonilode of Uniform- Flow Velocity,

Asymmetric

Bod>^

Um^

Scr. 12.9

component in the
plane of the contour diagram, as is done in the
wake-survey diagrams of Sees. 11. G and 11.7 of
^'^olume I and Sees. 60.0 and 60.7 of this volume.
42.9 Flow, Velocity, and Pressure Around
contours

representing

Special Forms.

It

is

the

certain that the toclmical

much more data on

literature contains

the flow

patterns and the velocity and pressure distribution

around bodies of special shape than are referenced

in this book and in others on hydrodynamics and
hydraulics. Moreover, it appears reasonable to
expect that, in the course of time, data
field

which arc now

da.ssificd will

in this

becume available

for general distribution.

Among

the special forms in this category arc

the planing surfaces on the bottoms of flying-boat

hulls

and

fast motorboats.

considerable

amount

work on flow patterns under these

surfaces has been carried out by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the
of experimental

FISH-EYE VIEW

whose Sections ore shown

here IS formed bvy J>locinQ Three Sources ond

One Sink in Q Uniform Streom
Eoch Source
of Slrenqth m-l ot Stotion Zero is Offset

Lencjth

Units or Stotion

Intervals

The Source m-3

The Sink tn--5 is ot Sto 10.

Centerplone

is

from the

ol Sto. -5.

cole for Stations

Alono the X-Akis

TVie

and

in

Numerals on the Diagram

the Table

Represent the

Maqnitudes of the Tonqentiol

Velocities at the

as Multiples or Fractions
the Uniform- Stream Velocity l^

Expressed
of

Streomllne at
nisition of

8Urn

12

Points Indicoted.

POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS

Sec. 42.10

Towing

Experimental

Institute of Technology.

Tank at
The following

"A New Method

Studying the Flow

of the Water Along the Bottom of a Flying-Boat
Hull," NACA Tech. Note 749, Feb 1940
Sutherland, W. H., "Underwater Photographs of
Flow Patterns," ETT Tech. Memo 86, May 1948.

(2)

E.,

mathematical terms,
Uke those of bodies of revolution or thin, deep
planks, theoretical hydrodynamics in its present
stage of development offers little that is of practical
value to the ship designer or even to the flow
analyst. There are definite indications, however,
that the theoretical work on wavemaking resistance and on analytic ship-wave relations, described in Chap. 50, may in time lead to reasonable
in

convenient

and

its

its

local direction

lished

der

illustrating,

1952, pp. 14-15].

by

Horn ["Theorie des Schiffes," Handbuch

und Technischen Mechanik,
1930, Vol. V; reproduced in RPSS, 1948,
F.

Physikalischen

Leipzig,
p. 15].

Three-dimensional ship having a lenticular form of

waterplane, developed by D. W. Taylor [INA,
1895, Vol. 36, Fig. 7, PI. XVI]. Reproduced later

(f)

in

S and P,
on p.

1933, Fig. 7 on p. 4,

Fig. 7

and S and P, 1943,

6.

Three-dimensional model of a merchant ship of normal

form, on which local pressure measurements were
made by W. Laute ["Untersuchungen iiber Druck-

(g)

und

an einem Schiffsmodell
Flow and Pressure on a Ship

Stromungsverlauf

(Investigations of

TMB

Model)," STG, 1933, Vol. 34, pp. 402-460;

Mar 1939]. There is a bibliography of
19 items at the end of this paper; some of them are
quoted here.
Eggert, E. F., "Form Resistance Experiments,"
SNAME, 1935, pp. 139-150
Eggert, E. F., "Further Form Resistance Experiments," SNAME, 1939, pp. 303-330; abstracted in
SBMEB, Apr 1940, pp. 162-164. Simultaneous
pressure measurements were made with a multitude
of orifices in the hull of a battleship model having a
very large bulb bow.
Transl. 53,

(h)

(1)

literature.

Diagrams

2-diml ships generated

Complete 2-diml ship with waterlines generated by

bow and stern line sources in a uniform stream.
Curves of, Ap and At/ along the ship axis are pub-

(e)

surface configura-

below the surface.

Until that time comes the marine architect has
recourse only to non-classified data available at
testing establishments and in the technical
tion

the streamlines at

TMB

May

Transl. 48,

predictions of the characteristics of the flow sur-

rounding a ship, other than

for

in a uniform stream.
Curves of velocity and velocity head on a basis of
ship
distance along the
axis are published by H.
Fottinger [STG, 1924, Vol. 25, pp. 306-307;

of

Pressure Distribution
42.10 Velocity and
Around Schematic Ship Forms. For the determination of velocity and pressure around ship
forms whose shapes do not lend themselves to
expression

bow

Bows and forward shoulders of

by line sources (and sinks)

(d)

Ward, K.

the

increasing lateral distance from the form.

references

pertain to this work:

(1)

47

x-distance from

Stevens

the

for simple ship forms,

the changes in and distribution of velocity or

pressure, or both, are to be found in the papers
listed hereunder.

Methods

References which illustrate flow

for determining the velocity at

patterns as well as velocity and pressure distri-

point in the potential

bution are duplicated from earlier sections of the

ship form are described by:

present chapter:
(a)

(b)

Two-dimensional ships having lenticular forms of

waterhne [Taylor, D. W., INA, 1894, Vol. 35,
Figs. 24 and 25 on PI. LXXV]. Adaptations of these
original diagrams are to be found in S and P, 1933,
p. 4 and in S and P, 1943, p. 6. In the original
diagrams the plots are in terms of pressure heads
for fixed speeds, on a basis of distance along and
beyond the ship axis.
Five 2-diml forebodies of ship-shaped stream forms,
with waterlines delineated by the use of line sources
and sinks in a uniform stream, are given by W.
McEntee [SNAME, 1909, Vol. 17, pp. 185-187
and Figs. 5 and 6, Pis. 114, 115]. These figures

embody curves
and
(c)

of velocity ratio

(f/co+

AC/)/C/,

of pressure head.

any

around a schematic

1894, Vol. 35, pp. 396-399

"Die Verteilung der Verdrangungs
Stromung neben der Schiffswand (The Distribution
of the Displacement (potential) Flow Around the

(1)

Taylor, D. W.,

(2)

Lerbs, H.

W.

INA,

E.,

Hull of a Ship),"
Transl. 85,

Feb

WRH,

7 Jul 1928,

Both these methods require rather

cations

Method
Method

of

the

p.

263;

TMB

1944.

actual

drastic simplifi-

conditions

for

ship.

2-diml flow throughout.

(2) requires that the ship form be considered as a body of revolution generated by
multiple sources and sinks, having a lateral plane
(1)

calls

for

corresponding to the ship waterplane. Neither

of wave formation at the

method takes account

flow diagram for a 2-diml ship-shaped form midway

between two walls, with an ideal liquid streaming
is given by G. S. Baker and J. L. Kent [INA,
1913, Vol. 55, Part II, Fig. 5, PI. IV]. It is supple-

by,

mented by curves

field

of

pressure

coefficients

with

boundary
and other factors.
S. Yokota, T. Yamamoto, A. Shigemitsu, and
Togino describe the "Pressure Distribution over

surface, displacement thickness of the

layer, possible separation zones,

S.

IIM)R()|)N \ WIK.S IN Mill'

J8

the Surfaoc of the Ship ami

its

mi lu^isi-

1;iTmI

anco" ill Paper 789, presented before the World

Engineering Congress in Tokyo in 1929. The
complete paper is published in the Proceedings
of this Congress, Vol. XXIX, Part 1, issued in
Tokyo in 1931. The text in question is found on
pages 293-318; Figs. 1 througli 30, accompanying
the paper, are published on pages 319-341.
These experimenters rneasureil the distribution
of pressure on tlie Inill and the magnitude of the
thrust at the tiirust bearing on a self-propelled
steel steam launch having a length between
perpendiculars of 39.37 ft, an extreme beam of
9.79 ft, and a depth of 5.7-i ft. The draft was
about 3.99 ft, the trim was zero, and the depth of
water for the test with the underwater propeller
varied from 12.8 ft to 13.8 ft.

The
well

total

number

distributed

of pressure orifices

was

DKSIGN

the

bai>is

Srr. 12.11

by conformal transformation on

HMilts, dirive<I

that the flow leaves the trailing edges

of the plates tangentiallj-, are

and

"Cavitation

Forms

Pressure

shown

Yaw"

at Zero Angle of

in their

paper

Head

Distribution:

[State Univ. of

Iowa, Studies in Eng'g., Bull. 32, 1948, pp. 2C-28).

These data, supplemented by

McXown

J. S.

iticluded angles of the order of those

on actual ships, are diagrammed

for

encountered
Fig.

in

42. G.

289,

over the entire length of the

Each orifice had a diameter of 1 mm

and was connected by flexible tubing
to one glass tube of a multiple-tube manometer
which was photographed during the tests. However, it was found that those orifices lying above
and in the vicinity of the actual wave profile
when underway could not be used.
The speed of the launch was measured bj' a
launch.

(0.04 in),

10

pressure speed log in the form of a standard pitot

tube mounted forward of the bow, with

2.23 ft below the at-rest waterline
ft

and about 2.83

Kio.

The launch could be driven by

screw

Q8

a?

0.6

05

a^

Qz

as

ai

Orapiis of Pressure Coefficient for

Fi.ow Ai-ONO A Two-Dimensional

12.0

luiOAi, I,ujun>

forward of the stem.

its

\'i;e

own

propeller

Entii.\nce

single,

underwater
propeller could be removed and the launch be
pushed by an engine-driven airscrew mounted
above the deck. A d^'iiamometer served to record
3-l)laded

0.9

its orifice

the

or

the thrust in each case.

The

varialiuii

A/j

</

iVdiii

the vertex aft serves

the forward portion of the entrance of a simple

ship,

Attempts were made to photograph the wave

ol'

as an indication of the pressure distribution along

It

is

about as

far aft as the

forward neutral point.

expected that these data

may

eventually

profile

be combined with others, possibly those derived

the hull.

from the Guilioton method, for a prediction or

determination of the pressure distribution along
the 2-(linil waterline area of a ship hull of normal

from another boat running alongside but

the actual wave-surface inter.section at the IniU
was partly oiwcured by the wave crests beyond

The wave

profiles given in the report are

thase recorded in a model basin on a one-third

model of the launch.

Tables accompanying the

report

give

the

individual pressure readings for a scries of several

Hpeed.s.

42.11

Pressure

Entrance.

The

flow along

two

Distribution

pre.s.sure

flat plates,

Along

coeflicients

for

Vee

2-diml

disposed .s3'mmetrically

a stream, like those on each side

stem of a shij), have been calculated an<l
plot led by II. I'lOU.sc and .1. S. MrXowii. Tlir
in V-fuithion in

of the

design.

This

scale

i)roblem

Thomson (TH,

(rcaU'd

is

iiy

M.

.Milne-

who

obtains

L.

1950, pp. 309-310),

an exi)rcssion for the drag on the pair of plates,

with a cavity behind them. H. I.anib [HD, 194'),
l)p.

104-10")) describes the analytic solutions of

Rethy and

HobylelT, of 1879-1881, and gives a

convenient table of pressure ratios for this system

for

entrance slopes from

42.12

Use

Flow Studies.

of

In 170

dcj:;.

Doubly Refracting Solutions

I<\'

ii

lOMiiiiiiatinn

of

for

]>oiari/,(Ml

POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS

Sec. 42.13

and doubly refracting colloidal solutions,

mentioned in Sec. 5.6, it is possible to observe
certain interesting and useful types of flow
phenomena. The solution most commonly used
in the past has been water with a finely ground
light

49

equipotential hues everywhere at right angles.

Diagram 2

of Fig. 42.

shows how

this

method

used to trace the streamlines directly. This is

accomplished by passing the current across the
is

1948, p. 52].

and shaping the body out of a

conducting rather than a non-conducting material.
Three-dimensional axisymmetric flow is repre-

Report 617, issued in

March 1952, goes into the fundamentals as well

sented by using a tank having a cross section

corresponding to one sector of the axisymmetric

as the procedure. In this report there are

45 references on the subject.

flow

clay called bentonite; the procedure

briefly

by C. H. Hancock [SNAME,

TMB

B. Rosenberg, in

One

described

is

listed

of these references, plus three others not

Dewey, Davis

R., II, "Visual Studies of Fluid

MIT,
(2)

Chem.

a narrow sector cut out of a log.

illustrates such an arrange-

3 of Fig. 42.

ment, with the current passed in the direction of

flow and the body a nonconductor.

Flow

Patterns Resulting from Streaming Double Refraction," Dr. of Sci. Thesis, Dept. of

field, like

Diagram

in the hst, are given here:

(1)

flow, as it were,

[Electrodes

Eng'g.,

1941

Takahashi,

Double

W.

and Rawlins, T. E., "The Streaming

of Tobacco Mosaic Virus,"

N.,

Refraction

Science, 1937, Vol. 85, pp. 103-104

(3)

Flow

Ullyott, Phillip, "Investigation of

Use

Pento.xide," Trans.

ASME, Apr

of 23 references

list

is

F. N., Garber, H.

(4) Peebles,

by
Vanadium

in Liquids

of Birefringent, Colloidal Solutions of

1947, pp. 245-251.

given on pp. 248-249.

J., and Jury, S. H., "Pre-

liminary Studies of Flow

Phenomena

Doubly Refractive Liquid,"

[Third

Utilizing a

Midwestern

Conf. on Fluid Mech., Univ. of Minn., Jun 1953,

pp. 441-454]. These authors describe similar tests

made

with an organic dye. On pp.

26 references on this subject,
Dewey, Ullyott, and Rosenberg

successfully

451-452 they
including

list

the

references mentioned previously.

Delineation of Flow Patterns by Electric

42.13

The

Analogy.
Sec.

2.13

story

discusses

on velocity potential in
rather

briefly

between velocity potential and

Diagram

of Fig.

the parallel

electric potential.

2.P illustrates in schematic

fashion the use of an electrolytic tank for deUneat-

ing the equipotential Unes around any

or

surface in 2-diml streamline flow.

of

Fig. 42.

H indicates

body
Diagram 1

the essentials of the setup for

delineating the flow around a 2-diml

lenticular shape, utilizing a

and

weak liquid

direct current passing

body

of

electrolyte

between the rows

electrodes at the ends of the tank. If the latter

of area sufficiently large

compared to that

body around which the flow

is

of
is

of the

being studied,

it is

possible to replace the separate electrodes, con-

nected to resistances so as to pass equal amounts

of current,

by

single-plate electrodes.

equipotential lines are delineated

When

the

by the probe

method it is necessary to sketch in the streamUnes

by hand, utilizing the principles of the flow net.
This means that the streamlines must cross the

Broken Lines ore

\
True Equipotential
Lines for Flow from
Right

to

Left

MYDRODYNAMK-S

50

opposite plato plus that being fed into the foil,

between the plates. In diagram 4 of Fig. 42. H,
traced from one published by H. Fottingcr [STG,
1924, Fig. 43, p. 338], the

foil

IN SHIP

amount

auxiliary direct current of the proper

done by connecting it to the source that supplies the row of

positive electrodes, and interposing a variable
is

fed into the body. This

easily

is

The

resistance in the circuit of the body.

(0)

current

from the botly flows in the manner shown toward

the row of negative electrodes. It pushes aside,
as it were, the current paths from the row of
positive electrodes. This setup produces equi-

now

electrolytic-tank technique has

The authors go

give

In the same volume, in a paper by iRonet,

Plate 3 on p. 551, there

(7)

unearthed, in generally chronological order, and

Comments are appended

to

some

by

himself.

of the references.

42.14 Bibliography on the Electric Analogy for

Flow Patterns. In tlii.s section there arc listed
a number of the principal references to the rather
extensive literature on the employment of the
electric

(S)

(9)

analogy for delineating streamline, equi-

potential,

and other flow patterns.

E. F., "An Electrical Method of Tracing

Streamlines for the Two-Dimensional Motion of a
Perfect Fluid," Phil. MaR., Sep 1924, Vol. 48, pp.
al.so

ARC,

and

Aero., 1943
(10)

905, 1924

1195,

(2h) Taylor, O.

F.,

I.,

"The Flow Round a Body MovinR

Fluid,"

Pror. Third

Appl. Mcch., Stockholm, 1930, Vol.

cap. pp.
(3)

Koch,

J.

I,

in

(11)

ConR.
pp. 203 275,

"Fine Expcrimcntcllo Methotic zur

Masse dcs Mit-

Wasscrs Dei SchilTsschwingunRcn

{Exfwrimcntjil Metho<l for DctermininR the Virtual

(12)

schwinRenden

Maw)

for

Cjsrillations

of

Ships),"

1033, Vol. IV, Part 2, pp. 103-109;

225 of
(4)

May

lnR.-.\rchiv,

TMH

Transl.

10-19

rh6o61ectrique do

dv*

problemcs

<lc

propulsive

rhf'liie

grilles

ind^fmics de prolils quclconquea

(On a Method of Study of llnderined Flow Nets

Around any Profde)," Cong. Nat. Aviat. Franfftise,
Apr 1945
(13) Malavard, L., "Application afrodynamique de ejdcul
oxp^rimontal
tion

of

analoRique

ExiHirinientid

(.\erodynamic
.\nal<iR.v

Applica-

t'alrulalions),"

Cong. Nat. Aviat. Franc^aiw, Apr 1945

dyiinmic (A|iplicatiun of Eleclriral AnuloRicji to

Some Ilydrodynaniic ProWcms),"

solution

(On a Rheo-Electric Method of Solution of ScrewPropeller Problema)," Comptcs-Rcndua, Acad. Sci.,

Paris, Sep 1914
Malavard, L., and Sicstrunck, R., "Sur unc melhodo
dY-tude des

Malavard, I.., "Application dea analogies ^Icctriquea

h lu iHihitiun do (|Uclr|u<-fl prold^mes dc I'liydrothe Solution of

la

.Application to the

<''lcrlri<iue

205-272
J.,

"Sur

Conformal Representation
Theory of Wing Profiles),"
Compte.s-Rendus, .\cad. Sci., Paris, Jan 1944
Sicstninck, R., "Sur un mode de solution rhfo-

and

Int.

Bcxtimmung der Reduziertcn

L.,

Solulioii of Questions of

AuR 1928

Comprc-f-silile

Malavard,

questions dc representation conforme et application

,^ la th^'oric des prolils d'ailcs (On the Rhco-Electric

'Troblcma of
(2a) Taylor, G. I.,
Flow in Compressible Fluids," Proc. Roy. Soc,
Ix)ndon, Scries A, 1928, Vol. 121; also ARC, R and

and Sharman, C.

Malavard, L., "fitude de quelque probl6mes reU'vant

de la thforie dcs ailcs. .\pplication ii Icur solution
de la mcthode rh6o61cctrique (Study of Problems
Relevant to the Theory of Wings. Application of
(he Rheo-Electric Method to Their Solution),"
Publ. Sci. et Tech., Min. de I'Air, Paris, No. 153,
1939
Peres, J., and Malavard, L., "Rlieographic and
Rheometric Analog Methods," (in French), Bull.
Soc. Fr. Elec, 1939, Vol. 8, pp. 715-744
Malavard, L., and P^ri^s, J., "Tables numfiriques
pour Ic caloul de la rtpartition des charges aCro(lynumiqucs sur I'envcrRurc d'uiie aile (Numerical
Tables for the Calculation of the Distribution of
.\crodynamic I^oada On the Span of a Wing),"
Tech. Rep. 9, Group. Frangais pour les Rtcherches

(1) Relf,

535-539; sec

shown a group of equiRankine ellipsoid.

is

potcntial spots for a 3-diml

a hst of the principal references so far

leave the reader to further study

into the question of the use of

circulation.

ex-

panded and developed to the point where it needs

its own book. All that can be done here is to

No. 57,

the electrolytic tank for flow problems involving

body and a streamline flow from

Figs. 14. E and 14. F.

flow around the

The

Paris,

"D6tennination dcs pointcs do tension

dans lea arbrca de revolution sourais ii torsion au
moyen d'un module 6lcctrique (Determination of
Tcn.sile Stress in RevolvinR Shii/ts under a Torsional Load, by Means of an Electric Model),"
.VTMA, 1930, Vol. 40, pp. 341-351. Thia paper
illustrates and describes an electrolytic tank which
is, in effect, a 3-diml affair, inasmuch as the body
in the tank hits varied depths of electrolyte over it.
P6r&i, J., and Malavard, L., ".\pplication du bassin
flectrique i\ quelques questions de mecanique dcs
fluidos (The .\pplication of Electric Flow in Liquids
to Some Questions of the Mechanics of Fluids),"
ATMA, 1938, Vol. 42, pp. 529-541. This paper,
so far as known, is not translated into English. A
number of references are listed on pp. 529, 531,
G.,

and 534.

potential lines which are actually the streamlines

of a combination of counter-clockwise circulatory

(he right; see

I'.Vir,

1934

small heart-shaped botly and the flow resembles

(hat delineatetl for the Magnus Effect in Fig. 14. E.

An

Sec. 42.14

Publ. Sci. et Tech., Min. de

(5) Salct,

replaced by a

i.s

DESIGN

(14)

.Malavard,

L.,

"Calculatcur

d'aiica

ul

rOscau

do

POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS

Sec. 42.14
resistances

pouvant

lineaire

certaines questions,
tions of Linear

le

remplacer,

dans

Analogy

(22) Surugue, J.,

Paris, Jul 1945

(15) Siestrunck, R.,
essais

Laboratory),"

"Sur

d'hfelices

de parois dans

les

(On Wall-Effect Corrections

in

les corrections

Sep 1945
Siestrunck, R., "Sur le calcul des hfilices ventilateurs
(On the Calculation of Propeller-Type Fans),"
Comptes-Rendus, Acad. Sci., Paris, Sep 1945
Peres, J., and Malavard, L., "Sur la determination
des corrections de soufHerie (On the Determination
of Blowing-Pressure Corrections)," Comptes-Rendus, Acad. Sci., Paris, Sep 1945
Marchet, P., "Determination des lignes de jet dans

(16)

(17)

(18)

les mouvements plans et de revolution (Determination of Streamlines in Two- and ThreeDimensional Flow)," Probleme D359A, Travaux
du Laboratoire de Calcul Experimental Analogique,
under the direction of L. Malavard
(19) Peres, J., Malavard, L., and Romani, L., "Problemes non lineaires de la theorie de I'aile. Application k la determination du maximum de portance
(Non-Linear Problems of the Theory of Wings.
Application to the Determination of Maximum
Load)," Rep. Tech. Group. Frangais pour les
Recherches Aero.
(20) Malavard, L., "The Use of Rheo-Electrical Analogies
in Certain Aerodynamic Problems," Jour. Roy.
Aero. Soc, Sep 1947, Vol. 51, No. 441, pp. 739-756.
This is an excellent paper, with many photographs
and diagrams illustrating the technique and the

Hubbard,

(24)

(25)

P.

G.,

"Application

of

the

Electrical

of

CNRS,

Paris,

1950,

II.

concise

but

comprehensive

treatment

of

Methods" is given by T. J.
Higgins, covering many methods other than the
"Electroanalogic

electrical-tank

analogue described

Mech. Rev., Jan 1956, pp.

1-4].

here

[Appl.

Part I of this

paper, devoted to "Solution of Electrical Prob-

lems

by Continuous-Type Conductive Proce-

its end a huge array of 111

few of which are to be found in the
preceding list. Part II of this paper, entitled
"Solution of Continuum-Mechanics Problem by
Continuous-Type Conductive Procedures," is
supplemented by an even more massive list of
203 references, some of which are also to be found

dures," carries at

references, a

in the preceding list [Appl.

results.

(21)

(23)

edition

Chap. 15 contains a discussion by L.

Malavard on "Les Techniques des Analogies
Electriques (Electric Analogy Technique)."
Rouse, H., EH, 1950, pp. 20-22 and Figs. 17, 18
Markland, E., and Hay, N., "The Potential Flow
Tank," Engineering, London, 7 Mar 1952, pp.
292-294
Borden, A., Shelton, G. L., Jr., and Ball, W. E., Jr.,
"An Electrolytic Tank Developed for Obtaining
Velocity and Pressure Distributions About Hydrodynamic Forms," TMB Rep. 824, Apr 1953.
Vol.

Sorew-Propeller Tests)," Comptes-Rendus, Acad.

Sci., Paris,

Sci.

Inst.,

Resistances

which can be Performed, in Certain Cases, in the

Electrolytic Tank)," Comptes-Rendus, Acad. Sci.,

Mechanics Research," Rev.

Nov 1949, Vol. 20, pp. 802-807; also State

Univ. Iowa, Reprints in Eng'g., Reprint 82
"Techniques gen^rales du laboratoire de
physique (General Techniques of the Physics

bassin 61ectrique (Calcula-

Wing and Network

51

in Fluid

pp. 49-55].

Mech. Rev., Feb 1956,

cuAPiER

i:;

Delineation of Source-Sink Flow DiaoTams

43 1
43.2

General

52

Two-Uimensional StreamForm Contours and Streamlines Around

a Single Source in a Stream
Graphic Construction of a Two-Diniensional
Flow Pattern .\round a Source and a Sink
Graphic Determination of Velocity .\round
Two-Dimensional Stream Forms ....
Laying Out the Two- Dimensional Flow
Pattern .\round Two Pairs of Sources and
Sinks in a Uniform Stream
The Const ruct ion of Two-Dimensional Stream
Forms and Stream Patterns from Line
Sources and Sinks
Flow Pattern for IheTwo-Dimensioniil Doublet and the Circular Stream Form
Delineation

43.3
43.4
43.5

43 6
.

43.7

43.1

43. S

of

General.

43.9
52

43.10
51

43.11

57
43. 12

Graphic Construction of Three-Dimensional

Stream Forms and Flow Patterns ....

of Stream Forms I'roduced by
Sources and Sinks
Source-Sink Flow Patterns by Colored
Liquid and Electric .\nalog_v
Formulas for the Calculation of Stream-Form
Shapes and the Flow Patterns .\round Them
The Forces E.xcrtcd by or on Bodies Around
Sources and Sinks in a Stream; Lagally's
Partial Bibliography on Sources

43.14

Selected References on Lagally's

and Their

70

who

architect

source-sink

and other features

Theorem

of

illustrate

forms

stream

Frequent application

of

know how

and

flow

"know how"

this

knowledge

uniform and of radial flow. The present chapter

contains instructions for drawing manj' kinds of
stream forms and for delineating graphically the

Form Contours and Streamlines Around

there are a few typical formulas for calculating

some simple stream forms

them graphically. Both sets
how these constructions and

coordinates of

rather than plotting

draw
will

greatly expand the usefulness of source-sink or

radial-flow

flow patterns around them. In Sees. 41.8 and 41.9

to

patterns.

a variety of simple stream forms resulting from a

graphic combination of the stream functions of

the

71

knowledge of hydro-

expects a

the source and sink, the radial stream function

3.M through 3.P

and Sinks

01

Sees. 3.8 through 3. L3 contain

potential,

67

.\pplication

dj'namics to serve him should

and velocity

G7

08

43.13

a description and discussion of radial flow and

source-sink flow. Figs.

fi7

Theorem

58

59

C2

\'ariety

43.2

in his

work.

Delineation of Two-Dimensional Streama Single

Source in a Stream. Notwithstanding that for

every source there must theoretically be a corresponding sink of ecjual strength, the plotting of
the flow around a single 2-diml source in a uniform
stream is first described as a preliminary to subsequent operations. For the time being it may
be assumed that the companion sink

formulas lead to a determination of the velocities

and pressures around the forms.
It has been true in the past, and perhaps may
be for some time to come, that the stream forms

lies at an
downstream. The plotting method
is
a single-step combination of the "radial"
stream functions for the soiu'ce and the "parallel"
functions for the uniform stream.

and streamline patterns created

found and will And infrctjuent

stream-f miction lines for the source. It

of

sections

tell

in this
u.se

in

infinite distance

Lay down

way have
practical

naval architecture, as contrasted to their frctiuent

occurrence in analytic investigations and their

first

a set of radial equidiflerent

con-

have two of these radial lines lie on the customary

and //-axes, and to jilace the imiform stream

use in the development of underwater non-ship

forms. Nevertheless, a knowledge of the mechanics

X-

drawing source-sink flow patterns and some

experience in drawing them gives one an insight
into and a working knowledge of certain phases
of hydro<Jyiiainics that can not be obtained in any
other way. A parallel ca.se is experience in the

(juadrants

^ao(pi))

coiutruclion of flow neta. Literally, the marine

set of positive numlicr.s, in

of

is

venient, for reasons which appear presently, to

parallel to the z-axis, as in Fig. 43. .V.

around

source

the

divided into a suitable

number

are

The

then

four

each

of equal arcs

the remaining radial streani-function lines.

by

The

stream functions from tht; source, identified aa

then marked with any convenient
'ii"*-'

tliis

cxse

through 28,

DELINEATION OF SOURCE SINK DIAGRAMS

Sec. 43.2

Unifoi'm-

-2.0-

flow
stream
function

_|g_

by the

53

vectors beyond B. It then goes

full-line

through a gap where the algebraic sum of the

and uniform-stream functions is equal to

radial

4. Such a gap
4'so

= +4

is

that portion of the radial hne

represented by the segment BF, lying

between the parallel horizontal lines whose

stream functions 4/u are 4 and 8, respectively.

The
Reference avis

+oo

original four units of liquid in the parallel

up through this gap and cross the line

BF. At the point F, therefore, the stream function
^s of the combined flow is equal to 4. The four
units of liquid in the radial flow turn upward
flow turn

Fig. 43. a

Uniform-Flow and Radial-Flow

Stream Functions for a 2-Diml Soubce

starting with
at the positive x-axis and going
around both ways to 32 at the negative x-axis.
Only those hnes above the a;-axis are shown in

inside the point B.

the figure.

barrier at F, turn

draw the stream comb

Off to the right

for the

The second

\pu

4^ and

the point J

uniform flow and assign suitable equidifferent

values, marked from i/'^ =
through ^c = ~20
in Fig. 43. A. The negative signs for the uniform

four units of uniform flow, between

~8, now approaching a new

up between F and J, whereupon
on the new streamline ^s = 8.

ypu =^

lies

the procedure just described

If

followed for

is

flow signify liquid moving opposite to the positive

The stream comb

direction of the .T-axis.

extended

the

to

to

left

form

the

43. B.

straight-line portions of Fig.

is

then

horizontal

In this and

succeeding layouts the lower half of the diagram,

that

the mirror image of the upper half,

is,

is

omitted to save space.

The horizontal hne extending from through

the source to

<

coinciding with the

a;-axis,

Combination of Uniform Flow With

Radial Flow Feom a 2-Diml Source

Fig. 43.B

represents the trace of the reference plane for the

flow diagram to be constructed. If four radial

vectors are

drawn from SO, between the

lines

^ and 4/so = +4, they represent schematically the four units of the quantity rate of
4'so

flow from the source in that sector. If four parallel

vectors

drawn between the trace of the

and the horizontal
- 4, they represent in the same manner

are

reference plane, in the x-axis,

line

^p

the quantity rate of flow in that part of the

stream. These eight vectors are drawn in broken

lines in the figure.

The two

which the

flows, in

quantity rates are each numerically equal to 4,

buck each other along the region AB in Fig. 43. B.

At

the intersection

and the horizontal

of the radial line

line

stream function value

moment

^^

is

= 4,

zero.

the resultant

Assuming

that the reference plane

is

= +4

^so

for the

impenetrable,

the uniform flow between the x-axis and

^pu

= ~^

There is estabhshed a line

and B, across which no liquid

deflected upward.

is

^s

between

passes.

The

liquid in the uniform stream

tity rate equal to

\}/v

in

quan-

4, turns upward as indicated

groups of eight liquid units instead of four, a

C is
= +8

point

established

and ^u

at

the

intersection

of

= ~8

where the resultant

stream function value \{/s is again zero. There is
also found a point G where the stream function
of a new series is lAs = 4 and a point K where
^s = 8.
i^so

whole pattern of intersections

is

thus quickly

determined, at which the stream functions

xf/g

of

the third series are equal to the algebraic sums

of those of the

example, at
4'so

At

second and the

it is

= +16, so this
= 20 and

L, xpu

point on the streamhne

The various

first

found that i/'p

point is on the
4'so
4's

= +12,
= 8.

series.

For

= 16 and
line \ps = 0.
so this is a

points so determined are

all inter-

sections of radial stream-function lines having

values greater than the uniform stream-function

lines by increments equal to the value of the new
stream function 4's This means that the parallel
stream flow that lay below 4'u = 4 at infinity

IIVDRODVN

51

\MK:.S IN SUIT DI-SIGN

now flows across the radial sogincnls BF, CG,

DH, and so on. A fair line joining the points

E becomes the streamline or bound= 0. Another line through F, G, H,

B, C, D, and
ary where 4^3

and corresponding points becomes the streamline

where 4's = 4. A line joining J, K, L becomes
the streamline yps = 8.
If the same construction is followed inside the
line

BODE,

tlie

= 4 and ^so = +8, where= -fSplusi^y = 4 becomes^/ = -|-4.

at N, ipso = +12 and fpu = 8,
= +4. A streamline representing

point

M, where

upon

(^Ao

Similarly,

whence

^/

radial flow preponderates at the

^t;

rff,

4, for inlernal flow, is

source through

M, N,

series of intersections.

then drawn from the

P, and a corresponding

The

four radial broken-line

vectors, each representing unitj' quantity rate of

below the

Uquiil, originally lying

turn upward and to the

tlie

^i

boundary

BCDE

left

line \pso

= +4,

as they pass between

and the

inside streamline

4.

from the source SO and

boundary BCDE
freezes into ice, or is otherwise suddenly solidified,
the flow outside that boundary remains exactly
If all the lii|uid issuing

doubling

back

inside

the

the same as defined by the streamlines of the

^s-system.
Bj' following this extremely simple

and straight-

forward construction in both quadrants above the

reference plane, and then adding its mirror image

bounding
surface ABODE ... is extended to any desired
limit downstream. All the streamlines around it
can be sketched through the respective series of
intersections by the process of adding the stream
functions algebraically and joining the points
having equal ^s values, as in Fig. 43. B. As few
or as many radial and parallel stream function
Unes are drawn as may be desired. The more are
drawn, the more intersections arc found and the
more accurately is the body defined and the resulting stream pattern delineated. Filling in streambelow

that

the

plane,

ovoid-sliaped

function lines at intervals of unit quantity rate in

Fig. 43.

instead of in increments of four units

would give sixteen time^ as many intersections and

four tim&s as

many

streamlines as are

shown

there.

The width

is

chosen with a radial stream function

at 90 deg,

of

the
is

ovoid-shaped

boundary

equal to the uniform-stream-

function position for a value corresponding to the

radial-.streatn-function

number

at

'JO

deg from the

Hlream direction. Therefore, to make the solid

boun<liiry half as wide as in Fig. 43. H, a source

of

in.stoad

^.^o

-|-1G

= +8

\l/so

as shown.

Similarly, the uniform-fiow stream function ^j;

if

only half as wide. It

in

given values twice as great, produces a body

and

this

other

is

to be noted particularly,

applications

suh-socjuenlly

described, that the velocity of the uniform flow

can be increased without changing the shape of

the form represented by
velocitj' is increased

^.s

in

if

same

the

the radial-flow
ratio.

equivalent to multiplying or dividing

functions in Fig. 43. B by the

same

all

This

is

stream

factor; the

form contour and the various streamlines in the

diagram remain the same.
The solid boundarj' around a single source in
a uniform stream in 2-diml flow continues to
widen with distance downstream so that it is of
limited

application

practical

to

ship

design.

However, Sees. 41.9 and 07. 7 tell how a 3-diml

single source in a uniform stream may be used
to delineate an underwater bulb shape for the
bow of a ship. The solid boundary' around a
source and adjacent sink in uniform flow is
closed and of oval shape, resembling some
parts of a ship. Because of the ea.se with which
2-diml streamlines are constructed around it, tliis
bodj' serves well as a simple ship form, by which
to explain and depict many kinds of flow phenomena.
Graphic Construction of a Two-Dimen-

43.3

Flow Pattern Around a Source and a Sink.

The construction of a solid boundary surface and
a streamline diagram for a 2-diml source and a
sional

2-diml sink placed in a uniform stream involves

one more step than the procedure described for

a single source. It

is

convenient, as before, to

They are
when once

take up each of the steps separately.

simple

graphic

operations

which,

and rapidly performed.

line from oo to -|- < in
Fig. 43. C, pa.ssing through the source and the
sink and coinciding with the x-axis, represent the
learned, are easily

Let the horizontal

trace of the reference plane for the 2-iliml uniform-

stream flow. The

tracing

midway between the

Using separate sheets of

y-ax'is is

source and the sink.

suitable

transparent

down orthogonal axes

in the center

cloth,

material, lay

opposite the source

Srr. 43.3

or

other

of each sheet. In each of the four ((uadrants

an equal number of uniformly

draw

sijaceil radial lines,

representing equidifl'erent radial stream functions.

Series of

numbers

difi"ering

by 2 or 4 are used

generally in the present ch.'ipter but any series

licrmissible.

is

Sec.

DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS

433

Fig. 43.C

Radial Stream Functions foe a 2-Diml Source-Sink Pair and the Resultant Stream Functions

Leave a clear space at the center of each sheet

where the lines would otherwise be crowded
together.

55

One way

is

to use large circles for the

source and sink. Extend the radial lines as far

The

as the drawing area permits or requires.

^/so-

from the source is designated as the

or ^o-system; that from the sink as the

^SK-

or

pattern representing the liquid

the

it is

more

convenient to start from the axis between the

source and sink instead of from the axis stretching
to the right from the source.

radial flow

Number

movement from

the source to the sink. For this purpose

Considering four units

from the source

of

in the sector

liquid emanating
between the hori-

around both source and sink, starting with zero

at the reference Hne in the positive x-axis on the
right and increasing numerically hoth ways to the
negative x-axis. This applies both to the diagram
shown and its mirror image. As previously men-

zontal reference line and the radial- stream-function

hne \po = +28, represented by the four brokenUne vectors, these units must enter the sink
between the reference line and the radial line
^K = 4. Where the stream-function hne
fo = +28 crosses the hne \pK = 4, at the point

tioned,
any convenient set of equidifferent
numerical values may represent the outflowing

i^c

\^K-system.

radial

lines

and inflowing stream functions, but the sets

must be identical. The lines i^o = and ^^ =
both he over the reference trace and point toward
the source of the uniform-stream flow and opposite
to its velocity vectors. The hnes radiating from
the source are marked with positive signs to
indicate positive stream functions, while those

pointing toward the sink are marked with negative

signs.

With the reference-plane trace as a base, superpose these separate radial-flow diagrams with
their

centers

at the selected

positions. Fasten the source

source and sink

and sink sheets

in

then over both diagrams lay a third sheet

paper or cloth, or other transparent
material, upon which the straight reference line

Y, the value of the resultant^ stream function

= +28
(-4) = +24. The numerical
stream-function values of the fc system are distinguished by single bars over the numerals.
However, the four liquid units flowing out

of the

source and into the sink, corresponding to the

curved vectors shown, actually pass

between the point Z, where rf/c = +28, and the
fuU-hne

Whereas the streamline \pc = +28

tangent to the radial line ^o = +28 at the
source and to ^^ = 4 at the sink, this streamhne
moves downward or inward, away from those
reference trace.

is

hnes, as the distance

increases.

through

The

place,

of tracing

along

from the source or sink

In other words,

Y it

instead

of

passing

passes through Z.

intersections of other parts of radial Hnes

perpendicular

to

the

reference

hne,

is

midway between the source and smk, occur at

the points m^ked_Y, X, and_W, where the values

as the straight-line portions of Fig. 43. C.

other

drawn and the source-sink positions are marked.

The hnes visible through the top sheet then appear

The next

step

is

the construction of the flow

of

if/c

^c are +24, +20, and +16, respectively. Two

points,
and N, on the streamline
= +16, are given by the intersection of

1IM)K()I)\

56

.\

\.\IK:s IN Mill'

^o = +20 plus \fiK = t'<|ual.s 4>r = +><, as

well as bv 4'o = +'-S plus ^^ = 12 equals
= +1G
^f. = +1(5. These permit the streamline ^c
J

to be drawn, rememheriiip that, like the

descrilMxl,

it is

tangent to

at the source and the line ^k

= 16

How between

Actually, for 2-iliml

first

radial linc^o

(lie

one

= +1C

at the sink.

a source-sink

pair, all the streamlines of the

^c series are drcics

which pass through the source and sink centers.
These circles have a radius of s cosec 0(thcta),
where s is the half-tlistaiice between source and
is the angle between (1) the radial
sink, and
stream function at the sourer for which the circle
is drawn and (2) the reference axis. Considering
the radial source streamline
or 90 deg and_cosec 6

ypo

= +1G,

is ir/2

the radius of the circle

\;

^c = +16 is therefore s, half the distance

from the source to the sink. This particular
circle has its center on the reference line and is
tangent to the radial strcamhncs if/o +H> and

for

^K = 16 at the source-sink axis. When cxteiidetl

below the source-sink axis in the diagraraj_thiri
n
circle becomes the stream function ^^ = -flfi

that side. Similarlj',

all

other circles extended

below the axis become what might be termed

supplementary streamlines in that region. For
example, the streamline ioTjpc = +4 above the
reference line and tpc = +28 below it are parts
of the same circle. Numerically, the stream
function for these two parts of any complete
circle total 32, the

same value

the source or the sink.

streamlines

fall

The

as for half of either

centers of the circular

on intersections

alreadj' given liy

the radial-flow lines in the diagram, because

if

the

quadrants are divided into a whole number of

1)1

sU.\

Sec.

(jJ

always a radial stream-function

from the source at right angles to another
line from the sink. For example, since the circular
streamline \pc = +12 is tangent to rpo = +12
at the source, its center lies on the line rpo = +28,
where 12 -|- 16 (for one quadrant) = 28.
On this basis, and with the additional intersections on the diagram, the remainder of the
circular streamlines are drawn. AVhereas these
lines are approximately equidistant from each
other at the source and sink centers, they become
increasingly farther apart at greater and greater
distances from the source and sink, bccau.-je of
the slowing down of the liquid in the widening
crescent-shaped sectors. However, once drawn by
subdividing each quadrant into a given number
of sectors, the circular stream pattern nerer
changes for any change in source-sink strength or
spacing. Once carefully drawn, it can be enlarged
or reduced photographicallj^ to suit the sourcesink spacing. The numbers on it are altered to
sectors, there is
line

.suit

the source-sink strengths.

This completes the

The second

step

source-to-sink

is

first

step in the operation.

the combination of this circular

flow

with

pattern

uniform-flow pattern parallel to

plane.

The uppermost

the
the

2-diml

reference

sheet of tracing cloth or

paper containing the circular-streamline pattern

of the \{/c S3'stcm is now transferred and superposed

on a sheet which has parallel streamlines of the

uniform flow drawn on it. Following this, the
i^f/ flow is combined with the ^c flow by adding
the ipc and the i^y stream functions algebraically
where the strcamhncs cross each other. For
example, in the right-hand portion of Fig. 43. D,
\

Uiiifomi-flow

v stream

tuifclions^'^''

aurtace

Fi'i.

'l-'t.!)

Uankink. Stiikam Form and Simnoit.VDi.vo Stiikam Vuiw Uesi'i.tino Fmni Inskhtion or a
Soi;k(;k-Sink 1'aiii i\ a U.\ih-oiiM Stiikam

'.J-Himi.

DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS

Sec. 43.4

new form

at the intersectioii_B of the circular stream-function Una ypc = +4 and the uniform-flow stream

hand, a

function Hne ^v = 4, the resultant flow is zero.

Therefore B is a point on the boundary of the

The shape

Rankine body to be formed. There

and corresponding point B for iZ-^ =

is

a second,
at the left

At the intersections of the circles

+8, +12, and 4-16 with the parallel-flow
lines ^f/ = 8, 12, and 16, respectively, the
pairs of points C, D, and E are found, all on the
of the sink.

\pc

stream-form boundary.
A streamline through the lettered points where
yps = 0, passing through the stagnation points
Q and embracing the lower or mirror image as

of the stream form is preserved while

changing its velocity relative to the uniform
stream by the simple expedient of increasing or
decreasing all the velocities and stream functions
by the same factor. The oval "ship" thus retains
its

form while changing

43.4 Graphic Determination of Velocity Around

Two-Dimensional Stream Forms. The magnitude and direction of the resultant velocity in the
streamUne field ^s is determined in a simple

manner,

graphic

By

an oval-shaped stream form or Rankine body.

The flow pattern around this body is constructed
by drawing the streamlines for the functions
^s = 2, 4, 6, and so on, using the method

the separate flows

The

resulting

speed through the

its

liquid.

Rankine.

body shape and flow patterns are illustrated by

the heavy lines of Fig. 43. D. Points near amidships
along the body boundary are determined by
drawing intermediate streamlines which are
radial, circular, and parallel, or they may be
determined by calculation, whichever may be
found most convenient. The necessary formulas

57

as quickly sketched, using

different relative strengths for the several flows.

well as the upper half of the flow diagram, forms

described for the single source.

is

this

W.

with

originating

M.

J.

method the velocity vectors of

are combined to give a resultant

The

velocity vector of the streamline flow.

inter-

between the composition of stream

functions and Uquid velocities for 2-diml flow is
explained in Sees. 2.11 and 2.14 and illustrated in
Figs. 2.L and 2.Q of Volume I. Fig. 43. E diagrams
relation

are listed in Sec. 41.8.

Flow from the source

to the sink also takes

place within the boundary of the Rankine body,

depicted by the stream-function line ^/ = +2

in the figure. This inside liquid can be considered

Diagram Illustrating Graphic Method

Determining Resultant Velocities for

Fig. 43.E

and the flow neglected.

The length of the oval-shaped form is partly
adjusted but not wholly controlled by the spacing
2s between the source and the sink. Its length-

the graphic method for the example of Fig. 43. D,

beam

as applied to several points around the body.

as solidified

or fineness ratio

is

a function of the relative

oj'

2-DiML Flow

Take

strength of the source-sink flow and the uniform-

stream flow. The absolute

largely a function of

diagram

With

is

form is
the scale upon which the
size

of the

laid out.

relatively simple radial-

first

the

body point

in Fig. 43.E.

(7

uniform-flow velocity vector

is

laid off at

OiB, parallel to the reference axis. From B a line

drawn toward A, tangent to the circular or
source-sink streamline of the ^c system passing
is

and uniform-flow

diagrams made up beforehand on translucent or

transparent material, the delineation of a stream
form and its surrounding 2-diml flow pattern is
a much shorter and easier task than might appear
from the detailed description just given. In fact,
with a httle practice, the freehand sketching of
the form and the flow pattern is the work of
only an hour or two. Figs. 3.0 of Sec. 3.11 in
Volume I and 43. G of Sec. 43.5 are examples of
this procedure. If the stream-form shape and
proportions are not suitable for

the

work

in

through B. The latter is shown by the light circular

arc in the diagram. From B a hne BC is drawn,
tangent to the body surface at B. From Oj a
line

OiA

is

drawn

parallel to the body-surface

tangent BC, cutting the hne from

tangent

to

velocity

Ub

the

circular-arc

at the point

is

which

streamline.

is

The

then defined by the

vector OiA. For any point on a streamline in the

field away from the body, the procedure is exactly
the same, considering the streamline as the surface
of a

new body.

HYDROOVNAMICS

58

When

IN SHIP DESIGN

Ub is known at a
Ap is found by uniform

the resultant velocity

8olcctl point, the corresponding

Ap =

the rclationsliips

0.bp{l'\

Ul) and

(i'g/U.Y], described previously in

Sec. 41.12. Values of the pressure coefficient corresponding to various combinations of velocities
squared, in English units, for liquids of any mass

^p/q

c=

(1

flow with the "circular" flow between

one source-.sink pair

axis, placed farther

INA,

Nb

point

occurs at a

represented by the vector OjN in Fig. 43. E,

U,v
equals in magnitude the uniform velocity U.
,

By

represented by the vector OjH.

arc on 0, as a center, using the radius

it

is

lies

known

striking an

0,H =

f/.

that the extremity of the vector

HM.

somewhere on the arc

It is also

OjN

known

The

(1)

NbL

body

at the

is

parallel

HN

which represents a portion

NflK,

circular-arc

^c-system through Nb
the body boundary.

By

streamline

source-sink

a process of

same

strength (Rankine,

The

W. J. M.,

construction of the body

method, using a main source-sink pair, each

having a total quantity rate of flow of 128 units,
and an auxiliary pair, each having a flow of 32
units.

stream-flow diagram representing the

source and sink

of

the

constructed.

When drawn by

in Sec. 43.3

and

illustrated

has the appearance

of diagram 2 of Fig. 43.F. Second, a stream-flow
in Fig. 43. C, one-quarter of

it

the

S2

the

of

is

method described

where that arc crosses

Half of source-alnK

distance
V'C2" System

and error a point Nb on

found where the necessary

trial

the body surface

is

met [Rankine, W.

conditions are

even

shape and the flow pattern involves four steps as

compared to the two of the previous section, but
the procedure for each is equallj- straightforward.
An example is worked out here to illustrate the

surface, at the

proper location of the neutral point Nb

is parallel to a tangent to the
(2) The vector
arc

of a ship,

modified by the

"circular" ^ci-systcm flow between the primary

OjN

streamline-velocity vector

to the tangent

is

apart than the main pair, and

less

1870, p. 178].

First, a

that:

bow

addition of a second source-sink pair on the

having somewhat

neutral

often too blunt to represent

schematically. This bluntness

41.13, on page 27.

point in the surface where the streamline velocity

is

the no.se of a body or the

density p(rho), arc given in Table 41.c of Sec.

The forward

0.5

Sec.

stream form resulting from the combination of

M., Phil.

J.

Trans. Roy. Soc, 1871, Vol. IGl, p. 305, where

Rankine calls the neutral point "the point of no
disturbance of pressure"].
The U.SC of Rankinc's graphic method gives a
neat solution for the conditions at the stagnation
where it is known that the
points Qb and Qs
,

resultant velocity
surface.

function

At Qb

for

of

lines

body

directed normal to the

is

example, the circular-stream^c-sj'stem

the

are

directed

ahead, opposite to the uniform-flow line rpa = 0.

Therefore, at this point the circular-stream
velocity vector

Qb03

magnitude but

is

resultant velocity at

equal to the vector

is

of

opposite sign,

Qn

in

hence the

zero.

is

At the midsection of the stream form or Rankine bfxiy, and abreast it, the grapliic method
describo<l in the foregoing breaks down. The
cirrular-flow velocity vectors are parallel to the

uniform-flow vectors and

the

intersection

n-Hpoiifiing to

indetfrminate.

.\

in Fig.

13.

i.s

cor-

Laying Out the Two-Dimensional Flow

Pattern Around Two Pairs of Sources and Sinks
43.5

in

Uniform

Stream.

The

2-diml

Rankine

Half of aourca-ink ditsnca

*]
5,

M:ircular trA<n

funcLOn

Fin.

-13.

F-"

Soi'iir-K-SiNK SriiKAMi.iNr..s

t-t>n

Two

SoUHCE-SlSK PaIIW OK DlF:RKNT OuTPlT AND

DiF>xRt.sT .VxiAL Spacing

DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS

Sec. 43.6

diagram representing the ^c2-systena flow between

the secondary source and sink

When

the same method.

is

prepared, by

completed, one-quarter

down

the

is

special

\i/c2

diagrams must be drawn with lines sufficiently

heavy to make them visible through each other
and through the sheet carrying the ^cz diagram,
subsequently to be placed on top of them. When
the ^ci and i/'c2 diagrams of the primary and
secondary

source-sink

are

flows

and

finished

superposed, with the sources and sinks at the

distances Si and Sa respectively, from the origin,
is

constructed by adding

the two sets of "circular" stream functions to

form a composite diagram for the two pairs,
called for convenience the ^C3

system. It

is

stream-function

shown by the curved broken

lines

different

such a form and the streamline pattern around it,

involving as it does the six steps listed hereunder,

admittedly tedious but

These

(2)
(3)
(4)

it is

readily done for

the results are worth while.

if

six steps are:

Combination
Combination

(5)
(6)

iu

studies

Flow between primary source and sink, \(/ci

Flow between secondary source and sink, if/ci
Flow between tertiary source and sink, \j/c3
Combination of flows ^d and \pc2 = 4'ct

(1)

a third flow diagram

in

To make the bow and stern even more pointed

a tertiary source-sink system may be added near
the extreme ends. The graphic construction of

function values. However, both the ^ci and

it

59
diagrams

radial

positions along the source-sink axis.

appears hke diagram 1 of Fig. 43. F.

It is possible to use the same basic radial
diagrams for constructing tlie circular streamlines
associated with the two sets of sources and sinks
by assigning to them different radial streamof

inked

of flow

\]/c4

with flow xj/cs = 4'cs

with uniform flow

of flow rpcs

iPs

Regardless of the combination of stream-function values used in this operation the ends retain

any reasonable number of sets

and sinks. A solution to
problem, developed by D. W. Taylor, is

some bluntness

for

or pairs of point sources

of the freehand sketch of Fig. 43. G, radiating

this

from the two sources.

described in the section to follow.

It is pointed out here, as

W.

M. Rankine

J.

did in his classic treatise of 1866 on "Shipbuilding:

Theoretical and Practical," that

it is

not strictly

necessary to limit a ship curve, for analysis or

design, to the contour of the Rankuie body or
-64

stream form defined by the stream function

= 0. Parts of the lines of ships may be represented by streamlines which lie at some distance
rps

Stream function "^

-Sttejm functions

from what is considered as the solid boundary of

the stream form, described in Sec. 4.2 on page 72

Jiijj

G Freehand Sketch of Source-Sink

Streamlines for Two 2-Diml Source-Sink
Pairs, Form of Body When Inserted in
Uniform Flow, and Resultant Streamlines

of

Fig. 43.

Volume

I.

This

final step,

the i/'c3-system

in

accordance with the

any stream

by a
without changing the flow pattern

surface in an ideal liquid can be replaced

solid surface

on the other side

As a fourth and

is

principle previously enunciated that

is

combined with the uniform flow i^crsystem to

produce a stream form yj/s = 0, indicated by the
heavy line of Fig. 43. G. This has definitely more
pointed ends than the 2-diml body which would
be produced by either primary pair alone.
The exact shape of the ends of a body such as
that delineated in Fig. 43. G depends upon the
strengths of the secondary source and sink and
the relative locations selected for them. A great
variety of body shapes can be drawn in a surprisingly short time, simply by assigning different
stream functions to the radial and parallel flows
and changing the source-sink spacing by tacking

of

it.

The Construction of Two-Dimensional

Stream Forms and Stream Patterns from Line
43.6

Sources and Sinks. It is possible to construct

stream forms with the sharp ends customary in
ship waterlines, and with practically any desired
shape and degree of fineness or fullness, by an
ingenious method devised by D. W. Taylor many
years ago ["On Ship-Shaped Stream Forms,"
INA, 1894, pp. 385-406; "On Sohd Stream

Forms, and the Depth of Water Necessary to

Avoid Abnormal Resistance of Ships," INA, 1895,
pp. 234-247]. This involves the use of what are
called line sources and sinks.
In its simplest form this procedure embodies the

HVDROnVNAMICS

t;u

use uf n niultituile of nuinite sources and sinks,

not

nt>ccs!irily

of

all

infinitciiimal spacing,

siuno strength,

tlio

crowilixl

willi

togetlier along a

line representing the longitudinal axis of a Innly

The

or ship.

sources are groupetl along the en-

the sinks along

trance;

minute strength

the

each

of

run.

source

Despite
or

sink,

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. -13.6

distributed along the

sinks

tlistributwl

XO-part

along

the

of the line to the

t)Xi-part,

ceding.

When

the flow pattern of the resultant

the

source-sink stream function

the

bined with the uniform-flow function

is

found,

it is

com-

^t/

along

combineil strength of ench group of them along

the reference

the line

form, defined by the streamline where

[-

is finite.

Line

Streom

Form-^^^sr

the line

0^__l,-t-^T:urve of Strength

X,OX

DEnsTTiON Sketch kor

AND Line Sink

Li.ne

Source

vector

perpendicular

the

to

source-sink

above the

off

and

all

the

line joining

curve. If

each source or sink occupies a space of

line,

is

is

due_to any
dx^BVljOg

5ource-intensily curve

then the total strength of all

times the average

the length

OX

strength or ordinate. Similady, the total strength

of all the .sinks

is

the length (JXi times the average

negative ordinate.

The
line

strength of any source or sink along the

XOX, may

be a.ssigncd at

will,

upon the shape

of the Ixxly or ship

desired to form.

The only

limitation

depending
which it is
is

that the

area below the curve of source ordinates,

in V\g. 43.11,

AXO

representing the total source output,

be ixaclbj (t/ual to the area

sink ordinates

(JDX,

above the

curve; of

representing the total sink

input. Otherwi.s*' there will be

some

liiiuid

lacking

and the resulting stream furni will

not \)C bounded by a closed curve.
In practice, when working with line .sources
and sinks, it is convenient to plot a grajili of
ituurcc and sink strengths as in diagram 1 of
Fig. -13.1. The problem then is to find the stream
function of the combined llnw from the sources
or

left

measured counter-clockwise from the

reference plane. The stream function at G due
to any rfx-sink, such as at F, is rf.r(CF)fl;,
Plotting these values as a separate graph, diagram
2 of Fig. 43.1, the source stream function is laid
off as the ordinate EH above E, and the sink
stream function as FJ below F. Proceeding in
similar fashion for all the rf.r-sources between X
is

the source-sink, strength-distribution

is

the sources

line.

line

ordinates

dx along the

0.

represented by the height of a velocity

Source strengths are laid

sink strengths below it.

'

Fig. 43.H depicts schematically such a line,

marked X,OX, with a row of sources from X to
O and a row of sinks from to X, The strength
is

^.,-

as the trace of the reference plane,

infinitesimal (/x-source, such as at E,

Distribution

where 0^

of each

to give the outline of the ship

as before, the stream function at

-Line of Source9-j

Fio. 43.11

a.\is

Other values of the stream function ^., give the

2-diml flow pattern around the ship form, at a
distance from the boundary.
At any selected point G in diagram 1 of Fig.
43.1 it is necessary to determine first, the flow
from all the dx sources; second, the flow into all
the dx sinks; and then to combine them. Taking

of Sinks-*-!

of 2-diml

lOutline
r^

corre-

sponding to the "circular" stream flow for the

simple l2-diml sourcc>-ink pair of Sec. 43.3 pre-

over,

Fio. 43.1

DEKiNrnoN Sketch

nm the Stream

Ki'NrrioN AT A Point in a Linb Souhck-Link

Sink

I''iei.1)

DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS

Sec. 43.7

and X,
and OJR are produced. Subtracting the area under the first from the area
above the second, both measured to the XOXj
axis, gives the net value of the combined sourceand 0, and

all

the curves

KHO

the dx-sinks between

3-diml

sink stream function at the point G. It

is

repre-

for all points in the

the

the source-and-sink lines

XO

and

was done
by Taylor. The method is explained and used in
a practical example by him on pages 392-396 and

LXX-LXXIII

of his 1894

INA

paper.

Shortening the lines of sources and sinks to

cover only hmited intervals or portions of the
(b)

(c)

bow and

zero.

curves by straight

fines; in

other words, making

the strengths constant along the source-and-sink

latter

in producing the simple 2-diml ship

forms described in Sees. 2.17 and 4.3 and

the

source-sink

When this distance is reduced to an extremely

and the

left in

illus-

and 4.C of Volume I. They

used by Brand and others in producing

because the

is

^
^.-^^^-n where

now

at the

doublet position which

axis,

common position for both.

When the source and sink

in

effect,

are brought together

of the doublet is then indicated

by

are increased

The

strength

/i(mu),

where

2m(s).

When

the double-circular flow pattern around

a doublet

combined with a uniform flow

is

in the

direction of the doublet axis the resulting 2-diml

stream form,
is

down

la

depicted

circular.

The

in Sec. 41.8. It

the Value

V4
of

'Ji^u

in

half-section

in

Fig.

derivation of this form

is

is

convenient, for reasons

at the

Point M,

Sink^

Fig. 43.J

crosses the axis

is,

to hold the product m(2s) constant.

-6
-;n

tangent to the

forming the locus of their

fine

normal to the

set

Other Half Below Axis Identical

lie

centers,

were also

to

now

source-sink axis, regardless of their radius. This

43. J,

)^-5yslem Equol

Furthermore, the visible streamlines

sink.

of the circular pattern

trated in Figs. 2.S

Rodii of

their

decreased toward

is

small value, the only circular streamhnes

uniformly varying in those regions. The

two steps were adopted by H. Fottinger

and F. Horn

as

size

to form a doublet their strengths

stern

Replacing the general source-and-sink strength

lines or

in

distance 2s along the axis

equal length and the source-and-sink

length near the

diminish

sink

retain

However, the
between the source and

as in Fig. 43. C.

sight are the outer ones, beyond both the source

distribution symmetrical about 0, as

Plates

streamlines

source-sink

inner streamline circles

immensely by:

of

The

II.

circular shape,

UM

Making

1952, pp. 14-15].

43.7 Flow Pattern for the Two-Dimensional

Doublet and the Circular Stream Form. A source
and sink, both 2-diml, when placed infinitely
close to each other along a given axis, form a
doublet, described in Sec. 3.10 and illustrated in
Fig. 3.M of Volume I and in Fig. 43.J of Volume

Taylor in the references cited. Nevertheless, it

can be and has been done, as witness the works
of the AVA, Gottingen, on 3-diml line sources
and sinks in their report
3206, mentioned in
Sec. 42.6. The general problem is simplified

(a)

is

TMB

May

Transl. 48,

and carrying through

the remainder of the operation is a tedious and
laborious task, despite the systematic method of
calculation outUned and described by D. W.

OX,

one of which

revolution,

(d) Using a calculating machine developed by

H. Fottinger [STG, 1924, pp. 295-344;

figure.

Repeating this procedure

of

illustrated in Fig. 42.C.

sented by the hatched area in diagram 2 of the

entire field other than

bodies

61

Construction Diagram for 2-Diml Doublet

n^b^

IIYDRODYNAMICS

f.2

pxplainod

presently,

aicuratcly

tiie

to

he

able

to

delineate

potential flow of an ideal liquid

IN

DKSK.N

SIIIl'

speak, to suit the

Src. -f^.S

new contour. Sections

of hydro-

around this circular form. This is accomplishetl

by combining the circular doublet streamlines of
the ^o-system with the parallel streamlines of
llie ^^systcm, as described for other graphic
constructions in the sections preceding. However,
the ^o-system is constructed in quite different

and control
surfaces, even transverse sections and watcrlines
of ships, are the end result of this procedure,
complete with data for the flow around them.
However, because of the discontinuity at tlie
trailing edge of a hydrofoil which is definitely
sharp, the method breaks down for the region in

fashion.

this vicinity.

Selecting the desired radius

of the circular

stream form, the stream functions of the uniform

flow arc laid off at intervals of say tenths of the

R on

a.\is. This is illustrated

one side only. The innermost circular streamline of the doublet system,
not shown in the figure, has a radius of R/2. Its
geometric center, as for all other centers of the
system, lies on a line normal to the doublet a.\is
at the doublet position 0. If this innermost circle

radius

each side of the

in Fig. 43.J,

drawn

for

were drawn from the center P it would be tangent

and to the uniform-flow
to the doublet a.\is at
is a
streamhne for iu = 10 at M. Since
point on the stream form where \f/s = 0, this
circle has a stream-function value ^o = -f-lO.
The next circle representing a doublet stream
and has a
function ^o is tangent to the a.xis at
radius (7?/2)(10/9). The remaining circles of

the

have the radii (/?,'2)(10/8),

.so on to (ft/2)(10/l) for the
^o = +1- Expressed in another

i^c-system

(/<:/2)(10/7),

and

outermost circle,
way, at the top of Fig. 43.J, the radii of the
\^/)-systcm maj' be taken as A-/1, fc/2, k/3,

where n has the numerical value

point M, and k = nR/2.

The

algebraic addition of the

k/n,

of ^,; at the

4'd

and the ^u

stream functions produces points in the resultant

^s-isystem.

is a
function for ^., =
Other stream functions such as
and so on define the streamlines

The stream

circle of radius R.
^fl

1,

2,

depicted in Fig.
as large a

43..J for

the ^.,-systcm, covering

may

be desired for analysis.

Both by this graphic construction and b^' pure
field

as

propeller

foils,

rudders

blades,

Graphic Construction of Three-DimenStream Forms and Flow Patterns. The

manner in which an oval 2-diml body is formed by
43.8

sional

inserting a 2-diml source-sink pair into a uniform

stream, flowing in a direction parallel to the sourcesink axis,

much

described in Sec. 43.3. It

is

source-sink axis.

For the mathematical formulations of Sec. 41.8

and the spherical coordinates employed there, it
was convenient to use a zero stream-function
reference for the 3-diml source (and sink) in the

form

of

center,

a transverse plane through the source

normal to the source-sink axis. For the

graphic construction, however,

and more straightforward

for

itself.

from the source-sink axis.

Using the same zero reference for the 3-diml
flow out of the source and into the sink, the
radial flow is split up into a cone-and-funnel
pattern symmetrical about the source-sink axis
rather than into a "pyramidal" pattern uniformly
distributed in

all

directions around

(or sink) as a center.

of the radial 3-diml flow t-akes

radial flow

is

the source

This means that the inner-

the velocity potential, the flow pattern, the

so to

representation

radially

the source-sink axis, as at

it,

The

stream flow is the same in both cases. It is depicted

in diagram 2 of Fig. 2.M of Sec. 2.12, on page 31
of Volume I, where the 3-diml stream function
^[/ corresponds to U^y'/'l, with y measured

possible to determine easily the stream function,

variuu.H flow characteristics along with

simpler

of the stream function \pv for the 3-diml uniform-

the form of a cone whose axis

and other flow characteristics

around the circular stream form. Bj' the proccjvs
of confornial transformation, mentioned in Sec.
41.11, the circular boundary of Xhi' 2-diml doublet
Htrcam form is transformed into almost any
dceired Hha()e, taking the flow pattern and the

much

both source-and-sink flow and uniform-stream

flow the source-sink axis

most subdivision

ures, the velocities,

it is

to use as a zero reference

calculation, using the formulas of Sec. 41.8 for

pre.s-

possible,

the

flow about a 2-diml rod of circular section,

it is

is

same way, to form an axisymmetric

3-diml body by inserting a 3-diml source-sink pair
into a uniform stream moving parallel to the
in

assumed

is

coincident with

in Fig. 43. K.

The

to pass through the circular-

contour spherical base of this cone, notwithstanding that

it

is

shown

closed at

in the figure.

similar cone lies diametrically opposite the source

or sink, also

The next

shown at B.

subdivision of the 3-diml radial flow,

reckoned outward from the source-sink axis and

out of (or into) which a unit (|uiinlity rate of

DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS

Sec. 43.S

63

Cones of inflow for unity stream function

between -p^A and fi-^ =0
Funnels of outfiow for
unity stream function

between

liquid flows,

the cone.

V'q'Z

and

TiQ'\

Definition Sketch foe 3-Diml Soubcb-and-Sink Stream Functions for Graphic Construction
OF Body Shapes and Flow Patterns

Fig. 43.K

is

a conical "funnel," surrounding

The same quantity

rate of liquid

is

equal parts corresponding to the selected stream

of the radial

functions for each "hemisphere"

such as k

When

perpendiculars are

assumed to pass through the annular spherical

flow,

surface at the base of the "funnel." This funnel

is

erected on this radius at the spacing h

it

the intersections of these perpendiculars with a

diagrammed at A
stand out more

clearly,

source-sink axis

omitted. Diametrically opposite

one funnel

is

is

in Fig. 43.

where, to

make

the cone around the

an identical one, drawn at the

side of the 3-diml source in the figure.

left

With a

3-diml stream function ^o =

at the source-sink
axis, this stream function has a value of unity
(1.0) at

the outer surface of the cone and the inner

surface of the funnel. It has a value of 2 at the

outer surface of the funnel,

indicated

in

the

Surrounding the inner funnels are a series

of other larger funnels, also concentric with the
source-sink axis, terminating in zones of area
equal to the first, through which unit quantity
rates of Hquid flow in and out.
figure.

For a given spherical radius and radial velocity

at the source and sink, the quantity rates of
liquid flowing through the cones and funnels are
directly proportional to the areas of their spherical

bases and zones, respectively. For the construction

of the 3-diml

stream forms to be described, the

surface of each source or sink "sphere"

is

divided

an integral number of zones of equal area,

all symmetrical about the axis.
The area of a spherical segment or zone is
expressed by the formula 4s = 2irRb, where R
is the radius of the sphere and h is the height of
the segment or zone in the direction of the polar
axis, normal to the planes dividing the zones. In
into

circle representing

10.

R/k,

the spherical surface give the

limits for the bases of the cones

and the funnels

through which equal quantities of liquid move

out from the source and in toward the sink.
The radial-flow diagram for a 3-diml source (or
sink),

as projected on a page to represent the

any plane passed through the source-sink

the form indicated in diagram 1
Fig. 43.L, where only one-quarter of the pattern
shown. That for the sink is the same, with

traces on
axis,

of
is

takes

negative signs.

The uniform

flow approaching from a distance

assumed to be made up
tubes, circular and annular
is

of

stream rods and

in section

and con-

centric about the extended source-sink axis, as

shown in diagram 2 of Fig. 2.M of Volume I

and in Fig. 42.A. The inner stream "rod" of
Fig. 2.M has the form of a cylinder of any selected
radius, depending upon the value of the 3-diml
uniform-stream function assigned. The outer
stream "tubes" have radial thicknesses such that
the quantity rate of flow through each of them
equals that through the center "rod." Their
divisional surfaces therefore have equidLfferent
stream functions, based upon their common axis

this case the polar axis corresponds to the source-

prospective inner and outer

and the annular stream tubes are
determined graphically by laying down a secondorder parabola y' = ex, with its vertex on the

Hence a

source-sink axis. Perpendiculars are then erected

sink axis, and to the direction of flow.

selected or convenient spherical radius along the

direction of flow

is

divided into a

number

of

as a reference.

The

radii of the rod

at uniform intervals along the source-sink axis

in the

manner indicated

at 2 in Fig. 43.L [Taylor,

IIVDRODYN AMIC.S

64

TAULB

43.n

IN

SIIII' 111

Data roK CoNSTKCcTisr. Tmhkk-Dimi.

This tablo applies to (iingram

of

SICN

1{mihi-I'

Pii;.

i:i.I,.

Sec. -fJ.S

)i

m;k\\is

DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS

Sec. 43.ft
22

0.10

Source-

or sinK
^-20

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.5O

R"^^

0.60

O.TO

080

0.90

"-^O

1.00
I

fiS

Curbed streamlines correspoodmq to 32 plus the inward

radial stream function values are tanqenl to each
other at the sink center
Ifc

Fig. 43.N

The curved streamlines are tanqenl to the Outward raoial

flow lines havinq the same numerical stream function

WO'>>rtW V^

Stream-Function Pattern for a 3-Diml Source-Sink Pair

the 3-diml siiigiosource-and-uniforin-flow combi-

nation described picviou.slj' in

illustrated in Fig. 43. M.

The

tliis

section

and

result, indicated in

a plane longitudinal section through

the a.\is of a 3-diml stream form of revolution of
oval shape and the 3-diml flow pattern around it.
Fig. 43.0,

is

This form may be called, following the lead of

D. W. Taylor, a solid stream form; it may also
be called a solid liankine body. The streamlines
lying outside

-?4

it

are the traces of varied-radius

Curvad source-sink streamlines

PlO. 43.0

AxiBTUMBTIUf

Ik)l)Y

at the source center

(2^)

of

Fiq.

stream tubes, formed by the intersection of the

circular-section .stream surfaces with the plane of
the page.
If

the solid axisj'mmetric stream forms resulting

from

anj' of these

combinations are too blunt,

pairs of 3-diml secondary or tertiarj' sources

sinks

may

and

be added, following the scheme de-

scribed in Sec. 43.5 for 2-diml radial flows of this

kind.

The methods

of constructing graphically

the

43Ji

SlUrK rOR C'dMIIISATION oy 3-DlMI. SotmCF.-SiNK TaIU and

:t-niMI.

HSIMIIIM

Flow

DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS

Sec. 43.11

flow patterns around source-and-sink combinations in uniform flow is described here at some

length as an aid in the visuaUzation of this type

of flow and in understanding the nature and the

combination of stream functions. The more

famihar this action becomes to the marine architect, the more frequently is it recognized around

67

The number of forms which can be developed

by source-sink combinations is in fact limited only
by the ingenuity, imagination, and talent put to
work on them. The reward offered by this work
is

the ability to calculate the characteristics of the

flow around these forms, under a great variety of

The

initial conditions.

and practical

useful

results

a ship form and the more interesting and useful

of these enterprising endeavors are described in

become in practice.
Forms Produced by
Sources and Sinks. Thanks to Taylor's line
sources and sinks, and to mathematical methods
which have been developed in the three-quarters

somewhat greater

is this

knowledge

likely to

Variety of Stream

43.9

of a century since Rankine's time,

to produce stream functions

it is

now possible

and velocity poten-

forms and combinations

hitherto undreamed of. This applies not only to
the 2-diml source-sink combinations of Sees. 43.2
to 43.7 but to the 3-diml source-sink combinations
of Sec. 43.8. Examples of these apphcations are:
tials

(i)

for

source-sink

Line sources and sinks along a longitudinal

axis parallel to the direction of uniform flow, to

form a large number of bodies of revolution,

having a great variety of shapes and proportions
[AVA, Gottingen, Rep.
3206, dated 30 Dec

UM

1944; available in English as

Apr
(ii)

TMB

Transl. 220,

1947]

Sources and sinks offset from the longitudinal

axis to produce a rather blunt stern

on a de-

stroyer form, pictured in Fig. 3.Q on page 69 of

Volume

[Lunde,

J.

K.,

INA,

1949, Figs.

and

2,

pp. 186-187]

doublets

of

introduced

in

been done by Sir Thomas Havelock

(iv) Ring sources in a plane normal to a uniform
stream of relatively high velocity, to form duct
or pipe entrances with streamlined outer and
inner walls. Longitudinal traces through some of
the 3-diml bodies worked out in this fashion by
the Ilhnois Institute of Technology on Project
4955, ONR Contract N7onr-32905, under V. L.
Streeter, are illustrated in the First Phase Report
of this project, dated 1 February 1949, entitled
"Axially Symmetric Flow Through Annular

Bodies."
(v)

Infinitesimal

dA

sources spread over the after

dA

sinks spread over

the forward area to reproduce the velocity and

pressure effects of a screw propeller, following

H. Dickmann.
this fashion is

43.10

group

shown

of five pairs

in Fig. I5.F.

arranged in

a dis-

Source-Sink Flow Patterns by Colored

In Sec. 2.13, on

pages 34 and 35 of Volume

I,

there are explained,

somewhat general terms, the means by which

radial-flow patterns around sources and sinks,
singly or in combination, are determined by
in

plotting traces of equal electric potential in a

weak electrolyte.
The use of colored
flowing into

and

sinks,

actual

is

hquids, emanating from and

holes

representing

mentioned in Sec.

3.8.

sources

Excellent

source-sink flow patterns for practical use, capable

manual diagramming or photographing, are

by this relatively simple, expeditious,
and economical technique [Moore, A. D., "Fields
from Fluid Flow Mappers," Jour. Appl. Phys.,
of

delineated

Aug

1949, Vol. 20, pp. 790-804]. Colored hquid

orifice(s) to the sink

moves from the source

orifice (s) through a thin horizontal space between

a light-colored slab containing the orifice (s) and
a sheet of plate glass just above it. Streamlines of
sorts are indicated by colored streaks left on the

Motion pictures may be made

liquid while

it is

of the colored

flowing.

This method lends itself to the quick solution,

not only of 2-diml flow problems but to the delineation of axisymmetric flow in three dimensions.
Further, fine sources and sinks may be represented,
using slots instead of holes.

The

width

slot

is

varied to correspond to the strength distribution

along that axis. Flow from or into relatively largearea sources and sinks is represented by running
colored Hquid through small sand beds
within the boundaries of the sources and sinks.
Similar representations, employing a liquid flow

the

of constant

utiUzed by

area of a propeller disc and

50, in

Liquid and Electric Analogy.

slab.

Assembhes

a
uniform stream to produce special forms, as has
(iii)

Chap.

detail in

cussion of calculated ship resistance.

patterns

depth over a broad-crested weir, were

Harvey to approximate heat-flow

J. F.

in

boilers

[SNAME,

1950,

Vol.

58,

pp. 252-257].
43. 11

Formulas

StreamFlow Patterns Around

for the Calculation of

Form Shapes and

Them. The shapes

the

of all the

stream forms con-

structed graphically in the preceding sections^of

IIM)R()1)\ \

G8
the

the

prt-stMit rliiiptor, tlu> Iriict's of

nroiiiitl tlu-iii, iiiul tlu' local

How

AMICs

patterns

stream veliuitifs ami

DISICN

I\ Mill'
Body
~'~

M CTo'cd~Ji Ver^

Sic
ond

Loni).

"~-^~"

"*

i4
1

calcuiatetl

l)e

formulas. This metluxl

is

Sink ol

J.

12

Unif orm Flow

-

me LtU tno-

by mathematical
the most conveiiient anil advantageous, depending upon the
eipiipment and facilities available and the use to
which the deriveil data are to be put. Specific
eaii

presjiiiri-s,

Synmetixol

About

-I

often

a few selected
and 41.9 and are
(pioted on Figs. 41. E, 41. F, and 41. CI accompanying them. These formula.s, and others, are found
in many mixlern te.xt and reference books, but
more often than not they are without adetiuatc
explanation as to the symbols and notation
employed.
Some additional formulas were dcNclopi'd iiy

formulas for accomplishing

this, in

cases, are derivtnl in Sees. 41.8

\V. J.

M. Rankine

Roy Soc,

[Phil. Trans.,

such as those to establish the

loci

1871],

of points of

ma.ximum and minimum velocity around stream

them are
not readily available and the notation in which
forms, but the references which contain

they were exprcs.sed threc-{|uartcrs of a century

ago re(|uires conversion to nKxlern Mt)tatioii.
43.12 The Forces Exerted by or on Bodies
Around Sources and Sinks in a Stream; Lagally's
Theorem. If a i-loscd body is formed by a
stream surface around sources and sinks, as for
the bodies around the source-sink pairs dcscrilied

previously in this chapter, there

is a resultant
hydrfxiynamic force acting on the stream surface
bounding the body. It is explained presently that

a uiiifonn stream the resultant force is zero,

conforming to the fl'.Memliert paradox, but in an
unsteady or non-uniform flow the force is finite.
in

It

can be evaluated very neatly by the use of

is known as the Lagalbj
Throrrm. The

what

derivation of Lagally's theorem

.scope of this book,

is

beyond the
Diagrams Ii.lustratino the Factors
IN' TUB Lacai.i.v Tiikorkm

i'A.Y'

I'"iG.

but at the expense of stretching

InVOI.VKD

the mathematical truth temporarily, the physical

basLs for

it

is

rather easily explained.

what happens inside the 2-dLml

ov(>id-shape<i boundary which envelops the'2-diml
Consider

Hource or up.stream singularity in the leading end

of .such a brxly, formed

aroimd a source and a

sink at a gnat dixlancc frinn rnrh nihrr. In diagram

I

of Fig.

13.1',

dei)i(ting the nose of this body,

lying in a uniform flow of velocity

l\,

all

the

emanating from the after part of the .source

flows more or le.ss directly toward the left, away
from the oncoming stream. That from the forward
lifiuid

part

of

reverses

the source
it.s

toward the

lirection,
left.

and
also to flow downstream

turn.s

rather

sharply

Regardlesw of the direct ion

in

emanated from the source, it.s

is downstream.
As the "inside" li(|uid moves farther and farther
from the source the railial component of its
velocity |)rogre.ssivel}' diminishes. At a great
distance downstream, on its way to the sink, this
which the

li(|uid

ultimate direction

li<|uid acfiuires

to

f/o.

volume
time,

.so

a velocity

essentially etjual

that of the uniform stream.

If a certain
from the source in unit
the volume or (|uanlit,y rate of

of li(iuid i.ssues

that

is

this (low, then the

unit time

the source

is fA).
it

mass

.Fust

of li(|uid (lowing

before the

had no compniiciit

o\it

litpiid i.ssued

in

from

of mulioii p;ir;dlel

DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS

Sec. 43.12

to the uniform stream.

At a

large distance

has a velocity
Therefore the augment of

stream, half-way to the sink,

approximating

down-

velocity AC/ imparted to

it

the process of

in

it

flowing around inside the ovoid-shaped stream-

form boundary is C/
Its
downstream is its mass times
pQUo, assuming that
.

momentum
its

U=

also its increase in

momentum

of mechanics, is a

measure

to impart that increase.

acting downstream,

is

far

or

velocity,

This

is

which, by the laws

of the force necessary

The

force in question,

balanced by an equal and

opposite force acting on the body surrounding

The

the source to shove the body upstream.

may be likened to a thrust which is

producing the relative motion depicted between
latter force

the source boundary and the stream.

signs for the

The

two terms of the equality F

different

= pQUa,

indicate that the direction of

F is

U^ indicated
At the left

of Fig. 43. P.

"opposite"

in

diagram

opposite that of

or trailing end of the body, an

situation

exists,

depicted

at

the

diagram 3 of Fig. 43. P. As the velocity in

the uniform stream is every^vhere U the net
thrust or drag on the body is obviously zero.
When the forces on both source and sink are
taken into account, the expression
left in

Bodv

,oU^

kU.

a simplified form of the Lagally Theorem, for

the special case considered, in which Fsody is zero.
is

The

and extremely useful applications

theorem embody situations in which the
flow is unsteady and non-uniform and in which
the closed body may be 2-diml or 3-diml, formed
by any desired number and combination of
sources and sinks.
Leaving the schematic physical explanation
and turning to one that has hydrodynamic rigor,
a simplified form of the theorem is the expression
practical

of the

F
where Qi

is

J(Q.C/0

the output of the source or sink

within the body, expressed as a volume rate of

flow,

positive for a source

sink.

The symbol

C/;

and negative

for a

represents the velocity of

the stream, at the position of the source or sink

under consideration, which would occur if the

body, and hence all the sources and sinks forming
the body, were removed from the stream. For
each source or sink the line of action of the
individual force

is

through the singularity under

consideration and in the direction opposite to

that of Ui

body

is

The

69

net hydrodynamic force on the

the vector summation of the individual

forces, evaluated for

each source and sink within

the body.
If the body is placed in a uniform stream,
Ui at each singularity equals the uniform-stream

And since, for any closed body

U
formed by a stream surface, the source outputs
must equal the sink inputs, and the mass density
p is constant, the net hydrodynamic force acting
on the body is zero, which simply confirms
velocity

d'Alembert's paradox.

The complete theorem developed by M. Lagally

["Berechnung der Krafte und Momente, die
stromende Fliissigkeiten auf ihre Begrenzung
(Calculation of Forces and Moments
which Streaming Liquids Exert on Their Boundary)," Zeit. fiir Ang. Math. Mech., Dec 1922,
Vol. 2, pp. 409-422 (in vector notation); MUneThomson, L. M., TH, 1950, pp. 208-211] permits
the determination of both forces and moments
acting on a body in both steady and unsteady
flow [Cummins, W. E., "The Forces and Moments
Acting on a Body Moving in an Arbitrary
Potential Stream," TMB Rep. 780, Sep 1952].
For example, if the uniform flow at the right of
diagram 1 of Fig. 43. P is replaced by a single
outside source on the x-axis, the flow from the
latter is radial rather than parallel and uniform.

ansiiben

The

momentum

velocity C/ in the

equation

is

then replaced by an array of radial velocities,

varying with distance from the outside source.
If

the outside source

is offset

a source-sink body, there

is

from the

moment

a;-axis of

as well as a

force exerted on the ovoid-shaped boundary.

architect

who

wishes

further into this subject

may

flnd a

The marine

to

delve

paper by

A. Betz of Gottingen somewhat more readable

than the references cited in the preceding paragraph. This paper is entitled "The Method of
Singularities for the Determination of Forces and
Moments Acting on a Body in Potential Flow"

[TMB
In

Transl. 241,

all

Nov

1950].

applications of Lagally' s

Theorem

it is

important to remember that, although the line

of action of the force on a body, formed by
placing a source-sink system in a stream, passes
through the source or sink, the force is not to be
taken as acting on the source or sink proper but

on some type of surface or body boundary surrounding each. However, in the conventionaUzed
Translation
diagrams published by Betz in
241, he apparently employed a schematic short-

TMB

I1M)R()|1VN \MI(:s IN

70
with no nttciiipl to

\\i\w\,

from

rosultiiip

tlie

surfare

iloliiicatc tlic

system

sourcos,

of

sinks,

diagrams the
result ing forces are shown as emanating directly
from the singularities.
There are indications tliat an important future
u.se of the I Jigally Theorem may be in the solution
of the problem of determining the forces and the
moments exerted on ships when pa.'vsing or meeting

and

doublets,

each other

vortexes.

In

his

in confinetl waters. Thi.s will involve

and

the application of the radial-flow characteristics

and sinks to problems in hydrodj'namics

extremely extensive. There are listed here a
few of the most important references, with which
of sources

is

groups or arrays, and placed

in

another aspect of the forces involved for one or

two simple hypothetical conditions. Assume first

that two sources of equal strength, lying opposite
each other, are enclosed by two large bo<ly
surfaces; also that those portions of the body
flat

Runkino,

(3)

282-288
Rankine, W.

M., "On Piano Wator-lincs in

Two

J.

M., "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and

Practical," 1866, p. 106

(4)

W.

Rankine,

"On Stream-Line

M.,

J.

Surfaces,"

IN.\, 1S70, Vol. XI, pp. 175-181

(5) Rankine, W. J. M., "On the Mathematical
Especi.iliy

and Upwards,"

Phil. Trans.,

Roy. See, Ix)ndon,

IJaulc, A.,

(7)

Pollard,

(8)

Taylor, D. W.,

1885

Rrus.'icls,

is

and Dudcbout, .V., "Thfiorie du Naviro

(Theory of the ShipX" 1S02, Vol. Ill, pp. 401-410,
417-418, especially Fig. 135 on p. 408

INA,

J.,

"On

Ship-Sha[>ed Stream Forms,"

1894, pp. 38.5-106

"On Solid Stream Forms and the

Water Necessary to Avoid Abnormal
Resistance of Ships," INA, 1895, pp. 234-247 and

Taylor, D.

Depth
l>ls.

(10)

XV

"Note sur les Lignes d'eau Propo.sic8 par

M. le Profefsseur Rankine (Note on the Waterlines
Proposed by Professor Rimkine)," Ann. Soc. Sci.,

(6)

(9)

Theory

those with Four Foci

of Streamline.'!,

1S71, Vol. 161, pp. 267-300; alsoPI.

surfaces

between them, as at 2 in Fig. 43. P. As

no superposed stream flow in this case,
the liquirl flowing from each source toward the
adjacent flat portion of body surface Ls deflected
anfi pu.shetl backward. For the 2-diml case, the
flow from each source is pictured graphicallj' by
combining the stream functions of the two .sources,
indicated by the light radial lines in the diagram.
Because of the momentum imparted to the suiromiding liquid, in a direction opposite to that
in which the other source lies, away from the
adjacent flat body surface, a reactive force is
created on each body, directed toward the adjacent body and the other source. While the
analogy' Ls by no means a perfect or a valid one,
it can be said that, unlike the similar poles of
electromagnets, the two adjacent sources give
the appearance of attracting each other.
If a .source and a sink lie near each other in a
unifonn stream who.se direction of motion is
parallel to the source-sink axis, as in diagram 3

J.

\V. J. M., "Summary of Proportios of

Certain Stroam-Linc)," Phil. Mag., Oct ISCt, pp.

(2)

place<l

there

in

DimpiisionB," Phil. Trans., Roy. Sor.. 1S03

surfaces adjacent to the sources take the form of

a pair of parallel but independent

W.

Rank-ine,

non-uniform and

connection to consider

pursue his studies

this fascinating field:

unsteady flow.
It is interesting in this

may

the marine architect

by the boundaries arounrl nearby

sinks, arranged cither singly or in

n.n

43.13 Partial Bibliography on Sources and

Sinks and Their Application. The literature on

(1)

forces exerted

Stc.

phenomenon, where unlike

poles attract each other.

knowletigc of the nature and direction of the

.sources

DESIGN

SIIII'

of the electromagnetic

\V,,

of

XV-XVIII

Fuhrraann, O., "Widerstands- und Druckmessungen

(Resistance and
Pressure
an Ballonmodellen
Mea.surcmenta on Balloon Models)," Zeit. fiir
Flugtcchnik und Motorluft-schiffahrt, 15 Jul 1911,
Vol. II, pp. lG.5-106

(11)

French by van Meerten |ATMA,

and PI. I: 1904, pp. 275-293; 1905,
209-289
and
Pis. III-VIj. These discuss the
pp.
application of hydrodynamic studies of the theory
of sources and sinks in both two and three dimensions. They contain diagrams of a variety of sourceseries of papers in

1903, pp. 51-60

sink flows, including several involving line sources

perpondlrular to a uniform How. .\ st.'irt is made

1905 paper to utilize this method of analysis

in the

of Fig.

'13. P,

the action of the "inside"

lifpiid is

such that equal arul opposite reactive forces are

away from

and the source

positions, respectively, and act outward on the
upstream and the downstream ends of the IxmIv.
.Mthongh the analog,v here i.s perhaps less valid

directed

than

it

the sink

wa.s in the ca.se of the adjac<>nt .sources,

for predicting the resistance of

(12)

11.,

TMH

(13) AcnMlynainisc-he Versui-li.Mjuistalt (AV.\), rK'ittingen,

Report

UM

lOnglish

a.s

repelling each other. This

Sec. 42.0

again the opposite

ship.

"Fort.schnitte der Striimungslehro

STfi, 1924, Vol. 25, pp. 295-311; lOnglish version

ill
Transl. IS, May 1952

the source and the sink give the appearance of

is

an actual

im
Maschinenbau und Schiffbau (/\(lvance8 in the
.Shipbuilding),"
Theory of Flow in Fngineering and

Fdltingor,

32(M(, dat-<l

TMH

30 Dc- 1911; available

in

Transl. 220, .\pr 1947; sec also

DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS

Sec. 4 3.

Lamb, H., "Hydrodynamics," 6th

(14)

ed.,

Dover,

New

York, 1945, pp. 57-71

"The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew
Theory," 2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1948,
pp. 21-32

(6)

(15) Glauert, H.,

R., "Cas d' Equivalence entre CarSnes et

Distributions de Sources and de Puits (Similarities

(16) Brard,

Milne-Thomson,
namics," 2nd
pp. 194-223

(17)

(18)

(19)

vector notation)
L.
ed.,

(7)

Street

Lab.,

Yale Univ., Tech. Memo.

14,

15

Selected References on Lagally's TheoFor the reader who wishes to investigate

further the application of the Lagally Theorem,
43.14

rem.

the following references should prove useful:

(1)

Kelvin, Lord,

Liquid

(2)

"On the Motion

NACARep.

Irrotationally

ausiiben

(4)

(5)

(Calculation

of

Forces

and

Moments

which Streaming Liquids Exert on Their Boundary)," Zeit. fur Ang. Math, und Meoh., Dec 1922,
Vol. 2, pp. 409-422
Taylor, G. I., "The Forces on a Body Placed in a
Curved or Converging Stream of Fluid," Proc.
Roy. Soc, London, 1928, Series A, Vol. 120
Taylor, G. I., "The Force Acting on a Body Placed
in a Curved and Converging Stream of Fluid,"

Converging or Diverging Stream," ARC, R and

1164, May 1928, Vol. 33, pp. 114-117
Mohr, E., "tJber die Krafte und Momente, welche
Singularitaten

auf

eine

stationare

Fliissigkeits-

Mathematik

(Crelle's Jour.), 1940, Vol. 182

"Forze e momenti in una corrente
leggermente curva convergente
(Forces
and
Moments in a Slowly Coverging Curved Stream),"
Commentations, Pont. Acad. Sci., 1944, Vol. 8
(10) Brard, R., "Cas d'Equivalence entre Carenes et
Distributions de Sources et de Puita (The Equivalence of Ship Hulls and Distributions of Sources
and Sinks)," ATMA, 19.50, Vol. 49, pp. 189-230
(9)

Pistolesi,

(in

(11)

(12)

114, 1921

M., "Berechung der Krafte und Momente,

die stromende Fliissigkeiten auf ihre Begrenzung

(3) Lagally,

"Note on the Forces Experienced by

stromung iibertragen (On the Force and Moment

which Singularities Transfer upon Stationary
Liquid Flow)," Jour, fiir die reine und angewandte

of Rigid Solids in a

through Perforations in Them or in a Fixed Sohd," Phil. Mag.,

May 1873, Vol. 45
Munk, M., "Some New Aerodynamical Relations,"
Circulating

H.,

(8)

Sep 1952.

Lamb,

Ellipsoidal Bodies Placed Unsymmetrioally in a

M., "Theoretical HydrodyMacmillan, New York, 1950,

Cummins, W. E., "The Forces and Moments Acting

on a Body Moving in an Arbitrary Potential
Stream," TMB Rep. 780, Sep 1952
Hellerman, L., and Van Zandt, T. E., "Rankine
Solids,"
Harbor Protection Project, Edwards

and
1166, 1928-1929, Vol. 33, p. 104ff
Glauert, H., "The Effect of the Static Pressure
Gradient on the Drag of a Body Tested in a Wind
Tunnel," ARC, R and
1158, 1928-1929, Vol. 33,
pp. 81-113

Between Ship Hulls and Distributions of Sources

and Sinks)," ATMA, 1950, Vol. 49, pp. 189-230
(in

71

ARC,

E.,

vector notation)

Milne-Thomson,

L. M., "Theoretical
namics," Macmillan, New York, 2nd
208-211
pp.

Hydrodyed.,

1950,

ToUmien, W., "Uber Krafte und Momente in schwach

gekriimmten oder konvergenten Stromungen (On
the Force and Moment in Flows which are Weakly
Curved or Convergent)," Ing.-Archiv., 1938, Vol. 9;
translated in ETT, Stevens, Rep. 363, Sep 1950

(13) Betz,

A.,

"Singularitatenverfahren zur Ermittlung

Momente auf Korper in Potentialstromungen (The Method of Singularities for the

Determination of Forces and Moments Acting on
a Body in Potential Flow)," Ing.-Archiv, 1932,
Vol. 3, pp. 454-462;
Transl. 241, Nov 1950
(14) Weinblum, G. P., MIT Hydrodyn. Symp., 1951,
pp. 91-92
der Krafte und

TMB

(15)

E., "The Forces and Moments Acting

on a Body Moving in an Arbitrary Potential
Stream," TMB Rep. 780, Sep 1952.

Cummins, W.

c;ilAl'

General; Scope of Chapter

72

rolar Diagrams for Simple Hydrofoils

Test Data from

Compound

Hydrofoils

Pitching

Moment;

ami

data are

44

11

Effective Aspect Ratio for Equivalent Ship

44.12

Design Notes and Drag Data on Hydrofoil

Planforms and Sections
Quantitative Data on Cascade and Inter-

75

75

78

Distribution

of

83
83

Hydrofoils

44.13

80

83

84

ference Effects

80

I'lu'

k'vcii in this

intendi'il for the

submerged
lift,

in a lit|uid.

The manner

of

lift

wlien

producing

in a ilircctioii generally at right angles to

and performance data on them,

classed as hydrofoils

is

it

if

and water,

flow around the two, in air

similar. In other words, data

airfoils

known

from

generally

tests in air are

perfectly valid for applii'ation to the design

performance of hydrofoils

in

water

if it is

and

known

that air-water surface effects and cavitation are

As a

rule,

sejiaration effects

around botlies wholly submerged in air and in

water are similar; this applies also to the correlalion of the.se effects between niiKlel and full scale,
Since whole books are insufficient to list the
airfoil and hydrofoil data presently available
design purpases,

(195.")) for

sible, in this

chapter, to do

it is

to present

certain data which the marine architect

may

find

ship and appendage ilesign. The.se and

uwful

in

other

data

in

the

technical

literature

almost

32.11 on the

Sees. 3r).2, 37.2,

and movable appendages.

44.2

Formulas

for Calculating Circulation, Lift,

Drag, and Other Factors. There are no simple

formulas wliirli will permit the computation of
lift, ilrag, pitching moment, ami other factors on
hydrofoils of given shape and on botlies of random
shape acting as hyilrofoils. There are given here
only a few of the basic fornuilas and procedures
for the calculation and prediction t)f tlicse quantitles. In practice it is necessary to rely on experi-

mental data for the determination of design and

other factors. The volume of these data is now
very large; some of the

priiici|)al

As

is

customary

for

groups

the shape,

to other fields,

an'

and

given

in

0-diml

ratios,

coellicients,

and

expressions.

The

lift

force

L developed on

hydrofoils,

circulation

violently with time.

of fornuilas relating

characleristics,

performance of hydrofoils and e(|uivalent bodies

hydrofoil or similar bod^' in a

may change

sources are listed

in Sec. 44.3 following.

invariably a|)ply to steady-stnte con<litions. For

uttuek

of

and 37.3 and the accompanyand 37.D on fi.xed

control .surfaces

and other ship parts restMubling

the relative .speeds and angles of

geometry

ing Figs. 37.A, 37. B, 37.C,

manifestly impo.s-

more than

Fig. 14. .\

the screw propeller

may

that the

is

and

Figs. 32.F, 32.G,

(c)

concerned, including

is

and the accompanying

32.8 and 32.9 and the accompanying

is

described in Chap. 14.

Insofar as their behavior

Sec. 14.2

(a)

for hvdrofoils are

!\'inl)ols

in:

(b) Sees.

production of dynamic

nonexistent.

found

chapter embrace plates and

the flow or to the direction of body motion,

1)6

Nomenclature and

hyilro-

0(|iiivaleiit foini.s for wliich pi'rfonnaiu'o

bodies, irrespective of shape or size, which are

to

82
Circulation and

73

Ccntcr-of-Prcssure Loca-

General; Scope of Chapter.

44.1

1)6

Spanw-iso

Hydrofoil

test

Around

Fields

44.10

tion

this

Pressure

Distribution of Velocity and Pressure on a

44.8

foils

and

Velocity

72

Flow Patterns Around Typical Hydrofoils

44.9

Lift

Hydrofoilii

44.4
44 5
44.6
44.7

Hydrofoil

Formulas for CnlculafinR Circulation, Lift,

Drag, ami (Hhor Factors
Test Data from Typical Simple Airfoils and

44.3

I'.R

Moment, and Flow Data for Hydrofoils

and Equivalent Forms

Force,

41.1
14.2

span of a

stn-am,

when

by an effective angle of attack

means, is represenleil by

is .set uj)

or other suit.able

72

unit

lii|uid

FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS

Sec. 14.3

= pU^T

per unit span

(44.i)

and moment

drag,

where

73

wealth of published data on the

ture, a great

coefficients

and other factors

of a great variety of airfoil shapes,

p (rho)

is

the mass density of the liquid in the

stream
[/

is

the velocity of the uniform stream relative

Some

lift,

when

tested

data are in tabular form but

most are in graphic form, corresponding somewhat
to the information in Figs. 44. A and 44. B. Here,

in air.

of these

to the hydrofoil

(capital

gamma)

is

the strength of the circu-

Moment

lation in a plane parallel to the stream

motion and normal to the body

0.1

Coefficient
0.3

O.a

C^

04

axis.

For a hydrofoil of span or breadth h, measured

normal to the stream direction and to the plane
of circulation, the total lift force

L = bpU^T
The

required

circulation

leaves

liquid

(44. ii)

to insure that the

the hydrofoil tangentially at

its

edge is approximated by [Rouse, H.,

1946, Eq. (192), p. 279]

trailing

EMF,

xct/oo sin

(44.iii)

where a(alpha) is the geometric angle of attack

of an equivalent flat plate and c is the chord.
Expressed in terms of the Uft coefficient Cl
and the drag coefficient Cd the overall Uft and
drag are
,

L =

Lift

Ci^^ Ulhc

CA UlA

(44.iva;

Fig. 44.A

Lift-Coefficient, Drag-Coefficient,

AND Moment-Coefficient Graphs for Gottingen

Drag

D =

For the

CoT) Ulhc

= Co^ UlA

special case of

an

infinitely thin flat

plate lying at an angle of attack a in a uniform

when

stream,

with

the plate

also of infinite span,

infinite aspect ratio, the

Lift coefficient

W.

[Durand,
Vol.

is

I,

F.,

Cl

2x

sin

(44.V)

"Aerodynamic Theory," 1935,

Div. B].

By making an

arbitrary assumption as to the

distribution of the intensity of

lift

over a hydrofoil

an approximate induced-drag coCdi = Cl/[T{b''/A)], where 67 A is

of finite span,
efficient is

the aspect ratio [Rouse, H.,

By

the

EMF,

Profile 409 op Aspect Ratio 1.00

(44.ivb)

1946, p. 285].

same reasoning the downwash angle

e(epsilon) is approximately C/,/[T(?>V^ff)l.

The magnitude of the lift by the Magnus Effect

on a rotating cylinder in a stream is given by the
simple expression L = p[/r for unit length of the
cyhnder along its axis.
44.3 Test Data from Typical Simple Airfoils
and Hydrofoils. There is, in the technical litera-

as in

many

cases in the literature, the geometric

or the nominal angle of attack

is the independent
For the data in Figs. 44.A and 44.B,
adapted from the work of H. Winter at Danzig
on Gottingen section 409 ["Flow Phenomena on
Plates and Airfoils of Short Span," NACA Tech.
Memo 798, Jul 1936, Figs. 16 and 17, respectively],
the values of the angle of attack a are spotted
along the Cl and Co curves. To use these graphs,
follow along the proper curve until a mark is
found for the particular value of the angle of
attack that has been selected. Then the abscissa
and the ordinate of this mark are the values of
drag and lift coefficient, respectively. For example, for the full-line graph of Fig. 44.A, take
the point where the angle of attack a is 17.8 deg,
at which partial breakdown or preUminary stalling
occurs. The corresponding value of Cl is about
0.592 and of Co about 0.12. The lift-drag ratio
at this hydrofoil position is 0.592/0.12 or about

variable.

4.93.

HVDRonvx AMirs
Moment
0.0

O.Z

0.1

DroqCoefft.,

Coefficient

C^

a4

0.3

IN SHIP nrsiGX
DKMihofT, A.

0.5

i:.,

Sec.

and

Stivers, L. S.. Jr.,

H.3

NACA

Rep. 824, 1945]. This report contain.s, in addition

to the usual information on airfoil shape and the
customary experimental data, a considerable

Side EcJoe!
f?bund Side Eaqc
Flo't

amount

of information on pressure distribution

over the

airfoils illustrated.

For the

specific

needs of the marine architect

in

predicting the behavior of simple movable hydro-

the

of

foils

shapes,

sections,

and proportions

required in ship design there are several useful

sources of information. These appl^' principally

to hydrofoils of sj'mmetric section

and to aspect

ratios in the smaller ranges.

I.

Data on Thin Rectangular Plates of Aspect

5.0, 1.0, and 0.20. In PXA, 1039, Vol. II,

Ratio

page 204, K. E. Schocnhcrr gives curves

and ratio of (1) distance
of center of pressure CP from leading edge to
(2) chord length of plate, on a base of nominal
Fig. 6 on

04

Q2.

0.0

Drag

0.6
Coefficient

of normal-force coefficient

08
Cd

^"Z^
Fia. 41. B

angle of attack in degrees, for three

Lift-Coefficient, Drag-Coefficient,

AND Moment-Coefficient Graphs for GOttingen

Profile 409 of Aspect Ratio 0.5

To

prevent confusion, mo.st of the marks for

omitted from Figs.

44.A and 44.B. In Figs. IG and 17 of NACA
Technical Note 798 there are small circles along
the moment-coefBcient graphs but no numerals
to indicate the numerical values of a.
Tables of coordinates for the symmetric
Gottingen section 409, as well as for Gottingen
specific angles of attack are

and 640,
and moment coefficients, are
given by W. P. A. van Lammcren, L. Troost, and
J. G. Koning in Tables 3 and 4 on pages 324 and
325 of RPSS, 1948.
It is pointed out here, and it will again be
sections

with

410, 411, 443, 429, 539, 639,

lift,

drag,

pointed out in later portions of this chapter, that

the behavior of a
influenced
section.

No

foil in

critically

by

water or in air
small

is

changes

often

in

its

performance data are acceptable for

design and other purpo.ses in practice, therefore,

unless accompanied by a delineation (and pref-

erably

al.so

a table of coordinates) of the section,

in sufTicicnt detail to

permit

it

to be reproduced

1932, Vol. 4, p.

who

is

Included are graphs for one

9GfT].

of the test plates of Joessel,

but with no informa-

tion as to its aspect ratio.

II.

NACA

Data on

Symmetrical

Airfoil Sections

with tx/c Ratios of 0.06, 0.12, 0.18, 0.25, and

Aspect Ratio 6. In PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pages
205-206, K. E. Schoenherr gives curves of lift
coefficient,

drag

coefficient,

and

ratio of

CP

from

leading edge to chord length of the hydrofoil.

The

section ordinatcs are given, together with a

procedure (explained

in

the text) for converting

the given data to that which would be expected

for aspect ratios other than 6. The data are taken
from a report by E. N. Jacobs and R. E. Anderson
["Large Scale Characteristics of Airfoils as Tested
in the Variable Density Wiiul Tunnel," NACA

Rep. 352, 1930].

Additional data are given Ijv E. N. Jacobs,
K. E. Ward, and R. M. Pinlierton in NACA
Report 460, publi-shed in 1933 (pages 299-354 of
the volume for that year), entitled "The Characteristics of

to large scale.

For the physicist, engineer, or architect

flat plates

"Mcssungen
an ebenen und gewolbten Platten (Measurements
on Flat and Curved Plates)," Ergebnisse der
Aerodynamischen Versuchsanstalt zu Gottingen,
tested at Gottingen [Flach.sbart, 0.,

in the

78 Relatetl Airfoil Sections from Teats

Wind Tunnel."

Variable-Density

Data

Hydrofoils

on

Having

Symmetric

looking for a comprehensive compilation of airfoil

III.

form tliere is available a

summary of airfoil data prepared and published
by the National Advi.sory Cfimniittce for Aero-

Sections and Outlines Suitable for Ship Rudders,

with Aspect Ratios of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0. In the

data

in

nautics

systt-inatic

in

Washington

[.Mtbott,

1.

11.,

Von

early 1930's there

Mcxlcl

Ha.siii

ill

was tested at the Experimental

Wa.shingloii a scries of twelve

FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS

Sec. 44.5

hydrofoils of symmetric section,

having varied

The results of
by R. C. Darnell
["Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Twelve Sym-

aspect ratios and blade outlines.

these

tests

were reported

metrical Hydrofoils,"

The

EMB

Rep. 341,

Nov

1932].

hydrofoils were towed beneath a special flat-

bottomed float which carried a dynamometer to

measure the lift, the drag, and the torque. The
angle of attack was varied from
to 45 deg and
the gap between the top of the hydrofoil and the
bottom of the float was varied from to 2 inches.
The report gives the 0-diml lift, drag, and moment
coefficients for
tion, together

each hydrofoil in each test condiwith the positions of the center of

pressure with respect to the leading edge.

The

running the hydrofoils with their trailing

edges foremost was also studied.

effect of

For hydrofoils having raked or swept-back

leading (and trailing) edges and

some

taper,

it is

customary to assume a nominal chord length

equal to the mean chord length, neglecting local
rounding of the outlines at the corners. Although
not clearly stated in
Report 341, this

EMB

scheme was followed for the 12 hydrofoils reported

upon in that publication.
For fixing the fore-and-aft position of the
center of pressure

moment,

pitching

CP

or of the point of zero

this distance is

reckoned along

the direction-of-motion chord at midspan. For a

blade

outline

with rake and taper but with

and trailing edges, the chord at

75

one of the four in Figs. 44. A and 44.B serves also

as a so-called -polar diagram, which is useful in

determining the Cl/Cd ratio at one aspect ratio

when the Cl/Cd ratio at another aspect ratio is

known

When

[Rouse,

H.,

EMF,

the ordinate scale of

abscissa scale of

Co

pp. 285-286].

1946,

C^

same as the
the slope of a line (with
is

the

drawn from the origin

a along the graph is the
value of the hft-drag ratio CJCd A line from the
respect to the horizontal)
to

any

origin

selected value of

of

coordinates,

represents the
foil;

tangent

maximum

the

graph,

ratio

of the

to

lift-drag

the corresponding angle of attack

is

indicated

at the point of tangency.

lists a number of references to pubdiagrams for representative airfoils.
Diagrams of this type are of little use for practical
and design purposes, however, unless the section

Table 44. a

lished polar

contours of the hydrofoils or

airfoils are

defined

by a rather complete set of coordinates.

44.5 Test Data from Compound Hydrofoils.
Figs. 37.A, 37.B, 37.C, and 37.D of Sees. 37.2
and 37.3 indicate that

compound

hydrofoil

is

for boats and ships the

used as extensively as the

simple hydrofoil for movable appendages and

control surfaces. Included in this category are

and tabs as well as hydrofoils

placed abaft fixed leading-edge portions and abaft
hydrofoils with flaps

and

For steering rudders,

fins, and other
movable appendages the hydrofoils and hydrofoil

fixed horns, fins,

skegs.

diving planes, active roll-resisting

straight leading

midspan

is

PNA,

also the

mean

chord.

and pages 206-207,

K. E. Schoenherr summarized the results of
selected tests on five of the twelve symmetrical
hydrofoils tested by Darnell, involving those with
varied rudder outlines but with the aspect ratio
limited to 1.0. In the figure cited he gave graphs
of lift coefficient C^ and of the ratio of CP position
from the leading edge to the mean chord length
In

1939, Vol. II, Fig. 9

of the hydrofoil for the five blade outlines dia-

grammed

in the figure.

IV. Data on Tests of Wageningen Rudders A and

B, with Symmetric Sections and Different
Outlines. The results of open-water tests on two
model spade-type rudders of orthodox shape,
outline, and proportions are described by W. P. A.
van Lammeren, L. Troost, and J. G. Koning
[RPSS, 1948, Figs. 210-214 and pp. 319-322].

44.4

Polar Diagrams for Simple Hydrofoils.

Hft-coefficient,

drag-coefficient graph such as

Graphs of Lift Coefficient for Compound Hydrofoils Having Varied Proportions

AND Varied Angles of Attack of the Movabm;
Blade

Fig. 44.C

ll^MR()|)^ \ VMics IN SHIP nisi{;N

76

TABLE

Sec.

H.5

Bnoir Lwr of RcrcHKNccii Illl'stiutinc; Pui.kk DuniiAMti and Lirr/DRAa Ratios roR Airfoils

44jk

AND IlrDROFOIlA

Type of Section

FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS

Sec. 44.5

and

0.227, 0.329,

0.453, respectively.

between the two

tions

sets of ratios

The

varia-

were due to

the rounded ends of the planform of the assembly.

For rudders and planes having aspect ratios

materially less than 4, stalling should occur at
flap angles greater than those shown in Fig. 44. C.
On page 105 of the Gottingen reference there
are given some data for a flap-type compound
hydrofoil in which the fixed leading portion lies
at an angle of attack a to the stream, and flap
angle ^(ksi)

applied to

augment the

lift,

as in

In the late 1940's the National Advisory

Com-

is

diagram 2 of Fig. 14.U.

mittee for Aeronautics conducted an extensive
investigation

control-surface

of

characteristics.

purpose was to provide experimental data for

designers and to determine the section characIts

of

teristics

various

airfoil-and-flap)

types of fin-and-flap (or

combinations suitable for use as

control surfaces.

Two

of the reports describing the results of

these tests are listed hereunder:

(1)

J. M., and Church, O., "Medium and Large

Aerodynamic Balances of Two Nose Shapes and a
Plane Overhang Used with a 0.40-Airfoil-Chord Flap
on an NACA 0009 Airfoil," ARR L5 COl, March

Riebe,

1945. This appears to be Part

XXI

of the report

complete investigation.
M., and McKinney, E. G., "Medium and
Large Aerodynamic Balances of Two Nose Shapes
and a Plane Overhang Used with a 0.20-AirfoilChord Flap on an NACA 0009 Airfoil," ARR L5
F06 of June 1945. This is Part XXII of the comseries covering the

(2)

Riebe,

J.

plete series.

As applying

to combinations of fixed plates or

and movable control surfaces abaft them,

K. E. Schoenherr gives a graphic summary [PNA,
1939, Vol. II, pp. 207-208] of data derived by
experimenters abroad and published in the
fins

following references:
(a)

W. L., Simmons, L. F. G., and Coales, J. D.,

"The Effect of Balancing a Rudder, by Placing the
Rudder Axis Behind the Leading Edge, upon the

Cowley,

Moment of
Comm. for Aero.,

Controlling

the Motion," Tech. Rep.

Adv.

and

253, 1916-1917,

p. 154ff

(b)

Munk, M. M., "Systematische Versuche an

Leit-

werkmodellen (Systematic Tests on Models of

Control Surfaces)," Technische Berichte der Flugzeugmeisterei, 1917, p. 168ff.

Fig. 44.D,

adapted from Fig. 10 on page 208 of

covers a number of

the Schoenherr reference,

cases of this kind, in sufficient detail to indicate

about what

pound

may

be expected of elementary com-

assembfies.

77

The results of somewhat similar experiments

made by T. B. Abell are to be found in his paper
"Some Model Experiments on Rudders Placed
Behind a Plane Deadwood" [INA, 1936, pp.
137-144]. The results of these experiments are
summarized by W. P. A. van Lammeren, L.
Troost,

and

J.

G.

327-328].

"ImoWp,

Koning [RPSS,

1948,

pp.

ll\l)RenJ\.\A.\lRs

78

TABLE
AU

\\.\i

l.\

Mill'

SU,.\

Sec. 11.6

List ok IIcfcrences Containing FijOw Diauiuus About AiBtx>iLs and IIyuuofoils

diagruna roproecnt flow with circulation unless othcrwiao indirntcd.

Tj'pp or Shape
of Hydrofoil

1)1

FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS

Sec. 44.6

TABLE
Type

or

44.C

Shape

of Hydrofoil

List op References Containing Photographs of

Flow About Airfoils and Hydrofoils

79

innRoinx

80
Tlio roador

is

riuitiniicd

ii>

ninfmlxT

How

pnttoms inailo on a plate lieKl lirmly anainst tlio

pad of n hydrofoil, iioriual to its axis, are liahle
to

niisleadiiig. Tliere is

Im?

indennite thickness over

on

tlepiite*!

tliis

is jilTettcHl

it

to

of attack

applied

may

it

liy

change its angle

be well-nigh useless. The torque
in s'rvice to

hydrmlynamic action on the blades

of

controllable jiropellers and on rudders

and the pattern

some extent by (low

efTectivc center of pressure on the entire under-

plate,

Flow Almut an NAt'A 2:)1") Airfoil at an lllTective Reynolds Nnniher of ISO.IMMI," 'IMH Hep.

Apr

Srr. 11.7

can not be rotated

n hoiiiulary layer of

ut the l)otton of this layer ["Photographs of the

..'i7,

disk.x

\Mi(.s i\ siin"

that

knowledge

Ciutsehe has published a series of

The

location of the

water bixly of a turning ship, considered as a

hydrofoil, is a major factor in its maneuvering

and

characteristics

Most

I'.MC.].

for their design.

necessary

is

the heel while turning.

in

moment

of the

(and other) data relating

graphs which show the flow traces over hydrofoils

which comprise the blades of experimental model

and available for engineering use apply to

airfoils. For these a fore-and-aft aerodynamic
center is usually assumed, about which the

screw propellers. These show the i)aths taken bj'

the surrounding liquid when passing over and

(pitching)

moment

ditions

relatively

!'.

jjlioto-

to foils

is

coefTicient

for

constant.

various con-

This

center

is

between the blades, as viewed generally normal

to the projectttl area of the blade ("Versuche an
umlaufenden riiigelschnitten mit abgerisscner
Striinuing (Kxperiments on Rotating lilade Sections with Hrcakawaj' Flow)," Report, of the
Berlin Ahnlel liasin, published in S'R!, HMO,

sometimes taken on the chord of the meanline,

at a distance of c/4 from the nose, but usually it
lies on the ba.se chord, at the same distance from

Vol. 41. pp. 1S8-22G].

center

44.7

Pitching

Location.

Moment;

.Vs a rule,

Center-of -Pressure

information

a.s

to the ])itch-

ing-nioment coenicient and location of the center

of pressure

on a hydrofoil to be used on a ship is

lift and drag

as important as that relating to the

Indeed,

eoenicienl.s them.solves.

if

the hydrofoil

the nose.

As an

indication

of

Flow

CP

pressure

with varying angle of

and

cally for a flat, rectangular plate (diagram 1)

for

an

gram

of not-unusual .shape (dia-

airfoil section

2).

Sonie (luanlitative didii on this item, for simple

hydrofoils and others suitable for ship rudders,
tlinnigh

I.

I\'.

of Sec.

-1

\.'.\.

Distribution of Velocity and Pressure on

44.8
of

of chord wi.se shift of the

attack, Fig. 44. F illustrates this feature graphi-

arc given in items

Direction

what may normally be

of

way

expected in the

a Hydrofoil,

'i'lie

distribution of

and

velocity

for
l)rc.>isure

&oth Oiograms

on an

airfoil

or hyilrofoil, discussed in

that occurring on and meas-

the jHcsent section,

is

ured <Iirectly at

external surface. This

its

is

to be

distinguished from the velocity and pressure fields

around

it,

are tho.sc
external

described in Sec. 44.9 following, which

existing

foil

outside of and

surface.

occurring on the

foil

In general,

beyond the
the pressures

surface determine the

drag, and other forces exert<^d on or

by

pres.sures occurring in the adjacent field

Smoll Circles
Poftitions

Indicate Center-of -Pressure

for Nominol Anolee of AttocU

Hydrofoils

06

0.0

Kio. 44. K

0.4

Length from

D1AORAM8

or-l'iiKjuii'iiK

ion A

'-2
0I~"
Leadmo Edqe

Ii.i.i/HTiiATi.Nii

Position

l''l.AT

determine

of

symmetric section arc widely

used in ship tlesign and construction. Figs. 44.G,

44.11, and 44.1, adapted from Volume II of the

Section U5A5
Aspect Rotio 6

Chord

lift,

The

the forces on adjacent objects.

Airfoil

1.0

it.

Hmrr or

'"

Cf.ntkk-

With Anoi.k ok Attack,

P1.ATK ASI> A

HyDKOPOM.

book "Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics," eiliteil by S. CJoldstein, Oxford Press, 1938
(Fig. 179 on page 455, Fig. 180 on page 4tV2, and
Fig. 139 on page 404, respectively), give the
chorilwi.se distribution of pressure coi'fTicient on
eight typical .symmetric .s<'ction8, covering a wide
range of thickness ratios tx/c. The angle of attack
is zero, so the pressures on both sides are the same.

FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS

Sec. it.S

08

06

OZ

04

X-Diatonce from LE, Froction of Chord c

Fig. 44.G Typical Chordwise Pressure Distribution ON Face and Back op a Symmetric Hydrofoil AT AN Angle of Attack

At the nose the dynamic

pressure equals the

pressure 0.5pC/ or LOOg.

On

ram

the back of a sym-

metric section working at a small angle of attack,

the pressure coefficient usually drops very rapidly

with distance abaft the nose, to a value of 0.0

at 2 or 3 per cent of the chord. Within from 5
to 20 per cent of the chord length from the leading
edge it increases numerically to a large negative
value. Then it diminishes with distance abaft
the nose, until at about 0.9 or more of the chord
length the pressure coefficient

may

reach zero

a small positive value. On the face

of the section, in a typical case with a small angle
of attack, the pressure coefficient drops from its
or have

value of LOO at the nose to a small positive value,

Hydrofoil

81

HYDRODYNAMICS

82
l>nck of the ncvenil nootions

oxtn-mc vmIuci of

for tho
in the

shows wide

vtiri:iti<iii!<

pp. 97-lO.S

Norton, F. H., and Bacon, D. L., "Pressure Distribution over Thick Airfoils Model Tests," NACA
Rep. 150, 1922, pp. -I.'il-ITI. On pp. 451-J52 there
is a list of a numlicr of prior references on pressure

(5)

255, 1926
(6)

"The Flow

and

an Inviscid Fluid
.\round an EUiptic Cylinder and an Aerofoil of
Infinite Span, Especially in the Region of the
Forward Stagnation Point," Tech. Rep. Aero.
Res. Comm. (England), 1927-1928, Vol. I, R and
1097, Jul 1926, pp. 61-80

Fage, A.,

of Air

of

W. G. A., "The Theoretical Pressure Distribution Around Joukowski Aerofoils," Tech. Rep.
Aero. Res. Comm. (England), 1927-1928, Vol. I,

(7) Perring,

R and M
(S) Perring,

106,

W. G.

May

1927, pp. 209-221

A., Discussion,

INA,

1928, Fig.

on

253
(9) Knight, M., and Loc.ser, O., Jr., "Pressure Distribution over a Rectangular Monoplane Wing Model
Up to 90 Degrees Angle of Attack," N.\CA Rep.
288, 1928
(10) Gutsche, F., "Versuchc an Propellerblattschnittcn
(Tests on Propeller Blade Sections)," Schiffbau,
1 Aug 1933, pp. 267-270; 15 Aug 1933, pp. 286-289.
The latter group of pages contains many graphs of
pres-sure distribution on airfoil section.^.
(11) Schoenhcrr, K. E., SXAMi;, 1934, p. 90. Contours
p.

for

minima

pressure

and

sections,

airfoil

terms of

in

thickness ratio, and (3)

lift

(1)

Ap/g,

arc

respectively,

given

and 20, pp. 109-112.

(12) Winter, H., "Flow Phenomena on Plates and

K.

p. 176. Thiti

E.,

PNA,

diagram

give.n

19.39,

Vol.

11,

Fig.

29,

p.

of Propcllors,"

SNAME,

151.

F. Riegels, Technische Berichtc,

of Calculating Pressure Distributions

Profilen,'

TMB

Aero.

Memo

28,

Velocity and Pressure Fields

Mar

1955.

Around a

In Fig. 44. E of Sec. 44. G there are

two flow

iiiotric airfoil

pattern.s

around a

tj'pical

sym-

or hydrofoil, one corresponding to

the flow of an ideal lifiuid and one of a real liquid.

Tables 44. b and 44. c of that section list references

diagrams and flow patterns around other

and hydrofoils, made up generally of
streamlines. However, the designer can often use
to advantage a chart or plot embodying isobars
and isotachj'ls, to show the essential characteristics
of the pressure and velocity fields around the foil.
Unfortunately, the published data on this
particular item are very meager and there appear
to be no distribution plots that can be taken as
typical. Most of the data apply to airfoils, of the
customary asymmetric .sections used for airplane
wings. Thej' were taken usually to indicate
to

airfoils

acceptable positions for the pitot tubes of air-

speed meters, and so do not cover the

fields sur-

rountiing the airfoil as a whole.

few references indicate sources of some of the

published results for projects of this kind:

(1)

N. A. V., and Richardson, E. G., "On the

Flow of Air Adjacent to the Surface of an .\erofoil," ARC, R and
1224, Dec 1928, pp. 32f.-34S
Tanner, T., "The Two-Dimcnsional Flow of Air
Around an .\crofoil of Symmetrical Section," ARC,
R and M l.!.">3, Jul 1930, pp. 100-116
Parsons, J. F., "Full-Scale Wind-Tunnel Tests to
Determine a Satisfactory Location for a Service
Pitol-Stalic Tube on a Low-Wing Monoplane,"
NACA Tech. Note 501, Mar 1936
Gates, S. B., and Cohen, J., "Note on the Standardisation of Pilot-Static Head Position on Monoplanes,"
ARC, R and M 177S, Jan 1937, pp. 1238-1251
Crablw, E. R., and Diproso, K. V., "Calculated
Pri'.sures /Vhcad of Struts and Wings," R..\.E.,
Farnborough (Engliiiun, Ti'chiii.-al Note .Xero 1510,
Oct 1944
Piercy,

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

airfoil) wrction

at nn K.6Hlegre<.- angle of attack.

(15) Goodttll, Sir Sliinli-y V., "Sir Charles Parsons and
the Royal Navy," INA, Apr 1942, pp. 1-10, esp.
Fig. 6, p.|3; SCO also HBHR, 23 Apr 1942, p. 451

104,

by

])ii'Uirp(i

the pre.Hsure distribuliun

along the chord of a hydrofoil (or

Fig.

tion of 'l;ber die

44.9

of Short Span,"

(14) Schoenhcrr,

1948,

Over
Shape (Including a TranslaBerechnung der Druckvertcilung

Hydrofoil.

in

.\irfoils

11,

1943, Vol. 10),"

Figs. 19

NACA Tech. Memo 798, Jul 1930,

pp. 7-9 and Figs. 21-24
Arnold, R. N., "Statistical and
Shannon,
and
J. F.,
(13)
on tho Singing
Invostigalions
Experimental
Propeller Problem," lESS, 193H-1939, Vol. 82,
pp. 255-374, esp. pp. 270-285, 326

lU'SS,

Profiles of Arbitrary

(2)

coefficient, for ogival

A.,

"Tho Design

Fig.

Method

.\.,

P.

This diagram shows the

graphs of pressure coclTicient Ap/7, on a base of
from
cent
of
chord
the leading edge, for tho
per
backs of two N.\C.\ sections with two difTereot
camber ratios and two angles of attack.
(18) Reed, T. G., and Ormsby, R. B., Jr., "The AVA
1949,

von

and Howard, R. G., "A Consideration of

.Virscrcw Theory in the Lisht of Data Derived
from an Experimental Investigation of the Distribution of Pressure over the Entire Surface of an
Airscrew Blade, and also Over .Verofoils of Appro6S1, Mar 1921, pp.
priate Shapes," .\RC, R and
264-357. Pres-sure measurements were taken on a
full-size airscrew, one point at a time.
Briggs, L. J., and Dryden, H. L., "Pressure Distribution Over Airfoils at High Speeds," NACA Rep.

Src. -14.9
\V.

p. 101

distribution over airfoils.

Fage,

SKiX

(17) Hill, J. G.,

ti-st.

M., nml Piitenion, C. J., "InvostiRation of

the Diiitribution of Pressure over the Entire Surface
of an Aerofoil," Teeh. Rep. Adv. Comm. for Aero
for 1912-1913 (Kngland), R and
73, Mar 1913,

(4)

1)1

Liiinimrrii,

Villi

real-slip nitio roprescnte*!

(2) Jones, B.

(3)

1\ Mill'
.11..

(6)

Kuethr, A.

.M.,

M.K.-.-,

P.

U.,

.m.l

Curry,

II.,

"Measurements in the Boundary Ijiycr of a Vawcil

Wing," NACA Tech. Note 1946, Sep 1949.

FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS

Sec. 44.12

44.10

and

Spanwise

Distribution

Sees. 14.8

Lift.

and

may

Fig.s. 14.1

may

14.J illustrate the variations that

that

Circulation

of

and

14.9

and

occur, or

be planned in the spanwise distribution

of circulation

and

across a hydrofoil. These

lift

diagrams, plus Figs. 14. L and 14.0, show about

where the principal

vortexes

trailing

may

be

expected for certain circulation distributions. In

particular

practice,

and

circulation
(a)

in

spanwise

distributions

of

are desired for the purpose of:

lift

Reducing the tip-vortex strength and severity,

an effort to reduce the force and energy losses

there, as well as the induced drag

Eliminating almost entirely the root vortexes

(b)

may

be done at
the roots of screw-propeller blades to reduce the
strength and harmful effects of the swirl core.

in a cantilevered hydrofoil. This

Applying the greater part

(c)

of the

lift

load at a

given point or in a given region across the span,

and lift that actually obtains, and is

by no means an independent function of the
geometric planform shape and proportions. This
of circulation

because the effectiveness of the end plate

depends upon the magnitude of the overall
pressure differential between the +Ap and the
is

Ap

ments
(d) Reducing the magnitude of the Ap values
in a region where air is liable to be sucked down
from the surface. An example is the top of a
rudder which has only a thin layer of water above
it.

Distributing

(e)

the

lift

load

achieve

to

the

greatest efficiency for the hydrofoil as a whole.

surfaces. If the pressure differential at the

desired circulation distribution

is

generally

obtained by changing the nominal angle of attack

with respect to the probable

across the span,

direction of the inflow velocity. In this connection,

it is

to be

remembered

reduced,

is

the

that, as the angle of attack

circulation,

induced velocity diminish with

the
it.

lift,

and the

A large induced

velocity results in a large actual angle of attack,

which compensation must be

shaping the hydrofoil.
for

Another method
the

lift is

made when

of reducing the circulation

to diminish the

camber

and

of the sections

must usually be done without

changing the section thickness, since the latter is

in question. This

it

(if

No

general procedure

is

known

hydrofoil

when

surfaces which
in Sees.

lie

close to

act as the end plates described

and 14.8 and illustrated in Figs.

and 14.M. Indeed, the effective aspect

14.7

14.H, 14.1,
ratio

either or both ends

may

depends largely on the spanwise distribution

is

no

were practical) would create an effective

At one

limit it is probably sufficiently accurate

for engineering purposes to say that a

gap parallel

to the span, equal to the adjacent chord length,

has the same effect as one of great width. A tip

or an end next to such a gap may be considered

beyond the influence

of the adjacent structure

acting as an end plate.

At the other
construction

limit the

customary working or
mechanical

clearance used in

tip

enough to prevent the adjacent

and the
hydrofoil from behaving as one of infinite length
and aspect ratio. Furthermore, an end plate
attached to a tip with zero gap is probably not
design

is

large

structure from serving as an end plate,

such unless

it

extends for at least one

around the section. The hub

surface of a screw propeller, as one example, is
almost never adequate for this purpose, when
considered as a combined inner end plate for all
chord length

all

the blades.

Design Notes and Drag Data on HydroPlanforms and Sections. This section is intended to cover hydrofoils designed and fitted for
general and special purposes. The design of
control-surface hydrofoils is discussed in Chap. 74
44.12

foil

and

of screw-propeller blades in

Chap. 70.

Aside from the influence of planform on the

aspect ratio, the principal features in the selection
of hydrofoil

planforms and section shapes involve:

Increasing the chord length and thickness at

points

Ship Hydrofoils.

there

geometric ratio.

siderations.

for determining the effective aspect ratio of a

tip,

aspect ratio roughly twice that of the actual

(a)

Effective Aspect Ratio for Equivalent

this differential increases at

need for an end plate. With a large pressure differential at the tip, an end plate of adequate area

required for strength, rigidity, and other con44.11

if

only a slow rate inboard from the

effective as

The

and

tip is zero,

free,

because of strength, rigidity, or other require-

83

where the

member

or

foil

structure

attaches to some fixed

and where the end-plate

effect is sufficient to

Ap

(b)

tip

prevent loss of overall

Diminishing the chord length at the
because of the low strength needed there and
reduction in tip-vortex loss which normally
companies the use of a short tip. Values of

the
ac-

the

taper ratio Ct/cr

may

range from 0.3 or

fixed fins to 1.0 or

more

for screw-propeller blades.

less for

in

84
If rnkc or .xwoop-lmck
in the leading

edge

OROm \

edpe of a hydrofoil, and

SHIP DESIGN

\MI(.S 1\

Sec.

H.13

or licsirahlc

is lu'Ci-ssjiry

if

the trailing

raked in the opposite direction so that the

hydrofoil has a taper ratio less than 1.0, the
is

may

behavior and characteristics

the basis of a

number

liaving small spans

If

be estimated on

of chordwisc eiomcnts

Sh and varying chord lengths.

the raked or swept-back hydrofoil has ajjpioxi-

mately constant chord over the span, it.s performance may be predicted on a basis of (1) a
span normal to the relative-flow direction cc|ual
to the diagonal length of the hydrofoil,

and

K Variation OF Total-Drao, FrictionDrag, AND Residuary-Drag CkjEKKiciENTs of a

JorKOWSKI .\lRFOIL WiTII THICKNESS RaTIO

Fio. 44.

(2) a

rciativc-flow velocitj" equal to the dircction-of-

motion speed times the cosine of the angle of

sweep-back. This corresponds to the situation
depicted in diagram 1 of Fig. 17. D on page 2G5

adapted from Fig. 138 on page 138 of Volume II

of \'olume

values

I.

The appropriate chapters

and

III describe

ship

hydrofoils.

Of

still

and

act

as

in

which

whose design

is

discussed

73. IG, especially the

forward

the

for

book,

representative

gives

and

friction-drag,

total-drag,

rcsiduary-tlrag coefficients, on a base of thickness

ratio, for

low-aspcct-ratio

smaller aspect ratio are the

fbced roll-resisting keels

in Sees. 73.15

manner

illustrate the

themselves

hulls

of Part 5 in ^'olu^le

referenced

the

of

Joukowski

airfoil siH'tioiis.

Quantitative Data on Cascade and In-

44.13

On

terference Effects.
effects
foils

ill)

exist

the basis that interference

between the flows around hydro-

placed abreast or in cascade, despite the

portions which run at varying angles of attack

qualifying statement in the last paragraph

as the ship pitches and

Sec. 14.15 on page 228 of

The ma.ximum
ness ratios

rolls.

/.v and thickmore often than not, fi.xed by

strength and stiflne.ss. Xevcr-

section thickness

/.v/c arc,

requirements for
theles.s, it is

well for the designer to

know some-

allowing

many

for

predicting

or

difficulties.

reasonably

Volume

So

simple

far as

or

of

the matter of

I,

these

poses

effects

known, there are no

straightforward

rules

or

may

procedures by which the marine architect

thing of the effect of thickness ratio upon hydro-

execute a proper new design or even estimate the

adapted from "Modern

Developments in Fluid Dynamics," edited by S.
Goldstein (Fig. 137 on page 402 of Volume II),
indicates the variation in drag coefficient with
thickness ratio to be expected on a Joukowski
type of airfoil section at low /?, values. Fig. 44. K,

behavior of an existing design involving two or

foil

drag.

Fig.

44.J,

more hydrofoils approximately abreast each

In every screw propeller, even though

a Reynolds Number Uc/k

of

has

only two blades, there arc some small radii where

the stagger between blade sections

small with

is

However, the interference

the case of an analytic design

respect to the gap.

here,

effects

in

based upon the circulation or vortex theory, are

taken care of by other portions of the design

Data Are for Joukowshc Airfoil Sections

ot

other.
it

4 (lO*)

procedure, as described in Chap. 70. It

Drag Coefficients ore Based on Chord

Lenqth per Unit Span

easy
Jifl2

to

transfer

the

is

procedure

correction

another problem, such as to that of twin or

not
to

triple

steering rudders, side by side.

Problems involving the use

spaced
vOOl

hydrofoils

in

cascade

occurrence in the design of

fluitls

of ratlier closely

are

pumps

of all kinds. Allliough there

is

literature in this field, the symbols,

''ioniinor

Flow on o Fiol Plote

55
Thici<ne

Fifi. 'll-J

analysis,

Rolio

35

-^

Vaiiiatiom in ReHiDUARY-Diun Cokkkiciknt

ov J0UKOW8K1 Aiiiron. Skctionh With Tiiickncss IIatio

and design procedures

of

common

for handling

an extensive

methods

for

of

hydraulic

machinery' are so different from those customary

in

marine proi>ulsion and

relateii fieUls

that they

are not in a form readily usjible by naval architects

and marine engineers.

FORCE AND FLOW Dy\TA FOR HYDROFOILS

Sec. 44.13

Nevertheless,

a few of these references are

quoted here:
Gutsohe,

F.,

85

recent reference, written entirely in readable,

straightforward English,

"Versuche an Propellerblattschnitten
(Tests on Propeller Blade Sections)," Schiffbau,
1 Aug 1933, pp. 267-270; 15 Aug 1933, pp. 286-289;
1 Sep 1933, pp. 303-306. Some of these original data
are worked over and adapted bjf K. E. Sohoenherr
ISNAME, 1934, pp. 105-107, esp. Fig. 15 on p. 106].
(b) Spannhake, W., "Centrifugal Pumps, Turbines and
Propellers," MIT Press, Cambridge (Mass.), 1934
(c) Wislieenus, G. F., FMTM, McGraw-Hill, 1947
(d) Rouse, H., EH, 1950, Chap. XIII, pp. 858-992. A
list of 54 references is given on pp. 990-992.
(a)

analytic

is

the description of the

and experimental work undertaken by

Commander W.

T. Sawyer,

USN,

as his doctorate

dissertation at the Federal Technical Institute in

Zurich, Switzerland. It

is

entitled "Experimental

Investigation of a Stationary Cascade of Aero-

dynamic Profiles," Mitteilungen aus dem Institut

fiir Aerodynamik, No. 17, an der Eidgenossichen
Technischen Hochschule in

Leeman, Zurich (copy

in

Ziirich, 1949,

TMB

Ubrary).

Verlag

C;11A1'1LR

IJ

Data and Friction-Resistance

Viscx)us-Fl()\v

Calculations
45 1
45 2

General
Refcnnice Data on Mass Density, Dynamic
Viseosity, anil Kinematic Viscosity ...

45 3

Representative Internal Shearing Stresses in

Water Alongside Models and Ships ...

45 5

I.,ayer

Characteristics

45.7

The Development

45. 5

List of Principal Friction-Resistance

of

Formulas

Smooth Plate

in

Practical Definitions of Surface

97

45.19

Factors Affecting Fouling Resistance on Ship

99

45.20

The

I.aminar Sublayer Thicknesses in Turbulent

45.11

Friction

ATTC

herr or

1947

Flow
for

Water Flow

in

45.24
45.25
45.20

Internal

GeneraL

of the

Wetted Surface

Cliap.s. 5, G,

of a Ship

and 22

of

100

\'olume

flow in a real liquid along flat

and curved plate

useful a

somewhat

Selected Bibliography on Friction Resistance

128

for

of

ship and

some

of its parts.

The method

is

of

Superintendents,

mcnt.s for u satisfactory and acceptable

cojjy of this pajjer

o'

in

using

the

variations

is

subseciuent .sections

The Reynolds number

not only as a flow parameter but as an

model rather than

the

may

Rej'nolds

in ship

nmnbers

is

of inti-rest in

work, becau.se most of

for

minlels

are

in

the

low ranges.

One other fcaliu'e invohing the u.se of the

Reynolds number in practice does require mention. It is cuslomary in many (juarters, when

available in

and

conditions. This latter feature

rid ion

'IhcTc are as<?mbli! in the present cimptcr

41..")

and

several

it*!

be exi)ected aroimd a IkkIv imder a given set of

library.

furnuilaM, c(|untiunH,

calculating

indicator of the type of viscous flow which

in

lield

of

the present chapter.

.serves

September, 1948. It gives a brief

re.sumd of the development of the various friction
formulas, a most elaborate comi)ari.son of the
re.Hultw obtained from each, and a set of re(|uire-

and

L.

in

'1MB

various

by Senor M.

by Senor Acevedo at the Fifth International Con-

Ihr-

[jrodiftiiig

different exposition

described in Sec.

formulation.

or

(.stiinatiiig

in a

45.A
convenience and the

an am()li(ied version
contribution actually presented

Tank

127

128
128

Friction Resistance." This

London

Moored

Stream

of a Craft

Hej'nolds inunber antl

ference of Shiji

120

Drag

Acevedo, .Superintendent of the M(k1c1 Basin at

E\ Pardo, near Madrid, Spain, entitled "Shii)
(in KnglLsh; of tlur

of a

summarizes these data for

subsequent sections of this chapter explain how
they are used to derive numerical answers for a

referred to a paper

is

125

Drag

ships, including the friction resistance. Fig.

and around the e.xternal boundaries of

an underwater ship hull. The reader who may
friction

120

Calculation of the Friction

Friction

rccniircd

surfaces,

find

117

Prediction of Fouling Effects on Ship

features of the viscous flow around bodies

give a general physical picture of the viscous

14

115

Ship
Allowances for Friction Drag on StraightElement and Discontinuous-Section Hulls
The Friction Resistance of a Planing Hull

45.23

105

Computation

Ship Propulsion

The

45.22

104

Data

113

Roughness
the Allowances for Rough-

References Relating to Fouling as Affecting

15 21

104

Passages

112

Resistance

Schoen-

MeanHne

110

Sand Roughness

Determination of

102

45. 10

109

Smooth

Surfaces

Turbulent

Specific Friction Coefficients for the

45.1

E(|uivalent

95

45.10
45.17
45.18

Form-

45.9

94

for Calculat-

Flow

45.12

Criterion for a Mydrodynamically

ness

ing Ship Friction Resistance

ulas for a Flat,

45.15

Surface

Typical Velocity Profiles in Ship Boundary

layers

45.0

94

94

Tables of Reynolds Numbers for Various

Ship Lengths and Speeds
Data on and Prediction of Ship Boundary-

45.4

45. 14

Wetted-Surfaco and Boundary-Layer Calculations for the Transom-vStern ABC Ship

of Part 4
Estimating the .MIowanccs for Curvature

45.13

80

lie

and other qnanlitalivc data

cnnsidcring only

8G

the

visctnis-flow

situation

for

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.1

r~~

a-l-: Transition >4-<:

Flow

Turbulent

87
Laminar Flow

Logarithmic

-.
I

Tr\i

FOR

mA

Equation

Profile,

of

U-Cyf

Equation

U-Clogy

or U = Uf^)^|

6 - 0.38

^{^^'^

Enerqiy

= -|- -

Thickness

where

0*-

to

1.3

Enerqy Thickness

Shear
. ."^

0.5/0

U^
,

or C,

symbol R

When

signifies that the

number
studies

of

0.074 R^

it

"^

of

a body or ship, to use the

done it almost invariably

space dimension in the Reynolds

flow

and

many

boundary-layer

becomes necessary to consider

the body or ship which has an x-distance less

than the length L. In these cases the Reynolds

number for the situation under study is the
with the
x-Reynolds number, expressed as R^
x-distance from the leading edge or stem stated
in each case. For example, in the formulas of
Figs. 5.R and 45.A, the symbol R^ is used in
connection with values averaged for the whole
,

situations

R^ is used for local values, or for

where the x-distance is itself a factor

in the formula.

in

This Case)

2. 6, obt.

(Not Applicable

Velocity

\Jt-(^)-^

Local Frictionol-Droq Coefficient at

Clf" 0.66

the situation at or ahead of a certain point along

length, while

Laminar)

Any

~3~

Point A,

R.-5

Mean Drag Coefficient for x-Distance

Cf- 1.33 Rx'"

this is

viscous

development

C,

x-rDistance

that entire length. However, in

is

ond

*=

is

0.133(5, abt.

to A,

Summary op Viscous-Flow Formulas for Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Fig. 45.A

the entire length

Cf

l.73x R^'^ = 0.55S,abt.

Shearing-Stress Coefficient (^r~ oJoU ^ "

- -?-

Local Frictional-Drag Coefficient at Points

Clf = 0.059 Rx""'*

to

6*=

6l- (Entire Loijer

Shear Stress at Plate To=CLF-q- 0.66q-R^-^

^t'{-^)'''

Mean Drog Coefficient for

Sublayer Thickness

6*
Shape Factor H = -q-"

1.5

Ct
^^ -

Lo^er ot ony Point A,

5.(-^)''== 5.Ri-=

Momentum Thickness 9=

Shear Stress at Plote TQ-CLp-q -0.059q-Rx"^

Sheor Velocity

of

6 =

Displocement Thickness

ll.6-i k*: IS.6

0.175 5, abt.

Shearinq-Stress
Coefficient
^

^:?~T6
^~~^-^_ U ? I

Equation of Profile, U-U-a(6-y)^or U=U^--^(6-y)2

R^"''^

0.146, obt.
,

Leodii
1^

Edqft

Nominol Thickness

C,

6- 0.097 6

Momentum Thickness
Shape Factor

k-^

S^_-

FOR LAMINAR FLOW

U-U-|^

B and

- 0.38 X

6*=

Thickness

5ublQx;er Thickness

to Leading

Profile,

or

Nominal Thickness of La\/er ot Points

Displacement

of

TURBULENT FLOW

U^-

|_

Parobolol
V/?T?/y>,

rorabolio Approximation

It

seems almost certain that there are factors

in viscous flow not taken into account

by the

Reynolds number, but until more is known of

them, they can not well be considered in any
quantitative treatment of friction resistance.
Friction-resistance

calculations

are

necessary

Froude method of predicting ship resistance, in which the residuary resistance derived
from tests of a model of the same proportions and
shape is added to the friction resistance deduced
from resistance tests of flat, smooth surfaces in
the form of thin planks or friction planes.
Because of the limitations of model-testing
equipment it is still necessary to extrapolate the
flat, smooth-plate data well beyond the experimental range, especially for large, fast vessels. It
has not been possible to check this extrapolation
in the latter range by full-scale ship measurements
for the

IIVDRODVX AMIC.S

88

TABLE 4&a Rbtnouw Nuubebs

Velocity

IN SHIP

DtSIGN

raa Vabious Ship Lenothb and Spkeos in

Sir. -15.1

STANDARD FRESH WATER

Sec. 45.1

FRlC'llON-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS
TABLE

Velocity

45.a (Continued)

89

90

IIMIRODN \

\MI(;s l\

sllll'

l>|s|(,\

Sec. -15.1

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.1

TABLE

45.b-

91

11M)R()^^ \ \MI(;s l\

92

TABLK
Velocity

-JS.l)

-Hkvnou.8 Nimbkils

in

sllll'

IIF.SIGN

.STANDAKD SALT WATER

Srr.

(Continuod)

If. I

Sec.4'i.l

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

93

HYDRODYNAMICS

M
in

which the

can be segregated

friction resistance

with reasonahle accuracy.

Adequate

are not yet avaihible for

prwHctions of the effects of

and

transverse

from the

when making the

smooth plate to the

flat,

and

curvature

longitudinal

pressure gradients,

of

transition

niotlel or ship

Limited

from

data derived

full-scale

thrust

measurements enalile a reasonably reliable assessment of combined smooth-plate and rough-ship

friction resistances for certain types and conditions of ship-bottom surface.

Reference Data on Mass Density, Dy45.2

namic Viscosity, and Kinematic Viscosity. Tables
X3.d thri)Uij;h X:^.i of Api)x. 3 of this volume give
values of the ma.ss density p(rho) and the kinematic vi.scosity v(\\n) of "standard" fresh and
salt water, the latter of 3.5

per cent salinity, for

a range of latitudes and temperatures sufficient

to meet the usual needs of the ship designer and

marine architect.
Tables X3.j and X3.k of Appx. 3 give values of
these characteristics, plus values of the
M(niu),

dynamic

over a rather wide range in

temperature, for a number of well-known li((uids

encountered at times in ship-design work. The
original

which

from

data,

(a)

Rouse,

(b)

Rouse, H.,

IT.,

EMF,
EH,

were

tables

these

adapted, are listed .somewhat differently

in:

1940, Appx., pp. 3.J7-3G.5

Appx., pp. KIUI 1013,

19.50,

including the references listed

Rouse, n., and Howe,

Appx., PI). 231-238.

(c)

W.,

J.

Water Alongside Models and

rcl:itionsliii)S

BMF,

1953,

given

in

Chap.

Ships.
5

of

From the
Volume I,

particularly in Fig. o.R, the shearing stress r(tau)

any point in a li(|uid undergoing viscous action

= nidU/dy) where y is measured normal to
the flow, in the direction in which U is varying.
At a solid surface under a viscous liquid flow the

at
i.s

shearing stress at the wall

is

[Rouse, H.,

KMF,

HUG, pp. 185-180]

where
area

to ha.s

or

specific

any designated point along the solid

surface may be found by the formulas of J'ig.
45.A and of the preceding paragraph. The
numerical examples of Sees. 5.12 and 45.15 give
value for

in/Li'.

The

friction

resistance coefficient

Cir

namely

water:

(a)

Ship 500

ft^. To

speed 20.72

ft long,

1.797 lb per

ft'

kt,

5 =

45,000

as an average value for

the whole ship, calculated at the end of Sec. 5.12

Ship 400

(b)

To

2.504 lb per

Ship 190.5

(c)

speed 30

long,

ft

on a point 200

calculations

ft

kt,

but basing

abaft the FP,

at that point

ft"

ft long,

speed 12

kt, to

0.485

kt, t

1.051

lb per ft' for a point at the stern

Slup 510

(d)

speed 20.5

ft long,

lb per ft' for a jioint near the stern, TjOO

the

bow

(c)

Model 20

To

ft

on

calculations

ft'

10

from

ft

10 kt, but basing

long, speed

a point

0.G093 lb per

ft

abaft

FP,

the

at that point.

Tables of Reynolds Numbers for Various

45.4

Ship Lengths and Speeds.

and

Sec. 2.22 of X'olume 1

in

is

pointed out in

many

of the standard

It

works on hj-drodynainics, that the

Reynolds number is a logical and a practical
parameter for representing quantitatively the
analytical and experimental evidence on viscous
reference

flow, involving friction resistance.

This

regard-

is

the type of viscous flow, whether laminar

or turbulent, or of the degree to which surface

roughness effects enter into the picture. In the

latter case there are, however, certain (|ualifications

as

to

the

separate

influences

liquid

of

and distance from the leading edge. As

such the Reynolds number enters into many of
the present-day calculations and predictions, not
velocity

only with

the

space dimension x representing

length from the leading edge, as in a ship form,

but with the space dimension representing the

width b or the diameter i) of a body.
To facilitate calculations involving its wide-

and "standard"

the dimensions of a force per unit

pressure,

Siilt

spread use. Tables 45. a and 45. b give calculatecl

values of /f = VL/v for both "standard" fresh

'^"'"
'(f) L. - '^"(i)"- -

'

calculateii average t for a whole solid surface

found simply by dividing the wetted area S
into the calculated friction drag Rr
Its local

less of

45.3 Representative Internal Shearing Stresses

in

the following representative values for "standard"

surface.

viscositj'

Sec. 45.2

is

nielliotls

ninking accurate

IN SHIP DESIGN

local
is

as

given in the wvcral formulas of Figs. 5.R and

t.')..\, for the condilions existing or assumed.

The range

sjilt

water, as defined in .Vppx. 3.

of lengths L, or j:-<listances,

enough to span both model and ship

the range of speed, expressed in both

and

is

sizes,
ft

large

as

per

is

.sec

kt.

The

<lat;i

in

Table

l.").!i

are caiculatrd bv the

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.5

usual formula

72

VL/v, where

the ship

is

speed in ft per sec, L is the length or space

dimension in ft, and v is the kinematic viscosity
for standard fresh water at a temperature of
59 deg F, 15 deg C, namely 1.2285(10"') ft' per sec.

The data in Table 45. b are calculated in

same way for standard salt water, having a

fouling in service.

A velocity traverse with a

at a given point on a model of the ship gives

3.5

indication of the thickness but this

To

R^

facilitate calculations of

lengths not covered

by these

The

of the art.

principal reasons for the uncer-

tainties are:
(a)

The boundary-layer

point on a model

is

thickness

at

given

greater in proportion than at

the corresponding point on a hydrodynamically

are in millions, or /?(10").

/?

some
method is

tedious and uncertain, at least in the present state

Values of x~ or d-Reynolds numbers are taken

from these tables simply by substituting x or D
forL.
Values of

cylindrical pitot tube

the

1.2817(10"'^) ft' per sec.

is

in the water. This

new surfaces and those

roughened by uneven paint coatings and by

Under these conditions the kinematic

viscosity v

is

applies to both clean,

per cent salinity and a temperature of 59 deg F,

15 deg C.

95

long before the ship

hull,

smooth ship, for the reasons explained in Sec. 6.8

and

for speeds

of

Volume

tables:

and

illustrated in Fig.

6.E of that

section
(a)

Speeds in

ft

per sec corresponding to integral

values of kt, from

through 100

kt, are

Table X4.b
(b)

The

The

is

0.8140(10')

S.

reciprocal of 1.2817(10"')

is

0.7802(10')

the

and

for lengths of 50 to 1000 ft [INA,

Data on and Prediction

of

Apr

on a model, or on a

for a

from the

inch.

1952, p. 61].

of Ship

F. M. Richardson, J. K. Ferrell, H. A. Lamonds,

and K. 0. Beatty, Jr., in a paper entitled "How
Radiotracers are Used in Measuring Fluid Velocity

Boundary-

Profiles"

describe

6=5xRx,"'
in
8.14(1 0*")

ship, at distances

surface of the order of a few thousandths of an

and

Layer Characteristics. A number of detail shipdesign problems require, for their proper solution,
a good estimate of the boundary-layer thickness
5 (delta) at any given point around the underwater

,R^=

as

traverses in the vicinity of the laminar sublayer

Baker gives a small table

y-value of 1.29(10"') for speeds of 2 to 35 kt,

4S.5

to

1955)

(in

action in thickening the boundary layer, over

and above what it would be on a hydrodynamically smooth surface
(c) The difficulties in making accurate velocity

or 0.07802(10').

G.

uncertainty

its

reciprocal of 1.2285(10^')

or 0.08140(10')
(c)

Existing

effective roughness of the actual ship surface,

(b)

given in

[Nucleonics,

new

Jul

1955,

tracer techniques

for Laminar

221-223],

pp.

by which

liquid

Flov

Standard Fresh Water

Broken Lines Indicate Regions of Extrapolation for the Formula Given

0.09.:
0.08ii

0.03IQ

30 8

26 24 22 20 18 16
x-Distonce from Leadino

Fig. 45.B

in

le

10

0"""

Edae, ft

6 with s-Distance from Leading Edge, for Laminar

Fresh Water

Vaeiation of Boundary-Layer Thickness

Flow

14

IIVDRODVNAMKLS

96
velocities

nmy

l>e

within 0.002 inch

lieteriniiied

of the inner wall of a tube of circular section.

Fig. 3

on page 23 of the reference is a plot of

V on distance from the inner wall,

local velocity

embodying observations taken within 0.0006 inch

of the solid surface in a regime

which

is

distinctly

laminar in character.
Despite the difficulties and drawbacks mentioned, the velocities at a series of

normal

dis-

tances from the hull surface can be and have been

measured on both ship and model, and the velocity

profiles plottetl.

Two

sets of typical ship profiles

arc reproducctl in Sec. 45.6,

are quoted there on

many

and reference data

Despite the

others.

shortcomings of the observed data, anj' information at all is considered l)etter than none.

designer's need for boundarj'-layer data

be sufficienth' pressing

for instance,

may

in selecting

propeller-tip clearances alongside the hull on a

large

and important passenger

extensive

rather
project.

However,

model- or
it

is

to justify a
ship-measurement

liner

well for the designer to

no matter how extensive

are the measurements projected, they will almost
surely be found insufficient when the time comes
to plot, analyze, and use the results. This is not
intended to discourage the designer before he
begins but to broaden the scope of the measure-

know beforehand

that,

ments.

As an

illustrative

example there

may

be men-

tioned the investigation carried out on a cruiser

model

in the early 1940's, to

400 360

960

340

320

300

determine the proper

260

260

240
I-

Fio. 45.C'

IN Mill'

DKSIGX

Flow

in

It

is customary' for these instruments, an acceptable pasition was found only

after exploring the boundarj' layer under a model

the entrance, as

from the stem to a position far aft,

under the after engine room. When the isotachyl
representing 100 per cent of ship speed was
drawn on the outboard profile it was found that,
at the position originally proposed for the log,
the isotachyl lay more than 6 ft below the keel.
of the ship

This distance was about twice as great as the

contemplated log extension beyond the hull.
On the basis previously' mentioned, that some
indication of 6-valucs are better than none. Figs.

4o.B and 45.C show plots of boundary-layer

thicknesses for laminar and turbulent flow,
respectively, derived from the space-velocity
relationships of Sec. 5.13 of ^'olume I and Eqs.
(o.vii)

and

(5.viii)

for

flat,

smooth

plates.

In

plotting these graphs, the data have been extra-

polated to ranges far beyond those justified by

the manner in which the formulas were derived.

The

plots are therefore to be considered as indi-

cators of the 5-values, nothing more.

graph illustrating the values of

160
140
120
180
220 200
Distance from Leodinq Edqe, ft

Vaiuatki.n uv HorsDAnY-LAVKii Thic-knkk.h

Sec. -(5.5

was necessary
to know the position, both fore and aft and
relative to the surface of the underwater hull, of
the cloak of the boundary layer where, at the
designed speed, the relative water velocity was
within one per cent plus or minus of the ship
speed through undisturbed water. Although it was
expected that the log would be installed under
location for a pitot^type speed log.

i with j-1)i.stanck
Fkuii Watek

kiu)M

100

for the

eo

Lkadino

Kiiok, fxju Trniiiii.ENT

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45/,

ABC

97

Values of the displacement thickness 6* (delta

Freeman entitled "Measurements of Flow in the

Boundary Layer of a 1/40-Scale Model of the
U. S. Airship Akron" [NACA Rep. 430, 1932,

are even more difficult to predict because

they depend upon the shape of the velocity

pp. 567-579]. This paper contains a considerable

number of boundary-layer velocity profiles of

ship designed in Part 4, calculated

method,

is

by

this

given as Fig. 45.1 in Sec. 45.13.

star)

within

profile
5*
is

of

the

boundary

layer.

The

ratio

0.145 for turbulent flow, given in Fig. 45. A,

an acceptable engineering
more definite data.
It

is

available, described in the references listed here-

regrettable that the technical

problems involved in the measurement of boundary-layer profiles on ships, or even on models,

are of such magnitude that complete and accurate
observed profiles are almost nonexistent. For an
indication

of

the

enormous amount

labor

of

involved in a comprehensive study of this kind

the reader has only to study a report

Bottom
Scale for Local
in

In the cases where ship (or model) profiles are

figure in the absence

Typical Velocity Profiles in Ship Bound-

45.6

ary Layers.

the type which should be available to naval

architects for typical ship models.

by H. B.

under, either:
(a)

The

velocity traverse

the small values of

was not

variation in the range of

about 0.6 or 0.5 1/

(b)

The

enough, at

(or

V)

less

than

(or V), or

velocity traverse

extended only to a

value of y where U (or V) was approximately

equal to U^ (or F), despite indications that at a
greater transverse distance

would exceed

[/

Hull PlQti nq.pf^ShJR

Velocit'j

Percentooe

of

100

Ship Speed

Boundorvj- Lo\;er

"1

Relative

Profiles

Velocitij

Velocitvj

for

Small Destrovjtr
Zero Point 118.5 ft Abaft FP,
/6.10 ft below At-Rest WL

in

PercentQoe of Ship Speed

-Bottom^ Hull^PlQtintf,
Fig. 45.D

fine

to follow the velocity

y,

of

Ship (rnvertedj

Typical Boundary-Latek Velocity Profiles for Several Operating Conditions on

Two

Ships

HYDROnYN WIK

98
because of
expecteil

tlio

+At"

nugmeiit of velocity

to

Ijc

the potential flow abreast the wide

itt

This lack of essential data makes it impossible,

not, to determine the boundary-

more often than

by the

tiiifkncss

(5.5

this situation is

found

diagram of

method

delta-velocity

of \"olumc

described in Sec.

in the

I. An example of
upper right-lmnil

Fig. 45. D, giving three partial velocity

data kindly

by

furni.'shed

J.

Both high-speetl deep-water profiles on Fig.

D show a characteristic flatness almost a
hollowness at a ratio U/Um of about 0.90. The
Laute and Gruschwitz profiles of Fig. 22.C in

are the:
Hindcnburg,

(1)

The

TMB

ship velocity profile comparison by E. A. Wright

(S\.\ME,

case only suflicient to obtain readings of local

bottom and

23. G kt, with clean

The
in

deep water, indicate greater

local velocities

(4)

diagrammed

for a

considerabl}' thicker laj'er, as

22.H

Fig.

in

of Sec.

22.13.

Again the

pp. 107-174).

full

boundarj'-laycr thickness could not be explored

(0)

The

is

thicker, as

Swedish ]Vrangcl), shown

inverted in Fig. 45. D, are taken from tho.se published by II. F. Nordstrom [SSPA Rep. 27, 1953,

pp.

II.

F,

Xordstrom and assistants ["Full-Scale Tests with

the Wrangcl and Comparative Model Testa,"

SSPA
Victory

(8)

Rep. 27, 1953).

ship,

APS,

Observations by

Tcrvacle.

G.

Aertsscn and his assistants [IN.V, 1953, pp. J21-J5G].

Fig. 3 on p. J25 and Fig. 22 on p. J52 (a revision of
Fig. 3) show velocity profiles made with a rodmetor
speed log under various conditions.
Lucy Ashlon. Pilot traverses were made by a Pitometer

boundary-laj'er velocity profiles for the

small destroj-er

.also

Wrangcl, Swedish destroyer. Observations by

(7)

should be.

it

pp. 8:5-100 and Pis. III-V;

141-140).

but taking the reduced speed into

possibly be higher rather than lower. In anj' case,

XLVI,

Vol.

account, indicates that the local velocities should

the boundary layer

STG,

Snaifell and Ashworth, British cross<-hannel steamers.

Observations by G. S. Baker [NECI, 1929-1930.

are less than for the higher

speed with clean bottom in deep water. Consideration of backflow in the shallow water, plus surface
roughness,

transl. available;

1951, Vol. 45, pp. 228-243).

For the test at 18.85 kt, with a dirty bottom

and in a depth of water of 2.24 times the draft,

TMB

1952, Fig. 7A;

200,

because of the limited log-tube extension.

the local velocities

Some

Sanln Elena, merchant ship, 1951. V'^elocity profiles

for both rough and smooth hull surfaces were
measured amidships, 72 meters (236.2 ft) from the
stem and 4 meters (13.1 ft) below the at-rest
watrlinc [Kempf, G., and Karhan, IC, HSV.\ Rep.

(5)

typical foul-bottom boundar3--layer velocity profile

The

boundury-laycr profiles were measured on this ship

but they were not published |WRH, 1.5 Jun 1939,

and a

p. 393).

TMB

observations at 23.G kt, with dirty bottom

in the inner portion of the l>oundary laj'cr

1940, Fig. 24,

U. S. merchant vessel, 1933-1934.

data are unpublished.
Tannenberg, German merchant ship, 1938.

Ctairton,

(3)

at

deep water.

in

German merchant vessel, early 1920's.

by W. Dnhlmann, II. Hoppe,

as reported

Hamilton, U. S. destroyer (DD 141), 1933-19.34. The

data are unpublished except for one model-

(2)

Unfortunately, the log-tube extension was in this

speed

(lata,

and O. Schafor |\\TIH, 7 Sep 1920, pp. 415-4191,

were taken witli a resistance log towed abeam from
a boom, and are rather sketchy.

are from observations with a Pitometer speed log.

ecjual to the ship

upon which velocity-profile observahave been made, including the Wrangcl,

(Jthcr ships
tions

Comstock and

P.

News Shipbuilding
and Dry Dock Company. The data in all cases

Sec. 22.(5 are actually hollow.

C. H. Hancock of the Newport

relative velocity

Sec. 45.6

45.

taken from unpublished

profiles for a large liner,

DESIGN

I\ SHIP

portion of the body or ship.

layer

(the

(9)

log (INA, 1955, Vol. 97, pp.

14).

No

velocity profiles

543-545 and Figs.

show

U >

Ua,

13,

Fig. 39, p. 85], with the horizontal scale modified

to

the

suit

being

features

measurements were,

velocity

large liner,

made below

illustrated.

These
I'ur llie

like

those on the

the ship but fortunately

the pitot-tube extension was greatly in excess of

the j/-distance where
relatively small

U ~ U^ =
Wrangcl,

it is

Mar 1939. This paper covers flow testj<, velocity

measurements, and pressure observations on a

possible that

cargo-ship model.

some wave wake being measured with

is

the friction wake. Indeed,

wave action
itself felt

bottom

With the

Volume I are repeated here, along

with a few others. These, however, apply to
tests on models only:
(a) Laute, \V., STG, 1933, pp. 402-460; T.MB Transl. 53,

submergence of the pitot-tube

orifice in the case of the

there

V.

U.H

it is

possible that the

in the ca.se of the large liner

not only
well.

down

makes

the side but under the

sake of completciics,s, the references of

Sec. 22. G of

(b)

Hamilton, \V. S., "The Velocity Pattern Arnuml a

Ship Model Fixed in Moving Water," Doctorate
Diss., IIIIR, Dec 1943. Dcscrilx-s flow measuremi'iils

made on a mmlel

Sun Frnncixco.

of the (icrnian

M.

8.

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.7

TMB

Hamilton (DD 141), destroyer. The

U. S.
data are unpublished except for one model-ship
velocity profile comparison by E. A. Wright
S.

(c)

[SNAME,
(d)

TMB

(e)

Baker,

1946, Fig. 24, p. 393].

model 3898, representing a proposed twin-skeg

Manhattan, described by the present author in
SNAME, 1947, pp. 112-125. Unpublished data are
on file at the David Taylor Model Basin.

G. S., NECI, 1929-1930, Vol. XLVI, pp.

83-106 and Pis. Ill, IV, and V; also pp. 141-146
(includes tests on models). On page 86 of this
reference. Table I gives other sources of test data
on models.
Baker, G. S., NECI, 1934-1935, Vol. LI, pp. 303-320;
also SBSR, 28 Mar 1935, Fig. 5, p. 353.
Calvert, G. A., INA, 1893, Vol. XXXIV, pp. 61-77.
This reference describes one of the first, if not the

(f)

(g)

measurement of the velocity profile in the

boundary layer of a friction plank, 28 ft long. In

99

have been told many times so that they are not

summarized or repeated here. A historical summary was given some time ago by K. S. M.
Davidson [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 76-83] and
others more recently by F. H. Todd [SBMEB,
Jan 1947, pp. 3-7; SNAME, 1951, pp. 315-317].

the principal references

list of

is

given in Sec.

45.26 for the benefit of the interested reader.

has been recognized, practically from the

It

beginning of this development, that a friction

formulation which correctly expresses the drag
of

a thin,

flat

plank or friction plane by no means

applies directly to the prediction of ship friction

resistance.

There are a number

of reasons for this:

first

Fig. 9 of PI. Ill Calvert gives three velocity profiles,

for speeds of 2, 3,

of 0.44 ft

45.7

and 4

kt, for

from the plank

The Development

a transverse distance

Formulas

lating Ship Friction Resistance.

for Calcu-

Friction resist-

ance was recognized as a sort of separate entity

in the ship-resistance picture as far back as the
1790's. Attempts were made then, by Mark
Beaufoy and others, to determine its magnitude

[INA, 1925, pp. 109, 115]. It remained, however,

for the eminent William Froude to conduct the
first systematic friction experiments on flat surfaces

and to establish the

for the

calculation

of

first

friction

systematic basis
drag.

Following

extensive towing experiments with thin planks

having

various

he

coatings,

developed

the

expression

R^ =

fSV

(45.i)

where / was his own friction-drag coefficient and

the exponent n approximated 1.83 for smooth,
varnished surfaces. He found a length effect in
addition, but this was not reduced to mathematical
terms. R. E. Froude, the son of William Froude,
after a re-analysis

of

the observed data,

changed the speed exponent n to

later

1.825.

Following the elder Froude's work the principal

landmarks in the evolution

of a suitable

formula

for calculating ship friction resistance were:

Osborne Reynolds' development in the early

UL/v,
now named the Reynolds number and expressed
(1)

1880's of the_ dimensionless relationship

SLsR

development of the boundary-layer

(2) The
theory by Ludwig Prandtl in the early 1900's.

The

highlights

and

details

of

The

drag

surface.

of

(a)

the last three-

quarters of a century of progress on this project

on the plank
and on a towing model whose friction
calculated from such data, as compared
possibility of laminar flow

or plane
is

to the fully turbulent flow over practically the

entire wetted area of the ship
(b) The effects of transverse curvature on the
submerged edge or edges of the plank or friction
plane as well as of both transverse and longitudinal
curvature on a towing model and on the ship
(c)

The

effects

especially

the

various

of

longitudinal

pressure

gradients,

gradients,

on

the

curved surfaces of model and ship

(d) The variation between the calculated at-rest

wetted surface of a model or ship and the actual

wetted surface when it is moving and making
waves, as well as changes in flow caused by
orbital wave motion and the like
(e) The smoothness of the plank or friction-plane
surface as compared to the relatively rougher ship
surface, especially in

view

of the

need for greater

absolute smoothness on the ship to insure hydro-

dynamic smoothness
(f)

Other

in the larger scale

effects of differences in absolute size

or scale.

William Froude, B. J. Tideman, and others,

working in the 1860's, the 1870's, and later,
recognized that no ship is ever as smooth as a
friction plane towed in a model basin. They
provided in their friction coefficients a series of
positive allowances for what they considered to
be unavoidable roughnesses in the ships of their
day. They did not know, in those years, that the
ships had actually to be smoother, in an absolute
sense, to afford the

same degree

of

hydrodynamic

smoothness as obtained on their models. However,

the modern friction formulations are all developed
for

and apply

strictly

to

fiat,

smooth

plates,

nVDRODVNAMK.S

100
bccaust"

smooth surfaces are icpnxluiiblc and

in that

way can

onlj'

consistent cxperimentul data be

assured.

Despite the extensive studies of recent years

there
for

is

as yet no comprehensive, accurate formula

bridging

tlie

friction plane or

gap between an experimental

model and an actual ship, and

for taking account of the effects

listeil in

the seconil

paragraph preceding. In fact, workers in this field

are not even agreed on the form which such an
expression should take, or whetiier an attempt
should be made to embmly all the bridging

SHIP ni'SICN

l.\

Src. 45.7

result.s. While the.se experiments antedate the year 1932, the line can alwaj's
be shifted to accommodate newer and better data.
It docs, however, conform to the physical laws
for the dependence of friction drag on Reynolds
number and it has given satisfactory ship predictions for many years. There is no specific

available experimental

provision in the

.\TTC 1947 procedure

effects,

transverse

effects,

variations

and

longitudinal

for

edge

curvature

wetted surface and flow

in

patterns due to waves, or any other factors.

The

ATTC

1947 (Schoenherr) meanline, de-

by the heavy,

factors, as it were, into a single formulation.

])icted graphically

meantime the naval architect must

span the gap somehow, and with assurance that

log-log plot of Fig. 45.E, expresses the relation

the

In

his

predictions

are

reasonably

between CV and

242
"g^
=

American Towing Tank Conference decided in

1947 that for its work this operation is to be
performed by the use of:

The meanline developed by K.

for

expressing the specific friction drag

flat,

function of Reynolds

number

(2)

An

additive

specific friction

allowance,
resistance

of

a.s

Cy
and

sufficient values of

and

the
called

form of a

ACV

lated for practical use.

in

for

SNAMIC

The Schoenherr

meanline, as

was based upon a

its

dated August 1948, for

generic

careful

name

analysis of

50

4.5. c

not readily solved for

Cf and R

The

and

Purr or

Tiiiu;k

TrrKs

oi-

ItocciiiNKHH

model
and tabu-

in the

tables arc published

all

who need them. Two

to

express

are reproduced in Tables

45. d of Sec. 45.9, covering mniiol

and ship

ranges, respectively.

500

100

Reynolds Number
I.I.FC

(S.xivb)

Technical and Research Bulletin 1-2,

all /? values in jtiillions,

Fio.

is

small portions of these tables, modified

ship.

implies,

(o.xiva)

ship ranges, have been calculated

7?

in

{RCf)

4.132 log.o {RJCf)

Since this equation

Cf

the effect of unavoidable roughness on a clean,

new

{C,)-"'

log,o

E. Schocnhcrr

smooth surface

turbulent flow on a

either of the equations

The

correct.

(1)

by

/?

solid line in the

I0"j-

Ai.uhvanik fou
Nll.MII>:lt

Siin-s,

1000

(lO"*)

SimwiMi Vauiatiu.vs

wrrii IlKV.Nouns

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.7

Using the ATTC procedure, the friction resistance of the wetted area of a ship is calculated by
the general formula given as Eq. (22. iv) in Sec.
22.15, based on specific friction-resistance co-

Methods

Tentative values for the four listed roughness

allowances are given in Sees. 45.18 and 45.20.

for fully turbulent flow

on a

SACp

flat,

due to the increment of relative

water velocity for longitudinal curvature

1950;

reports

TMB

SNAME,

quoting
Rep. 663, 1949;

1951, pp. 327-345]

equivalent resistance of condenser-coohng scoops

and discharges and miscellaneous sea chests, as
well as the forces involved in driving cooling

-FAzCf due to the increment of drag

for

transverse curvature

+ ApCp for plate or planking roughness

+ AsCf for structural roughness
+ AcCf for coating roughness
-f-ApCp for fouling roughness]

2ACf)

(45.ii)

where the ram pressure q = 0.5pV^, S

wetted area, and V is the ship speed.

TABLE

published

term embraces not only all the roughness

allowances listed in Eq. (45.ii) preceding but the

+ AiCp

the

this

ship

qS{CF

of

values [Todd, F. H.,

TMB Rep. 729,

smooth plate having the same S as the

many

In

efficients:

Rf = qSlCp

101

estimating the curvature allowances are described subsequently in Sec. 45.14.

of

45.CSample Table of

ff

is

water through the condensers and in overcoming

the effects of forcing water out of and drawing it
into certain hull openings.

it

In towed and self-propelled tests of ship models

is customary to omit the lips, projections,

openings, and internal ducts belonging to these

Not all ships have them, and in any case

they partake of the nature of appendages rather
than of structural or other roughnesses. Unfor-

systems.

tunately, no suitable procedures have been

the ship

and Cf for the

worked

out as yet whereby the true additions to ship

resistance occasioned by the devices proper and

ATTC

1947

Meanline

in

the

MODEL RANGE

adapted from the upper portion of the table on page 8 of SNAME Technical and Research Bulletin 1-2,
pubUshed in Aug 1948. The listings of fl in the extreme left-hand column are in terms of (10) or millions. Those in all
other columns are Cp(lO').
This table

is

Reynolds Number

IlM)R()l)^ \

102
TAlU.i: l-Vli-SAMIIK
This

tl>le is

published in

UlIK OK

A-,

wiKs

AMI Cy

i\ siiir i)isi(,\

Kill TlIK

ATH

'

I'.MT

ndnptoti from ihe upixr portioD of the tiiblo on page 12 of

Aug

104S.

The

other columns arc Cjr(10>).

Reynolds Number
in Millions

listings of

R,

in the

Mkasune

Sec. f5.S

IN

THE SHIP

SNAMIC Technical and

extreme left-hand column arc

in

UANGK

Research Bulletin 1-2,

terms of (10*) or millions. Those

in all

Sec. 4

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

5.

Cp

(b)

(4)

C^^ =

(c)

0.0725(log, Rn
0.370(log,o

2)-'

application to fresh water

II, p. 82]

Cp = 0.455(log,oi2)"'-"

C,.

Archiv, 1936, Vol.

C,^^
(5)

drag Cip or shearingH. Schhchting gives [Ing.

local specific friction

stress coefficient

7, p.

C.

29]

(2 log.oiJ.

Von Karman, based on

0.65)-'-'

the 1/7-power law of

[PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 80];

Volume I of the present book:

velocity distribution
see Sec. 5.10 of
(a)

Cf.

This

is

Cr =

(b)

(6)

0.072(E)~'"

also given as [Rouse, H.,

EH,

Rf =

where

/c2

is

hSV\R)-''-'''

a rather complicated term defined in

the reference.
(b)

[PNA, 1939, Vol.

Cp
(7)

1950, p. 106]

0.074(i?)"'

Gebers [INA, 1925, pp. 110-111]

(a)

II, p. 80]

0.02058(i?)"'''

[SNAME,

1951, pp.

373-374]:

/?.)"''''

Prandtl-Schlichting [PNA, 1939, Vol.

For the

103

Rr

['''-

(^t)]-'

IIY^Ro^>v\.\^fI^.s i\ snip df.sicx

lot

VS\.

(c)

l'.t;Ui,

\ul.

Tal.lf

11.

ship lengths of 10 through 500

Polliinl, J.,

(ti)

'.1,

Ill,

|).

and DiKlcbout,

A., "Tii(''orif

du

hut with different symbols and metric units, for

120 in, 10. 1 through

ship lengths of 5 through

ft.

Taylor, for 20-ft jilanks

(9)

water

in fresh

at

OS

C = 0.03117?:"'"
alternative form

(b)

lir

water, and a 20-ft friction plane.

(10)
Sect.,

I^p and Troost [SNAME, Nortii.

29 Feb 1952; see SNAME Member's

Cidif.

Bull.,

Jun 1953, pp. 18-22]

Cfo =

as determined by the .\'1"T'C 1947

(V

argument

smooth

flat,

/?

plate.

for entering the

complete set of tables

is suflTieient to cover both

model and ship regions. The entries in Tables
45. c and 45.d are modificHi so that all /? values
are in terms of millions [5th ICSTS, Lontlon,

of picking

for

Hy

Cy values by inspection

calculations

is

illustrated

in Sec. 45.22.
log.

(It)

O.133(log,off

log.

C,

bulent Flow.

log.o -4)-'

"FD"

the thickness

formula

signifies

Rep. 34, 1955,

p. 76,

ICSII,

[7th

Eq.

Cp

is

1954,

ness

so that for

/2

nomena.

study of roughwhether the.se are

determine

to

efTects,

laminar sublayer next to

of interest in a

is

viscous

or

primarilj'

pressure

been found [Rouse, IL,

It has

1940, p. 194; Baines,

W.

D.,

"A

phe-

EMF,

Literature Survey

Boundar^'-Layer Development on Smooth and

Hout^h Surfaces at Zero Pressure Gradient,"

of

(2)].

Lackenby, and others,

bR~',

of the

5/,

a solid boundary
essentially

G. Hughes' "2-diml"
0.014/2;''-"*
1.328:'

(12) Telfer,

Laminar Sublayer Thicknesses in TurS<jme quantitative knowledge of

45.10

+ KC"

0.724

(11)

(5.xiva) or (5.xivb)

]'>|s.

of item (1) of Sec. 45.8, for fully

of the

and using them

friction drag.

C, = a

The range

The meth(xl

where the subscript combination

SSPA

tables give values of the .specific friction resistance

1948, p. 112, item 4, top of page].

= ,..[(f.)v/^].....
=

or

Tables

tables,

developed turbulent flow on a

is

the

for

Meanline.

anil 4.j.d are small illustrative sections of

and the formulas

0.00907 .sr' "' for 60 deg F, fresh

Coefficients

1Q47

a
mentioned in Sec. 45.7,
calculate<l in the 1940's by the Experimental
Towing Tank of the Stevens Institute of TechnoloK.v and published in August 1948 as SX.\ME
Technienl and Research Bulletin 1-2. These
l.j.c

(Schoenherr) meanline,

(a)

An

ATTC

group of larger

((H'dicient

dog F,

Friction

Specific

Schoenherr or

Nnvirc," 1892, \'ol. Ill, pp. 374-375, using essentially the dimensional formula given previously

31)3.7

45.9

fur-

ft

^'r. 7 1.0

IIIIR, 1951, p. 25] that the thickness

>

Cy = a

laminar sublayer

in

5,,

of the

turbulent flow over a rough

surface can be expres.sed by

Here, the lower-case subscript of the Reynolds-

number symbol is not to be confused with the

exponent n. A table of the specific friction co"smooth paint surfaces," derived
Cf
from the I^ackcnby formula Cy = 0.0000 -f0.0791/?:"" for the Froude-Kempf data, is given
by G. S. Baker, over a range of /?, from 1 to 75
million (IN A, Apr 1952, p. 02|.
efficient

di.

(a coeflicient)

for

(13) Blasius, for laminar flow on a

flat,

smooth

(a coeincicnt)

where values of the

11.0

5;.
'

and

coeflicient
[/,

(14) For a completely rough surface of length />

and an equivalent sjind-roughnesa height of Kg
as given by L. .\. Haier,
,

"

5,.

r.
vary from about

= Vto/p

Using the larger

is

cocfTicient, a

the shear

number

values calculated for a wide range of

Ijlotted in Fig. 45. F. It is to

1.32H/1';"

Cr = [l.89-f l.f.2(log,^'jJ

12.0,

velocity.

plate,

C, =

to

(r..vi)

li,

of

are

be noted that the

values increase slowly milh Icnyth for a given

speed, hut they decrease rapidly with speed for a

given length.

The

reasons for this are discussed

presently.
It

is

interesting to note that the permi.ssible

average ronghne.s.s height

A'

v.

for a livdroilyn.'im-

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.11

105

(45 .v)

Ul

This means that Sl increases very slowly as x

and that it decreases rapidly as U,

For example, if C/ increases from 10
kt to 20 kt and then to 30 kt, 6x, decreases very
nearly to | and then to | of its 10-kt value. If x
increases from 5 ft to 15 ft, the increase in 8l
occasioned by it is only in the ratio of 1 to (3)'
increases

increases.

or 1.116.

50

1.0

Number

Reynolds
Fig. 45.F

ness

ically

500

100

50.0

10.0

in

1000

million5

Variation of Laminar Sublayer ThickWITH X-DlSTANCB (L) AND SPEED

Si

smooth

given by the exiDression

surface,

described at greater length in Sec. 45.15 [Goldstein, S.,

ARC, R and M,

1763, Jul 1936, p. 113],

namely

(neglecting the kinematic viscosity).

<

fc.v

(45.iii)

Ur

roughnesses should average

than half the laminar-sublayer
thickness S^
in the ratio of say 5 to 12.6, if
they are to produce no roughness effects.
Granting that the relationship between the
height of the roughness on a solid surface and the
laminar-sublayer thickness has an important
influence on the roughness effects, it is useful
that

indicates

somewhat

the

less
,

to

At the same time, an increase in either U or

x to three times its original value multiplies the
original Reynolds number by three. It can not
and
be said, therefore, that the change in 5i,
hence the change in the effect of a given roughness
of a certain absolute size and shape, is a function
solely of the Reynolds number of the flow, as
determined by the product of the relative velocity
[/ and the distance x from the leading edge

know what

factors influence this thickness 6i

To understand

this,

6i

From Eq.

Eq.

(5.vi)

may

be written

A given barnacle at the bow of a long ship

might project through the thin laminar sublayer
there but lie just within this layer at the stern.
However, as the ship speed increases, the value
of 5i diminishes. A barnacle of the same size at
the stern projects more and more through the
laminar sublayer and becomes more and more
effective as an item of roughness. This is the
reason why, in aeronautical circles, it is customary
to use a special Revnolds number with the roughness height as a space dimension, instead of the
distance x from the nose or leading edge of the

body

or plate. In fact,

mentioned
12.6Kp)'(r)-

(45. iv)

the

of Fig.

it

To

0.059

0.059

UlRZ

Ul

Ux

12.6(0.0295)-- V"f/;"'(a;)''-'

is

obtained

/ \-0.57-7 1 t-tO.I
0.1
X V
(P)

viscosity v

is

~'

12.6Kp)

the

U U

numerical

assuming

that

(45 .vi)

forms a Reynolds number of this kind, where

the space dimension.
This relationship is discussed further in Sec.
45. 11

Dropping out
moment, and

fcAv?7.

45.15.

Combining these two equations, there

(^0.059^

>

/cav is

(5.iii)

8l

the Goldstein relationship

manner

5.R or the corresponding

equation from the turbulent-flow column in Fig.
45. A, one may also write
(S.iii)

if

earlier in this section is rearranged in

values

the

constant for this study,

for

the

kinematic

Friction

Data for Water Flow

in Internal

not the place for an extended

discussion of the friction resistance offered by the
internal surfaces, both smooth and rough, of
water ducts and passages which are separate
Passages.

This

is

from those in the maciiinery plant. Some reference

data on this subject are given by J. K. SaUsbury
[ME, 1944, Vol. II, Fig. 51 on p. 61 and Art. 12
on pp. 62-63], but it must be noted that the
weight density

(lb

per

ft^) of

the liquid

is

repre-

HVHROnYNAMICS

\m
acuUil

ill

rcfiTi'iiio l>y llu> syiil>ol p iiisteml

tliat

by the R'STS or I'lTC symbol w.

A nitlior comprohonsivo <liscussion of steady
flow ill pij)'.s aiiil eoiuliiit.-^, from tlie slnndpoiiit of
hyil ran lies ami hydrixlynamies, is given by V. L.
Strcetor in Cluip. VI of "EngineeriiiR Hydraulics"
of

(Rouse, H., Kditor.

ia")(),

pp. 3S7-1

t.'^j.

Computation of the Wetted Surface

45.12

.\ithough the et)mputation of

Ship,

tiie

of a

wetted

^' of the unilerwater body of

a shij) is a
problem in solid geometry rather than in hydrodynamics, the flow conditions over dilTcrent

surface

portions of that surface are closed- related to the

specific friction resistance coofiicients.

surface

calculations

are

therefore

The wettedmade with

these conditions clearly in mind. Furthermore, a

value of

is

required in the earlj' stages of the

preliminary design,

when

as described

in

Sec.

66.9,

may

not yet be sketched and

there arc no girths to measure.
the lines

W. Taylor solved this problem by the use

a wettod-vsurface coefficient, now known as
CVs ba.sed upon data from a great number of
models and man.v types of lines, not limited to
the series bearing his name. When only the di.splacement A(delta; large capital), the maximmnD.

of

Ratio of

Bx/Hx

Framed Area

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1.0

1.5

2.5

is

0.701
Z>.0

IN SHIP DESIGN
s'ctioii ((K'nirient ('x

l.'i.li

Co.NTOUiUH

l)K ()-l)lMI.

the beam-draft ratio B, II,

and the "mean immersed length" L were known,

the
wettinl
siirfaee
.S
was determine*! by
= ChsvAL, where A wa.s in long tons
i^
(2,240 lb) of salt water of sp. gr. 1.024, with a
volume density of .}.").07.j ft' per long ton. Since
the mean immersed length was usually not known
until the form was laid out, the waterline length
was often substituted for it.
Contours of C,rx on a basis of C'.v and B/II
were first published by Taylor in the 1910 edition
of S and P (Vol. I, p. 47; Vol. II, Fig. 41]. They
were repeated in the 1933 edition of S and P,
Fig. 20, page 20, and in PNA, 1939, Vol. I, Fig. 33,

page 90.
These contours were reworked by
of the

TMB

M.

E. Fowler

staff in the early 1940's to include

many additional models of all types.

page 22 of the 1943 edition of S and P,
embodj'ing the revised contours, thus differs
slightly from its predecessors.
As Cs is a dimensional (luaiitity, which varies
with the system of measurement, 1). W. Taylor's
formula is for this book converted to the 0-diml
form
data from
Fig. 20 on

CsVVL

S = Cs
Reproduced
3.5

35

Beom-Droft Ratio
Km.

Srr. 41.12

to

Lorqe Scole

Ficj

45.H

'-^ij.O

4.5

5.0

5.5

4.0

4 5

50

55

Bx/Hx

WK-rTKI>-.S|lKKArB CoKI'riCIICNT (\ Kill

.Sllll'S

(-Jo.vii)

6.0

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.12

where

is

now

the waterline length and the

A to F or V is based upon the

volume density of salt water previously mentioned.
conversion from

Supplementing

this conversion, a further revision

of the contours provides

are

somewhat more

new

values of Cs which

realistic, especially as

every

them carry
rudders and other simple appendages. The result
ship has to have plating

is

and most

of

a minor increase of about 0.03 over Taylor's

revised values of 1943.

The new

largely on data taken from

plots are based

SNAME RD

sheets

through 100, covering modern vessels of many

and types and relatively normal form.
Fig. 45.G gives the new contours of Cs plotted

sizes

on Cx and Bx/Hx

As the wetted-surface

coeffi-

cients for the great majority of ships fall in a small

'2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

107

area bounded by values of

Bx/Hx from

and Cx from 0.9 to 1.05, expanded contours of

shown to a consideralily larger scale
in Fig. 45.H. A similar plot by M. L. Acevedo
[TABLAS, 1943, opp. p. 128] gives values about
4 per cent lower than those in Figs. 45.G and 45.H.
The new Cs values have been checked repeatedly
3.5

this area are

since their preparation with all

data,

available

45.H

new

and the agreement has been found to be

within limits of engineering accuracy.

The new

contours are certainly adequate for use in the

early stages of a preliminary design.

However, the Cs contours of Figs. 45.G and

H are to be used with caution for vessels of
abnormal form, such as those of shallow draft,
45.

those

2.8

with

broad,

3.0

flat

3.2

sterns,

with excessive

3.4

3.'.

Beam-Draft Ratio B^/Hy

Fig.

2.0 to

Enlarged Plot of 0-Diml Wetted-Subfacb Coefficient Cs for Usual Ship Ranges

HYDRODYNAMICS

108

cutaway in tlu' ftuefool or aftfoot, and with

chubby luills. For these, a value of C., is

sliort,

with reasonable accuracy, provided

the correct value of Cs is available for a prototype
vessel whose proportions and coefficients do not

tletormincil

much from

too

differ

surface

the vessel whose wetted

sought. Suppose for example that

is

from Fig.

small by 0.04 for a craft of

is

4.").Ci

Cs

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 45.12

the rules of solid geometry or any convenient

An appendage

method.

when

short

considered small or

is

number

the r-Reynolds

at the trailing

than about 15 milUon at the given

speed. As an example, this occurs for a length of
edge

less

is

about 7.5
at 30 kt.

ft

at 15 kt, 5.G ft at 20 kt,

If

the appendages are very short, like

and 3.75

ft

the arms of shaft struts, their wetted surfaces are

abnornuil form whose Cs is known. It may be

taken as apjiroximately 0.04 small for the same
tjT>e of hull, even though the proportions and

neglected,

changed somewhat from those of

the "known" vessel. The C'., derived from Fig.

hull plates of cj'cloidal or rotating-blade propellers,

coefficients are

by using the proportions of the given form,

augmented by 0.04, may be relied upon for the
abnormal type being developed. If it is known,

45.C1

for instance, that the

stem design

wetted surface of a twin-skeg

3.2 per cent greater than that of a

is

and

computed by

their resistances are

the rules of Chap. 55.

The

surfaces of exposed rotating shafts, rotating

and similar areas not subject to translatory

motion onlj', require to be handled by mcthotls

No

considered apjjropriate in each case.

logical

and systematic procedures have as yet been

worked out for these parts. Friction drag on
propeller-hub, fairing-cap, and blade surfaces is

normal-form ship, the latter as given by Fig. 45. G,

then this allowance may be applied rather gen-

taken into account in propeller performance.

any twin-skeg stern ship, to the

predicted result given by the formula.
In any case, because of the present (1955) un-

Sec. 12.3 of

certainty as to the correct roughness allowance for

summation

erally,

for

been practicable, as described in

It has not

Volume

I,

to resolve the tangential

forces on each unit of wetted area into

the direction

to

parallel

components

The

motion.

ship

of

the actual friction forces gives

of

seems not necessary, when making

force and power predictions, to
calculate the wetted area to a high degree of

therefore a value slightly greater than the

preliminary

of the direction-of-motion

accuracj'.

inequality

any

ship,

it

12. A. Effective

if

not e.xact

mean

achieved by using the

is

sum

components; see Fig.

compensation for this

the wetted

girth

calculations of the friction drag on the doubly

without a
correction for obliquity, thus giving a wetted-

curved wetted surface of a ship hull assumes that

surface area slightl}' less than the actual area.

flattened into a single thin plate

For those who wish to emploj' the obliquity correction a diagram giving the necessary factors
and instructions for their use is published by
D. W. Taylor [S and P, 1943, p. 18]. The obliquity

The procedure

the surface

is

currently employed

in

detail

DWL

length equal to that of the

which has a
ship and a width equal to that of the half girth at
each station or frame. Such a plate has the general
.shape indicated

by the

0-<liml girth

curves of

22.A of Volume I. The two sides of the flat

plate correspond to the two sides of the ship.
This leads to the general rule that the wetted
surface of the main hull, without appendages but
with large bo.ssings or skcgs, is the product of the
waterhne length and the mean wetted girth to
the waterline. The mean girth may be computed
by Simpson's first rule, using 20 e(iuully spaced
stations, or by any convenient e(|uivalent method.
The wetted surface of a large appendage, parFig.

ticularly

one which

is

long like a bilge keel,

calculated similarly from

to be obtained by

its

mean wetted

girth,

length as projected on the centerplane of the

vessel. The wetted surface of small, short appendita

ages, which arc relatively thin

rcsisUincc

is

largely fridional,

correction

amounts

At

and on which the

is lalciilalrd by

of interest only for full, fat ship.s. It

and a

B/H

L/H

ratio of 2.2.

the design stage where the girths are taken

the

early

onlj'

the

for

off

is

surface,

to about 0.01 for a ship having an

ratio of 4

usuallj'

wetted-surface

molded

lines

calculations,

are

available,

representing the inside rather than the outside

of the plating.

made
of

small plus allowance can be

for the surface of the ship to the outside

the plating, or the girths can be measureil

deliberately a

little large.

Unless circumstances indicate that the wave

is

any convenient method, and

calculating

for

formation along the side

speed for which the

no account

is

A',,

may

taken of the wave

the at^rest wetted surface.

gained
is

in

be unusual at the

calculation

is

being made,
altering

priilile in

The

wetleil surface

the crests of waves along the ship's side

])riibably

somewhat

less

than that

lost

in

the

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.13

troughs, but this

is

largely

compensated

for

by

the bodily sinkage of the ship while in motion,

The reduction in wetted

becomes appreciable, of course, when a fast

described in Sec. 29.2.

surface

boat approaches or reaches the

or high-speed

planing range.

Often

109

generous in measuring girths to include the shell

plating outside the molded lines.
(3) For large appendages, especially those long
enough to have an a;-Reynolds number exceeding

15 million, calculate the wetted girth as for

(2)

pre-

ceding and multiply by the length projected on

it is definitely

known that a separation

the centerplane

region exists along some part of the wetted surface,

For small, short appendages, excluding rotat-

(4)

such as that behind a transom stern or inside a

sizable rudder recess, or the extent of the zone

ing shafts and the like and the propulsion devices

can be estimated with reasonable certainty. The

wetted area next to the separation zone is then

calculate the wetted surface

subtracted from that of the rest of the ship,

considering the extent of the zone constant at

all

speeds [Horn, F., 3rd ICSTS, 1937, p. 22; Acevedo,

M.

"Skin

L.,

Friction

Resistance,"

Madrid,

proper,

their resistance

if

primarily frictional,

is

by any convenient

method
(5) Make no allowance or correction for actual
wetted surface between the at-rest
and the
wave profile when the ship is in motion except
for F > 0.6, Tj > 2.0, or for unusual cases

WL

1948, p. 14].

When

a fixed appendage covers a part of the

main ship

such as a roll-resisting keel of

V-section, the area so covered is subtracted from
hull,

estimates are wanted. Otherwise, neglect them.

the calculated wetted area of the hull.

and appendage wetted areas

are frequently lumped together, and although
there is some justification for adding an allowance
for appendages to the wetted surface S in the
early stages of a design, before the appendages
Although

all

are laid out,

hull

it

is

preferable to

make

Estimate the wetted surfaces of zones of

if it is practically certain that they will
exist at the speeds for which resistance and power
(6)

separation,

added to the S value

being

of the ship.

Summarizing, the calculation of the wetted

surface of a ship, when the shape and size of the
hull and the underwater appendages are known,
takes the following form:
(1) If the lines are not yet drawn, estimate the
wetted surface by the use of the wetted-surface
coefficient Cg from Fig. 45. H, then combine it
with the underwater volume and the waterline
length L in the formula S = Cs 'V'VL. Add a
percentage or an area allowance for the contemplated appendages, if it can be estimated at this

stage and

if it is

considered necessary.

(2) With ship lines available, measure the girths

from designed waterline to designed waterline at
21 or more equally spaced stations along the
waterhne length, including the FP. Compute the
mean girth from Simpson's first rule [PNA, 1939,
Vol. I, p. 16] or the equivalent, and multiply the
mean girth by the waterline length. When measuring the girths, include large bossings or skegs and
discontinuities in the sections where the ship
plating is carried continuously around them. Be

the areas of

subtract the areas

(6)

(2),

Part

The

4.

and

(4),

The

(7).

and

and

Boundary-Layer

Transom-Stem ABC Ship

of

wetted-surface calculation for the

preliminary design of the transom-stern

designed in Part 4 of this volume

is

ABC

ship

made by

S = CsvVL. When

using Eq. (45.vii), namely

the hull lines are available this

calculation

(5),

result is the

for the design.

Wetted-Surface

45.13

Calculations for the

of appreciable size
(3),

and

value of wetted surface

separate

is

appendages

of fixed

Add

(8)

wetted-surface calculations for the appendages.

This gives the designer an idea of what

Calculate the hull area covered by the attach-

(7)

ments

is

checked by a

embodying the measured

girths at 21

stations, plus those at four half-stations near the

namely 0.5, 1.5, 18.5, and 19.5.

At the stage corresponding to the first estimate

ends,

of

wetted surface the pertinent parameters are:

Bx/Hx =
The

2.808;

Cx =

0.956;

V =

574,000

ft'.

from an estimated weight

16,400 t and a round-number

latter is derived

displacement of

volume density

of 35

ft''

per ton. Entering the

0-diml wetted-surface coefficient contours of Fig.

H with the first two parameters, the value of

Cs by inspection is 2.616. The location of this
point is shown on the diagram by the distinctive
45.

double
this

circle

volume

with

its

for the

black lower half, used in

ABC

design.

Substituting

these values in Eq. (45.vii),

S =

CsVVL =
44,759

ft'.

2.616 \/(574,000)510

no

JIVDRODVN AMK.S

\\ liiri
iniiiotl

till-

by

I'xiifl iinili'iwiilor

pliinimetcr,

volume V

!\ Mill'

ditti-

is

Seciyi-f

from girths

the fair lines of the

iisiiiR

DESIGN

Hare-hull surface, plus cutwater,

44,883

foimd to be 575,847 ft'; the correspoiuiiiig wetted surface 5, by Kq. (45.vii), is 44,831 ft'.
This is very close to the value determined by the

Hilgc keels (2 of), surface expo.scd to

more

Deduction

ship,

it is

method described

precise

in the

water

next para-

graph.

fixeil

rudiler horn

calculation of wetted surface, using (1) the

measure<l girths at 21 stations, (2) a combination

Simpson and trapezoidal

rules,

and

(3)

hull area covered In-

10

no

S for the
bare hull, incluiling the cutwater shown on Fig.
67.E, of 44,883 ft'. It is found, for this ship, that
the wetted surface is about 1.2 per cent higher
when using two

half-stations

at

the precision here

much

is

roughness

Cp

400

2,000

ft'.

Using the

at the base,

ft,

and a girthwise span

the net area

489

2,254

Reynolds number R,
193.5

is

ft=.

for

VL ^
=

calculated

to

Incidentally,

ABC Tronaan-Stem Peamn

,

,,

R,-I35III0;;
I

a bilge-keel length of

to be
found to be 748 ft^.
The only separation zone expected around the
underwater hull is that abaft the transom. The
area of the after side of the transom is therefore
not included in the wctted-surface calculation,

Xo

is

ioii

is

tlicrcforo

is

made

in

this calculation,

nor

is any customary, for the change in welted surface

due to substitution of the wave profile at designed

speed

for

boundary

The

the

at-rest

watcrlinc

as

an

upper

of the wetted area.

iiull area covered by tlir li\rd luddi r Imrn

about 10 ft^
The actual wetted .surfiicc of the tnin.som-stcrn
AlU' whip, with all appendages, in ft', is:

i.s

For beyond lis Normol"

2817(10 ')ri^ per set for SoltWller-

Variation ok Boundahy-Layeb Thickness

wrrH i-DisTANCE FROM Stem kok .\BC Ship

beyond

its

is

extrapolated

empha-

usual limits. It should be

is

made

is

a flat-plate formula,

that the wetted area on

same as that on one

same length, namely
The formula employed takes no account

each side of the ship

is

the

side of a thin plank of the

510

ft.

of either longitudinal or transverse curvature in

the ship, or of roughness, so that the thickness

values for ship ranges indicated on the plot

may

be altered rather drastically when the ship values

are actually known. l']ven then, they could be

considered as only average or

tj'pical,

local boundar3--layer thickness, at

it.

allowance

FiG. 45.1

far

and a.ssuming the wetted area

necessary for

a;-

sized further that, since this

deduct

mc

_;

038WBi"

Limits

graph emphasizes that this formula

horn, calculated from the dimensions given in

No

Spi ed Astj inea .s_|05 kt.-o- J'S_6i<tpr

Thickness is Cokukited b ine FiotPlole

Formula ,r Turbulent no 6-

be

surface of the rudder and rudder

using niea.sured girths.

smooth-plate,

jond b^ ERtropololion

the assumption

Fig. 74. K,

of

the

1.2817(10")

twice the projected area,

.series of

ft,

522.7 million.

The wetted

flat,

of 1.25 ft

(20.5)(l.fl889)(193.5)

ship,

0.38(x)(R,y"- of
Fig. 5.R and plotted in Fig. 45.1. A note on the
formula

turbulent-flow

ft is

R.

ABC

bilge-

keel design of Fig. 73. N, with a length of 193.5

a width of 3.5

the boundary layer for the

when

especially

taken into account.

The original estimate of net bilge-keel area of
Sec. 6G.9, assuming a keel length of 200 ft, a
width of 3 ft, and a girthwisc span at the base of
is

2,400

47,875

total, ft',

indication of the absolute thickness

in

greater than for the

friction-resistance coefficient

Net

As an

values are calculated by the

each end

addition to the customary 21 stations. However,

2,743

by

489

Deduction for
rudder horn

correction for obliciuity, gives a value of

1 ft, is

748

for hull area covered

bilge keels

The

of the

2,743

Rudder and

because the

a given

.r-di.s-

tance from the stem, varies with the local radius

of curvature, both longitudinal

45.14
ture.
coiiicx

and transverse.

Estimating the Allowances for Curva-

For

('--tinialing

transver.se

tlio

;i|)|)i()ximate

ciTcct of

curvature of a body or ship

form, di.scus.sed in Sec.

(>.S

of N'olume

use

I,

is

made of Land Weber's fornnila |TiMli Hep. tiSK,

Mar 1919, p. 7] for the increa.se in friction drag
of a .semi-subnicrgcd

cylinder n\ rr

(lie

friction

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

See. 45.14

drag of a

plate of equal area. This takes the

flat

No

procedure has as yet been worked out for

making allowances

form

This

ture.

1^ =

^ C,

0.54

(45.viii)

the

111

coves

for concave transverse curva-

seldom

is

of

of great degree, except for

discontinuous-section

the

hulls,

coves along the inside corners of roll-resisting

keels, or the coves along the superstructures of

where

Rp

is

the friction drag of the convex surface

some types

Rfo

is

the friction drag of an equal area of flat plate

adjacent convex curvatures on the chines and

Li

is

the length of the convex surface

edges largely neutralize the concave curvatures,

Si

is

the area of the convex surface

so that both

Cf

is

taken for the whole body or ship.

The

sides are vertical at the

For estimating the effect of longitudinal curvature by Horn's method, described in Sec. 22.5 of
Volume I, some knowledge or estimate of the
sinkage at given speeds, derived from model tests,

other

WL,

hence the girth

WL on one side to the WL on the

angle from the

180 deg.

is

= L and

Taking Li

words conL\/Si may be

expected to vary from about 10 for a fine form to
4 for a full form. For the ABC ship designed
the

sidering

in Part 4

whole

Si

S, in other

form,

ship

may

may

be neglected.

transverse curvature on a

body

ARp =

length

resistance

Cp

coefficient

for

the

or for only the bulge length Li

the boundary-layer thickness

is

ship

(45. ix)

of

uniform bulge

331

is

109,561 ft^ and Si

whence Ll/Si
is

14.15

Rf

Rp

whence A^
is

of

ft

is

3 ft

and the length

on each

(3)Tr(331),

35.12.

The

side.

is

is

then

or 3,119.6 ft^

service (sea) speed

for

is a good approximation for normal forms of

not extreme proportions and for a range of F
values from 0.0 to 0.35, T, from 0.0 to 1.18.
For the ore carrier previously referenced,

L/B =

is

water from
about 1,242 million and Cp from

is

1.491(10"').

Then

0.54(35. 12)(1.491)(10"')

0.0283

of

Eq.

ARp =

9.07,

.25

0.01

l_^

B/H =

9.07)'

(0.35

70/24.885

(also

'^]

0.881)

1.3

2.812
10

0.04326

ABC design, where L/B = 510/73 =

B/H = 73/26 = 2.81, and Cp = 0.62,

For the
6.99,

substitution in Eq. (45.ix) gives

25

0.0l[^

ARf

Volume I,
The value

0.0422(10"').

6.99)-

(0.35

(22.iv), in Sec. 22.15 of

0.0283(1. 491) (10'')

635/70

and Cp = 0.881, from which ARp

numerically equalto AiCp) is found to be

2.812,

fresh

0.0283, or just less than 3 per cent.

A,Cp

Ll

^)

whence R

kt,

Table 45.a
Table 45.d

is

Cp)(l.3

This

page 102 for the ship as a whole.

Taking as an example a modern Great Lakes
ore carrier about 635 ft long [MESR, Jul 1952,
the bilge radius

(0.35

by the ship length L it seems reasonable to use

the same Cp as is picked from Table 45.d on

p. 65],

L/B)-

Since

determined largely

(11.25
0.01

of

specific

be calcu-

from the L/B, B/H, and Cp values by the

formula given by F. Horn [3rd ICSTS, Berlin,
1937, Eq. 2, p. 24], as follows:

or ship, the value

Ll/Si for that region may be considerably

higher than the values given; in fact, several
times as great. If two I'elatively sharp bulges are
involved, each having a girth angle of 90 deg, as
where the bottom joins the two sides, the bulges
and the angles may be combined to form a smaller,
separate body with a girth angle of 180 deg.
Eq. (45.viii) may then be used as given. There is
a question as to whether to use a value of the

ARp may

be used. Alternatively,

lated

it is 5.8.

Considering only the region of sharp, convex,

In these cases, the

of submarines.

(0.01)(6.13)(0.97)1.019

2.5

2.81
0.62) 1.3

10/

0.0606

For the Lucy Ashton, a ship of quite different

form [INA, Oct 1953, p. 350ff], having an L/B

IIM^RODN \

112
ratio of 0.07. a

li

II

ratio of

t.JO,

ami

WIIC.S I\
(',.

of

0.0i

p^^-^^-^^)V

2.5]

TMB
(0.8.-,

0.70o)[l.3

the

like

lAtcij

augment

S.

Hay

^^rr.n.n
Technical Paper 428

in Portoti

librarj')-

the .symbols of the present

I'l

volume, and where the factor

is definetl

A"o

solely

as a "roughness parameter," these are:

Aerodynamically rough

(1)

For a paddle steamer

in

-^J

0.0320

especially of shallow draft, the

IMSICX

.1.

(unclassified) of 24 June 1954, issued bj'' the

Chemical Defense Experimental Ivstablishment of
the Ministry of Supply in Great Britain (copy in

0.705:

Ai?,

Sllll'

given by

Ashton,

>

A-

of velocity

flow.

2..'5

U,

the watcrlinc region arising from the induced

velocity generated ahead of

and abaft the paddles

acts to increase the friction drag. This

amount

Tran.'^itiiina! flow.

(2)

is

determine in figures but theoretically

always involves an increase in resistance.
Despite the hydrodynamically correct basis for
increases in the friction drag due to convex
curvature in a ship, both transverse and longitudinal, many cases occur in practice which cast
doubt upon the validity of those additions to the
friction drag for a smooth, flat plate in turbulent
flow. Indeed, there are cases where the entire
-(AC^) allowance, for all types of roughness as
well as for both types of curvature, is practically
zero. There are those who say, and with some
reason, that results of this kind lead them to
question the smooth, flat-plate, turbulent-flow
friction formulation it.sclf, which gives higher C^
values than it should in certain ranges of R
In any event, the analyses made to date of
existing propeller-tiirust data on ships are insufficient to indicate whether the curvature
allowances, as estimated by the procedures
described, are reasonable or not. All that can be
said with certainty is that A,CV and A^Cy are
probably no larger than indicated, and that they
are both [)ositivc.
45.15 Criterion for a Hydrodynamically Smooth
Surface. A.s a crilcrion for liydrudynaiiiic smooth-

2.0

difficult to
it

-^

>

>

0.13

Aeroilynamically smooth flow,

(3)

<

ko

To apply

0.13

Goldstein's criterion to the practical

case, it is first neces.sary to

sitj'

U,

of shear tq

know

For turbulent

To

I.F

the local inten-

from Fig. 45. A,

flow,

_ 0.0.')9
nOi

whence
0.059

ii4{R.y

(5.iii)

ness in turbulent n(jw S. CJoldstein has suggested

the exprcs-sion |R and

As an example, assume
200

ecjuivalent to 50. G7 fps.

The kinematic

water

ft"

V for salt
is

is

IC
=

60.2.

{to/pT'

From

Ef|.

as large as

velocity

V T/p,

Ah pointed out

tlio

and

in Sec.

v is

1.2817(10"^)

ft^.

45. b li,

Then

2.504 lb per

,^,

<

The value
is

is

2,507 fps'.

0.059(0.995) (2,507)/G0.2

The shear

[(2.504)/1.9905]"'
(45. vi),

U^

about 790 million, whence

u =

ft".

of

viscosity

per sec and p/2

velocity

1.1215

assuming that

ft

U,

per sec.

[(A-^.f^,)/*']

is

3 ., j(jQ..j

^^^

5,

(5,)/f;,

limen,

(/,

is

hills

(5)1.28n(10-')

the shear

the left-hand expres-

ian of the ini'<|uality ha.s the form of a Heynoltis

number, so that it can be rrlatcd to a simple

number.
Of intcre.st in this connection
a .set of crilcri.a
i.s

0.08()(10"') ui.

or

the kinematic viscosity.

l.'j.lO,

(4.'i.vi)

the average height of the

roughnesses above

is

0.995 slugs per

From Table

whence A\, =
fc^,

a destroyer a point

1703, Jul 1930, p. 113]

k,Mr
where

for

abaft the stem and a speed of 30 kt,

ft

This

means that the maximum permissible

hydrodynamically smooth

rougluie.ss heights, for a

would

i)rol)ably be of the order of onean inch. It amounts practically to

a laboratory smoothness, exceedingly expensive
and laborious if not practically impo.ssible to
achieve on a i.'irge ve.s.sel, even for a .sjiecial trial.

surface,

thousandth

of

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.16

Assume

the 20-ft towing model of this

for

destroyer a point 10

ft

abaft the stem and a

speed of 10 kt, equivalent to 16.89 fps. The

kinematic viscosity v for the fresh water of the
basin is 1.2285(10"'). The value of p/2 is 0.969
slugs per

To

=
fcA.

viscosity
is

density p

is

temperature

water

(the

1.42(10"')

ft'

is

per sec and the mass

1.985 slugs per

Then, as a

ft'.

local

value at the stern.

water and Ul is 285.3 fps^.

is about 13.75 miUion,

for fresh

ft''

From Table
whence E' =

matic

unknown)

113

To

0.059[^^)U^{RS

0.059(0.9925)(411)

0.485 lb per

R^

45.a,

26.77.

Then

49.63
[0.059(0.969)285.3]/26.77

0.6093 lb per

[1.2285(10"')5]/0.6093

10.08(10'')

'-(?r=(^r=--"--

ft,

whence

Then

/cav

ft'.

ft'

1.209(10"') in.

5(1.42)10"

This value for the model, although not for

exactly similar conditions, is about twice the

0.494

permissible value for the ship.

For the ABC ship, at an a;-distance of 500 ft

from the FP, and a speed of 20.5 kt, equivalent
to 34.625 ft per sec, i2, for standard salt water is,
from Table 45.b, about 1,350(10'). The shear
stress To at the ship hull is

To

0.059

0.059

UlR-J-^

(5.iii)

the procedure

1.051 lb per

U.

ft'.

is

not

roughness based upon numerous tests of flat and

curved surfaces covered with sand grains of
different mean diameters. When a rough surface,

whatever configuration, has a

Cp

specific friction

Clf

or local

equal

to that of a similar surface completely covered

with sand of uniform size, it is said to have an

velocity

Although

admittedly empirical, and

based upon good roughness criteria, some practical

use has been made of a quantitative measure of

sand

equivalent

Hence the shear

is

resistance, either average

(34.625)'[1,350(10'')]-

1.725(10"') in.

or

ft

Equivalent Sand Roughness.

45.16

of
QQfl5
^^^^

14.37(10"')

is

1.051

roughness

equal

the

to

mean

diameter of the sand grains on the reference surface. This diameter corresponds to the height of

0.726

ft

per sec.

the grains as individual protuberances and

1.9905

is

represented by the symbol Ks

With grains completely covering the reference
plate surface, the sand-grain density is assumed
.

whence the laminar-sublayer thickness

,
h,

_
igr
- lofiJl- 12.6
12.6
^^

is

l-2817(10-)

^^26

The actual mean roughness

than the mean grain diameter
Ks indicated in diagram 3 of Fig. 5.0. However,
this detail is overlooked when establishing equivalent sand roughness as a practical comparator
for surfaces whose irregular roughness can not be

to be 100 per cent.

height
22.24(10"')

ft

or

2.67(10"') in,

is

then

less

and the permissible average roughness height

a hydrodynamically smooth surface is
fcA,<

5^ <5i^?||^< 8.83(10-')
or

<

for

ft

1.06(10"') in.

For the Lucy Ashton [Conn, J. F. C, Lackenby,

and Walker, W. P., INA, Oct 1953, p. 350ff]
the waterhne length is 190.5 ft and the speed is
12 kt, or 20.27 fps. The value of U^ or F' is then
410.87 ftVsec'. From Table 45.b, R is about 301
million and Rl'' = 49.63. The estimated kineH.,

measured by any available method.

M. L. Acevedo at the Madrid Model Basin and
W. P. A. van Lammeren at the Netherlands Model
Basin in Wageningen have pubUshed tables
[TABLAS, Madrid, 1943, pp. 98-117; van Lammeren,

W.

P. A.,

ICSTS, Berhn,

RPSS,

1937,

pp.

1948, pp. 66-69; 3rd

42-47,

100-101]

of

roughness allowances based upon the R. E.

Froude formulation and the roughness effects
developed by H. M. Weitbrecht from the Prandtl

nvnRODVNA.MK.S

Ill

TABLIC
The

lo.e

Sand Roughnkrs
Kf OF H. M. Weitbrecht
1'Xiiivaij;\t

Kx

listed vftlues of

inclusive of butts, seams,

rivot heads

SHIP DESIGN

IN

ness.

Sec. 5.21 of

known

"now, painted hull plates,

." apply to the

for

and

V'ai,i;i-;s

or

Volume

suspected

describes

aspects

Sec.

n.n

some

of the

viscous

of

flow

over a rough solid surface and the effect of these

features on the friction drag generated at the

types of ships indirate<i.

surface. In particular,
Sporting and racing craft, torpedoboats and destroyers
0.10

(a)

mm

0.004 in

battleships

Mail

built cargo ships

Carpo ships

(d)

0.15

0.006

new

devised by H. N. Morris [ASCE,

Hydraulics Div., Jan 1954, Vol. 80, Separate 390].
Fig. 45..I is a diagram prepared bj' the present

0.20

O.OOS

0.2.5

0.010

carefully

shijxs, fiu<t liners,

outlines briefly the

conduits,

(b) CrossK-hanncl ships, cruisers,

(c)

it

approach to the viscou.s-flow problems presented

by rough surfaces on the inside of pipes and

of less careful work-

manship, tugs

Clear Circumferential

Space Between
Rouqhness
Elements,

theory. In this

work Weitbrecht used the values

Meosured ot
inner Periphery

given in Table 45.e.

Of

In a more recent paper H. Sasajinia and E.

Yoshida pointed out rather convincingly that
the

roughness embodied

of

t.vpc

coatings

of

most

large

ships

the

in

(not

hull

necessarily

fouling

values of

No.

/?

[Int.

roughness),

is

Shipbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol.

is

Number

values

friction-resistance

for

of

Roucjhness

l-jpicol

""

in

Periphery

Rouohness

^ -^ ^^~^;^-

^h

-^^^^

"-^

^^

IS

is

less the

u
i..
l.
Heiqnt
h

'

Elements Shown Are

Radius rg

d/e
'

Rouqhness Heiqhl
Entirely

Schemotic

2,

In other words, since the

13, pp. 441-450].

derived

15

Elements

not the t3'pe

which produces a constant Cf value at large
including

Conduit,

Definition Sketch for Roughness PabamETER-s OF H. N. MoRms, Applied to the Inside of

Fig. 45.J

full-scale

appear to involve a constant increment of Cf

and not a constant total CV the effective roughness is of a t3'pe different from the sand roughness

TlBE

tests

of Nikuradse's pipes.

They reason that

the in-

due to a waviness in
which there is a degree of pressure and separation
drag, ahead of and behind the roughnesses, which
adds to the normal viscous drag. This means
that the dynamic effects on the ship, varj'ing as
V', form only a part of the friction drag of the
rough hull surface, and not all of it.
crease in friction drag

The
effect

feature responsible for this dilTcrcncc in

is,

according to the reasoning of Sasajima

and Yoshida, the

in

is

effective slope of the roughnesses

the direction of the flow. For example, the

slope of a

wavy

surface

sand-roughened surface.

is

In

less

than that of a
according to

fact,

their findings, the slope or the steepness of the

roughness

elenioiit.s is

absohitc height.

It is

more important than

their

interesting in this connection

to c|uote their conclusion "g" on page 450 of the

reference:

"The roughness

effect of paint

seems

author as a definition sketch to illustrate the

dimensions used by Morris to represent the
roughness characteristics mentioned in his paper.
The roughness projections shown in this diagram
are purely schematic; Morris gives no dimension
for

them other than

It

is

their height

termed the roughness index of a surface, more

must take account
of at least seven factors, repeated here for conIje

or loss regardless of its shape,

venient reference. It

is

possible, in fact probable,

must take account

recognized or unknown:

that

it

of others as yet un-

Height of roughness peaks above the limen

in terms of mean heights
(averaged by some suitable method), maximum
heights, and a statistical or significant hciglit
(!)) Slopes of the roughnesses, on botli tlie u])stream and the downstream sides
of the sloping surfaces with
(c) Orientation
(a)

or reference surface,

determined by an
clement of the smallest height but the steepest
Blop(!." They derive curves for various roughness
effects which appear to conform, rea.sonably well,

This corresponds to the distance

to the curvf.s derived from

or to the ratio A

to

be

45.17

almost

completely

fuil-H<'ale tests.

Practical Definitions of Surface

Rough-

/i.

pointed out in Sec. 22.14 that what might

respect to the litiuid-flow direction

(d) Spacing of roughnes.ses in the flow direction,
probably with respect to the roughness heights.

(i)

Type

of

,\

in

l''ig.

15., I,

li.

roughness projections as affecting the

FRICTION RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.1R

mind that sand-coated

variations of Cp with /?

115

viscous flow, having in

ness

surfaces give different

roughnesses, the thickness

than surfaces coated with sprayed plastic paints

General pattern of roughnesses, as viewed
(f)
normal to the surface, including spacing, density,
shadowing or shielding effects, and the like
(g) Finally, it must be possible to ascertain the
roughness index easily and quickly in service and
to express

it

(or its results) in quantitative terms.

Further development of the shadowgraph procedure described in Sec. 22.14 and illustrated in

an equivalent procedure, should

give the heights of the roughness peaks above the
limen or above the adjacent surface, in terms of
the lengths of the shadows for a given inclination
Fig. 22.1, or of

of the light rays with reference to the surface as

a whole. With an inclination of say 15 deg it

could be assumed that any region covered by

shadow was

and therefore
known, however, that

in a separation zone

Ap's.

subject to

It is not

this is the proper angle or that the angle

constant.

The

remains

slopes of the upstream sides of the

roughnesses could be determined generally by

their relative brightness although it is recognized

down

that the shadowgraph scheme breaks

an upstream face which

lies

at a large angle to

The

the limen, say 80 to 90 deg.

for

orientation of the

sloping surfaces with respect to the direction of

flow

by

is

easily recognized

this

it

is

not so simple to

express this orientation in terms of angles or

numbers, especially as an average or effective

The

spacing, density,

general pattern of the roughnesses,

and

as viewed

normal to the surface, is perhaps easiest of all to

visualize on the shadowgraph, although again
not so readily put in terms of numbers or scalar
quantities.
It is

of the

not improbable that some sort of screen

may be devised which, when

of the

and the type

of flow exist-

how the shell plates or planks

be applied, what sort of workmanship is to
be expected, or what the eventual external coating
material will be,

will

will be. If trial predictions

only are involved the

and new, but not necessarily smooth and fair. If an average service performance is wanted, fouling allowances must be
estimated and added.
For an intelligent application of the several sets
of roughness allowances which have been dehull will at least be clean

veloped to predict the service performance of a

ship, it is necessary to consider the existence of at
least six different regimes in the roughness setup.

From the knowledge so far gained (1955) it

appears that somewhat different physical laws
govern the viscous flow in these regimes and that
different sets of practical rules apply.

regimes

may

be described

The

six

as:

I. Zero ACf.
where, at sufficiently low values of
Rn say up to 4 or 5 million, with a range of Cp
above about 3.3(10"''), roughness effects appear
to be small or nonexistent, at least for moderate
values of speed compared to length. For example,
it has long been known that ship models built for
routine resistance and self-propulsion tests required no special finish. It appears that small
racing sailboats are in the same category, except at
extremely low speeds, say less than 1 kt.
,

Zero

II.

boat,

surface.

Whatever may be the method (s) ultimately

developed for expressing the physical roughness of
a surface, the index derived therefrom must be
compared with the hydrodynamic parameters of
the viscous flow taking place over that particular
surface to determine its roughness effect on friction
resistance. These may include the downstream
distance x from the leading edge of the

the speed

way

characteristics

45.18 Determination of the Allowances for

Roughness. It is necessary to estimate the friction resistance and both the effective and the
shaft powers early in the design stage. Often it
may not be known definitely of what material
the shell will be constructed, how smooth the

on a shadowgraph, would give a

numerical or other roughness index of any given
superposed

ship,

layer,

and

ing in the inner regions of that layer.

or set of screens

relative velocity

boundary

from a photograph taken

method although

value for a given area.

of the laminar sublayer in

&[,

body

or

V of the body or ship or the

U of the water past it, the thick-

ACf

or

at

ship

all

values of

surfaces

i2

are

where the model,

hydrodynamically
,

smooth. Sees. 45.10 and 45.15 explain the circumstances under which the laminar sublayer thicknesses exceed the roughness heights by sufficient
margins so that this type of smoothness is
achieved.
III.

Small ACf

at

all

values of K throughout

the boat and ship range. In the lower or boat

portion of this range the roughness effects appear

to be small, especially at low speeds, despite the
existence of normal physical roughnesses. In the

upper or ship part of the range the use of

leveling

coatings and

the

existence

of

self-

certain

HYDRODYNAMICS

116
as

configurations,

roiighiipss

yet

unknown

in

appear to limit the shij) roughness

effects to subnormal values. The nominal roughness heights in this regime definitely exceed the
limiting values for hydro<^lynamic smoothness.
character,

ACV

IV. Large

relatively uniform with speed in

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 45.18

For ship-design purposes in America the American Towing Tank Conference in 1947 adopted an
overall tentative roughness allowance ACV of
0.4(10"'). This is a constant addition (not a plus
percentage) above the

turbulent flow on a

ATTC

flat,

1947 meaniine for

smooth

plate, regardless

the case of any one ship, in the larger ranges of

of the size or speed of the vessel concerned.

This situation results largely from the use

of rougli plastic paints and from fouling. The
roughness heights in this regime far exceed those

pictured in Fig.

R,

on page 2 of

hydrotlynamic smoothness, perhaps hj' several

hundred times, yet the total Cp for the ship
continues to vary with A', in a generally normal
manner.
for

V. Very large AC,.

total

and other

with practically constant

the speed range. For ships

C, throughout

floating

large

this

craft,

condition

probably applies only when the fouling coat is

complete and it exceeds 0.4 to 0.5 ft in thickness.
In this

ca.sc

the friction resistance

is

in

effect

IC r

in which the various roughand the hull of the ship is kept

The

reasonabl}' clean.

AC,, values, exclusive of

conform to those represented by the

C-C or D-D in Fig. 45. E, or to some com-

fouling,

bination of the two.

take care of the effects of normal roughness

on a clean, new vessel, involving manj' unknowns,
the Froude formulation, listed under item (7) in

used

is still

in

many

parts of the world.

This formulation gives a so-called "Froude Friction Grid," indicated graphically by J. M.

Ferguson and others [6th ICSTS, 1951, Fig.

p. 68],

1.5,

according to the length of the ship and

the speed-length constant

(L).

The

latter

is

eciual

Appx. 1.
The lines of this grid lie sufficiently above the
ATTC 1947 (Schoenherr) meaniine to provide an
to 3. .545 times F,

as listed at the end of

acceptable roughness allowance for a ship in the

"clean,

from 1,000 to 100 ft whereas the

former decrease slowly as the ship length dimin-

diminishes

ishes

length

from 1,000 to about 300 ft. Below this

the Froude allowances dcircaso rather

There are

definite iiuiications, described in Sec.

that

22.15,

roughness

this

diminish with

/?

allowance

should

at least for low values of speed

V or relative velocity U. For the lower speeds it

appears to diminish toward zero in the region of
R = 3.5 to 5 million, as does the allowance
inherent in the Froude formulation. Fig. 45. E of

To

Sec. 45.8,

latter increase progressively as the ship length

nesses are normal

lines

and Research Bulletin 1-2 of March 1952, entitled "Uniform Procedure for the Calculation of
Frictional Resistance and the Expansion of Model
Test Data to Full Size," it is a compromise
between the equivalent plus roughness allowances
of the Froude formulation and the tentative
ATTC roughness allowances adopted in 1942. The

rapidly.

entirely a pressure resistance.

VI. Normal

As

SNAME Technical

ATTC 1947
ATTC constant

Sec. 45.7 embodies, in addition to the

or Schoenherr meaniine

ACp =
ance

0.0004

line,

and the

a proposed roughness allow-

C-C proposed by

line

M.

J.

Fergu-son [6th

ICSTS, 1951, pp. 67-69], and a line D-D proposed

and used by L. A. Baier for some years past.
Baler's line leaves the ATTC line at an R of
about 3 million and reaches the (ATTC + 0.0004)
line at an R of about 600 million [SNAME, 1951,
Fig. 19, p. 365]. Ferguson's line reaches Baier's line

at an

of

y^

about 7,380 million, corresponding to

a I,400-ft ship running at 40 kt

Whatever the

line

in salt

water.

or table used to estimate

roughness effects in the early stage of a ship

new" category.

A dimensional and carefully systematized attack

design,

as soon

roughness

or

as

more

smoothness

is

known about

to

be expected

the

on

on the problem of predicting the friction resistance

of a full-scale ship, including the effects of roughness, is given by W. W. Smith in his discussion of
K. E. SchcKMjhcrr's cla.ssic SXAME 193'2 paper on
"Uesi.slance of Flat Surfaces Moving Through a
Fluid," pages .305 through 308. Smith's proposed
methcxJ is too long to be given here, and is likewi.sc

design

wjmewhal

values for the plating, structural, coating, and

ob.solete,

but his

and juHtilies a study of

working on the pr<jblcm

line of

attack

is

his jiroposal bj'

logical

anyone

of roughness fridioti.

the hull the tentative value

is

modified, and the

friction resistance is re-calculated.

As.suming that the necessary data are available,

the logical

allowance
is

method

in

of determining a roughness

the pre-construction stage of a ship

to select

and add together four separate

fouling roughnes-ses, respectively, as describeil in

Sees. 22.15

and 45.7 ami as

lislcd in

!']((.

(22. iv)

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.19

Although adequate means do not

(iii)

yet exist for selecting these separate roughness

ing.

and Eq.

(45. ii).

independently

allowances

and

exactly,

it

is

possible to assess reasonable values, within nottoo-close limits, to:

Item

(c)

structural

of fouling roughness

(i)

The roughnesses

(ii)

Those inherent

be assigned tentative individual values as

Table 45.f, for values oj R greater than

clean

paint, this gives a

in the coating(s) applied after

(10^) Cf.

45.f
Tentative Individual Allowances
FOR Roughnesses of Three Types

(excluding fouling) having a

Pickled, sandblasted, or galvanized 0.01 to 0.05

(2)

Rusty, pitted, mill scale

Wooden

0.05 to 0.1

planking, ApCfClO^)

molded pl3Tvood, with

few seams or the equivalent, very
smooth
0.00
Flush seams, planks in the direction
of flow, no open seams, and no

(1) Plastic, or

(2)

calking
(3)

0.01 to 0.05

rough
0.05 to 0.1

finish

(c)

(2)

(3)

a number of merchant
in the range of

and type,

R from 150 to 1,800 million, are plotted by

R. B. Couch on a plate accompanying Appendix
XXVIII of the published Minutes of the 1953
ATTC meeting. The ranges of speed for some
individual ships are sufficient to show changes
in ACp with R
it

is

logical to predict

seldom

roughness allowance by adding

all

the Ap

As

a
,

and Ac factors. The preservative coating on the

bottom may cover up (or even exaggerate) some
of the plating (or planking) roughness, just as the

may later

cover up the plating and coating

even

structural

Metal plating, lapped riveted or

welded seams, smooth welded butts 0.06 to 0.1
Metal plating, lapped riveted
seams and butts
0.08 to 0.15

roughness.

Wood

the ship just out of dock, and

(2) the ship with x months in service, following
the last docking. In any case, a good prediction of
bottom roughness, excluding fouling, requires

planking, lapped or clinker

Red

0.00

(3) Self-leveling

paints

Vinyl resin

0.05 to 0.18

Cold

(6)

Hot

plastic
plastic

may

the

well predict

more roughness allowances, one

other (s) for service conditions.

for trial

The

two or
and the

latter should

(1)

rather unusual judgment and a better background

of reliable roughness and resistance data than are
available at present (1955).

varnish-type bottom
0.02 to 0.12
0.05 to 0.3
or 0.4

(5)

perhaps

designer

correspond to

lead, metallic oxide, zinc

chromate

(4)

for

and

Coating roughness, AcCp(lO')

(1) Varnish, yacht-racing enamel, polished metal
(2)

2ACp

vessels of varied size

roughness

style, discontinuities in line of flow 0.12 to 0.18

(d)

value of 0.32. For

writing (1955).

fouling

Structural roughness, AsCf(IO^)

(1)

Ac)

Flush seams, calked, planking not

(4) Soft planks, slash-grained,

minimum

approach but usually does not exceed 0.2 [Vincent,

S. A., unpub. Itr. to HES, 26 Jun 1953]. These
values do not apply to ships coated with plastic
bottom paint of the kinds in use at the time of

Manifestly,

0.00 to 0.01

in direction of flow

Ag

a clean, new steel ship with both flush-welded

butts and seams, also coated with a self-leveling
bottom paint, the value of SACp(lO^) may

Values of
plating, ApCj?(10=)

(1)

flufsh-

bottom

self-leveling

maximum

with

vessel,

lapped seams, and

SACf (10^) = (Ap

value of 0.09 and a

These correspond to three of the types listed at the end

FouHng-roughness predictions are listed in
Table 45. g. The present values are intended to apply only
to ships of medium and large size, having ship Reynolds
numbers at designed speed in e.xcess of about 100 million.

(b)

For a modern

plates, riveted

welded butts, coated with a

built into the ship

of Sec. 45.7.

Metal

discussed in

the plating, structural, and coating allowances

about 100 million.

construction or during docking

(a)

is

undock-

listed in

These serve to subdivide:

TABLE

The matter

in service, after

Sec. 45.20 following.

may

plus fouUng roughness.

(b)

Those accumulated

Using the best information available in 1955,

combination of plating and

roughness
(b) Item (a) plus coating roughness
(a)

117

0.1

to 0.3

0.3

to 0.8

45.19

Factors Affecting Fouling Resistance on

W. J. M. Rankine, in his 1866

Ship Surfaces.

book on "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Pracpage 5, says of fouling that "It is very
common to find the resistance increased by about
tical,"

IlVnROnVNANflCS IN SHIP DESIGN

118

n fourth from

tlii.s

more." I'nfortimatoly,

increaiicd

what

not say

rosistaiuo

W.

or total.

frietioii

entitled

causf; ami iH-rasionally

56,

is

Hankiiie (Iws

whether
1903 hook

involvoil,

is

V. Diiraiul, in

liis

and Propulsion

"Re-sistanee

pages 55 and

it

tabulates

of Ships,"

increases

in

total

on V. S. Naval vessels of
the ISDO's as varying from 20 to 200 per cent at
speetis of 7 to 11 kt. The.se are understandable in
view of the r2-in barnacles reported to have
grown on an old ironelad which spent most of its
time at anchor [SBSR, 24 Feb 1938, p. 229].
The reader who ma.v question these data has
only to look at the photographs in the book
"Marine Fouling and Its Prevention," prepared
by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
rcsistanec

and

due

to fouling

by the

publi.shed

l'.

S.

Naval Institute

in

1952.

The

deposits which form on the surface of any

ship or ship element, immersed in

any type

of

water, are divided roughly into two classes:

may

made up

Sec. 45.19

lake on the a|)|)earance of ha\ing been

mixture of paint and sand.

of a

.Mso mentioned here

is

the deterioration of hot-

due to unfavorable weather

conditions, improper application methoils, and
similar factors. This deterioration sometimes
occurs before the ship is waterborne at the end
plastic paint coatings

of the docking period. Runs, supcrpo.sed layers,

folds, "icicles,"

and peeling

of the plastic coating

involve roughnesses of the magnitude of those

encountered in fouling.
Fouling of the second class is accelerated in
salt water, especially with slow relative

warm,

motion

of the ship

and water.

It

is

augmented by

seasonal and other conditions, not too well known,

conducive to the rapid growth of marine

Growth
water; much slower when the
vegetable and animal.
continual motion. It

is

is

life,

both

slower in cold

ship

is

in

almost

practically nonexistent in

fresh water, giving trouble onlj' in exceptional

and then usually along the watcrline.

Fouling of both classes maj' be arrested by the
on.set of unfavorable conditions for the growing
cases

Gelatinous coatings and soft slimes containing

no visible solid matter and representing a rela(1)

deposit of apjiroxiniately uniform

These are often a factor in the take-off
characteristics of seaplanes and Hying bouts.
(2) Rough coatings, semi-rigid or rigid, composed
of grasses or other marine vegetation, shells,
barnacles, and the more-or-less rough and firm
growths of all visible types of marine life.
thin

tively

paint

organisms, such as moving a ship from

.salt

water

to fresh water. It can not be expected, however,

thickness.

Fouling of the
ately

undocking.
that

first class

usually begins immedi-

upon immersion, following launching and

hour,

It

develops

increasing

its

own

friction

drag from

slowly but progressively

until its effect is overtaken bj' fouling of the second

class.

ship resting in w-arm, quiet water usually

that this will

or that

it will

le.s.sen

the added friction resistance

eliminate the fouling drag altogether.

The

firmly fixed barnacle shells on a ship entering

the

Panama Canal from

not drop

a long sea voyage will

the ship anchors for a

few days in the fresh water of Gatun Lake, long
enough to kill the barnacles themselves.
The effect of hard, rough fouhng is to create a
friction drag of the tantjua type, defined in Sec.
5.21 on page 108 of Volume I, varying as the
square of the speed. For a ship of medium or
off just liecause

large size, this involves a constant

ATTC

AfV allowance

1947 mcanline, or above any

acquires a slime coating rather rapidlj', whereas

above the

one moving continually or resting in cold water

may never have more than a thin coating form

friction

on

negligible factor at /? values of 2, 3, or 4 milHon,

it.

Although not to be classed as fouling, in the

mentioned here a deterioration of the bottom paint which occurs at unexpected places and times. The causes of this action

strict .sense, there is

.seem

t(j

be related to the causes of particular

kinds of fouling

The

in certain

areas at specified times.

to vary by j'ears in the

somewhat the same way that
extra-warm Hummers or unusuallj' .severe winters
are fni'oimtere(l. The action is often extremely
rapi<l, especially when a vefwel is at amhor. In
one 8hort week of immersion a new c-oat of ml mi

deterioration

.Maine locality,

ajjpi^ar.s

in

other

modern
line.

flat,

smooth-plate, turbulent-flow

Whether

fouling

roughness

is

as smaller si^es of roughness appear to be, especially at .slow speeds,

is

not yet known.

What

applies to the latter should, however, also apply

to the former.

Numerous

rules

have

time to time to predict the

been

devel()|)c(l

effect of fouling

from
on the

resistance, j)ower, and speed of ships. For any

one kind of anti-fouling coating these an? based
generally upon tlu- time which has elapswl from
llic

application of the last anti-fouling coating,

iipiiii IIk-

|ii'ii(Hls,

average speed of the

ami npon the kind and

shi|) iluring ccrt^iin

llie IciiipiTMliirc

of

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.19

119

the water in which the ship has been floating.

ship allowance for plating, structural, and coating

Unless an external coating is proof against most

types of fouling, an estimate based only on time
out of dock is precarious at the best, considering

roughness, described in Sec. 45.18 preceding,

The

the variables involved.

all

effect

of the order of
it is

should be one of history, modified in degree

to conform to the anti-fouling properties of the

The

about 0.39(10"') for the

The roughness drag

basis for fouling

is

only 0.25(10"') for the tug whereas

liner.

of fouling is

predominantly

a tanqua resistance proportional to V^ and

largely independent of /?

is

except possibly at

history embodies a combination of ship location in

low R values. It is not a function of the tanvis

resistance and should therefore not appear as a

the navigable waters of the globe, ship operation,

percentage of the

coatings on the underwater hull.

outside

The

elapsed time, the seasons during which the ship

is

in

latter.

use of a formula with additive specific

exposed, and the portion of the fouling cycle

resistance terms, as in Eq. (45. ii) of Sec. 45.7,

each water area which

this is

requires that the roughness effects of the fouling

the events, and

shape, and distribution of the fouling roughnesses

known.
Assuming that the

is

involved,

if

be considered as a primary function of the

location,

the time history are fully recorded,

found

it is

that the fouling rates, fouling types, and fouling

effects are variable

because of seasonal,

or other factors pertaining to marine

cyclic,

life.

Fur-

thermore, in making predictions of future fouling

effects it is possible

only to estimate a probable

any given period. With our present

(1955) knowledge, an average result is the best

on the hull

resistance.
It has

been the custom in the past to reckon

the effect of fouling as a percentage increase in

the friction resistance

Pe

or in the shaft

Rf

power

va.

F,,

the effective power

.

Occasionally

it is

expressed as a percentage of the total resistance

They may be a secondary

function of Reynolds number, at low R values,

only because of a laminar sublayer which either

persists over fouling .that is not excessively

or which

To

reduce the observed fouling effects to terms

an additive ApCp factor by the older methods

is difficult. For most of the cases on record, the
propeller thrusts were not measured and the
actual ship friction resistances were not known.
Furthermore, there is no way to determine how
much of these resistances was due to plating,
structural, and coating roughnesses, exclusive of
fouling. The operation is greatly facilitated by
of

or of the friction power Pf but with the disadvantage that, of the five quantities mentioned,
only the shaft power is known with any degree of
accuracy on ships in operation. Actually, be-

the use of the specific resistances

cause the friction resistance of certain not-too-

plate

Rt

smooth ships
present

of

the

consisted

of

past

and

some

Cp

-\-

less of

may

indicates that the average

smooth-plate specific friction resistance Cf

decreases as the ship size and speed increase. By
flat,

for fouling as

well as for other types of roughness decrease

but they increase

rapidly with the designed speed of the ship, as

described in Sec. 45.10. For a tug or ti'awler

Cp

say 2.3(10~^) at an i2 of 50 million whereas for

a fast liner it is only 1.3(10"') at R = 4,000
is

million.

Cr remains constant regardThe flat, smoothremains

friction resistance Cp

the extent of fouling.

specific

to fouling and

up

size (length)

-{

specific

Ct over the clean-bottom value

in

of the total resistance.

somewhat with the

Ct = Cr

assumed that the

residuary resistance

increase due to fouling as a percentage increase

ApCp values

it is

is a change due
be represented by ApCp as a
This procedure takes no
first approximation.
account, for example, of a ApCp or a AcCp that

amount of tanqua resistance (varying as V^),

was some logic in expressing the resistance

indications, the

if

resistance

there

all

constant by derivation. Therefore any increase

of

(varying with the Reynolds number), with a large

Modern knowledge

SACp

the

some

tanvis

rough

increased in effective thickness by

is

some physical action as yet unknown.

history for

that can be expected in the prediction of fouling

surface.

size,

At the same time a "tapering" ACp new-

may

be diminished because heavy fouling covers

original plating or coating roughnesses.

It

may

be presumed that, for a large and a

small ship having exactly the same underwater

coating, the

same exposure position with

refer-

ence to the adjacent water bodies and currents,

and the same fouling history, the fouling will be
exactly the

same on the underwater surface

of

each. In other words, the marine growths will be

same absolute shape and size and will be

same manner over each unit
of area. If each craft has about the same hull
shape and a reasonably large draft, there will be
of the

distributed in the

HYDRODYNAMICS

IL'O

no

of

prc-poiuli'raiu'c

along

cfTocIs

foiiliiin

tlic

This boinp the case, the laminar sublayers over

the two hulls, at the same absolute speed for each
will have only a slightly greater thickness
on the large ship than on the small one,
indicated in Fig. 45.F of Sec. 45.10. For the higher
speed at which it is presumed the larger ship
will run, its laminar sublayer will be thinner than
on the smaller ship. This means, for example,
that a group of barnacles of a given size and
ilistrilnition will have a greater roughness effect
on the large, fast ship than an identical group of
identical barnacles on the small, slow ship. If
this physical reasoning is correct, the effect of a

hull,

5t

given amount of fouling in unit surface area of the

with the increase in ship

hull decreases slowly

length but

increases rapidly with the increase

it

magnitude

term

of the speed

U in

the Reynolds

number UL/v.
It can not

rate

be

therefore, that a fouling

said,

and a fouling

determined for a

effect

craft will be valid for a large one,

any more than the

Even though
same, there

is

size

^'ice

sm-'ll

versa,

roughness

is

and speed.

other conditions remain the

all

almost certainly some non-linearity

of the roughness effects

curve

and

effect of a given

independent of ship

older

of

nith time out of dock.

decades ago,

several

An

given in

reference (15) of Sec. 45.21, indicates a moderate

ri.se

the

Sec. 45.20

Sllll' l)i;si(;N

placement both

growth

increa.sc perceptibly as the

thickens. Should the ship have to be propelled or

waterlino.

in

IN

immediately after undocking, a rate less than

average for the intermediate period, say

from 2 to 4 months, and a rapidly increasing rise

at the end of the interval, from about 5 months to
months. On the other hand, results of experiments by \V. IMcEntoe, reported in reference (3)
of Sec. 45.21, gave rates that were almost exactly
the opposite [Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, Fig.
43, p. 38]. Later

and possibly more accurate data

indicate that the increa.sc in

A^Cr

for the first

few days and weeks out of dock may be slightly

le.s.s
than the average while the increase under
conditions favorable for marine growth, during a
later portion of the

docking period,

may

be greater

moored or at
anchor to accumulate ^ marine growths having
than the average.

If

the

.ship is left

towed while fouled it is effectively larger than

when clean and requires additional power in
proportion, over and above that due to the fouling
roughness. Ships have been known to pick up
from 100 to 300 or more tons of marine growth

when

heavilj'

increa.se in
still

fouled.

volume

of

The

equivalent

effective,

water displaced

is

probably

larger.

All additive allowances for fouling effect should

new"

constitute increases in the "clean,

Rr

friction

a ship. This is not ahvays the case

when ship data arc reported. In fact, some reports
are so ambiguous as not to specify the quantity
which increases with the fouling. Stictly speaking,
the magnitude of the friction drag is not known
for any ship but it can be calculated by the
methods described elsewhere in this chapter. It
can be estimated as a percentage of the total
towrope resistance for the type of ship in question.
If corresponding changes in the power and speed
are wanted, they may be predicted by the methods
described in Chap. 60 for the estimate of power
and speed on a new design.
In this connection it must be remembered that
an increase in roughness due to fouling increases
the thickness of the boundary layer at the propulsion-de\ace positions. This in turn almost
invariably increases the average-wake fraction
drag

of

over the thrust-producing area Aa of the proFurthermore, the additional

device.

pulsion

means augmented thrust, higher thrust

and undoubtedly a lowered efficiency of
propulsion. Estimates of increased shaft power
due to fouling are not ahvays accurately predicted,
therefore, on a basis of model tests run with an
resistance
loading,

overload allowance only for a clean,

new

hull

surface.

45.20

Ship

The

Prediction of Fouling Effects on

Resistance.

Simimarizing

the

elTects

of

fouling on shi]) resistance, dist'u.ssed in Sec. 45.19,

the principal factors appear to be:

(1)

The type and nature

adheres to the
(2)

The

of the fouling

which

.ship hull

history

of

the operation

of

the ship

reaches a

maximum

value by the time the hull

during any one interval between dockings, taking

account of the length of time out of dock, and

surface

completehj covered with a growth 0.1

including the kind and temperature of the water

thickncs-ses of inches or

or 0.2

is

ft

thick.

how

It

even

may

feet,

AyCr probably

not become larger no

However,
the weight displacement and the volume dis-

matter

dcnst; or thick the growth.

(3)

The

fouling rates, cycles,

and other features

These

a.ssociated with the historyfof ojMTation.

rates vary widely in the different parts of tho

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.20

world, from positive heavy fouling to slightly

negative scouring.
(4)

The

size

of

operating speed for which the fouling prediction

is

sum

to the

the vessel, and especially the

to be applied

of the specific pressure (or residuary)

and the turbulent-flow

resistance

resistance, with or

Considering item
first

is

specific friction

without corrections for cur-

vature.

required.

The

121

units of specific resistance which

three items correspond to those which

have been recognized for many years past. The

is, in an analysis of fouling effects,
believed to be entirely new.
One may conclude, from the discussion of Sec.
45.19, that the effect of fouling on ship resistance
should be expressed as an additive rather than as
a percentage term, as proposed by G. Kempf in
1936 and 1937. This is on the basis that the
fouling creates an increment of resistance depending upon its physical characteristics and the flow
around it, without regard to the amount of the
friction resistance of a clean, new hull to which
the fouling is attached, of the separation drag
around the hull, or of the resistance due to wavemaking of that hull. A convenient additive form
is the use of an increment ApCp
expressed in
fourth item

TABLE

45.g

(1)

at the beginning of this

section, it is explained in Sec. 22.11 that relatively

little is

known about the quantitative effect of

At the other end of the roughness

surface slime.
scale,

a very heavy, thick, and rough deposit

neceSsary
viscosity.

the

sum

to

eliminate

entirely

Such a deposit has the

the

effect

effect of

making

of the smooth-plate friction resistance

and the fouling resistance constant, independent

of the Reynolds number. For the normal ship
situation,

that

AfCf

the viscosity effects are retained, so

is

narrow range

roughly constant in the relatively

of speed for

any one ship

for

which

fouling effects are to be predicted.

The ultimate solution to this problem, despite

demand for simplicity, seems to call for a

the

subdivision of items (2) and (3) of the summary,

to take care of conditions which vary widely in

Proposed Form of Tabulation for Determining the Value of ApCp per Day Due to
Fouling in an Average Port

FRESH WATER

is

of

IIM)R()l)V\.\Ml(;s 1\ Mill' ni-.SIGN

122
service. Iti'in
tion,

(12),

appears to

about nine proups each,

call for

water anil for

for fresh

Table lo.p

is

s^ilt

values

I.

III.

Warm

siilinity of 3.5

water

is

moving

at 2 kt or

All

Concerning item
beginning of this

that in which the temperature

any, are taken

care of by the variations in water temperature.

Pkoi'oskd

Form ok TAnn.ATioN to

summary

of the

(3)

.section,

the

at the

information

on

and fouling cj'des for specific ports

appears limited to that given by G. I). Bengough
in reference (22) of Sec. 45.21. These data indicate
that certain ports and certain areas appear to be
excellent for breeding and attaching marine
fouling organisms, and that other ports and areas
fouling rates

are relatively free of this nui.sance. Ba.sed on data

in the reference quoted.

per cent.

if

reckoned in accordance

fouling efTects

Table

45. h

is

a propo.'^ed

guide for determining the relative fouling rates

of fouling in

193),

relative to the sur-

with the tables are additive.

same. This factor

|i.

"stoppetl"

day

5 deg C. Seasonal variations,

'IS.!!

le.s.s,

l)e

to attach thcm.selvcs.

F or 25 deg C. Cool water has a

temperature range of from 77 deg F, or 25 deg C,
to 41 deg F, or 5 deg C. Cold water is that in
which the temperature is less than 41 deg F or

TABLE

a.s.sumed to

is

rounding water, slow enough for marine growths

than

exceeds 77 deg

The

Sec. -15.20

he table a ship

suffi-

l>e

corresponding

if it is

^'I.
is

though
contaminated by microorganisms. This
water should be sufficiently free of salts to kill
or prevent the growth of adhering marine life.
II. Salt water is defined as the water found in the
oceans and in salt seas, and includes brackish
water. It may be expected that the fouling effects
in this water will vary approximately in proportion
to the salinity or specific gravity, with a specific
gravity for average sea water of 1.027, and a

may

lilt

history need be divided into intervals no smaller

to

ciently sweet for drinking purposes, even

it

study and investigation.

groups,

defined as that which

is

V. For the approxiiiiati' mu'IIkxI given, the ship's

these

following notes applj' to this table:

Fresh water

be

in

(leterinineil after further

The

water, respectively.

a proposal framework for carrying

numerical

the

involving the history of opera-

or the locality foulinc/ factor in the ports usually

frequented,

assuming the ship at anchor

moving very slowly) and

all

(or

other conditions the

is based upon an average rate

an average port, assumed as unity

(1.0).

I'kiimit

Selection ok thk IvOcauty

Fouung Factok

taken from G. D. Bengough, "Hull Corrosion and Fouling" [NIOCI, 1942-1943, Vol. 59, Talilc
with the two left-hand groups interchanged.

liBt

of port*

i.s

LocALmr Fouung Factors

(Less than 1.0)

5,

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.20

The

daily increments,

when taken from

the

proper "box" of Table 45.g, have to be multiplied

by the number of days in each operational condition

and then added to give the ApCp for the

and (2) in the summary. The

effects of items (1)

then applied to this sum

(by multiplication) to cover the effect of item (3)
The upper row of boxes in Table 45. h is left open
locality fouling factor is

until such time as data are available to determine

operating in

123

seasons and in

all

waters of the

all

a definite demand
for a simple guide which will give the answer
in one operation, as it were.
Avorld.

Nevertheless, there

is

As an interim measure a set of graphs prepared

and published by E. V. Lewis [The Log, May
1948, pp. 50-52] serves as a means of determining
by inspection a suitable value of AfCf{10^) for
any one of three given operating conditions.

values of the locality factor which are reasonably

Lewis' data are reproduced in Fig. 45.K, supple-

correct,

and until such time as additional ports

in the Western Hemisphere can be listed.
As for item (4) of the summary, it is perhaps
not wise to introduce a set of ship-size and ship-

mented by data derived from the

speed parameters into the fouling roughness pre-

Putnam (DD 287), the

U. S. battleship Tennessee (BB 43), and the
Japanese destroyer Yudachi. The two former sets
of data were used by Lewis; the latter data were

paramproved for roughnesses in general.

diction procedure until the effect of these

eters is fully

ships, the

U.

S.

trials of three

destroyer

not. According to information received subsequent

to the date of the reference [unpubl.

Itr.

of 15

and when so proved, the variation in A^Cf

with Reynolds number R will probably resemble
the variations in ACp shown by the lines C-C
and D-D of Fig. 45.E.
Judging from the work done recently on this

Aug

project, it appears hopeless to expect that a single

British Admiralty standard for temperate waters,

and certainly not

adequate prediction

with a rate of 0.25 per cent per day increase in

and types.

curvature because of the shape of the curve for

If

rule, table, graph, or reference,

a rule of thumb,

will furnish

data for fouling on ships of

all sizes

1955], curve

was actually based on the

British Admiralty peace-time standard for ships

operating in tropical waters, involving a 0.5 per

cent per day increase in friction resistance [INA,
1943, Vol. 85, p.

Rp

raised

2].

Curve

was based on the

somewhat and given some upward

Line

for ships

is

which enter a numbei

of ports

where severe

foulincj

encountered

2J
Line

is

for ships

on overoqe vo^aqes

- n

between tcmperote
ports with Qveraqe

rotes of fouling

Line

is

unusuall'y

for ships

having

short stoys

or trodino reoulorlij

in

port

between

ports free from foulino or ports

havinq a scourinq action
I

Fig. 45.K

L_l

8
9
Months Out of Dr\jdock

Graphs op E. V. Lewis fob Specific Fouling Resistance Allowances, with Curves fob Thbee
Ships

MVDRODVNAMICS

124
Tennessee.

the battlciihip

midway between B and

Curve

way

the baseline as a rougli

some scattcretl supporting data.

Lewis' graphs A and C indicate a progressive
increase in SrCr per day for the early months
with

fi:uess,

between tioikings while graph

of the perioil

SHIP DESIGN

I.\

what may be

was dniwri

of fouling roughness only, involves a fouling

rate that limits the roughness to a value which,

would be e(|ual to that expected of

"commercial" anti-fouling paint in only 'J months.
However, the inilial roughness of the hot plastic
in 4 years,

li,

for the heaviest fouling, indicat<'s a linear increase

paint

with time. The graphs for the three combatant

show a

vessels

Sec.4-y.20

expectetl of hot jjlastic paint in the

slight increase in rate with eliip.sed

extremely high, so that this paint

is

di.^^ad vantage

is

at

compared to the "commercial"

anti-fouling paint until sucii time as

tiie

latter

time for the entire interval, and a rate that

has acquired considerable roughness due to

increases as the next docking time approaches.

increa.sed rate of fouling. It

Fig. 45. L is a duplicate of the three Lewis

graphs with the fouling-efTcct predictions for the
ABC ship of Part 4, under the conditions set

the average application, and as the ship comes

is

its

estimated that, for

out of dock with a new coat of paint, the

of the hot-plastic paint exceeds the

AcCy

ScCf
of the

fourth in items (18) and (19) of Table 64. c and

commercial anti-fouling paint by the order of

item (20) of Table 64. d. This ship is expected to

have what Lewis terms "average voj'ages"

0.5(10"^). For the purpo.se of this discussion, the

except that at one end of the route the ship

considered in the nature of a fouling roughness.

spends an appreciable time in a fresh-water

To make up

The

fouling rate

below that of
The broken

ABC

may

line
line

be expected to

lie

river.

somewhat

augmented

with long dashes of Fig. 45. L,

the

for

hot-plastic

paint

is

for this increiused resistance of the

first few months out

must have a much smaller fouling
allowance ApCy for the remainder of the interval

hot-plastic coating in the

of dock,

A.

AcCy

it

ship, involving a fouling rate that

between dockings. Fig. 45. L indicates that the

increases slowly with time, applies to the hull

two predicted ABC ship curves cross each other

at 5.4 months out of dock. If the hot-plastic
paint is to pay its way, so to speak, the interval
lictween dockings must be long enough so that

for the

with a

bottom coating

final

of anti-fouling sclf-

leveUng paint {7wt a plastic type).

The dot-dash

line

of the figure,

representing

10

bne B

is

for ships

which

enter a number of ports

-where severe fouhrx]
is

encountered

Line

is

for ships on

overoqt

vofoqes between temperote

ports with overoqe
rates of fou 11 no

Line

is

for ships hovinq

unusuoll^ short stoys

.

ortrodincj

requlorlij

In

port

_a5

between

ports free from fouling or ports,

havino a scourinq action

Fm.

4.1.1,

I'liKKirTKn

9^
7
5
Months out of Drydock

Si-Kcmc T'oiiUNn Ukmistantk Ai.i/iwanck.s

koii

10

.MK"

Siiir,

with

Two

Kinhs ok I'mnt

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.21

the time product of the additional A^Cf for the

first 5.4 months is less than the time product of

ApCp

the additional

the last 4.8 or more

for

months that would have been involved if the

hot-plastic coating had not been used. The
respective areas on the plot are indicated by

(10) Taylor,

stracts,"
(11)

(13)

the reader's attention

called particularly to

is

J. Paul Visscher, numbered

and to the book "Marine Fouhng
and Its Prevention," prepared by the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution and published by the
U. S. Naval Institute in 1952. Each chapter of
this book is terminated by a generous list of
references, but unfortunately none of these

(14) Smith,

discusses

the

quantitative

effect

of

W. W.,

and Cost

pp.

1616-1620. Discusses the

Discussion,

SNAME,

1932, p. 305

Bottom Upon Power

of Operation," Nat. Council

bldrs.. Bull. 246,

list,

chapters

1931,

(15) "Effect of Fouling of a Ship's

the pamphlet by Dr.

(9) in the

H. F. D., "The Increase in S.H.P. and R.P.M.

due to Fouling," ASNE, Feb 1930, pp. 15.5-166
Holm, W. J., "Tactical Horsepower of Submarines,"

and pro-

these sources from the literature,

Resistance of Ship Models,"

1929, pp. 45-64

imposed on speed and rpm (hence

speed) of submarines driven by Diesel engines due
to restrictions on maximum mean effective pressure
developed in the engines. Makes out an argument
for reducing the pitch of the propellers to suit a
condition of partly foul bottom and shows that
a pure electric-drive installation would be superior
in point of useful horsepower developed for whole
period between dockings. Gives curves of Ps rpm,
and speed of submarines for various months out of
dock (in tropical waters).

lines.

fouling of ships as affecting resistance

1928, pp. 259-269

P., "Frictional

USNI, Dec

References Relating to Fouling as AfThere are listed herefecting Ship Propulsion.

under the principal references relating to the

Among

INA,

Voyage Ab-

limitations

is

45.21

pulsion.

125

"Statistical Analysis of

(12) Davis,

needed is an antifouling paint with the smoothness of a selfleveling coating and the anti-fouling effectiveness
of hot plastic. The vinyl resin paints show promise
along both these

Roop, W.

SNAME,

different angles of hatching.

Needless to say, what

L.,

.1.

23

Aug

Am.

Ship-

1932; also Naut. Gaz.,

MESA, Sep 19.32

and Schlichting, H., "Das Widerstandsgesetz Rauher Flatten (The Law of Resistance for
Rough Plates)," WRH, 1 Jan 1934, pp. 1-4
Pitre, A. S., and Thews, J. G., "Fouling of Ships'
Bottoms; Effect of Physical Character of Surface,"
3 Sep 1932;

(16) Prandtl, L.,

(17)

EMB
(18)

fouling on ship resistance.

Kempf,

Rep. 398, Apr 1935

"On

G.,

the Effect of Roughness on the

INA, 1937, pp. 109-119,

Resistance of Ships,"

137-158, eap. pp. 117-119

(1)

"The Fouling and Corrosion of Iron

Their Causes and Means of Prevention, with

Young, C. F.
Ships:

the

Mode

T.,

(20)

XXX,

pp.

McEntee, W., "Variation

of Frictional Resistance of

Ships with Condition of Wetted Surface,"

McEntee,

(5)

Smith,

W. W., "The

Effect of

Model Basin,"

SNAME,

(7)

(24)

Fuel Consumption," ASNE,

pp. 357-374. Abstracted
1923, pp. 180-181 and 190-192.

(25)

Gardner, H. A., "Toxic Compositions to Prevent

the Fouling of Steel Ships and to Preserve Wood

(26)

May

Effect on

1923, Vol.

XXXV,

SBSR, 16 Aug

G.

S.,

Bottoms," Paint Mfrs. Ass'n. of U.

No. 259, Jan 1926, pp. 232-270

Efficiency

and Economy,"

D. W., "The Speed and Power

of Ships,"

"The Corro-

Bengough, G. D., and Shepheard, V. G.,

sion and Fouling of Ships," INA, 1943, pp. 1-34
"Fouling of Ships' Bottoms: Identification of Marine
Growths," Jour. Iron and Steel Inst., Great
Britain, 1944

S., Sci. Sect.

"Docking Report Manual: Instructions Regarding

the Docking Report and Guide to Fouling Organisms," Bureau of Ships, Navy Dept., Washington,
1944

and Forbes, W. A. D., "Under-Water

Paints and the Fouling of Ships," INA, 1946, pp.

E. V., "The Practical Analysis of Merchant

Ship Trials and Service Performance," NECI,
1926-1927, Vol. XLII, pp. 63-98 and 125-143

(27) Harris, J. E.,

"Nature and Extent of Fouling of

Ship's Bottoms," Bu. Fisheries, Dept. Commerce,
Document 1031, 1927, Vol. XLIII, Part II

(28)

(8) Telfer,

(9) Visscher, J. P.,

"Ship

1943, pp. 37-38

1917,

pp. 41-72

in

Frictional

Bengough, G. D., "Hull Corrosion and Fouling,"

NECI, 1942-1943, Vol. 59, pp. 183-206 and

(23) Taylor,

Williams, H., "Notes on Fouling of Ship's Bottoms

and the

in

D123-D136

Wind and Fouling

Resistances on U.S.S. Neptune,"

(6)

"The Increase

Liverpool, 1942, pp. 1-14

(22)

"Notes from the

1916, pp. 85-90

W.,

SNAME,

(21) Baker,

SNAME,

1915, pp. 37-42

(4)

Jr.,

1942, p. 608

362-389
(3)

A.,

Due to The Action of Water on Bottom

Paint," ASNE, Nov 1937, pp. 585-588
Gawn, R. W. L., "Roughened Hull Surface," NECI,
1941-1942, Vol. LVIII, pp. 245-272 and D143D152a; "Roughened Hull Surface," SBSR, 11 Jun

Lewes, V. B., "The Corrosion and Fouling of Steel

and Iron Ships," INA, 1889, Vol.

E.

Resistance

of Application to Existing Ironclads,"

(England), 1867
(2)

(19) Stevens,

240-267

Graham, D. P., "Some Factors in the Use

Ship-Bottom Paints by the U. S. Navy,"
1947, pp. 202-243

of Plastic

SNAME,

IIVDRODYNAMICS

126
(29) W'win.

(30)

v..

"How

v.,

to Dotcrmiiio KfToolji of Ship

Bottom Fouling." TIip I/Jg, May HMK, pp. 50, 52

Bamnby, K. C, "Kronomic ConcqueniH of FoulIN A.

ing,"

1950, p. J 15

"Skin Friction ncnintanoo and tho

HouKhnoss," T.MB Hop. 729,
Sop 1950. Till- gniph nt the end of thin re|)ort

(31) Toild,

F.

II,,

KfliTtn of

.<urf.i.c

iihows that X-i'y for various c-oatings

is

approxi-

mately roniitaiit over the range of W, roveretl by

the normal ship s|)ee<l range, .\llhough not brought
out by this report, the ^yCf for moilerate fouling
is found to vary in nuieh the same way.
(32) Courh, It. H., "Preliminary Report of Friction Piano
Hcsistnnco Test.s of Anti-Fouliiig Ship Bottom
Paintfl," T.MB Hep. 789, Aug 1951. Figs. 2 and 3
of this reiHJrt indieate that at some low value of
the HcynoKIs number, probably in the vicinity of
3.5 million, the .irO- values for G types of

own

Src.4^.22

value, depending

(',

upon

considerable distance from

number

of

about 40 to 45

lie partlj'

within

the hull boundary layer, they do not generate

own

their

It is

and the average

them are lower than the ship speed.

layers exclusively,

velocities over

found acceptable,

anti

it is

customary, to

appendages having
appreciable lengths and wetted areas, hence the
ii.sual

summation
value of

all

wetted surfaces into a

of all

The appendages which

S'.

are

short enough to give z-Rcyiiolds numbers less

than about 15 million, especially those which are

million.

Kielhorn,

somewhat

the hull,

main, however, ship appendages

single

to a Reynolds

ship

a deep drag pipe on a .self-propelled dredge.

Such a one may reijuire this treatment. In the

coatings become practically constant and remain

up

The

like

use the ship value of R for

so

R,

each appendage. These (V values would be high

becau.se of the short lengths and the small HJh.
Occasionally there may be a special appendage,
exposed to undisturbed flow, which extends for a

bottom

."hip hulls,

its

drag would then be a summation of a

bare-hull drag plus a separate friction drag for
friction

varying from yellow zinc

chromatc to Norfolk hot plastic, would probably
of
zero.
Ix- in the vicinity
.\t /f, values of from 25
to 30 million the SfCp values for each of the G
coatings for

(.33)

PFSIGN

IN SHIF'

W.

"Military Biological OceanograS<-p 1951, pp. 947-953, esp. pp.

V.,

phy," rSNI,
947-94S and 951
(34) "Marine Fouling and Its Prevention," Report 580
of the WoimIs Hole Oceanographic Institution,
published by I'SN'l, Annapolis, 19.52
(35) AmLsberg, II., abstract of a report by Prof. Aertssen
on the ext<'nsive full-scale test.s conducted in 1951
and 19.52 on tho Tervaele, formerly the Pomona
Victory, including the results of fouling on several
voyages, Ilan.sa, 9

May

thick in proportion to their length in the direction

of

considered

are

flow,

friction drag.

as described in Chap.

have

no separate

5.5.

For the actual friction-drag calculations

ship, a .series of values of

.shii)

speed

for a

.selected,

l' is

extending from the lowest speeii of interest to

beyond the maximum-.speed

the plotting of curves of

1953, p. 793.

to

Their pressure drags are predicted

point. This enables

Ry and Py on

V. Using

the selected speeds and the waterline length of

45.22

a Ship.

The
The

friction ro.si.stancc of

analysis or design

Eq.

is

is

the

flat,

Ry =

A.,

-f-

Af

the allowances for

li,

ii

2ACV

.ship

of

under

by the general

<3r.S(C,

smooth-piatc

resistance at a given

Ap

calculated

(45.ii) of Sec. A'^.l,

Here CV

Drag

Calculation of the Friction

-|-

^JAfV).

.specific friction
is

(A,

-|-

Aj

-}-

and A, and Aj are

transverse and loiiKitndinal

Af)Cr

the ship, values of R are taken from Tables 45.

or 45. b for either standard fresh or
respectively.
/i''s

If

the water

is

sixlt

water,

not standard, the

are calculated.

The

values of the

flow coefficient

Cy

flat,

smooth-plate, turliulcnt-

for the

A'FfC 1947 ^Schoen-

herr)

meanline are picked for the given values

of /?

from Table

45. d. In

Cy

Tables 45. c and 45.

are listed in terms of

curvature, respectively.

the numerical values of

Beginning with the ram pres.sure q, ecjual to

0.5pV\ Tables 4l.d and 41.e give values of q
in lb per ft" for standard fresh and .salt water,
dcg (", over a very
respectively, at
dcg

convenience llious. The

number are given in millions.
The tabulated values of Cy are therefore to be

1'',

.">!)

I.")

large range of ship speeds.

Tlur wetted surface

.S

isdctcrinincd as described

4.'>. 12 preceding. If eaih api)endage whiih

hud an appreciable wetted area moved through
the wuti-r iy it.self, it would theoretically create
it* own boundary layer, independent of the others
ttrxl of till! hull proper. It would then have its
own Heynolils number, ba.scd upon il.s length in
the dirci'tion of inotieui. It wouli! al.su have its

in Kec.

thousands,

called

for

values of Reynolds

multii)lied

by 10"' and

For other
l.')..S

the

Cy values

tho.se of /e,

by

lO".

formulations listed

friction

in

Sec.

are calculated for the desired

R values or are picked from other tables.

Incrca-scs to be made to take care of curvature,
either

or

lotigitudiiuil

traiisvcr.se

or

both,

are

applied at this stage.

'J'he total rotighnc.ss

on the

ba.sis

.Sees. 45. IS

of

and

allowance -Af ',

the general rules laid

I."..

JO.

is

.selected

down

in

FRICTION RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.23

There follows an example

the procedure

of

described, applicable to the 20.5-kt or trial-speed

ABC

point for the

design of Part

4.

The

basic

data are as follows:

(a)

selfrleveling properties,

AcCp

a conservative value of

the highest one listed in Table 45.f, or

is

0.12(10"'). For 12 days out of dock, or 0.4 month,

the fouling allowance

Ship length (wetted length on

510

waterline)
(b)

127

be coated with an anti-fouling paint that has

34.62

Adding

about 0.04(10"').

Speed (to be achieved with clean

bottom)
20.5 kt
equivalent to

ApCp from the

(0.02

per

ft

0.08

Then {Cp

0.12

SAC;,)

dasshed-line

ABC

curve of Fig. 45. L, applying to the

ft

0.04) (10"')

(1.451

-|-

ship, is

SACp

these,

all

is

0.26(10"').

0.26) (10"')

1.711(10"').
sec

(c)

Wetted

from Sec. 45.13

ages,

47,875

stage of Sec. 66.9,

ft'

has lapped riveted seams

(d) Plating

and
(e)

be noted that, in the preliminary-design

ACp (actually SACp) was taken
as 0.4(10"'). When instructions were prepared to
test the models of the ABC ship, quoted in Sec.
78.6, the corresponding ACp value was taken as
0.3(10"'). These compare with the final estimate
It will

append-

surface, with all

Coating

flush butts
is

"commercial" anti-

fouling, with self-leveling

of 0.26(10"').

properties
(f)

Mass

The ARp value

water
in the 20-deg latitude of item
(16) of Table 64.c, at 68 deg
F, from Table X3.e (involves
density

p,

for the salt

no correction

Cf.

Taking account
revised {Cp
(10"')

for latitude, as

described in Sec. X3.3)

1.9882 slugs

per
(g)

Kinematic viscosity
for temperature of 68 deg F, from
Table X3.h

(i)

(j)

wetted length,

line or

LV ^

SAC^) value

From Table

45. d the value of

the ship wetted surface as a

ship length

Data

flat,

in turbulent flow,

1,552.6 million

Cp considering
smooth plate of
,

1.451(10"').

is

are not available (1955) for determining

the allowances for longitudinal and transverse

curvature in the forms A^Cp and AjCp

tively, of

Eq.

in Sec. 45.7.

(45. ii)

Sec. 45.14 the value of

the hull of the

ABC

ARp due

respec-

However, in

to curvature in

by

ship has been calculated

method and found to be 0.0606.

Considering the plating roughness ApCp

F. Horn's

reasonable

value

for

the

ship,

when new,

a
is

0.02(10"'), from Table 45.f of Sec. 45.18. Similarly,

a liberal value of the structural roughness

from the same

table, 0.08(10"').

As

(1.711

0.104)

(45.ii),

ACp)

V'SiCp

ACp)

AsCp

the vessel

is

103,531 lb.
of interest

the

{Cp

SAC,?)

inspection from Fig. 45. E, using

only the R value derived here, are:

(1)

1.1372

is

(34.62)'(47,875)(1.815)(10-')

As a matter
values taken by

is

(510)(34.62)(10')

0.104(10"').

per sec

Taking account

is,

to

new

of the

ATTC

1947 allowance

from curve B-B, 1.85(10"')

(2) Considering the roughness allowance proposed
by L. A. Baier, from curve D-D, 1.85(10"')
(3) Considering the roughness allowance proposed
by J. M. Ferguson, from curve C-C, 1.81(10"').
These compare with the value 1.815(10"') derived
for clean,

of this curvature correction, the

1.9882

1.1372(10"')

based on the water-

equivalent to a

is

1.815(10"').

Rp = qS{Cp

Time out of dock

12 days
Ocean water
salt
Average sea-water temperature,
from item (18) of Table 64.c, 68 deg F.

The Reynolds number E

Rn

Horn

;',

ft'

(h)

Then, by Eq.

ft'

of F.

addition of 0.0606(1.711)(10"')

vessels,

in the foregoing.

45.23 Allowances for Friction Drag on StraightElement and Discontinuous-Section Hulls. The
transverse curvature at an unrounded chine is

always sharp. It may be severe if the chine angle

(defined in diagram 3 of Fig. 27. A) is of the order
of 80 or 90 deg, as on short sailboats and motorboats, especially those which run at low F or T,
values. The Reynolds number is then low, the
Cp high, and the added friction due to convex
curvature is also relatively large. Coves or regions
of concave transverse curvature are rarely to be

HYDRODYNAMICS

128

found on hulls of

comjiensation for the convcx-furvature

45.25

effects.

Stream.

I^ndweber's transverse curvature correction, described in Soc. 45.14, becomes rather absurdly
large for sharp chines, or even for these chines

they are assumed

be rounded

to

to

if

a small

known

SICX

IN SlIII' Dl

no

this kind, so that there is

^.21

Srr.

Drag

Friction

of a Craft

Moored

in a

friction-drag problem ari.ses in con-

.\

mooring of i)()ntoon-bridge
and lightships where swift
currents prevail and adefpiate ground tackle must
with

nection

the

floats, barges, lighters,

be provided. In flood conditions this situation

is

generally associated with chines in pairs, so that

Froude number F^
or Taylor quotient T, is usually small and most
of the drag is due to friction. The friction drag due
to current may be a maximum when the wind

the increased friction drag caused by the convex

drag

radius. In these cases the increase in 7?^

to be positive, but

On

chine

friction in

coves

forms,

partly or wholly offset

is

to estimate.

it is difficult

discontinuous-section

is

bj'

are

intensified. In these cases the

the concave area. For discontinuous

abnormal shape, such as those

E and 76. F, it is acceptable
to compute the entire wetted surface and to
consider that it bfloiiR.s to a hull of normal form.

is

The

the decreased

zero.

that a vessel

fact

is

andiorcMl

or

stationary in a moving stream, rather than

same

held

])vill('(|

through

sections of not

or pushed at the

illustrated in Figs. 76.

stationary water, has no appreciable effect upon

The

45.24

Hull.
lift

rises

loses

drag

Friction Resistance of a Planing

planing hull that benefits

bj'

wetted surface by this process.

is

dynamic

out of the water as the F incrca.ses and

to be taken into account

it is

If friction

then neces-

model or on the craft itself, to

determine the length, shape, and position of the
wetted portion of the bottom and to compute the
actual wetted area. Only those regions over (or
under) which the water moves at the same order
sary, either on a

its friction resistance. It

calculating

of

relative speed

does not alter the method

the friction drag,

flowing water contains no great

scale turbulence. It

is

provided

amount

the

of large-

to be remembered, however,

that a stationary surface vessel near the center

of a fast-moving stream,

compared to that

section

of not-too-large cro.ss
of

the vessel, has a

which is greater
than the average velocity of the stream. This is
because the velocities in the boundary layer
along the banks and over the stream bed are le.s,s
relative velocity in the center

than the average velocity. The same phenomenon

is a boundary layer
around the inside wall surfaces and the center-

of relative speed as the planing craft are included

occurs in a pipe where there

Those wetted by thin

spray sheets moving forward or predominantly

all

sideward are excluded. Furthermore, unless the

H.,

model runs at the same trim as the full-scale

craft, either by the action of forces from its own

a shallow river, the relative water velocity under

propulsion devices or equivalent forces applied

the bottom

during the test run, the wetted surfaces are not

current velocity.

as effective wetted areas.

is

often feasible to locate,

or visual observation, on either

full-scale

EMF,

the vessel

average velocity [Rouse,

1946, p. 197]. If the bed clearance under

small, as for a deep vessel

is

moored

in

probablj- greater than the average

is

Subject to the foregoing, and assuiuing that

comparable.
It

line velocity exceeds the

by photographs
the model or the

the forward end of the wetted

craft,

surface along the keel. It

is

usually easy to "spot"

the ship axis

lies in

the direction of stream flow,

the computation procedures of Sec. 45.22 suffice

for calculating the friction drag.
If

the craft

is

moored at both

enils

and does

the corresponding points along the chines. Having

not

these three points fixed reasonably well, the wetted

resistance plays only a small part and the forces

on the moorings must be determined by other
methods [TMB unclassified Rep. R-332, "Wind
Tunnel Tests to Determine Air Load on MultipleShip Moorings for Destroyers of the DD 692
Class," by M. K. Long, Doc 191.-)].
45.26 Selected Bibliography on Friction Re-

surface

is

readily outlined

length

is

necessary to

values of F. and
ifl

/?, in

mean

its

fix

area determined.
the approximate

the planing condition. This

usually taken as the

the arithmetic

and

mean

wetted length

of the wetted keel

Lws

and the

wetted chine lengths.

These matters, including a method

lie

in

of predicting

sistance.

the wettctl length and wett!d area, an; discus-sed

listed in

53.6 and 77.27, to which the

in detail

in Sees.

reader

referred for specific information on this

is

type of water

craft.

the direction of the stream, friction

For

convenient

reference

this section a incxlerate

there

are

lunuber of the

any nuKlern bibliography on

Textbooks are listed in the Introduction of Volume I and arc not imludcd here.
multitude of

titles in

friction resistance.

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.26

The

reader's attention

is

and

invited to the fact

of the

Part

not duplicate those hsted in Sec. 45.21, relating

to fouling as affecting ship propulsion. There

(7)

is

Zahm [SNAME,

III, pp.

"Uber Flussigkeitsbewegung bei sehr

Reibung (On Fluid Motion with Very Small
Friction)," Verhandlungen des III Internationalen

Prandtl, L.,
kleiner

available in the Library of Congress at Washington a long and comprehensive bibUography

entitled "Skin Friction and Boundary Flow,"

prepared by Dr. A. F.

Mathematiker-Kongresses, Heidelberg, 1904 (Proceedings

of

the 3rd International Mathematics

Congress, Heidelberg, 1904)," Leipzig, 1905, pp.

484-491; reprinted in "Vier Abhandlungen zur

1932, p.

309].

Hydrodynamik und Aerodynamik," by

The

the present selected bibliography

titles in

Channels,"

Roy. Soc, London, 1883, Vol. 174,

935-982

Phil. Trans.

that the references hsted in this bibliography do

129

Law of Resistance in Parallel

and A. Betz, Gottingen,

L. Prandtl

These

1927.

contain

Prandtl's original statement of the boundary-layer

are divided into three groups, described briefly as:

theory.
I.

and historical
Development of friction-resistance formula-

Classical

II.

(8)

kleiner

tions

modern

III. References of

Vol. 56, p. Iff

application.
(9)

I.

Classical

G. G.,

"On

Turbulent Motion,"

Camb.

Phil.

ance Coefficients),"
435-438

Mem.

divers savants, Sci.

(13)

W., "On Some Difficulties in the Received

Rep. for 1869
(publ. in 1870), pp. 211-214. On pages 212-213
Froude gives an amazingly clear and straightforward exposition of the physical phenomena of

was known at that

of his statement applies to the

time.

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

physics of fluid friction, as known 85 years later.

(3b) Froude, W., "E.xperiments on Surface Friction,"
British Association Reports, 1872

Froude, W.,

(5)

Tideman, B.

INA,

J.,

and Pis. Ill through XIII

"Memoriaal van de Marine II.

(18)

The paper

"Uitkomsten van proeven op den

Scheepsmodellen (Results of
Resistance Tests with Ship Models)." There
appears to be no Enghsh translation of it but a
note at the bottom of page 374 of Volume III
of PoUard and Dudebout's "Theorie du Navire,"
1892, states that Tideman's paper was translated
carries the title

Wederstand

van

French) by M. Dislere, Ingenieur de la

Marine, in the Memoires du Genie Maritime, 6th
Book, 1877.
Reynolds, Osborne, "An Experimental Investigation
of the Circumstances which Determine whether
the Motion of Water Shall be Direct or Sinuous,

(19)

Aug

1923,

pp.

Akad. v. Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, 1924

"Skin Friction Committee's Report," INA,
pp. 108-123, esp. pp. 115-116

1925,

Hansen, M., "Velocity Distribution in the Boundary

Layer of a Flat Plate," NACA Tech. Memo 585,
Oct 1930
Millikan, C. B., "The Boundary Layer and Skin
for

a Figure of Revolution,"

ASME,

APM-54-3, 1931, p. 33
"The Prediction of Speed and Power of Ships by
Methods in Use at the Experimental Model Basin,
Washington," Bu C and R Bull. 7, 1933. Pages

Payne, M. P., "Historical Note on the Derivation of

Froude's Skin Friction Constants," INA, 1936,
pp. 93-109

Lackenby, H., "Re-Analysis of WiUiam Froude's

Experiments on Surface Friction and Their Extension in the Light of Recent Developments," INA,
1937, pp. 120-158. On pp. 136-137 there is a list
of 16 references.

(20)

(into

(6)

22

at the Experimental

1874, pp. 36-73

Afdeeling 9e Aflevering," 1876-1880.

WRH,

18-20 describe the modified Gebers formula in use

Model Basin, Washington, in
the period 1923-1947.

and 1874

"On Experiments with HMS Greyhound,"

(4)

720, 1919-

"Skin Friction Resistance and Law

Comparison," INA, 1924; abstracted in SBSR,
17 Apr 1924, pp. 454-455
Burgers, J. M., and van der Hegge Zijnen, B. G.,

Friction

Much

knowledge of the

"Preliminary Measurements of the Distribution of

of Fluid Friction," Brit. Assn.

fluid friction, as it

and

the Velocity of a Fluid in the Immediate Neighborhood of a Plane, Smooth Surface," Verh. d. Kon.

(3a) Froude,

View

of

Math, et

Phys., Paris, 1865, Vol. 19

ARC,

(12) Shigemitsu, A.,

Soc, 1842

Bazin, H., "R6cherohes hydrauliques (Research in

Hydrauhcs),"

"On

1920, Vol. I, pp. 51-67

(10) Stanton, T. E., "Friction," London, 1923
(11) Bruckhoff, "Reibungskoeffizienten (Friction-Resist-

the Steady Motion of an Incom-

pressible Fluid," Trans.

(2)

Stanton, T. E., MarshaU, D., and Bryant, C. N.,

the Conditions at the Boundary of a Fluid in

and Historical

There are hsted in this group a number of the

papers which form landmarks, as it were, in the
early development of the theory of friction resistance, as applied to bodies and ships moving in
both air and water. Included are a number of
references which describe the development of the
theory, and its practical applications, in much
more detail than can be given here.
(1) Stokes,

"Grenzschichten in Flussugkeiten mit

Reibung (Boundary Layers in Liquids of
Small Friction)," Zeit. fiir Math, und Phys., 1908,

Blasius, H.,

(21)

"A Critical Discussion of Turbulent

Flows in Channels and Circular Tubes," Proc.
Fifth Int. Congr. for Appl. Mech., Sep 1938;
published by Wiley, New York, 1939
Davidson, K. S. M., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 76-82
and Figs. 22-23
Millikan, C. B.,

(22) Taylor,

D. W., S and P, 1943, pp. 31-35

II^l)ROl1^^

130
(23) T.kIJ, F.

-Tlio Fuiulam.Mitals of

II.,

IMK,

Uesistaiioe."
(2-1)

Rouse.

the

traff-s

xMics i\ ship nrsir.x

p.

150.

friction furmiiliLH, altlioiigh

This

many

ilevclopmoiits of

tccliiiirul

H.,

F.

Rcsistanro;

Metho<ls,"

M.

.\

from the point of view

"The Dotorminalion of Frictional

Review of PremMit Knowledge and

SHMl^H, Jan

1947, pp. 15-19

.Vcevwio,

111

L.,

and 112 there are a number of references

additional to those given here.

EH,

1950, pp. 75-115

K. E., SNAME, 1932, beginning on
279; MIT Symp., 1951, beginning on p. 101.

(28) Rouse, H.,

(29) Schoenherr,
p.

II,

p.

321(T

Datman, H., "General Physical Properties of a

Viscous Fluid," Chap. Ill of "Hydrodynamics,"
Bull. 84, Nat. Res. Council, Feb 1932, pp. 89-152.
This chapter contains much historical data and
an enormous number of references, |>ertaining to
all

"Skin Friction Resintance," Spec.

I*ubl., Canal do Expcriencias llidrodinflmira.'i, V.\
Pardo, Madrid, 194S. Only the Conclusions of this
pa|>er are published in 5th ICSTS, 1940, pp. 93-98.
(27) Van Lammercn, \V. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
J. G., RP^N^, 194S, Ix'ginning on p. 32. On pages
(2ti)

(Tlic

Ingenicur-.Vrchiv, 1931,
(30)

of bydniuiicd rnlhor th.in naval architecture.

(iS) Tjxld,

Sec. -15.26

Turbulent Boundary leaver in Plane

Flow at Incrca.sing and Decreasing Pressures),"

stieg

Kri.liormI

I'JU

1:MF, 10U>. iH-RinninK on

II.,

book

Slii|>

phases of this subject.

(37) Schoenhcrr,

K.

F,.,

"Resistance of Flat Surfaces

Moving Through a

On

279-313.

Fluid,"

SXAME,

of 30 references, listing

K.

von Kdrmdn,

Kempf,

T.,

E.,

MPK,

t'.Ott.,

1933

VDI-Forschungsheft,
lation available as

anal^'tic

F.,

widerstiind
IHjIiticrter

guradlinig

Wiisser

in

Platten (The

Law

summarizes and compares

friction resistance of planes,

/?>

fiir

Flaehen-

(a

Kempf,

is

G.,

fortbewegter,

of Similitude for the

(Polished)

Plates
(43)

friction

constant)

Kempf,

G.,

Frictional

and

and recommends an
of the form
surface)

F*""/L",

Pis.

Results Obtained in Measuring

IXA, 1929, pp. 104-121
tests

made

witli

Friction on Ship Hulls),"

WRH,

Mar

(34)

J.

H.,

(47)

Schultz-Grunow, F., "Ermittlung des hydraulischen

Heibungswidcrstandes von Platten niit m.ls-sig
rauher Oberflaehe (The Determination of the

"meas-

Hj'draulic Friction Resistance of Plates

Rough

Moderately
(48) Schlichting,

zum

(49)

"Die turbulcntc RoibungMchicht in

I'bcncr Slrrimung Iwi Drurknbfoll und Druckuii-

Untersucliungcn
(Experimental Investi-

"E.xperimentelle

II.,

Hauhigkeit.sproblem

Kempf, G., "(*biT den Einlluss der Rauhigkeit auf

den Widerstjind von SchifTen (On the Induencc of
Roughnc.'i.s on the Resistiince of Ships)," RT(^
1937, Vol. 3S, pp. 159-176; '225-234. In this paper

Kempf

describes and gives the rcsulLs of friction

tests oti long,

imrfaci.fl.

(SS) CinischwiUi, K.,

Having

Schiffahrl-stech-

gation of the Roughness Problem)," Ing.-.\rchiv.,

1936, Vol. VIII, Xo.

G.,

Surfaces),"

nische Forschungshefte, Oct 1936, Heft 7

1929, pp.

"Neue Ergebnisse der Widerstandsforechung (New Rcsultfl in Resistance Investigations)," WRH, 7 Jun 1929, pp. 2.34-2.39 and 22
Jun 1929, pp. 247-252. Figs. Oa and Ob on p. 237
bow mcamired roughness profllca of two typical
plate

"On

the Effects of Changes in 'Degree

and 'Degree of Turbulence' on Skin
Friction ResisUmce and Wake of Models," IN.\,

Lamble,

1936, p. 125fT

91-03

Kempf,

Gott., 1935,

Bakhmeteff, B. A., "The Mechanics of Turbulent

Flow," Princeton U. Press, 1936

Hamburg

and in the bottom of long, shallow, pontoons

towed in the Hamburg Model Basin.
HopiK.', H., "Xeue Messungcn der VVasaerreibung am
SchifTskorpcr
(New Measurements of Water

z.

(46)

Resistance,"

VI-IX. Describes

Wiss.

of Wetting'

"FlSchenwiderstand (Surface Resist22 Oct 1924, pp. 521-528. This

"Xew

d.

Vol. I

0.125.

uring plates" in the side of the steamer

(33)

stromung," Xach. Gesell.

resistance

(wetted

der kleinen Striingen bei der Platten-

gicbilanz

previous work on

all

paper discusses and gives the results of friction

testa on long, towed, floating cyUnders.
(32)

Japan), Dec 1934, \'ol. LV

II., ".Vmphtudenverteilung und Ener-

(44) Schlichting,

WRH,

ance),"

and Schhchting, H., "Das Widerstands(The Resistance Law for

Rough Plates)," WRH, Jan 1934, No. 1; luiglish
version in T.MB Traiisl. 258, Sep 1955
ITiraga, Y., "Experimental Investigations on the
Frictional Resistance of Planks and Ship Moilels,"
ZOsen Kiokai (The Society of Xaval .\rchitects of
gesetz rauher Platten

(45)

where n
(31)

for

Nov

and Tietjens, O. G., "Applied Hydroand Aeromechanics," McGraw-Hill, Xew York,

in

expression

1292,

1934

Aehnlichkeitsge.setz

a Straight Line in Water)," Schiffbau,

1921, Vol. XXII, Xos. 29-33, 35, 37-39. A complete
translation is found in NAC.\ Tech. Memo 30S
of Apr 1925. This paper gives the result-s of extended
tests on friction planes at the Vienna model basin.
It

NACA Tech. Memo

(42) Prandtl, L.,

"Das

Surface Resistance of Smooth

Moving

rauhen Rohren,"
English trans-

(41) Prandtl, L.,

and design work.

(30) Gebers,

1933.

361,

1950.

within the last qiiartcr-conturj' for

iisetl

G., Schoenherr,

"Rcibungswiderstand (Frictional Resistance)," IIPSA, 1932, pp. 1-87

Schlichting,
H., "Zur Entstehung der Turbulenz l>ei
(39)
der Plattenstriimung," Nach. Ge.sell. d. Wis. z.

This group comprises references which led to

widely

is

of the period 1839-1931.

(38) Eisner, F.,

Deiclopmcnl of Fridion-Iicsislance Formulations

the preparation and use of certain formulations

pp.

a list
certain published papers

(40) Xikuradso, J., "Striimungsgesetze in

II.

19,32,

page 297 of this paper there

(50)

Kempf,

G.,

towed, lloating pontoons.

"On

the lOfTcct of RoughncsM on

ResiNlAnrc of Ships,"

INA

1937,

pp.

tin-

109 119.

FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 45.26

on

115 gives friction coefficients of ships

and of the HSVA pontoon with different roughFig. 3

p.

nesses (see also

p.

RPSS,

1948, pp. 48-49). Fig. 5 on

119 gives the effect of density of roughness on

resistance.

(64)

(51) Schultz-Grunow, F., "Der Hydraulisohe Reibungswiderstand von Flatten mit massig rauher Oberflache, insbesondere von Sehiffsoberflachen (The
HydrauUc Friction Resistance of Plates with Large
Roughnesses, such as Those on Ship Surfaces),"

STG,
(52)

(63)

ately

Rough

Zeit.

des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 1938, Vol. 82, pp.

is an English translation of this

(65)

(67)

Surfaces, especially Ship's Surfaces),"

(68)

TMB library.

paper in the

(54)

Homann,

F.,

fiir

glatte Flatten

for

Aug

1940, Vol. 17, No.

Smooth

(69)

TMB

(70)

TMB

C71)

Plates)," Luftfahrtforschung, 20
8,

pp. 239-246; English

NACA Tech. Memo 986,

Sep 1941
Sawyer, J. W., "Surface Finish Literature," Machine
Design, May and Jun 1955.
translation in

(55)

(New Frictional Resistance

Law

tional Resistance and the Expansion of Model

Teat Data to Full Size," SNAME Tech. and Res.
Bull. 1-2, Aug 1948
Todd, F. H., "The Determination of Frictional
Resistance,"
Rep. 663, revised edition.
Mar 1949
Landweber, L., "Effect of Transverse Curvature on
Frictional Resistance,"
Rep. 689, Mar 1949
Schlichting, H., "Lecture Series, 'Boundary-Layer
Theory,' Part I Laminar Flows," NACA Tech.
Memo 1217, Apr 1949
Schlichting, H., "Lecture Series, 'Boundary-Layer
Theory,' Part IITurbulent Flows," NACA
Tech. Memo 1218, Apr 1949
Landweber, L., "A Review of the Theory of the
Frictional Resistance of a Smooth Flat Plate with
Turbulent Boundary Layers,"
Rep. 726,
Sep 1950
"Progress Report on Research in Frictional Resistance,"
Rep. 726, Sep 1950
Todd, F. H., "Skin Friction Resistance and the
Effects of Surface Roughness,"
Rep. 729,
Sep 1950
Rotta, J., "Beitrag zur Bereohnung der Turbulenten
Grenzschichten (Contributions to the Calculation
of Turbulent Boundary Layers)," Max Planck
Institut fiir Stromungsforchung, Gottingen, 1 Jul

TMB

"Der tJberganz zwischen den Stromungsgesetzen fiir glatte und rauhe Flatten (The
Correlation Between the Laws of Flow for Smooth
and Rough Plates)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing.,
2 Apr 1938, pp. 405-406
Schultz-Grunow, F., "Neues Reibungswiderstandgesetz

the Calculation of Fric-

TMB

(66)

756-758. There
(53)

131
for

TMB

1938, Vol. 39, p. 177ff

Schultz-Grunow, F., "Der Reibungswiderstand massig rauher Oberflachen, insbesondere von Sehiffsoberflachen (The Friction Resistance of Moder-

"Uniform Procedure

1950;

TMB Transl.

242,

Nov

1951.

Assumes that

"the kinematic viscosity and the geometrical conof the wall (wall roughness) only

figuration

III. References of

The

Modern Application

references of this group are

influence the velocity profile near the wall in a

is very thin compared with the
boundary-layer thickness and that with proper
normalization the flow quantities in the remaining
zone of the boundary layer appear to be almost
independent of viscosity and wall roughness."

layer Sw which

selected to

describe the extensive research and experimentation conducted since about 1940 on the develop-

ment

of the

boundary layer and the characteristics

(56) Prandtl, L.,

"The Mechanics

Aerodynamic Theory, Vol.

of Viscous Fluids,"

Ill,

Durand Reprint-

Comm., Pasadena, 1943

Dryden, H. L., "Some Recent Contributions to the
Study of Transition and Turbulent Boundary
Layers," Proc. 6th Int. Cong. Appl. Mech.,

(73)

ing

(57)

(74)

Paris, 1946
(58) Carrier,

G. F., "The Boundary Layer in a Corner,"

Quart. Appl. Math. 1947, Vol. 4, p. 367

(59) Dryden, H. L., "Some Recent Contributions to the
Study of Transition and Turbulent Boundar}'

Layers," NACA Tech. Note 1168, 1947

Schubauer, G. B., and Skramstad, H. K., "Laminar
Boundary-Layer Oscillations and Transition on a
Flat Plate," Nat. Bur. Stds. RP 1722, Feb 1947
(61) Schubauer, G. B., and Skramstad, H. K., "Laminar(60)

Boundary-Layer Oscillations and Stability of

Laminar Flow," Jour. Aero. Sci., Feb 1947, Vol.
14, or "Laminar Boundarj'-Layer Oscillations and
Transition on a Flat Plate," NACA Rep. 909, 1950
(62)

Wieghardt, K., "Increase in Frictional Resistance

due to Turbulence Caused by Surface Irregularities," 1948. The English translation is known
as A.C.S.I.L. Translation 380 (ACSIL/ADM/
48/85).

Turbulent Flow in a
Two-Dimensional Channel," NACA Tech. Note
2123, Jul 1950 and NACA Rep. 1053, 1951
Todd, F. H., "Skin Friction Resistance and the
Effects of Surface Roughness," SNAME, 1951,
pp. 315-374
Baines, W. D., "A Literature Survey of Boundary
Layer Development on Smooth and Rough Surfaces at Zero Pressure Gradient," Iowa Inst.

(72) Laufer, J., "Investigation of

of viscous flow.

Hydraul. Res.,

St.

Univ. Iowa, 1951

(75)

Schubauer, G. B., and Klebanoff, P. S., "Investigation of Separation of the Turbulent Boundary
Layer," NACA Rep. 1030, 1951

(76)

Townsend, A. A., "The Structure of the Turbulent

Boundary Layer," Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, Apr
1951, Vol. 47, Part 2, pp. 375-395

"A Method for the Calculation of

the Turbulent Boundary Layer in a Pressure
Gradient,"
Rep. 752, May 1951

(77) Granville, P. S.,

TMB

(78)

Krzywoblocki, M. Z., "On the Foundations of

Certain Theories of Turbulence," Jour. Franklin

(79)

Kempf,

Inst., 1951, Vol. 252, p. 409ff

G., and Karhan, K., "Zur Oberflachenreibung des Schiffes (On the Surface Friction of

Ships),"

STG,

(80) Allan, J. F.,

1951, Vol. 45, pp. 228-243

and Cutland, R.

S.,

"Skin Friction

IIYDRODVN AMK.S

132

Hosistancp Derived from Wiiko Mi'iisurriiioiil,"

Proo, tHTond Int. Conf. Naval Engre., Ostcnd,
1051

Hughes, G., "Kriclional Resistance of Smooth Plane

Surfaces in Turbulent Flow New Data and a
Sur\ey of KxistinR Data," INA, 10")2, pp. 1-20
K., "Der Kinllus von SandniuhiRkpit auf
Karlian.
(82)
den Hoilmngswiderstand (The Influence of Sand
Roughnefw on Friction Resistance)," Scliiff und
Hafen, Jan 1952, pp. 8-10
(83) Lap, .\. J. W., and Troost, L., "Frictional Drag of
Ship Forms," SNAME, North. Calif. Sect., 29
(81)

Feb 1952;
19,S.3,

SNAME

also

Member's

Bull.,

Jun

pp. 18-22

(84) Baker, C. S., "Scale Effect on Ship and Model

Resistance and Ita Estimation," L\.V, .\pr 1952,

pp.

41-3.3

(85) Locke, F.

W.

S.,

"Recommended

bulent

Friction

Bu.Ver

(Navj-

in

Definition of Tur-

Incompressible

Research

Dept.)

Liquids,"

Rep.

Div.

DR-1415, Jun 1952

(86) Laufer, J.,

"The Structure

Developed

(87) Krzywoblocki,

(88)

Flow,"

Pi|H>

M.

Z.,

"On

of

NBS

Turbulonio in Fully
Rep. 1974, Sep 1952

the Fundamental.'! of the

Boundary Layer Theory," Jour. Franklin Inst.,

Apr 19.i3, Vol. 255, p. 2><m
Allan, J. F., and Cutland, R. S., "Wake Studies of

Plane Surfaces," NECI, 1952-1953, Vol. 69, pp.

245-266, D6.5-D78
(89) Minutes of the .\merican Towing Tank Conference,
MIT, Cambridge, (Ma.ss.), 4-6 May 1953, pp.
(90)

9-14 and Appx. XX

Landwcber, I.., "The Frictional Resistance of Flat
Plates in Zero Presyfure Gradient,"

SX.\ME,

19.53,

On page

20 this paper lists 25 references,

of which a number are given here.
pp. 5-32.

(91) Morris,

H. N., "A

New Concept

of V\o\\ in

Rough

Conduits," ASCE, Hydraulics Div., Jan 1954,

Vol. SO, Separate 390. .\ list of 20 references on
friction flow in conduits, pipes, jiiid chimnels is

found on

p.

(92) Gertlcr, M.,

390-123.

"An

Analysis of the Original Test Data

SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 45.26

"Boundary-Layer Characteristics for

Smooth and Rough Surfaces," S\.\ME, 1954,
pp. 333-35.S. There is a list of 41 references on

(94) llama,

R.,

I'.

pp. 349-.351.

Observed
Boundary Layer and Pipe," Jour. Appl. Phys.,
Feb 1954, \o\. 25, pp. 1S8-196

(95) Sehubauer, G. B., "Turbulent ProccBsee as

in

(96) Talen,

H. W., "Collective Research on Paints for

Ships' Hulls," Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2,

No.

401-409

13, pp.

and Voshida,

(97) Sasajima, H.,

E., "Frictional Resist-

Wavy Roughened

ance of

bldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2,

Surfaces," Int. Ship-

No.

13, pp.

(98) Ilogner, K., "Influence of lOdges

411-450

on the Boundary

la Mf-canique des Fluides,"

Tech. Min. Air, Paris, 19.54, pp. 129-134.
The paper is in French but there is an English
summary in Appl. Mech. Rev., Nov 1955,
number 3444, p. 480. This states that "Near the
longitudinal edges (of a thin friction plane) the
viscous stress is approximately double that in the

LayiT," M<''m()ires sur

I'ubl. Sci.

central region."

H.,
"Boundary Layer Theory,"
McGraw-Hill, New York, 19.55 (in EngUsh).
This is the English-language edition of the German
book entitled "Grenzschicht-Theorie," by H.
Sehlichting on the same subject, published in 1951.
See Appl. Mech. Rev., Jan 1956, p. 33.

(09) Schlichtiiig,

B., and Klebanoff, P. S., "Contrion the Mechanics of Boundary-Layer

Transition," N.\CA Tech. Note 3489, Sep 1955

(100) Sehubauer, G.

butions

(101) Allan,

the

J.

F.,

and Cutland, R. S., "Invcstig.ation of

an 18-Foot Plank," lESS,

Resistance on

1, pp. 9-56. This paper

describes a series of investigations carried out

195.5-1956, Vol. 99, Part

with an

IS-ft

plank

in

smooth

order to determine

its

with a rough
surface, and with a surface arranged to represent
a ship hull with plate edges, rivets, welds, etc.
resistance with a

The

results

finish of the

of

surface,

an examination

of

the

surface

smooth plank and a description

of the

Gov't. Print. Off., Wa.xhington, D. C.

instrument used are given. Tests to obtain an

exact mea.sure of the roughness of the rough

Hughes, G., "Friction and Form Resistance in

Turbulent P'low, and a Proposed Formulation for
Use in Model and Ship Correlation," IX.\, 9 .Vpr

On page .56 there is a bibliography of 11 items. .\

summary of this paper is found in SBSR, 27 Oct

for the Taylor Standar<l Series," T.\IH Rep. SOO,

Mar
(93)

IN

1954

19.54,

plank are also described and the results presented.

1955, pp. 541-542.

CHAPTER

46

Reference Data on Separation, Eddying,

and Vortex Motion

46.1
46.2
46.3
46 4

136

46.7
46.8
46 9

Vortex Streets and Related Phenomena

Vortex Streets and Vibrating Bodies
Practical AppUcations of the Strouhal Num-

139

46.10

References on

General

133

Separation Criteria

133

Detection of Separation; E.xtent of the Zone

ber to Singing and Resonant Vibration

Predicting Apparent Flow Deflection Around

Separation Zones

Estimate of Separation Drag Around a Ship

Separation Phenomena Around Geometric

46 5
46.6

and Non-Ship Forms

46.1

and 7.19

of

Volume

I, it

Sees.

7.4

appears that the following

Longitudinal surface slope with reference to

the relative direction of motion of water and ship

at a distance, in both horizontal and vertical

planes
(b) Rising-pressure gradient in

the direction of

motion of the water past the body or ship surface

(c) Nature of flow in the boundary layer ahead
of the separation zone, whether laminar or
turbulent; particularly, the magnitude of the
transverse velocity gradient dU/dy just forward
of the separation point
(d)

Roughness

of the solid surface

ahead

of the

Relative velocity of ship and water, at least

insofar as the size

and shape

zone and the media which

both) are concerned

fill

of the separation

(water or air or

region under consideration. It seems that atmos-

pheric pressure can be neglected.

(g) Projections, recesses,
the ship surface.

Not too much

is

and discontinuities

known

tion

it is

possible to

of

make

143

Systems, Vortex Trails,

144

Here the medium under

body on all sides, and the
undisturbed pressure is very nearly the same in
all directions and at all points around the body.
For a body operating at or near the surface of the
water, where the separation phenomena appear
to be governed largely by the hydrostatic pressure
and the transverse pressure gradient dp/dy, both
the pressure and the gradient are nominally zero
at the air-water interface and they increase
pressure surrounds the

hnearly with depth.

Many

aspects of separation

appear to vary in the same way.

Separation Criteria. Despite the numer46.2
ous factors involved, listed in Sec. 46.1, separation
appears to be the result, principally, of inadequate
lateral pressure, inadequate transverse pressure

and inadequate normal

gradient,

force to accel-

erate the surrounding liquid inward toward the

body which has a local slope greater

than a certain amount in any given plane. This
critical slope may and usually does vary with the
plane or stream surface in or along which the
flow occurs. For the transom stern

shown

at

in

Fig. 46.A, there is a determining slope for flow

in

quantitatively about

the individual effects of the items listed. However,

by taking the fragments

141

surface of a
it

Hydrostatic pressure at the point or in the

(f)

141

objects, or bodies in air.

separation zone
(e)

140

Summarizing from

General.

Eddy

and Singing

139

factors are involved in a prediction of separation:

(a)

knowledge in combinaestimates of probable

performance in ship scale and to formulate certain

rough design rules.
Caution is necessary when interpreting or
making use of published data on separation
which have been derived from tests on models.
133

along the waterline and another for flow under

the bottom, the latter generally paralleling the
buttocks.

although not certain, that the

should be measured along stream
or other surfaces of equal ambient or hydrostatic
pressure. Knowing the position of these surfaces,
It is probable,

critical slopes

and the

critical slopes,

the naval architect might

then predict the locus of the points marking the

forward or upstream edges of a separation zone.
Around the stern of a ship, for example, at

134

l!^

DRODN

\ WIK.s I\ Mill' 1)1S|(;\

Sec. -16.2

Lookinq Foi^ward

Wave Vyaterline
Not Shown

VWave NWalerline
Outlines> of

Separ-alion Zone
ana Estimated

TypicAL Sktaration-Zone Areas on Ships, as Projected on a Transverse Plane

Tic. 46.A

small

below the air-water interface,

distances

the equal-pressure surfaces would

ma.y be ten or more times that amount. Despite

generally

the gently sloping buttocks, separation of the

parallel to the free-water surface, as at 2 in Fig.

layers close under the wafer surface oc(^urs at

4G.A. This would be true whether the air-water

extremely low speeds. This

interface

lie

essentially flat at low speeds or

is

is

deformed by waves at higher speeds.

This is a strong probability that other factors
enter into the formation of a .shallow separation

zone abaft the stern.

to

be

If so, these factors will

determined and studied

before

have

reliable

easily

\-ortexes,
is

when the water

visible

wave profile in way of

more accurate to position

the run
wliy

rciison

that

free

nurfaoc

it inhibit.s

Such a reduction

lence at the surface.

known

is,

affects

flow

vertical turbu-

turbulence

in

to affect flow separation in other cases"

is

(SN.\ME,

1954, p. 396|.

It

might be addcil

llial

presence of the ship

tiie

components
turbulence which are normal or nearly normal
It

may

be for one or

two

zone

is

usually

bountled

by

having what

butli of

he

rcji.sons

is

.sjiiling

line,

fair

form

oul-

iiml

favored with a [icrfcclly normal curve of s<'ction

liave

a buttock

hull at the locus of the separation points.

j -

The

all

(he hull

and the customary appendages abaft the

.S('i)ara-

lie

within them.

On

a moving

water in the vicinity with wocmI

separation zone swirl around
and follow the .shij) while tho.se outsich^ tli(> zone
sjjrinkling the

chips.

Those

in the

arc rapidly carried astern.

(

Icncrally, as plotted

indicated in diagram

'1

on a

of

i'"ig.

IjihIv

plan .iml as

It'>..\,

the width of

only a few

till-

separation zone for a ship with

near the .snrf.uc

niii

is

slopi! i of

dcgrcca, yet the watcrline slope

fair

streamlines and stream surfaces, leaving the ship

boat or ship the extent of the separation zone

on the water surface is readily indicated by

yacht. Such a crall,

considered a

,sei)aration

reasonably

to

upper surface layers under and

Ix-hind the run of u

may

The

these points along the waveline.

tion-point locus

i)rcccding paragraphs that .separa-

tion occur.-^ in the

areiw,

it is

of

the solid surface.

lincd in the

known,

is

zone extends far enough astern so that

hull also suppre.sstjs tho.se velocitj'

surface

the surface waterline, on the port and starboard

suggestion that:
tlic

further-

For reference purposes a separation zone in the

run starts at separation points V.j. and ]> along
sides, respectively. If the

"Pcrliaps,

is,

almost glassy smooth.

predictions can be made. G. Birkhoff offers the

separation at the stern

.sej^aration

more, marked by a large number of vertical-axis

considerably greater

lii.an

its

,a

pciinted

dcpili

The

DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES

Sec. 46.2

zone
in

is

deepest at the centerline and

depth toward Ep and Eg

extent of the zone

is

it

The

may

135

diminishes

165 deg. This

transverse

blunt entrance, indicated at the right in diagram

rather easily determined by

be either at the after end of a

1

of Fig. 46. B, or at a discontinuity in the run,

attaching tufts to that portion of the model and

pictured at the

watching the behavior of these flexible indicators

in the moving water of a circulating-water channel.
A considerable amount of non-systematic but
reasonably reliable modern data indicates that
the slope of a ship waterline at which separation

pointed stern of diagram 2 as a form of transom

stern, separation is definitely to be expected at

begins, at the air-water interface,

is

the corners
if

diagram

Ep and Eg

Considering the

2.

diagram 3

in

the values of the corner angles

limits of 90

There

of the order

left in

is,

lie

of Fig. 46.

between the

deg and about 165 deg.

unfortunately, a serious lack of in-

the relative direction of motion of the ship and

formation upon which to base an estimate of the

rate at which the critical slope in a flowplane that

the water and

is

of 13 to 15 deg.

is

This

is

reckoned with respect to

based upon a surface along the

more vertical than horizontal.

generally horizontal increases with hydrostatic

ship's side that is

pressure, at levels below the free surface. In the

The

absence of analytic studies or systematic experi-

critical slope given here is somewhat lower

than the values of 18 or 20 deg previously quoted
in the literature but it has been well checked on
ship models. It may be assumed that a separationfree horizontal slope in the run, at the water
surface, is in the range of 11 to 12.5 deg, as shown
in diagram 1 of Fig. 46. B.

No Separation at Surfaoa
if

lf^

is

Leas Than 12.5

No Separation at Surface
f Cornar Angle is more
than 165 deq
1

mental data

it

may

separation-free

be said tentatively that the

the

rate

of

on a full-size displacement-type vessel, up to an estimated critical

slope of about 36 deg at a depth of 40 ft. The
limiting waterUne slope for freedom from eddying
abaft a skeg, placed ahead of a single propeller,
is given by W. P. A. van Lammeren as 20 deg
[RPSS, 1948, p. 94]. The corresponding depth is
not stated but it is at least as far below the
0.6 deg per ft submergence,

surface as the tip submergence.

The indications are

that there

is

a corresponding

variation on the model of such a ship, so that the

separation zones and their boundaries are geometrically similar. This

Discontinuity

at

increases

slope

pressure

to be expected of a

is

phenomenon which

when the model

is

is a function of F^,
run at corresponding speed.

Fining the trailing edges of sternposts, skegs,

'Separation at Surface
if Corner Anqle

Definitel\y

Occurs at Ep

and rudders to conform to these

less than about 160

or 165 deq, provided W/aterline. Slope
is

Anqle Does Not Exceed 12.5 deg

horizontal slopes

them

separation abaft

In some ships with

Waterline/

of Sec. 23.1

known
In

of

critical or limiting

not always achieved, hence

is

by no means unusual.
the Magunkook

is

full runs, like

Volume

separation has been

I,

to occur abaft the whole underwater hull.

many

of these cases there is not only a greatly

increased drag but a seriously diminished rudder

1^^.^ Transom
r"^

Corner Anqle

effect.

Separation at Surface Definitelvj Occurs at Ep and Es if

Tronsom Corner Angle has a Value Between 90 and 165 deg

Fig. 46.B

Sketch Indicating Typical Separation

Criteria for Waterlines

On

the stern contour or

zone begins at the point

separation

is

almost certain to occur at any disline, where a sharp knuckle

continuity along that

exists with a horizontal obtuse angle less

than

the separation

marked on diagrams

1 and 2 of Fig. 46.C. When the flow is predominantly in the vertical plane, as it is under the
run of the wide, flat barge of diagram 1 of that

figure, the

Regardless of the waterline slope with reference

to the longitudinal ship axis or direction of motion,

profile,

Ek

maximum

separation-free slope appears

to be of the order of 14 to 15 deg [Dawson, A.

SNAME,

1950, p.

9].

This

is

for a region not

J.,

more

below the waveline on a ship-size

is both inward and upward,
as under the canoe or whaleboat or "cruiser"

than 2 or 3
craft.

When

ft

the flow

HYDRODVNAMIQS

136

Borge Form with Wide Beom

J_

THy

1^
than 3 ft

The

Sec. 46.3

slope of the flowlines, with reference to

the horizontal, for a considerable distance below

Ig

Buttock Slope

^,__^_

"

I\ SHIP DESIGN
(d)

the lower edge of the transom, say at least 1.0

14 de<) or lets

the buttock slopes are nearlj' constant for a

If

Hv

and possibly 2.0 times the transom immersion

for ig Limit Given

considerable

portion

of

ahead of the transom,

it

the

length,

may

say 0.3L,

be assumed that

flowline slojie equals the buttock slope.

tlie

this is not the case, as

on the transom-stern

If

ABC

ship hull of Part 4, the actual flowline slopes at

Hy

left&

than
ft for

"^^

<:r
tg Limit Givn^^

Fio. 46.C

Buttock Slope

^^

Zt6*a

the transom edge

Lg
or leas

may

be appreciably larger than

the buttock slopes.

Further information as to the application of

criteria to a transom-stern design are

Typical Separ-^tion Criteria for Buttocks

these
Stern of diagram 2 of Fig. 46. C, the separation-free

included in Sec. 67.20.

be as

Notwithstanding the long and extensive use of

great as 25 deg with the liorizontal. However,

tunnel sterns for shallow-water craft, and the

buttock or profile slope near the surface

separation

may

niaj'

normally be expected bej'ond the

range of 22 to 25 deg, assuming a full-scale depth

not more than 5 or G

special case

below the wavehne.

ft

transom stern described and illustrated in Sec.

25.14 of Volume I, where separation is known to
e.xist in

the region abaft the transom.

tative information usually desired

is

(a)

The transom

corner angle,

in Fig. 4G.Ii.

The sharp

(b)

The transom edge

of the tran.som. This

Volume

and
and

running.

is

angle, at the lower edge

a measure of the dis-

continuity in a buttock line in the vertical plane.

As

illustrated in Fig. 25.1, the

ia

not rounded, and

of the
(c)

transom

is

if

of the transom.

less, if

if it

has a

the lower edge

the buttock slope ahead

By

llu of the deepest portion

one

line

of

reasoning this

should be reckoned below the waveline at the

outer transom corners, but for wide transoms,

where Bu

0.5/i or more, the pressures

conditions are certainly not the

same

acroHS the stern. For design purpo.scs

necessary to

u.se

//

belrjw the at-rcst \VL.

occur

under

and 67.17 describe the design

the

of the

ABC

of the

that, at a

In those tunnel-stern craft having tuiuiel roofs

above the at-rest WL, the nominal submergence
and the hydrostatic pressure at the top are
negative. Only rarely do tunnel-roof slopes
exceed 20 deg, at or near the at-rest WL, but it is

doubtful that the

critical slope for

all

and flow
the

it is

way

almost

the nmximuin immersion

separation

is

as large as this. So far as known, at the time of

writing (1955), very few craft of this type have

been tested in model scale in a circulating-water
channel.
It is realized that the slopes

mentioned

in

the

preceding paragraphs are not always tiiken along

lines

or surfaces of constant pressure,

as

was

out at the beginning of this section.

pointed

However, no better method

not too large.

The submergence

Sees. 67.16

edge angle defines

the lower edge of the separation zone

value of about IGO deg or

would

ship of Part 4, and Fig. 78. F reveals

nominal submergence of about 12 ft
in the steepest region, there was no separation
for a maximum tunnel-roof slope of about 18.5 deg.

corners define the trans-

is

separation

conditions represented by the.se various designs.

the speed at

illustrated

the speed at which the craft

which

at

tunnel roof for the alternative arch-type stern

verse extent of the stern separation zone, regardless of

vessels, there is little systematic quanti-

The quanti-

which the transom will clear in service; in other

words, the speed at which the transom surface
is entirely free of water contact. This depends
upon a number of factors, not yet evaliiated in
adequate fashion:

defined in Fig. 25.1 on page 379 of

on large

tative information about the tunnel-roof slopes

presented by the immersed-

is

twin skegs with tunnels between them

fitting of

of defining po.ssible

separation zones ajjpears to be available at this

time.

Detection of Separation; Extent of the

46.3

Zone.

In

smooth water and at

close range, such

a punt or skiiT,
.separation can be "spotted" with a little practice
as abaft

l)y

the square stern

of

noting the vertical-axis vortexes or whirls at

ami near the

surface.

At longer

larger craft, the .scparalion zone

range,
is

made

and on
clearly

Sec.

DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES

463

by larger eddies, by chips, boxes, or blocks

of wood thrown into the zone, or by floating refuse
caught in it. As mentioned previously, these are
whirled around in the eddies or drawn back
toward the hull, and dragged along with the ship.
visible

The

floating objects outside the separation zone

disappear rapidly astern. Special vantage points

are necessary in

many

ships from which to

make

these observations, because the entire waterline

or waveline in the run

is

not visible from the

topside.

Under water, where the eddies can not be seen,

by the marine

separation zones are often detected

growths which flourish in these areas of low

relative velocity. When the separation zone is
free of large air bubbles, paint surfaces that
little

signs of

regions.

If

wear

may

show

be indicators of stagnant

there are, in an area suspected of

being in a separation zone, any sea connections

which can be shut off from a system and used as

pressure orifices, an observed head at or close to
the sea connection which is less than the actual
hydrostatic head is an indication that a Ap
exists there. Regardless of the exact nature of

Fig. 46.D

Fish-Ete View of a Ship

the water flow outside, this

presence of separation drag

137

Ap

indicates the

on a portion
mentioned
here are not to be confused with those which
may be developed because of potential flow
around certain portions of the ship, described
in Chap. 4.
By far the most satisfactory method of detectof the hull

which faces

ing separation,

aft.

if it is

The

Ap's

determining the extent of the

and observing the nature of the flow is to

test a model. This can be towed in a basin, using
a water box and mirrors for viewing the underzone,

water portion, or it can be run in a circulatingwater channel and viewed through large observation windows. Colored threads, strings, and tufts
are attached directly to the model surface or to
slender pins driven into the model so as to

lie

at

a distance from that surface. The tufts may be

attached to appendages, or mounted ahead of and
abaft propellers on wire frames which will not
affect the flow appreciably.

which

curl this

point

forward

way and
are

Tufts which wave,

which actually
unmistakable evidence of
that, or

unsteady flow, of approaching separation, or of

Model with Some Partly Reversed Tufts

HYDRODYNAMICS

188
tlic

roviTsed (low uf fully

tk>vi'l<>i)eil

scpaiatioii,

TMH

fish-oye

view of Fin.

It'U, taken in the

eireiilating-water eluiiinel, siiows partially

rcversetl tvifts in a separation

zone at about the

designed waterline (marked by the heavy black

and abreast the propeller. The disturbed

stripe)

under surface of the water in this region also

indicates tiie presence of eddying flow in the
separation zone.
Strings or tufts are attached to thin

wands

like

and colored dyes are ejected from

moved bj' hand to any
position desired around the model. Fig. 46.
pictures the trail of india ink flowing from such

left

of

Sec. -16.3

How
upward component

axis vortex, giving

definite

respectively.

The

IN SHIP DESIGN
tiic

alongside the hull a

of

velocity

the ink tube and a marked

component

to the right of

it.

The

to

the

downward

flow picture in

4G.F is not clear and complete because the

forward ends of some of the tufts shown are
attached directly to the model and others are
Fig.

fixed to the outer

ends of pins projecting from

its

surface.

High-speed flash (and motion-picture) photoof which Figs. 78. E, 78. F, and those

graphs,

fishing rods,

reproduced

long, thin tubes, both

examples,

in

TMB

Report 810 are further

provide a permanent record of the

steady continuous flow hoped for over

all

parts

and varying-flow
separation zones. If minute air

of a ship or of the reversed-

a tube (visible at the extreme right). Part of the

characteristics of

flow from the orifice position passes outboard of

bubbles are injected into the water,

the offset rudder while a small part of

a separation zone
formed by a projecting strut-arm pad as small
as 0.3 inch wide and projecting only about O.OG
inch from the fair surface of a model.
Vortexes which are not steady or stationary
are detected by dye injected in the vicinity, are

e.xpectedlj-

it

un-

swings inboard of the rudder.

The predominant

characteristic

revealed by the ink in Fig. 40.F

what might be

called

it.s

is its

the

of

flow

slowness and

uncertainty.

The

tufts

reveal the presence of a very large longitudinal-

I'll;.

Iti.l-;

Ki.mi-ICvK

Vikw dk

a Shii'

it is

to detect sw'irling bubbles in

Mohki. With Thau, ok Isiua Ink to ItKVKAr.

I'l.ow

I'm-ikun

possible

DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES

Sec. 46.5

Elevation of Ship Model Afterbody in Cikculating-Water Channel with Ink Trail, Tufts on
Surface, and Tufts on Pins Projecting from Surface

Fig. 46.F

observed by eye, or are recorded by high-speed

motion photographs. Aggravated air-leakage situations reveal themselves in the channel by air
bubbles drawn into the Ap regions around a
model,

The

139

its

propulsion devices, or

appendages.

its

circulating-water channel lends itself to

the simultaneous recording of pressures at

many

small orifices in a model surface, so that pressure

may

contours

and the areas

be plotted for any given conditions

of

Ap may

be definitely traced.

models for which resistance and propulsion data

were presented by R. B. Couch and M. St. Denis

[SNAME,
hull

1948, pp. 360-379], the flow close to the

and into the propeller

very nearly horizontal,

some

in

regions.

Fig.

if

disc

was

in

many

46. F

cases

downward

not actually

shows exactly

this

type of flow, above the ink "trail." The downward

flow was unexpected because the general buttock

was distinctly upward, at

an appreciable angle to the horizontal. The
slope in these regions

studying the apparent deflection or

phenomenon may be explained, at least in one

way, by the presence of separation zones abaft
the DWL and the near-surface WL's, and by
downward deflection of the water passing under

diversion of flow around separation zones, dis-

the stern. Normally, this water keeps on rising,

46.4

Predicting

Apparent

Around Separation Zones.

Flow

The

Deflection

detection meth-

ods described in the preceding section are most

useful

in

cussed in Sec. 7.10 on page 134 of

Prediction of this deflection

is,

Volume

I.

in the present state

upon a background of
up by watching flow tests,

of the art, based largely

experience,

built

studying and analyzing the photographic records,

and thinking about the problem.

Since pressures from external regions are not,
as a rule, transmitted through separation zones
to the ship hull, there may be little information
of direct value to resistance studies in a knowledge
of the potential-flow pattern,

with

its

changing

and pressures, outside the separation

zones. However, for the prediction of flow into
propulsion devices, and for special appendages
and attachments to be carried by a ship at some
distance from the side, knowledge of these
"outside" flow patterns is a must if the special
design is to be logical and the service performance
velocities

is

to be predicted.
For example, in the case

the way to the stern, but with a separation

zone extending nearly to the top of the propeller
aperture, as in Fig. 46. F, the under-the-bottom
all

water and the eddying water obviously can not

both occupy the same space.
Another explanation of the downward flow is
that

it is

due to the presence

ten tanker

a large vortex

the region of the bilge at about the after quarterpoint in the manner outlined by the sketch of
Fig. 25.F in Sec. 25.6 of

46.5
Ship.

Volume

I.

Estimate of Separation Drag Around a

Sec. 7.8, supplemented by Fig. 7.H on

page 130 of Volume

I,

explains

separation-drag coefficient

by noting the

may

how

the specific

be approximated

sensibly constant specific pressure-

from model tests at

low Froude numbers, below the hmit at which
resistance coefficient derived

wavemaking
of the

of

rotating about a longitudinal axis, streaming off

K.

S.

M.,

resistance manifests itself [Davidson,

PNA,

1939, Vol. II, p. 76;

SNAME,

11M)RI)1)V.\AM1C;S

110

Now York

Sect.,

'Jf.

Apr

1951, p.

lonstaiit specific r'sistaiirc

is

Fig.

7,

Tliia

1].

n-rkoiuHl iibuvc

ull

nllowniucs for i)oth transverse and longitudinal

iur\ature and for plating, stnictural, and coating
roughneSv<\s

which are

applieil to tlie flat,

smooth-

Mill' Dl.SlGN

l.\

Src. 16.6

the u.seful Ap's. For cxaiiiplc, air drawn

to

fill

and

down

the .separation zones behind the arms, legs,

feet

of

high-speed
detrimental,

swimmers, as revealed by special

photography,

may

be

helpful

or

depending upon whether drag or

propelling forces are involved.

plate, turlnilent-flow friction line.

Ap's

+Ap's and

caused

B. Perry reports the results of drag measure-

by out wan! deflection of the water at the bow,

by speetling up between the forward and after
neutral point.*, and by closing in astern, are not
of such sign and magnitude as to balance each

ments on surface-piercing bars of rectangular

and circular section, and gives excellent photographs of the air-filled holes alongside of and
abaft these bars [llydrodyn. Lab., CIT, Rep.
E-55.1, Dec 1954]. He reports an effect of surface
tension in the formation and behavior of the
.spray roots at the water surface. Sometimes these
roots form a sort of closure over the separation
zone which prevents the admission of air to it.
Neglecting the free-surface and lower-end

In the usual case the

when integrated over the transverse

maximum-area .'icction. This is especially true if
other,

the vesj^el has a bulb of appreciable size at the

bow, or

if

the separation zone at the stern

interfere with

enough to

is

large

the closing in of the

potential flow along the run.

Some

of the low-

probably
always the result of this action. The remainder,

efi"ects.

and greater

derived

speed

specific

resistance

pressure

part,

is

the stern, especially

is

chargeable to separation at
if

the criteria of Sec. 46.2

indicate a sizable zone of

Ap, when

projected

on a transverse plane. Areas of this kind are

illustrated by the hatched portions of diagrams

and 2 of Fig. 46. A.

There are insuflicient data from model tests,
and practically none from ship trials, to afford
an indication of the numerical values of Ap or
of the pressure coefficient Ap/5 to be found
1

separation zones. Tests in air on geometric

forms indicate separation-zone pressures varying
in ship

from

\Aq

behind a 2-diml

behind a 2-diml circular

flat

plate to 1.15(7

cj-linder,

with

its axis

normal to the stream, to 0.4g or le.ss for a

sphere and a circular flat plate, depending upon
the /?. of the test. There is little doubt that these

much

values are

too high for separation zones at

it is not yet known

whether the Ap in those zones is a function of
q or perhaps of the hj'drostatic pressure -p,,

the stern of a ship. In fact,

It is

pointed out in Sec. 7.3 of

aeration,

defined

as

the natural

Volume

that

or deliberate

admission of air to a separation zone where the

Ap's

cause added drag, acts to diminish that

drag. \Vhen di.scussing separation drag, therefore,

most necessary to know the extent to which

it is

atmaspheric air has been admitted to or has found

its way into a A/j region that is under a pressure

than atmo.spheric. In certain regions Ap's

le.ss

arc

wt up

deliberately, for propulsion purpo.ses,

as on the ijacks of the blades of screw propellers.

important to know to what extent, if any,

air has leaked into the.sc regions and diminished

It

iH

Perry reports that

tlie

drag of the

bars per unit depth, at a submergence

\-ertical

may

be
from the drag of similar bodies well
submerged and trailing water-vapor cavities
abaft them. The referenced report gives drag
h,

coefficients for bars of circular section, for rec-

tangular bars with one flat edge leading, for

wedge-shaped bars with the apex leading (and
for various included angles), and for all three
kinds when placed at an angle to the flow.
46.6

Separation

Phenomena Around

metric and Non-Ship Forms.

Geo-

It is often useful,

in the design of bo.x-typc or non-ship-shaped

water

and in tlic design and application of appendages, to have information as to the nature of the
separation to be expected around them. Some of
these data are given in the illustrations on Chap. 7,
and references to other data arc furnished in
certain sections of Chap. 42.
Research on this phenomenon has been underway for many years but the data have not yet
been collected and presented in systematic
fashion. Over three-quarters of a century ago
the following quantitative data were given by
W. Froude as the result of towing tests on a
cylindrical pitot tube 0.125 ft in diameter and
projecting 1.75 ft below the free-water surface.
The test was made at a speed of 15 ft per sec,
corresponding to about 9 kt. An air-filled hole,
called by Froude a "ga.sh," extended for about 3
ft abaft the tube, at which point the ga^sh closed
by the gradual meeting of the side streams which
craft,

boundeii
".

there

from
ro.sc

which,

ill

it.

lliis

point to alxiut 7 or S feel furlliiT stcrnwarda

vcrlicnlly a rentriil wall of wat<T, the crest of

its niilc

elevation, hail a paraliolic

form

(aa far

DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES

Sec. 46.8
as could be estimated

by the

ridge being certainly over 2 feet above the natural waterlevel

."

[Brit.

Assn.

Rep.,

1874

(dated

1875),

pp.

255-264].

Two
of

(5)

I,

are repeated here for the convenience

of the reader. These embody a multitude of

photographs taken through the water of a basin,
showing the air-filled separation zones abaft towed
vertical rods of finite lengths. They were made by
A. D. Hay and published in "Flow About SemiSubmerged Cylinders of Finite Length," Bureau
of Ships, Navy Department, Contract NObs34006, dated 1 October 1947. Many other photographs of separation zones abaft box-shaped

made by A. D. Hay and

Runyon, are
embodied in "Photographs and Resistance Measurements of Semi-Submerged Right Parallelepipedons," Contract NObs-34006, dated I May 1947.
forms,

references on this subject, listed in Sec. 7.2

Volume

J.

1924

Zahm, A.

(6)

periscopes

or

Similar vortexes

propeller-blade

thick

(8)

NACA Rep. 253, 1927

M., "Die reibungslose Stromung in Aussengebiet zweier Kreise (The Frictionless Flow About
Two Circles)," Zeit. fiir Ang. Math, und Mech.,
Aug 1929
Rosenhead, L., Proc. Roy. Soc, A, 1930, Vol. 129,

(9)

Rosenhead,

p. 115ff

may

be shed abaft faired appendyawed slightly with

respect to the flow.

The

at very low speeds

and those

vortexes in pairs appear

in echelon at the

higher speeds. Schematic diagrams of these vortex

groups are given in Figs. 7.M, 14. W, 14.X and

23.E of Volume I, and in Figs. 40.A and 41. D of
the present volume.
The mechanism by which, at certain combinations of forward speed and appendage diameter
or thickness, the alternating circulation associated

with

the

shedding

of

alternating transverse

these

lift

eddies

produces

forces of considerable

magnitude on the moving body,

is

explained in

Sec. 14.22.

For other treatments the reader

is

referred to

the following:
(1)

inders in

Roy. Soc, 1930

Biermann, D., and Herrnstein, W. H.,

(10)

Between Struts

Interference
binations,"

NACA

(11) Richards, G. J.,

the

"The

Com-

Rep. 468, 1933

"An Experimental

Wake Behind an

and

Jr.,

Various

in

Elliptic

Investigation of

Cylinder,"

ARC,

pp. 387-392
and Tietjens, O. G., AHA, 1934, text on
pp. 130-136, diagram on p. 132, photos in Pis. 24,
25,26
Tietjens, O. G., and Prandtl, L., HAM, 1944, Vol. I,
diagram only on p. 225

1590, 1934-1935, Vol.

I,

(12) Prandtl, L.,

(13)

H., HD, 1945, pp. 680-681

Rouse, H., EMF, 1946, pp. 239-241
Wright,
E. A., SNAME, 1946, Fig. 3, p. 377
(16)
(17) Rouse, H., EH, 1950, pp. 129-130
(18) Rouse, H., and Howe, J. W., BMF, 1953, frontispiece and Fig. Ill on p. 187.

Lamb,

(14)
(15)

The

reader

who

wishes to delve more deeply

into the analytic aspects of this matter

to L. Landweber's treatment of this

is

referred

phenomenon

TMB

Report 485, dated July 1942.

and Vibrating Bodies.
The right-hand diagram of Fig. 46. G, adapted
from H. Rouse [EH, 1950, Fig. 93 and pp. 129130], gives quantitative data concerning the
vortex trail generated abaft a stationary 2-diml
circular cylinder in a uniform stream of velocity
U It indicates that the whole system of alternate
vortexes left behind by a moving body in a
on

Vortex Streets

46.8

Ahlborn, F., "tjber der Mechanismus des hydrodynamischen Widerstandes (On the Mechanism

(2)

of Hydrodynamic Resistance)," Hamburg, 1902

Benard, H., Comptes Rendus (in French), 1908:2,
Vol. 147, pp. 839-842 and 970-972; 1913, Vol. 156,

(3)

Von Kdrmdn,

(4)

Von Kdrm^n,

p.

and Schwabe, M., "An Experimental

Flow Behind Circular CylChannels of Different Depths," Proc.

L.,

Investigation of the

sections.

ages such as struts which are

for Simple

Quadrics,"

hbrary.
Copies of these reports are in the
46.7 Vortex Streets and Related Phenomena.

Large vortexes, in pairs or in echelon, may be

and usually are shed from non-faired appendages
or blunt-ended objects, such as submarine

"Flow and Drag Formulas

F.,

(7) Lagally,

P.

TMB

HI

some additional material worked up by

T. von KArmdn, is given by G. de Bothezat in
NACA Rep. 28, 1918, Note IV, pp. 149-158.
Relf, E. F., and Simmons, L. F. G., "The Frequency
of the Eddies Generated by the Motion of Circular
Cylinders through a Fluid," ARC, R and
917,
with

eye), the highest part of the

1225; 1926, Vol. 182, p. 1523; 1926, Vol. 183

T., Nachr. Ges. Wiss., Gottingen (in

German), 1911,

p. 509; 1912, p.

547

with what may be termed a wake

For the cylinder shown the value of this
velocity is about 0.14 of the body speed, so that
the absolute downstream velocity of the system
of vortexes is about 0.86 1/
The transverse
spacing a between the rows of alternate vortexes,
for the case of the cyUnder illustrated, is about
1.3D. The longitudinal spacing h between vortexes in either row is about 4.3D.
follows

it

velocity.

and Rubach, H., "tJber den

Mechanismus des Flussigkeits- und Luftwiderstandes (On the Mechanism of Resistance in
Liquids and in Air)," Physikalische Zeitschrift, 15
T.,

Jan 1912. An English translation of

flowing stream, corresponding to this cylinder,

this paper,

U\l)Rt)l)\.\AMlC.,S IN Mlli'

142

Wohe

ULMGN

Velocitv

of Vortex Troil
h-0.66U,

of Vortex Troil
- 0.14 U

eh

Sec. -16.8

Absolute Velocitv

llnstont-'
I

3.0

a -1. 3D

4.0*^

"-

''
I

Dro(j*

Outside

Moves
5.0

Some

Direction os 5treor

Eddies

of ^heddint^

Frequency

f-

IQ
4.0

3.0

Vortex

of

in

6.6

Ua,D
5cole of

Lo^iQ

If

iJ

the vortex trail

is

being generated

body instead

l)lunt-ended

2-diml

of a

cylinder normal to the flow,

l)y

lireiilar

the dimen^5ion

corresponds to the effective diameter or width of

the

edge.

trailing

known

there

Unfortiniately,

by which

rule

Relation.'? for Vorte.x-Tb.mi. Probi.e.ms

Giidance Sketch and EDDV-FREqiEsrv

Fig. 46.G

is

diameter

this effective

no

pU^Tr/'2.

2.86(0. 14 i7

may

JD/U

from

culation around the cylinder

must be

iSincc the cir-

c<|ual

to

of opposite sign to the net circulation of all

the vortexes, the circulation around

general

i.s,

ciusc.

IIk-

cylinder

F(;/2.

The approximate magnitude

per unit span of the
direction,

of

2-4linil

of the

body, acting

lift

force

in either

by I0(|. (44. i), /> = pf ,F for the

For this parti<ular case, L =

and

{D/U
,D v. The

As another example,

diameter D.

effective

assume that a

cylindrical rod having a diameter

of 0.1 ft forms part of

an experimental speed log

on the ABC ship of Part 4, projecting 2 ft vertically below the bottom of the ship. A.ssumc also
that the average velocity U in the boundary
layer in

way

The

f/

34.02

is

5.59

Tuf2

maximum

transverse

.9905(32.89) (2.8)

lift

per sec.

F,/ is

ft'

sec,

about 1.7(t/)D

The

per sec.

2.8 ft' per sec,

circulation

is

ft

At
whence

or 0.95(7

per

ft

32.89

vortex circulation

1.7(32.89)(0.1)

is 0.951''

of this rod

0.95(34.02)

The

the left-hand diafz;r:un of Fig.

'

U =

likewise

or

about
about

terms of the Strouhal number

dzFy

Mr J

is

and the applicable Reynolds number f

example of Sec. 41.G explains the method of using
this graph to predict the eddy frequency for a
2-diml rod of diameter D or for a blunt-ended body

zero.

varies from \- F, /2 to

in

kt,

has reached a steady value of

and

in

20.5

This increase in vortex

circulation takes place in such manner that the
ulgebraic sum of all the vortex circulation from
time zero e(|uals r,;/2 after the stream velocity

2.8(4.3/)) (0.

F,/

give values of the relation.ships fO'/v

time, the vortex circula-

tion approaches a steadj' value of

increasing

The graphs

Horause of the basic theorem of hydrodynamics

which requires that the circulation around any
clo-scd curve within a fluid must remain constant
with time (FIIA, 1934, pp. 192-193], the circulation r(capital gamma) at any instant about the
2-fliml cylinder in Fig. 4().G must be cfjual to,
and mu.st be of oppo.site sign to the nd circulation
of all the vortexes previously formed [Rouse, H.,
EH, 1950, p. 129]. At time zero, assume that
there is no circulation anywhere in the system
and that the uniform-stream velocity is zero.
This velocity may then be a.ssumcd to rise from

At the same

aliout 0.8Gt/

is

1.7C/D.

46.

absolute downstream velocity of

strength of the vortex circulation

he determined for a trailing edge of any shape.

zero to t'

The

the vortexes as a group

force

183.3 lb per

is

ft

cylinder

whence the
pUr,i/'2

or

length of span.

TluM/-Rcynolds number is ID
or (32.S9)(0.1)
about 0.257 million, whence from
the left-hand diagram of Fig. 4(t.G the Strouhal
number //)'r = about 0.215, from which / =
'i>

(10'')/1.2817 or

(0.215)(32.89) (0.1)
.sec.

If

71 hertz or 71 cycles per

the virtual nuuss of the rod, including the

ad<ied ma.ss of the entrained watr,

vibrates transversely

lus

is

such that

it

a cantilever at a freiuency

DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES

Sec. 46.9

approximating this figure, resonant vibration

will ensue, with a magnification of vibration

edge

amplitude and possible damage to the rod.

1.2817

The use

(FB,d)(0/''

is

of

deflectors

or

longitudinal-vortex

diagram

generators,

to

serve

an auxiliary transfer

number

mechanism

to get fast-moving water from the

as

143

damaged

the effective diameter of the

trailing

(70.86) (0.0625) (10^)/

From

0.3455 million.

the left-hand

46.G the corresponding Strouhal

about 0.21. Then since S = JD/U^

of Fig.
(S is

or, in this case, {J){t)/V^u^i

the predicted fre-

outer portions of the boundary layers into the

quency

inner portions and thus to provide the kinetic

I.

= 238 hertz or 238 cycles per sec. This is well

above the low hmit of 10 cycles per sec and well
below the upper limit of 700 cycles per sec for

for

audible singing, given in Sec. 70.46. Singing on

energy in the inner portion necessary to defer

separation,

is

Volume

discussed in Sec. 36.27 of

However, the necessary quantitative data

the

available at the present time (1955).

of the

Applications

Practical

46.9

the

of

Strouhal

and Resonant Vibration. As

the application of the knowledge

to Singing

an illustration of

presently available

to the prediction of

(1955)

possible singing of a propeller blade, take the case

of the propeller designed

ABC

the transom-stern

for

ship in Sees. 70.21 through 70.38 of Part 4.

Assume that

this propeller,

originally

manu-

factured with the relatively fine trailing edges

depicted in Fig. 70. 0, has had its edges damaged

by curling and nicking so that, as a temporary

measure, the trailing edge from about O.bORu^^

to 0.78/?Ma>t has been chipped

shown by the broken

off as

Fig.

70. P.

thickness
ft;

It

is

estimated

at this edge

is

away and rounded

line of

that

diagram
the

about 0.75 in or 0.0625

see the discussion of this matter in Sec. 70.46.

In other words, the vortex

trail

expected to be

0.21 (70.86) /0.0625

ABC

ship

is

repaired)

is left when the damaged parts are chipped

away, as diagrammed in Fig. 70.P.
Two illustrative examples of the method of
calculating the eddy frequency for 2-diml circularsection rods that may be subject to resonant
vibration are worked out in Sees. 41.6 and 46.8,
respectively. As an indication of the range of
frequencies which may be encountered on highspeed vessels where these hydroelastic interactions
are liable to pose troublesome problems, take the
case of the very wide strut arms, with a chord
length of 3.75 ft, mentioned by P. Mandel

[SNAME,

1953, p. 514].

Assume that the proposed

on a large
4.35.

As

ship,

strut section is used

with a thickness-chord ratio of

indicated in Fig. 3 on page 408 of the

reference, the effective

edge

ft.

2.5 in or 0.21

is

D) along the

(or

Assume

speed of 25

which would be shed by a non-vibrating 2-diml

since at higher speeds the vortex trail

circular-section rod 0.0625 ft in diameter,

moving

The

basic data, for a designed ship speed of

The

number

0.292.

ft'

then

is

ft''.

VD/v or
From
number S

0.6917 million.

Then / = S,y/D =

(42.22)0.292/0.21

In practice the strut problem

is

further compli-

may

ft"

Or

lie
if

with

its

meanline exactly in the

line of flow.

properly aligned for straight-ahead running,

ft^.

rotational speed of the propeller at the 0.64

halfway between 0.50 and 0.78i2Max

(^-Reynolds

cated by the fact that the strut-arm section

per sec

is

The blade-

65.15

ft

per sec.

section speed at that radius

is

the combination of

27r(20/2) (0.64) 1.62

in Sec. 46.8, the

is

(42.22)0.21(10')/1.2817

not
of salt water, 1.9905 slugs per

per sec,

might be

58.7 hertz or 58.7 cycles per sec.

Speed of rotation of propeller, 1.62 rps

Kinematic viscosity of salt water, 1.2817(10"'^)

radius,

As

cavity.

ft

taken as 1.2817(10"'')
per sec and the mass density as 1.9905 slugs per

is

Diameter, maximum, of propeller, 20 ft

Speed of advance V a 27.87 ft per sec

Mass density

by a vapor

kinematic viscosity

the graph of Fig. 46. G the Strouhal

20.5 kt, are, from Sec. 70.26:

The

replaced

equivalent to 42.22

kt,

trailing

further a ship

shed by the trailing edge corresponds to that

through the water at the same speed and occupying the same position as the trimmed-off trailing
edge of the damaged blade.

blade

occur unless a chisel

liable to

edge

1 of

effective

S(FB,ado)//

damaged (and temporarily

calculating the effect of these generators are not

Number

is

the rotational speed and the speed of advance, or

TBiade= [(65.15)' + (27.87)T' = 70.86 ft per sec.

The d- or diameter Reynolds number R^ for

even taking account of the twist in the inflow jet

which is induced ahead of the propeller position,
the strut-arm section may run at an appreciable

yaw

angle

when

probable that,

if

the ship
the

yaw

makes a turn.
angle becomes

It is

large

enough so that the separation point on that side

of the trailing edge which is yawed outward
moves aft and becomes essentially fixed at the

HVDRODN

lit
trailiiiK imIho, ''"'

riic

vortex street

\ XMK.S

loiiKer I'nnueil.

is riu

IN"

gation

nlloninting ciroiilatioii ecnsos, as docs the

alterHutiiig transvorst^

Further

The

and

research

along these

lift

needed

arc

The

hyilroelastic interactions in the case of the

(1)

water for transverse or flatwise vibration of the

stmt arm, the damping efTects of the strut .section,
when moving laterally, the ukmIc of motion of the

eddy sj'stems abaft the

or

in

trailing

The

somewhat broader
by no means complete but it is adequate

References

subject.

(4)

(5)

(0)

These are

section.

and

and 14.22

GieichungPii

den

welclie

Ent.sprochen (On Integrals of

I'Aluationa wliirli

I'Jxjire.ss

Jour., IS')H, Vol.

.'5;

.33 (-Ith

tlic

(7)

(8)

I.

iMiglish Iriinsl.
Pliil.

by P.

'lolle's

CI.

Mag., ,lan-.)un

8me.s), pp. 4S.5-.51!

"The Problem

1936-19.37,

of the Singing Propeller,"

1937, pp. 205-207; 2

SBSR, 12

Sep 1937, pp. 298-300;

7 Oct 1937, pp. 450-452

Hunter, II., "Singing Propellers," E. and F. N. Spon,
London, 1937
Hayes, II. C, and Klein, E., "Methods and Means for

frequencies

of

screw-

Conn, J. F. C, "Marine Propeller Blade Vibration,"

lESS, 1938-1939, Vol. 82, pp. 225-255, 292-374
Shannon, J. F., and Arnold, R. N., "Statistical and
Experimental Investigation of the Singing Propeller Problem," lESS, 1938-1939, Vol. 82, pp.
250-291, 292-374. On pp. 289-291 the authors list

"The

Kerr, W., Shannon, J. F., and Arnold, R. N.,

Inst.

Mech.

Engrs., London,

Dec

Abstracted on

p.

409 of SBSR, 25 Apr 1940; also

SBMEB, Apr

1940, pp. 180-181.

1940, Vol.

144, pp. 54-90.

in

SBMEB, Apr

105-169.

1940, pp.

after face of a 2-tliml rod of rectangular section are

(11) Baker,G.S., "Vibration Patterns of Propeller Blades,"

in Fig. 22 of the reference. A large separation

zone abaft a similar section at higher speed is shown

(12)

Stanton, T. E., and Marshall, D.,

the

Wake

sional
Vol.

I;

"Eddy Systems

of Flat Circular Plates in

Flow," ARC,
pp. 202-211

(d) Steinman, D.

B.,

Hydrodynamic

(K)

NECI,
D73-DI20

"Singing Propellers,"

.\. W., "Characteristics of Silent Propellers,"

lESS, 1939-1940, X'ol. 83, pp. 29-102. Abstracted

NECI, 1940-1941,

in Fig. 12.

(f)

11.,

(10) Davis,

shown

(c)

S.S3.

library

Prolilcnis of the Singing Proi)eller,"

(b) Ahlborn,

(c)

TMB

the

35 references.
(9)

Tait

F., "Die Wirbelbildung ini \Vid<'r.stand.>!mcchaDismuM des Wassers (Eddies in (lie Mechanism
of Ship Ucsi.stance in Water)," ST( I, 1!)05, pp. 07-81.
Eddies abaft tlie forward outboard corners and the

Ver.

1937, Vol. 81, pp. SS2

available in

propeller blades.

HydrodynamisWirbGlwogungen
Hydrodynamical

Vciitiw Motion),"

London, Edin., and Dublin,

1807, Vol.

Volume

of

Integrale dcr

(a) Hclraholtz, H., "l)l)cr

in

of that

is

the vibrating modes and

in addition to the references

listed in Sees. 7.11

chcn

Table 42.b

in

(The

des

Zeit.

Determining the Natural Modes of Vibration of

Mechanical Structures," ASNE, 1938, Vol. .50,
pp. 519- .520. The paper is devoted to a study of

patterns involving eddies and vortexes are listed

in the text of Sec. 42.2

Hunter,

Aug

an extended study of the

to photographs of flow

for the beginning of

,Iul

.3

SchifT.ssehr.iuben

PropolliTs),"

Vol. LIII, pp. 189-222,

list

the present section covers a

field. It is

Ship's

of

an unpublished English translation of this paper, marked

T.MB Transl. 123.

of references relating directly to the

edges of bodies of varied type and shape.

1925, Vol. 37, p. 17811

"Das Singcn von

Deutsch. Ing.,

There

(3)

References on Eddy Systems, Vortex

There is given in Sec. 4G.7
Trails, and Singing.
vortex-trail

Blufl

Richardson, E. G., Proc. Phys. Soc., 1924, Vol. 30,

Singing

46.10

list

Behind

references which follow apply particularly

p. 1.53(T; also

the arms, and the elastic characteristics

of these parts, are not considered here.

a short

M., "E.\ploratory Investi-

Turbulent Wakos
Rep. 903, Oct 1955.

TMB

(2) Gut.sche, F.,

hub

including the strut

wliole strut a-ssemhly,

all

I.ut/.ky,

to the singing of the blades of screw propellers:

lines.

strut, involving the addc<l nia.ss of the entrained

and

Srr. 46.10

and
the

of

Boiiies,"

forces on the section.

experiment

SIIIP DFSir.X

(h) {'oo|HT, R. D.,

II

and

"Problems of

.Stability," Proc.

in

Three Dimen-

i:).5.s,

liUl

and

("onf..

Dl-Dr2

Singing Propellers," IIOSS, 1941-1942, Vol. 85,

pp. 55-168. On page 130 the author lists 10 refer-

I'.I.12,

.\eri)(iyniimic

Third llydr.

(13)

Vol. 57, pp. 43-66,

Work, C. E., "Review of Marine Propeller Noise

and Vibration Studies," U. S. Nav. Ord. Test
Sla. Propulsion Memo 74, 7 Sep 1940
Hughes, Ci., "Intlucnco of Shape of Blade Section on

ences.
(14)

Hughes, G., "On Singing Propillcrs," INA, 1945,

State Univ. Iowa, Studies in Eng'g., Hull. 31, 1947,

pp. 1.30-104. The author lists 10 references on pages

(15) Lewis, F. M.,

I03-lfr.

(16)

Hughes,

(17)

NECI, 1948-1949, pp. 273-.300, D51-D70

Burrill, L. C, "Undenvater Propeller Vibration
Tests," NECI, 1948-1949, pp. 301-314, D50-D70

(18)

Work, C.

"Aero<lynamic Theory of Bridge

Oacillationa," Trons. ASCE, 1050, Vol. 115, pp.
1240-1247, 12.54-12.55
Den Ilartog, J. P., "Recent Technical Manifestations
of von KdrinAn'a Wake," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Wash., Mar 19.54, Vol. 40, pp. 1.5.5-1.57
RiMhko, A., "On the Wake and Drug of HlufT BiMlies,"

Stcinman, D.

pp. lS.5-210

B.,

Jour. Aero. Sci..

Feb

19,5.5,

pp. 2, 124

132

W.

ME,

Vol. II,

1946, p.

"Propeller

L.,

Blade

E., ".Singing Propellers,"

131

Vibrations,"

.\SNE,

May

1951,

pp. 319-331
(19) Lankest<!r, S. G.,

vestigations

Jun

l'.t.55,

and Wallace, W. D., ".Some In-

into

Singing

pp. 2<)3 318.

Propellers,"

NECI,

CHAPTER

The

47

Inception and Effect of Cavitation on

Ships and Propellers

145

47.3
47.4

Scope of This Chapter

General Rules for the Occurrence of Cavitation on Ships and Appendages
Vapor-Pressure Data for Water
Tables of and Nomogram for Cavitation

Numbers
The Prediction

147

47.5

47.1
47.2

of Cavitation

Cavitation

47.9
47.10

151

47.1
Scope of This Chapter. The phenomena
and mechanism of cavitation in its various forms,
and the factors associated with it, are described
in Chap. 7, Sees. 7.12 through 7.19, of Volume I.
The occurrence of cavitation on ships and pro-

examples

trating the calculation of the cavitation

156

Propeller Performance Under Superoavitation

156

Selected Cavitation Bibliography

157

raphy,

and append-

limited to data of a quantitative nature,

and

selected cavitation bibliog-

many

containing

recent papers on the

liu-

pressure p

pressure
is

The ambient

say 0.4 psia.

e,

that corresponding to the

70

ft,

full

water

is

of practically all

create useful forces

and negative
that the

0.4(144)

31.13(144)

(0. 9952.5) (f7^

com-

is

U')

(C/

(31.13

If

F =

sec, so

and the

as low as can be accomplished without

setting

up harmful

cavitation.

Most such

C/ is

that

U =

of a .surface ship operate within a

Ul

= Ul -

U^

7,013.6

parts

depth of about
37 ft below the free surface. This hydrostatic
head, when added to the atmospheric-pressure

C/')

ft'

83.75

-4,446.2

0.4)(144)

ft'

per sec'

30 kt, equivalent to 50.67

2,567.4 ft" per sec", then

ft

per

is

(-4,446.2)

per

0.99525

to

Ap's

whence

of positive

as high,

salt

differential pressures, it is natural

+Ap's should be made

The

factor 144 to transform psi to psf then substitut-

moving ship

by the development

for standard

0.99525 slugs per ft^ Introducing the

bination of water vapor and dissolved air or gas.

appendages, as well as propulsion devices,

pressure p

absolute head of

or 31.13 psi for standard salt water.

pressure in a particular region in the water drops

As the purpose

mini-

critical

equal to the absolute vapor

is

value of the term 0.5p(rho)

Cavitation

occurs when, for any one of several reasons, the

to that of the water vapor, or to that of a

(47.i)

u'-)

For the condition described the

General Rules for the Occurrence of

47.2

P-

ing and solving,

subject, concludes the chapter as Sec. 47.13.

Cavitation on Ships and Appendages.

mum

of general interest to the naval architect

155

head of 33 ft, gives an effective head of less than

70 ft before cavitating conditions are reached.
To demonstrate this, set down the pressure
equation for steady irrotational flow of an ideal
liquid, Eq. (7.i) of Sec. 7.12. Transposing p

number

of cavitation in the present chapter,

as associated with ships, propellers,

marine engineer.

Vor-

illus-

are found in Sees. 41.3, 47.4, and 47.5.

is

Hub

of its practical features,

23.16, of that volume. Practical

ages,

Cavitation and

Prediction of Cavitation Erosion

are discussed in Chap. 23, Sees. 23.9 through

Treatment

Hub

Predicting

47.11
47.12
47.13

for Bodies of Revolution

many

1.53

154

texes or Swirl Cores

and Other Bodies

pellers, as well as

152

Propeller Cavitation Criteria

on Hydrofoils
149

Data

Effect of Cavitation on Screw-Propeller

Performance
Photographing the Cavitation on Model and
FuU-Scale Propellers

146

and Blades
47.6

The

47.7

145

sec',
ft

2,567.4

4,446.2

and

per sec.

This means that to keep clear of cavitating

conditions the relative velocity of the water

145

H6

HYDRODYNAMICS

moving

past a liwp part of the 30-kl ship,

aft

ixpn\sso<I as I'.

AT, can not

cxcccti 83.75 ft

V equals the velocity

can not e.\cee<I 83.75

DESIGN

IN SHIP

Concerning the ambient-pre.ssurc

not sufficient

to

413

Sec.

consider

the

factor,

it

is

mean depth at

per sec. Since the ship speed

which a hydrofoil section or other movable body

V.

operates, such as the depth to the axis of a screw

the augment

50.t7

33.08

per sec without the onset of

ft

For the equator of a

cavitation.

augment ACisO.sr^

the

AC is 25.34

per sec. This

ft

value of 33.08

if

3-{liml sphere

iso0.t)7 ft per sec,

is less

than the limiting

per sec, so cavitation would

ft

not occur at the equator of the sphere at a depth

of 37 ft. For the maximum diameter of a 2-diml

normal to

nxl,

ment

AT

depth

or 50.G7 ft per sec.

velocity,

critical

would

cavitation

the

so at

ahead

begin

This
given

of

the

It

is

entirely'
its

po.ssible

for

blade

path, to cavitate through

an arc or region of low hydrostatic pressure and

to set up objectionable vibration or other conditions from this cause. At the depth of the .shaft
axis, or at the bottom of its path, it might not
cavitate at

direction of motion, the aug-

l.OUa.

is

exceeds the

its

propeller.

element, at the top of

In

real,

surface

all.

viscous liquids like water, the over-the-

litiuid velocities

boundary layer are

or the velocity

U^

less

at the inner edge of the

than the ship speed

relative to the imdisturbed

midsection of the rod.

water.

Aeration of the salt water raises its vapor

pressure. This has the effect of diminishing
numerically the augment of velocity At/ at which

than they would be o\-er the same body surface

in an ideal liquid, becau.se of the displacement

some form

prediction of cavitation

of cavitation takes place.

At shallower

depths on a large ship, or at the shallower drafts

and greater speeds customary on high-speed
cavitating

vessels,

conditions

are

readily

en-

countered on the hull, the appendages, and the

propulsion devices.

Bubble cavitation
microscopic

of

vapor or

or

hastened by the presence

submicroscopic pockets of
is

and gas bubbles, and of cavitaform of impurities, animal or

air or air

tion nuclei in the

vegetable matter, or entities as yet unknown. The

water nearest the .surface of the sea carries the
mo.st air in solution; this

the surface

if

is

amount

augmented

is

disturbed, as during a storm.

There are more minute impurities carried

in

suspension in waters close to the land but there

may be more nuclei of other kinds in waters far
the

in

wliicli

citlici-

is

The ambient pressure p in

The vapor, or the gas-air

to foretell the wor.st that

The

relative

.speed

\'alues of c for fresh water, o\'er a temperature

range from freezing to boiling at sea level, are
graphed in Fig. -17. A. They are listed in Table

Temperature, deq C

2M

pressure of the
iinciislurlKd

or

any

of

it.s

parts

(0 The efTectivc angle of attack , if the part

under conaidcration resembles a hydrofoil.

be expected.

ditions.

the water

of the

may

and propulsion devices which cavitate in the

tropics under a given set of conditions may not
do so in the polar regions under the same con-

water at the temperature concerned

(c)

Fortunately,

Vapor-Pressure Data for Water. The

vapor pressure e of water drops rather rapidly
with temperature, so much so that appendages

Idihhlc or

water and the brxly or ship

(d) The shape and proportions of (he body or .ship
(c) The augment of velocity Af/ due to potential
and other flow over and around a body, a .ship,

so that accurate

47.3

take account of at least six factors:

(b)

la.ver,

is difficult.

most appendages liable to cavitation are short,

with boundary layers of insignificant thickness.
In any case a prediction disregarding the boundary
layer is usually on the safe side, if the prediction

40

maimer

Hheet cavitation appears to form in the water in

which ships operate, a cavitation criterion must

(a)

potential-flow velocities are different

thickness of the boundary

from the land.

From

The

tio

SO

SO

TO

80

90

SHIP

Sec. 47.4

TABLE
Degrees

47.a

AND PROPELLER CAVITATION

Vapor Pressure of

FRESH WATER

fob Various Temperatures

147

148

in l)R()M^ \ \Mi(,s i\ Mill'

Table 47.bCavitation Numbeiis koh a Seiubs or Speeds

Veloc-

1)1

in

s!(;\

STANDARD SALT WATER

Src. 17.4

Sec. 41.5

SHIP

AND PROPELLER CAVITATION

TABLE

Velocity,
ft

per

sec

47.b (Continued)

149

n nuonvNANfics

150

"niis

Nomoijroph Represents the E^ootion

Where q

V2Q(hthA-hv)

'^

ship ofsicx
liydrufuil

.\iiy

shaped

the Accelerotion Due to Grovity

the Depth Below the Water Surface
is the Equivalent Head Due to the Atmosphere
is the Head of the Water Vapor,

tates

may

i(

when

Viy

about 0.57 ft at 59 de<3 F

the Speed of the Body

is

cr

(siqma)

t-

The

it

excessive angle of attack for a

be either

may

be

i)ositive or negative.

.said

section designed to produce

that for

any

hj-drofoil

the best shape

lift,

of

in feet,

Ap on

maximum

the back that has the

spread

of the greatest reduced pressure across the chord,

without an excessivelj' low depression.

To Estimotc the Speed

The technical literature contains data derived

from a limited number of cavitation tests made
on hydrofoils under 2-diml flow conditions. A

of Incipient Covitotion

for a Body. Lou Q

Stroiahteaoe on the
Given h- and (J-vqIocs.
The Resultant Cavitation
fifseed is the Intercept

typical result, set

down

graphicall}' in Fig.

on the Speed or V-Scole.

it

is

one which, under the angle of attack to be

expected in service, produces a distribution curve

-200

well

be for straight-ahead (low, cavi-

may

In general

the Covitatjon Index

of the Body

is

incident flow.
lifting foil

Sec. 47. f

no matter how

.section,

makes too great an angle with the

it

IS

h/\

Depth
h

i.\

47.C
20 -o

100

80

90

40

50

60

70

Angles of Attock

a.

30

on

ZO

O'^cl

10

Hvjdrofoil

5i
or

9
C^^IO
:

^^^^
OZ

-04 -OZ

Nomogram for Relatino Submeroknce

Depth, Cavitation Index, and Water Speed for
Fjc. 47.B

Since incipient cavitation

<j

"

(po.

is

is

From

pressure

witli ffc to

foil

coeflicient

From Sec. 47.5 and Fig. 47. D,

En must diminish numerically

scctioim,

including

and

many

for

an

possible to calculate the ratio

of the surface.

From

for all part,s

E, at any point, and hence the absolute pressures

all points for any given set of undisturbedvelocity and initial-pressure conditions. Absolute
pressures approaching the vapor pressure c of
the liquid are in<licatioiis of incipient cavitation.

number and a wide

variety of hydrofoil st;ctions, already made, arc

ill

\\fA

|{i|)(.il

H'JI,

W.,

ASME,

Jour. Ai)pl. .Mcrli.,

li)l!),

cavitation occurs simultaneously on both surfaces

VlU^

at

lilwj

.1.

Im-

of tluwe u.sed

determine the pressure coeflicient or Euler number

44. .'5.

[Uaily,

infinite span, it is

this ratio it is pos.siblc to

Calculations for a great

Cl

shows that at negative angles

of attack cavitation generally occurs on the face
and at positive angles of attack on the back.
'riici;c is usually a single angle of attack at which

avoid cavitation.

propeller blade.s,

10

the relation

e)/(0.5pV"), the critical value diminishes as

the water s|K'cd incrca.ws.

the

0.8

Cavitation Limits for Lift Coefficient

AND Angle of Attack on a Typical Hydrofoil

involved, the cavitation

the critical value.

0.6

Coefficient

Fig. 47. C

Incipient Cavitation

index indicated here

0.4

Lift

nfiTciircd in Sec.

Vol. 71, p. 209],

if

the cavitation index

is

reducetl to a sufficiently

diagram similar to that referenced,

(X(('l)l that it is tierived by an analytic procedure
I'm- a
whole screw jiropeller, is given bj' J. F.
ShaiiniMi and R. N. Arnold |IFS8. 1!):?S li):?9.
low nuniljcr.

.\

Vol. 82, Fig. 18, p. 285|.

As

is

the case for the

lift,

drag, and

moment

data on hydrofoils, described and presented in

Sec. 11. .5, the cavitation test data are of limited
design a|)plication unless aconnpanied by section

drawings or tables of
is

possible to

know

coordin.'ites of the foil. If it

also the chcuibvise pressure

SHIP

Sec. 47.6

Ap

distribution across the

sentative angle of attack, so

AND PROPELLER CAVITATION

side for

much

some

repre-

the better.

Tables

X3.a,

or

41.e

Assuming a value

of

Pa

8(0.4447)

3.56

of 14.7 lb per in", a

psi.

vapor

pressure of 0.4 lb per in' and a mass density p

of 1.9905 slugs per ft^, the cavitation index works

out as

V^-e _
From

[(3.56

14.7)

1.006.

2.7

or

at

+4.5

this

to the chord length

liquid

c.

number a

the adjacent

in

smaller numerically than the pressure

is

minimum

coefficient ' at the point of

absolute

pressure on the hydrofoil, cavitation occurs there,

hence

at

the

lowest-

point equals numerically

the

critical

the

pressure

cavitation

pressure

coefficient

number acR

As an example of the manner in which the

diagrams of Fig. 47. D may be used, consider the
situation at the leading edge of a symmetrical
streamlined balanced rudder with an all-movable
blade.

The rudder lies abaft a

portion of the upper

blade of a screw propeller where the rotational-

the lower diagram of Fig. 47. C

that

Rle

the cavitation

If

0.4]144

0.99525(50.67)'

it is to be
parameter the
hydrofoil will cavitate on the face or on the back
at angles of attack greater numerically than

noted

plotted on a basis of the 0-diml ratio of the nose

radius

Taking a representative case, assume a hydrofoil similar to that diagrammed in Fig. 47. C to
be running in salt water at a depth of 8 ft below
the surface and at a speed of advance of 30 kt, or
50.67 ft per sec. The hydrostatic pressure is, from

151

cavitation

or tangential-flow

component

is

such as to cause

the water in the inflow jet to meet the leading

edge of the rudder at a given waterline at an

Assume a nose radius of 0.25 ft,

angle of 10 deg.

a chord length of 10 ft, a nominal depth of submergence /i of 15 ft, and a ship speed of 18 kt
(actually, the local velocity in the outflow jet

deg, respectively.

may

Then from the nomonumber a is

about 3.3 if cavitation is to begin at 18 kt. The
ratio of nose radius Rle to chord length c is
0.25/10 = 0.025. From the curve for a 10-deg
gram

be greater than
of Fig. 47.

this).

the cavitation

angle of attack in Fig. 47.

D the pressure coefficient

where
about 3.2. Then

E^ at the point

of lowest absolute pressure,

cavitation will

first

<jcB is 3.2,

and the

to create a gradient

appear,

is

differential pressure available

which

will cause the

follow the rudder section closely

is

water to

represented by

a cavitation number of only 3.3. The "lee" or

Ap side of the rudder section in question is,
therefore, just on the verge of cavitation at the
given speed.

Contours for pressure minima

Ap/q, (2) thickness ratio, and (3)

(1)

for ogival

and

airfoil sections,

given by K. E. Schoenherr
"0

0.05
0.06
0.07
0.03
0.04
O.oa
0.01
Ratio of Leadinq-Edae Radius R^e to Chord Lenoth c.

Fig. 47.D

Cavitation, Lift-Coefficient, and

Angle-of-Attack Data for a Stmmetrical Hydrofoil

Fig. 47. D,

by

P.

adapted from a set of graphs given

Mandel [SNAME,

1953, Fig.

7,

gives the average pressure coefficient E

p.
,

471],

at the

point of

minimum

number

of 2-diml symmetrical hydrofoils at four

different

angles

absolute pressure, for a large

of

attack.

The

^-values

are

terms

in
lift

of

coefficient,

respectively, are

[SNAME,

1934, Figs.

19-20, pp. 109-112]. These sections are suitable

for use on propeller blades.

47.6 Cavitation Data for Bodies of Revolution

and Other Bodies. Cavitation may take place
on many parts of a ship and its appendages which
do not even remotely resemble the hydrofoils
discussed in the preceding section.

considerable

have the forms of bodies

of revolution, or they can be simulated by 3-diml
axisymmetric forms, such as certain types of

number

of these parts

bulbs incorporated into the forefoot.

Cavitation data are available for

great

m DROOYNAMias I\ SHIP DESIGN

152
variety
tested

of
in

yaw

zero

ends of ivlimlrical bodies,

n variable-pressvirc water funnel at
londiiiR

angle.

The

princi|)al

source of these data,

and Pressure Distribution: Head

Forms at Zero Angle of Yaw," by H. Rouse and
"Cavitation

McNown

S.

J.

[State

Univ.

Iowa Studies

in

Eng'g., Bull. 32, 1948], gives the magnitude and

the meridional-distance distribution of pressure

coefficient

about a

series of fourteen

head shapes,

covering most practical applications. In addition

there are recorded the shapes, axial positions, and

dimensions of the cavities or of the envelopes

("pockets") of tiie regions in which vapor bubbles

were formed around the bodies carrying these

heads.

Diagrams

and 3

2,

1,

of Fig.

17.

give the

data for a hemispherical

head, a 1-caliber ogival head, and an ellipsoidal
head having a major-axis to minor-axis ratio of 2,
adapted from the referenced report. The several
curved lines represent the boundaries of axial
cavitation

Leng th ond

Number

tf

0.20\

-\

037D

Covity Boundaries,.
ore Indefinite

Bod\( of

Covitotion

Revolution

Number

tf

with

Apprommote Shape
u-

Covitotion 'Fbck e t" or Covit^

Fbsition o f

for Covitotion

"pocket"

Hemispherical

Head

No Covitotion

for rf

of

Rjcket' or Covity
'

>0.50

Sec. 47.7

SHIP

Sec. 47.

AND PROPELLER CAVITATION

New

the

NECI,
(8)

King's

153
College

Tunnel,"

Cavitation

1953-1954, Vol. 70, pp.

121-150,

DISS-

DISS; SBMEB, Apr 1954, Fig. 4, p. 284

"Comparative Propeller Tests," 7th ICSH, SSPA
Rep. 34, 1955, Figs. 1-7 on pp. 170-176 and Figs.
11-14 on pp. 180-183.

Although

it is

not yet (1955) standard practice,

the characteristic curves of

-q,

Kt

and Kq

of

diagrams similar to that of Fig. 47.F should be

accompanied by drawings or sketches showing
the location of the cavitating regions on the
blades (face or back or both), the type of cavitation encountered

features

visible

(bubble or sheet), and other

in

water

variable-pressure

tunnel, for each value of the cavitation index or

for each set of test conditions. This is

the 1937

ASME

done for
paper of L. P. Smith, referenced

by F. H. Todd
Posdunine paper in INA, 1944;
Report 6 by H. Edstrand; and for

in Sec. 70.40; for the discussion

of the V.

L.

SSPA

for the

the L. C. Burrill and A.

Emerson paper referenced

in the preceding paragraph.

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

\.Z

1.4

Advance Coefficient

1.6

Fig. 47.F Typical Open-Water Test Data For

A Model Propeller, Carried into the Cavitating

Range

47.8 Photographing the Cavitation on Model

and Full-Scale Propellers. The visual observation of cavitation on screw propellers when
mounted by themselves in variable-pressure
water tunnels, initiated by C. A. Parsons in the
early 1900's and carried on extensively since the
late 1920's, has now reached the stage where
excellent instantaneous photographs can be taken

also Vol. 60, pp. 448-452], and by L. C. Burrill

and A. Emerson on pages 140-147 of reference
(7) following.

The technical hterature contains a considerable

number of cavitation characteristic curves for
screw propellers, among which may be listed the
following:
(1)
(2)
(3)

Schoenherr, K. E.,

PNA,

1939, Vol. II, Fig. 32, p. 182

Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, Fig. 143, p. 116

Edstrand, H., "The Effect of the Air Content of Water

on the Cavitation Point and Upon the CharacterSSPA Rep. 6, 1946

Rouse, H., EH, 1950, Fig. 63, p. 930. These are typical
curves only, for which no hydrofoil data or test
istics of Ships' Propellers,"

(4)

conditions are given.

(5)

(6)

"Comparative Cavitation Tests of Propellers," 6th

ICSTS, 1951, published by SNAME, 1953, Figs.
16-19 on pp. 78-81; Figs. 23 and 24 on pp. 85-86
Gawn, R. W. L., "Results to Date of Comparative
Cavitation Tests of Propellers," SNAME, 1951,
pp. 172-213. These give the results of "international" tests of selected

model propellers

in a

number

of variable-pressure water tunnels.

(7)

C, and Emerson, A.,

Some Observations from 16

Burrill, L.

"Propeller Cavitation:
in.

Propeller Tests in

and

later

Many

reproduced in the technical literature.

photographs are to be found in the

of these

more recent cavitation

references listed in Sec.

47.13 at the end of this chapter.

Fortunately for the marine architect there are

techniques and procedures, developed in the early
1950's,

by which

graphs

may

still

also be

and motion-picture photo-

made

of full-scale ship screw

under operating conditions. These

photographs are made through a transparent
propellers

window

in

the shell near the

propeller.

present availability and use of powerful

The

artificial

lighting dispenses with the former necessity of

running the vessel in the sunshine and in the

clear water which is usually found only in the

open

sea.

The motion

pictures are stroboscopic in

nature so that they give the impression of a

particular propeller blade standing

still

or

moving

slowly in the ahead or astern direction.

To

facilitate

subsequent analysis and for in-

formation during the observing periods the screwpropeller blades may be marked in advance with
suitable identifying letters, numerals,

and

signs.

HVDROUVNAMIC.S

151

Examples
puMi.shctl by

photoRraphs of this kind arc

\V. Fisher ("Photonraphy at Sea

of
J.

of Ship Propeller Cavitation,"

\o\.

(^18,

pp.

m ami

1!)

XKCI, 1951-1952,

5G9-570].
It

is

K.

to be expeetetl that the instrumentation

PXA,

E.,

1939, Vol. II, pp. 175-17G).

In 1932 E. F. Eggert developed a set of rela-

which enabled the propeller user or

tionships

with reasonable accuracj',

designer to predict,

the rate of rotation or the blade-section velocity

at which the propeller thrust would begin to
o(T

and procetlures for making shipboard cavitation

photographs on screw propellers will improve

Sec. 47.9

depth of submergence
of advance [Schoenherr,

or the associated speetl

D-1 through D-S). Other

examples are emhotlietl in a paper by A. F. Weeks,

entitled "Ship Propeller Cavitation Patterns,"
presented at the XPL Sympasium on Cavitation
in September 1955 [SBSR, 3 Nov 1955, pp.

DESIGN

IN 6H11'

before, not a function of the

from cavitation

SXAME,

fall

efTects ["Propeller Cavitation,"

1932, pp. .58-74].

relationship, embodj'ing

Discussions of this

somewhat

binations of variables, arc found

different

com-

in:

rapidly. This will provide the naval architect with

extremely valuable data which

and analyzed
47.9
sis of

may

be studied

at leisure.

Propeller Cavitation Criteria.

An

propellers,

fast naval

\essels

led to the

establishment of a criterion proposed by S.

Barnaby, involving a

maximum

figure emploj-ed

was 11.25

W.

average unit

loading on the propeller-blade area.

The

original

lb per sq in,

corre-

sponding to a pressure coefficient (based upon

atmospheric pressure) of 11.25 divided by 14.7, or
approximately 0.765. This unit loading was
subsequently raised by Barnaby to 13.0 lb per
sq

in,

based

corresponding to a pressure coefficient

on

atmospheric

neither case

the

depth

W.

(3)

Van Lammeren, W.

\V.,

S and

,\.,

UPSS,

II, p.

178

110-117

P, 1043, pp.

P.

1948, pp. 180-182.

Still later W. P. A. van Lammeren worked out

a relationship between the two 0-diml ratios

P/D)] and [(t,- (.4 c/.4o) (virtual P/D)]

an excellent indicator of the point where
the thrust breaks down on a screw propeller
[De Groot, D., NSP Rep. 89; Schip en Werf; Gth
ICSTS, 1951, published by SXAME, 19.53, Fig.
30 and pp. 93-95]. ^\Tlen plotted in graph form
[.//(virtual

which

is

this appears as the simple curve of Fig. 47. d. The

graph is based on the tests of many model propellers, all of which give results remarkably close
to the line, independent of the tj'pe of blade

0.884.

In
for

carrying out cavitation tests on model propellers,

propellers.

the rate of rotation at which thrust breakdown

of

pressure

submergence

of

of

the

by
upon

Taylor,

J.

M.

Irish,

and

others, ba.sed

a limiting tip speed for any propeller, independent

of-

Taylor, D.

was there any allowance made

Sub.sequently, different criteria were proposed

D.

Schoenherr, K. E., P.\.\, 19;, Vol.

(2)

analj'-

the loss of thrust due to cavitation on ship

when it first occurred on

some sixty or more years ago,

(1)

or related to the propeller loading but,

as

section.

will

is

thus possible to predict,

before

take place.

The
arc

It

indications given

still

purposes

sufficiently
if

by the graph
precise

for

the actual or average

of Fig. 47.

engineering

P/D

ratio is

SHIP

Sec. 47.10

used in place

AND PROPELLER CAVITATION

P/D, and

the virtual

of

if

expanded area A e replaces the developed area Ad

W. H. Bowers, of the TMB staff, devised a
number of formulations whereby a quick approximation could be made by a ship designer of the
rate of propeller rotation beyond which the thrust
is affected by blade cavitation. One method of
rapidly solving the equation given hereunder was
a circular slide rule devised by Bowers and L. W.
.

Sprinkle in 1947. It

Hub

and

Cavitation

The phenomenon

Vortexes or Swirl Cores.

of

cavitation abaft a rotating screw-propeller hub,

and the production of hub vortexes or swirl cores,

are discussed and illustrated in Sec. 23.14 on pages
337-339 of Volume I. This is an important
feature

the behavior

of

of

high-speed

vessels

because of the damaging effect of this cavitation

upon appendages which

Within

not possible to describe

is

155

Hub

Predicting

47.10

the

the

lie

in its path.

1945-1955

period

been

has

it

and to photograph cavitation

method here but the criterion employed

by Bowers took the form, expressed in the symbols

possible to produce

of this book:

circulating-water channels, and model basins. It

the exact

37,500(1

Suf'^QiA

hn

of this

appears from observation of model propellers at

atmospheric pressure in the latter two types of
facility that the hub vortex is a rather unstable

hy)

affair,

where n
are in

To

is

PD

(47.ii)

all

other linear dimensions

rpm and

in

appearing and disappearing with apparently

no change

in test conditions.

believe that

appUcation of this formula,

take the case of the propeller designed for the

ABC ship in Chap. 70 of Part 4, and shown in

it is

far

more

There

is

reason to

stable in the full scale.

On
it

ft.

illustrate the

type in variable-pressure water tunnels,

the basis of the swirl-core theory of Vikovic

should eventually be possible to predict the

presence of a swirl core and

approximate

its

diameter behind the taper end of the hub fairing

speed of 20.5 kt and for an assumed typical blade

of a screw propeller. Assuming that it is possible to

impart to the water in contact with the outside
of the hub, in way of the blade, a tangential

section at 0.8fiMa are as follows:

velocity equal to that of the

Fig. 78.L.

The necessary

basic data for the trial

hub

surface, the

resulting centrifugal force at a smaller radius

Real-slip ratio, Sr (actually Skt), from

Fig.

0.238

78.Nb

Atmospheric-pressure head Ha assumed 33.0

Hydrostatic head at 12 o'clock blade
position, hn equal to [26 10.5

ft

7.5

ft

0.8

ft

(0.8)10], for 0.8i2M.x

Value of {Ha
(33.0

7.5

Mean-width

hn

hv)

assumed

39.7

Ph

to the shaft axis,

the wheel.

0.211

The equation

Blade-thickness fraction to/D, from

a vortex
0.049

Fig. 78.L

Pitch P, assumed as 0.982Z) at O.SKm..

Substituting in Eq.

plus the hydrostatic pressure

measured to the actual water (wave) surface over

Cm/D

from Fig. 78.L

Diameter D

be taken as somewhere between 0.5 and

per sq in. The ambient pressure pa> is the
atmospheric pressure Pa existing at the time
1.0 lb

0.8)

ratio,

be balanced against the probable vapor and

gas pressure in the water. For propeller hubs not
deeply submerged in sea water this lower limit

may

Vapor-pressure head hr

coil,

of

motion of a water particle in

whirling around a vortex core,

ap

19.64

ft

20.0

ft

pdR

where

is

the local velocity and

radius [Eisenberg, P.,

(47.ii)

0.238)'*''''"

there

TMB

is

the local

Rep. 712, Jul 1950,

FHA, 1934, pp. 213-214]. From

may be derived the relationship

14,399

whereupon n

in

the expected rate of

Sec. 70.26.

p at center of vortex core

where F (capital gamma)

rpm

above
rotation of 97.2 rpm from

is

this

<-')(ii)

(19.64)20

is

ft

pp. 4-5;

37,500(1

may

119.7. This is well

= p
is

(47.iii)

the circulation in the

surrounding the core, p is the ambient

pressure in the undisturbed liquid at the same
vortex

coil,

depth as the center of the

core,

and Rq

is

the

HYDRODYNAMICS

156

outer nulius of the vortex core

radius of the vortex

inner

tlio

iiiul

hub cavity or
by the root-vortex metliod
may be found considerably more difficult. It
involves a knowledge or an estimate of the
and

"A Review

its size

and back of a
any additional elTect of

difTerences between the face

shoulii include

25-27 there are

it

may

of

be

ships that the core persists for at least several

means that it will be

the vicinity of any other part of the
to be placed abaft the shaft axis and

propeller diameters. This

the propeller.

comes

o(T

the

hub

fairing

with the propeller axis but it Ls often otT.set

from the trailing end of a blunt hull. Whatever
may be its exact position, it swings rapidly into
in line

when this is not

The diameter

the line of the aiijacent flow

parallel in direction to the shaft axis.

of the swirl core

is

increased

air gets into

if

it.

The

Prediction of Cavitation Erosion.

47.11

is

in five parts:

Theories of Cavitation lOrosion

II
I

Factors AffectingCavitaf ion Erosion Intensity

Methotis of Testing
Erosion Resistances of Various Materials.

Tables VIII and

assumetl from past observations on models and

swirl core usually

56 references in the technical

report

Historical Introduction

Although the data on the longitudinal extent

The

of

relative

fresh

IX

list

many

to

cavitation

resistance

type turbines of water-power plants [.\SNE, Nov

1940, pp. 547-549( but this type of construction
has been found not too successful on ship append-

attachment
and perhaps
because of harmful galvanic action between the
steel cladding and adjacent bronze propellers.
Good design and construction requires the
greatest practicable initial smoothness of all
ages, perhaps becau.se of inadecjuate

to the ferrous material underneath,

the vapor pressure of water. This

polypha,se alloys.

boundaries

grain

Many

than

corrosion-resisting steels

are austenitic alloys of this type;

among them

the

13Cr-87Fe alloy

in

Cast-steel blades with corrosion-resisting steel

parlance, only a single phase. Single-pha.se alloys

narrower

erosion

cladding have been used with success in propeller-

surfaces

much

alloys in a scale

and sea water, respectively.

and tests
to date indicate that the materials which are
most resistant to ca\'itation erosion are solidsolution alloys which have, in metallurgical
results of metallurgical in\'e.stigations

have

on Cavita-

inter1\'

a swirl core are somewhat meager

listed

The

literature.

present in

11

blade.

ference between adjacent blades.

ship likely

of Published Information

-17.

Committee
Rep. ACC/2C/54, N151/54, N316/54 (C.M.L.
Report RBS)], stamped 8 October 1954. On pages

circulation at the root sections or of the pressure

It

Sec.

tion Erosion," (Admiralty Corrosion

coil.

Prciliction of the existence of a

swirl core

IN SHIP DESIGN

Any

likelj'

to be exposed to cavitation attack.

projecting

irregularity,

waviness of a surface,
cavitation

definite

be expected to initiate
the pressures in the region approach

if

why

reason

including

may

is

one important

the curved backs of propeller blades

and hydrofoil surfaces .should, if anything, be

more regular and more smootii than the faces.

may

is a good example.
metal intended to resist erosion by cavitation
should have high resistance to lifiuid corrosion,

downstream from a pronounced change in

shape of the solid surface. Nicks and turned-over

under the conditions

regions along a leading edge are notorious offenders

well

a.s

in

which

it is

to be used, as

high fatigue strength [Boetcher, H. N.,

"Failure of Metals

Due

Cavitation

to

Experimental Conditions," Trans. AS.MI],

.'>8-l,

Under
II

V!';-

Numerous

tests of a

wide

be expected to occur

well

in this respect.

edge

may

sharp, deep nick in the leading

leave a trail of erosion at the radius of

the nick, extending irregularly

all

the

way

acro.ss

the blatlc.

Vol. 58, Jul ID.iO, pp. \]-)-i-m)\.

have indicated a

Erosion of the surface

varictj' of materials

definite superiority in resistance

Pits
l)art

and depressions
the

of

in

waviness

a surface, not forming a

previou.sly

mentioned,

to cavitation erosion on the part of certain alloys.

appear to have much

resiKinding projections. However, holes through

brief list of the.se allf)ys, with references to the

pubhshed
one series

W.

L.,

test data,

is

givrjii

of tests (Stewart,

in Sec.

W. C, and

70.45.

In

Williams,

"Investigation of Materials for Marine

ASTM, 1910, Vol. 4f), pp. 8:i(3~8l5]

the best all-around material was found to be a
Propellers,"

0(5.14 nickel-

28.10 co[)per-

There has recently been

-'{.05

silicon alloy.

i.ssued

a paper entitled

less initial effect

than cor-

such as are sometimes drilled for

permit jets of water to .squirt
through from the face to the back. The discontinuities thus formed in the flow may often be as
the

blades,

handling

jiurpo.ses,

damaging
47.12

.'is

a solid jirojection in place of the hole.

Propeller

cavitation.

The

Performance Under Super-

general as])ects of the piTfnrni-

SHIP

Sec. '17.13

AND PROPELLER CAVITATION

L57

ance of screw propellers in the supercavitating

Engineering

range are described in Sec. 70.40 of Part 4. The

design comments given there are likewise general

Translated by E. F. Wilaey,
Reclamation, Nov 1936.
(9)

in nature.

make

to

performance for high-power and high-speed

Selected Cavitation Bibliography.

published literature on
liquids,

all

its

is

almost

(12)

especially

marine

in the

that relating directly to

field.

down

here.

(14)

(3)

4,

pp. 68-73

and Barnaby, J. W., "Torpedo

Boat Destroyers," ICE, Vol. CXXII, Part IV,

Thornycroft,

1894-1895,
(4)

1893,

J.

I.,

J.

p. 51ff

Wood, R. MoK., and Harris, R. G., "Some Notes on

the Theory of an Airscrew Working in a Wind
Channel," ARC, R and
662, 1920
Brodetsky, S., "Discontinuous Fluid Motion Past
Circular and Elliptic Cylinders," Proc. Roy. Soc,
London, Ser. A, Feb 1923, Vol. 102, No. A718,
pp. 542-553

(6)

Mueller,

J.,

Jun
(7)

I.,

"The Mean Value

(8)

Van

Iterson, F.

ficielle

Roy.

K.

T., "Cavitation et

Tension Super-

(Cavitation and Surface Tension)," Proc.

Acad.,

Amsterdam,

1936.

Abstracted

in

B.,

M.

Strut

Compared with

Section

the Bureau of Ships Standard Strut

TMB
S.,

Rep. 879, Jan 1948

and

Shaffer, P. A.,

Mod.

"Drag

in Cavitat-

Phys., Jan 1948, Vol. 20,

Rouse, H., and

McNown, J. S., "Cavitation and

Head Forms at Zero Angle

Pressure Distribution;

(24)

of Yaw," IIHR, Studies in Eng'g., Bull. 32, 1948

Knapp, R. T., and Hollander, A., "Laboratory
Investigations of the Mechanism of Cavitation,"

(25)

Gawn, R. W.

Trans.

of the Fluctuations in

pp. 380-384

J.

pp. 228-231

"tlber den gegenwartigen Stand der

Pressure and Pressure Gradient in a Turbulent

Fluid," Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, 1936, Vol. 32,

for

ing Flow," Rev.

1928, Vol. 22, pp. 423-426

Taylor, G.

Water," Jour. Appl.

162-172

and Mason, W. P.,

High Sound Pressures,"
Lab. Monograph B-1507, publ. in Jour.

TMB-EPH

Section,"
(22) Plesset,

(23)

Kavitationsforschung (On the Present Status of

Cavitation Research)," Die Naturwissenschaften,

in

"Predicted Cavitation Characteristics for

v.,

the

Those

(5)

D., and Whiteley, A. H.,

18, pp.

(21)

Immersion and Speed on the Rupture

ATMA,

Feb 1947, Vol.

H. B., Johnson,

ment of Forms Having Specified Critical Cavitation Numbers," TMB Rep. 647, Sep 1947
Macovsky, M. S., Stracke, W. L., and Wehausen,

(19)

in the Propeller Stream),"

1942

(20)

Normand,

Water

Nov

Acoust. Soc. America, Jul 1947, Vol. 19, pp. 664-677

Dieudonne, J., "Resultats Obtenus k la Mer avec des
Helices en Regime de Cavitation (Results from
Sea Trials with Propellers Operating in the Cavitating Region)," ATMA, 1947, Vol. 46, pp. 253270. The data were taken on various torpedoboats
and destroyers at high speed.
Walohner, 0., "Contribution to the Design of Ship
Propellers without Cavitation," AVA, 1947
Vennard, J. K., "Elementary Fluid Mechanics,"
1947, pp. 329-332
Bell, L. G., "Some Model Experiments on the Effect
of Blade Area on Propeller Cavitation," INA,
1948, Vol. 90, pp. 79-91. There are some good
cavitation photographs opp. pp. 86-87.
Eisenberg, P., "A Cavitation Method for the Develop-

(16)

(18)

Vol.

E., McElroy, W.
"On Cavity Formation

Bell Tel.

(17)

of Propeller

Rep. 495,

Effect of the Air Content of

"Properties of Liquids at

Reynolds, Osborne, "On the Causes of the Racing of

the Engines of Screw Steamers," INA, 1873, pp.
59-60

of

TMB

1946
Harvey,

(15) Briggs,

historical picture:

J.-A., "Note sur I'lnfluence de I'lmmersion

de I'Hfelice et de la Vitesse sur la Rupture du
Cyjindre d' Eau Actionne (Note on the Influence

"The

H.,

Phys.,

Chaps. 7 and 23 as well as to that in this chapter

in Chap. 70 of Part 4.
The first three references help to fill out the

(2)

and Observed Speeds

About Two- and Three-Dimensional

Water on the Cavitation Point and upon the

Characteristics of Ships' Propellers," SSPA, Rep. 6,

and

(1)

of

B., "Calculated

Bodies in Water,"

Some important papers

These apply to material in

Freeman, H.

(13) Edstrand,

not Usted, and some published since 1947 have

either been referenced previously in this chapter
or are set

Bureau

I.,

of Cavitation

issued, as

work

95ff.

Camb. Phil. Soc, 1938, pp. 534-539

"Rotation Losses at the Rear of TurboMachine Runner Wheels," Escher Wyss News,
1941, Vol. XIV, pp. 14-19

immensity. In December 1947

that time,

S.

p.

Fluid," Proc.
(11) Viskovid,

the David Taylor Model Basin prepared and

TMB Report R-81, "An Annotated

BibUography of Cavitation." This contains references to most of the material published up to

U.

142,

"The Mean Value of the Fluctuations

and Pressure Gradient in a Turbulent

in Pressure

phases of cavitation in

including cavitation erosion,

staggering in

Vol.

W. T., "Flow of Boiling Water Through

and Pipes," NECI, 1936-1937, Vol. 53,

(10) Green, A. E.,

craft.

The

1936,

p. 65ff

reliable predictions of supercavitation

47.13

Bottomley,
Orifices

While the references of that section contain

data relative to the variation in propeller thrust
at high rates of rotation, there are no systematic
data which permit the ship or propeller designer

(London),

ASME,

NECI,
D124
(26) Eisenberg,

L.,

Jul 1948, Vol. 70, pp. 419-435

"Cavitation of Screw Propellers,"

1948-1949, Vol. 65, pp. 339-373,

P.,

and Pond, H.

L.,

"Water Tunnel

Investigations of Steady State Cavities,"

Rep. 668, Oct 1948

D105-

TMB

HYDRODYNAMICS

158
(27) IMakp,

V.

Acouiitics

Liquiilii,"

Tech. Hop-

Crump,

'Tlio

Jr.,

('...

I.2,

Onst>t

Hea.

I^^ib.,

Sep 1919

S. F.,

TMB

tion, Cal. Inst. Tech., 19-19

"On

(30) Kiscnbcrg, P.,

the

of the principal references

No.

of Cavitation in a Large-Scale

Tank

SNAME,

IME,

St.

Dec

Jiunes Clayton

its

Lecture,

Vol.

1952,

166,

C, and Emerson, A., "Propeller CavitaSome Observations from 16 in. Propeller Testa

in

the

New

King's College Cavitation Tunnel,"

NECI, 1953-1954,

Vol. 70, Part 2, pp. 121-150,

D185-D188. There are photographs

of

hub vor-

texes or swirl cores abaft model propeller hubs in

17(a) and 17(b) on p. 149; also cavitation
photographs of model propellers on pp. 149-150.
Tulin, M. P., "Sfe.i<ly Two Dimensional Cavity
Flows .\bout Slender Bodies," TMB Rep. 834,
Figs.

(52)

May

1953

"A Brief Survey of Progress on the

Mechanics of Cavitation,"
Rep. 842, Jun
1953, revised edition; pp. 21-24 contain a list of
44 references
Numachi, F., "Cavitation Tests on Hydrofoils in
Cascade," ASME, Oct 1953, Vol. 75, pp. 1257-1269
Knapp, R. T., "Present Status of Cavitation Research," Mech. Eng'g., Sep 1954, Vol. 70, pp.

TMB

(55)

Gawn, R. W.

L., "Results to Date of Comparative

Cavitation Testa of Propellers," SNAME, 1951,
pp. 168-216

Russian)
"The Collapse and Rebound of a Gas
Bubble," Jour. Appl. Phys., Jan 1952, Vol. 23,
pp. 14-17
(in

(40) Trilling, L.,

"The Growth

or Collapse of a
a Viscous Compressible
Liquid," CIT Ilydr. Lab. Rep. 26-4, 1 Apr 1952
Kcrmeen, R. W,, "Some Observations of Cavitation
on Hemispherical Head Models," CIT Hydro.
Ijib. Rep. E-35.1, Jun 1952
Wacsclynck, R., "Calcul dc la Pouss6c de rh61ice en
rt'gimo Cavitant (Calculation of the Thrust of
Cavitating Propellers)," ATMA, 1952, Vol. 51,
pp. 365-388. On page 382 there is a list of 10
references, some of them not given here.
Garabcdian, P. R., Ix:wy, H., and Schiffer, M.,
"Axially Symmetric Cavitational Flow," Appl.
Math, and Statistics Lab., Tech. Rep. 10, SUnford
Univ., 25 Apr 1952
Parkin, U. R., "Scale Effects in Cavitating Flow,"
CIT Hydro. Ijib. Rep. 21 8, 31 Jul 19.'')2
F.

Spherical

(40) GilliarK,

and

Anthony Falls Hydr. Lab. Project Rep. 42,

1954. There is a bibliography of 16 items on

tion:

75-97

Jour. Theor. Physics, U.S.S.R., 1951, Vol. 21, pp.

(46)

Mechanics

"Cavitation

pp. 31-32.

(54)

"Compara-

(39) Shalncv, K. E., "Cavitation of Surface Roughnesses,"

(44)

T.,

(51) Burrill, L.

Supts., Washington, 1951,

1953, Subject 3,

tive Cavitation Testa of Propellers," pp.

(43)

R.

pp. 150-163
(50) Olson, R. M., "Cavitation Testing in Water Tunnels,"

Numachi Nozzle

770, Jul 1951

published by

(42)

Knapp,

Relation to the Design of Hydraulic Equipment,"

OS Influenced by the Air Content of the Water,"

T.MB Rep.

(37) 6th Int. Conf. Ship

(41) Gihnore,

1,

TMB

S. F., "Critical Pressures for the Inception

206-220

Some

(53) Eisenberg, P.,

in 1951)

(38)

for

Jan 1952, Vol.

.\nalvsifl,

1952, revised edition

Oump,

Theorems

"E.xi.-itence

M., ".\.n E.\pcrimental Study of Single

Bubble Cavitation Noise,"
Rep. 815, Nov

TMB

(36)

Jr.,

(tS) Harrison,

TMB

on pp. 63-70, a

contains,

B.,

J.

lytlrodynamical Free Boundary Problems," Jour.

Rational Mech. and

of

Rep. 712, Jul 1950. This report,

list of about one hundred
on the subject.
(31) Rouse, H., "Engineering Hydraulica," 1950, pp. 29-31
(32) Birkhoff, G., "Hydrodynamics," Princeton Univ.
Press, 1950
(33) Konstantinov, W. A., "Influence of the Reynolds
Number on the Separation (Cavitation) Flow,"
Transl. 233, Nov 1950
(34) Birkhoff, C, Plessct, M., and Simmons, N., "Wall
Effects in Cavity Flow
I and II," Quart. Jour.
Math., Part I, Jul 1950, Vol. VIII, pp. 151-168;
Jan 1952, Vol. IX, pp. 413-421
(35) Rattray, M., Jr., "Perturbation Effects in Bubble
Dynamics," CIT Doctoral dissertation, issued as a
CIT Hydrodyn. Lab. report under ONR Contract
N6onr-24420 (NR-062-059), (undated but issued
Cavitation,"

(49)

Mechanism and Prevention

Sec. 47.13

Flows with Free Boundaries," Jour. Rational

Mcch. and Aii;dysi, .-Vpr 1952, Vol. 1, No. 2
(47) Serrin,

"Determination of Critical Prcssurc.i

for thp Inception of Cavitation in Krcsli and Sea
Water as Innucnccii by Air Content in the Water,"
Rep. 575, Oct I'oW
(29) Schneider, A. J. R., "Some Compressible EfTects in
Cavitation Bubble Dynamics," Doctoral disserta-

(2S)

DESIGN

IN SHIP

CaviUtion in
Harvard Univ.,

of

I).,

R.,

Bubble

in

"(Ini>|U('hi-KH

of

Axially

Symmetric

731-734;

ASNE, Feb

On p. 50
a bibliography of

1955, pp. 44-50.

of the latter reference there

is

six items.

(56)

Knapp, R.

T.,

"Recent Investigations

of the

Me-

Damage,"
NovemberASME paper 54-A-106, presented
December 1954 (copy in TMB library). The
chanics of Cavitation and Cavitation
in

paper describes experiments in a variable-i)ressure

water tunnel in which a torpedo-shaped model,
run under cavitating conditions, was surrounded
by a rather large annular cavity just abaft the
forward shoulder. At water speeds above a certain

minimum

this cavity

was

filled

(or partly filled)

with a reversed or reentrant flow

rushing forward as a thin sheet next to the model
surfuci'. In other words, the cavity accompanying
the normal form of sheet c.ivitation was not a
periodically

steady-state affair, even in

its

forward and middle

which alternately
from the downstream end
of the cavity jinil was then swept aw.iy. Cavit.it ion
erosion on the aluminum model occurred under
tiic region covered by the periodically advancing
and retreating reentrant flow. The author Ii.hIs 15
references on p. 12.
(57) Kermeen, R. VV., McGraw, J. T., and I'.iikin, H. li.,
"Meclianism "f Caviljitiim Incepliim ;ind llic- lieportions, because of the water

rushed forward into

it

SHIP

Sec. 47.13

AND PROPELLER CAVITATION

lated Scale-Effects Problem," Trans.

ASME, May

1955, Vol. 77, pp. 533-541; a review of this paper

to be found in Appl.

Meoh. Rev., Jan 1956,

p.

is

W., and Johnson, V. E., Jr., "Turbulence

and Boundary Layer Effects on the Inception of
Cavitation from Gas Nuclei," MIT Hydro. Lab.

Techn. Rep. 21, Jul 1955. On pp. 63-65 there is a

bibliography of 38 items; most of those relating
directly to cavitation are included in the

list

of

the present section.

(59) On 14-17 September 1955 there was held at the
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, England, a

symposium on

cavitation in hydrodj'namics.

The authors and

Scale-effect factors

(4)

Effects on

(5)

Cavitation damage.

29

(58) Daily, J.

159

(3)

hydrodynamic performance

The complete proceedings are to be found in a

volume issued by the NPL, Teddington, entitled
"Cavitation in Hydrodynamics," H. M. Stationery
London, 1956.

Office,

(60) Tulin,

M.

P.,

in

"Supercavitating Flow Past Foils and

NPL, Teddington, Symp. on

Struts,"

Cavitation

Hydrodynamics, Sep 1955; abstracted

1955, pp. 570-571

in

SBSR,

Nov

(61) Burrill,

titles of the twenty-one papers

presented during this symposium are given in
SBSR, 25 Aug 1955, pp. 255-256. The subjects

Vol.

considered were:

some

L.

C, "The Phenomenon

of Cavitation,"

Second Nav. Arch. Congr., Trieste, 14-16

published in

1955;
2,

No.

15, pp.

Int.

Shipbldg.

Prog.,

May
1955,

503-511. This paper contains

excellent photographs of cavitating

(1)

Factors governing cavitation inception

propellers, including

(2)

Experiment techniques

leaving a blade trailing edge.

one

(Fig. 13)

model
showing eddies

cnAriKR

18

Data on Theoretical Surface Waves and

Ship Waves
48.1
48.2

Purpose of This Chapter

ThcoreticAl

Wave

Patterns

160

on

Water

Surface

48.3

IGO

Ilognor's Conlribiition to the Krlviii W:ivc

Systom
48.4
48.5
48.6

Summary

161
of the

Elevations and

Troohoidal-Wavc Theory

Sloix-.i

of the Troclioidal

Wave

161
1

63

Tabulated Data on Length, Period, Velocity,

and Frequency of Deep-Water Trochoidal

Waves

166

Deep-Water

48.

Orbital Velocities for Trochoidal

Waves
Data on Steepness Ratios and Wave Heights

166

48.8

169

48.9

Design Purposes
Formulas for Sinusoidal Waves
for

70

IS.

Spc.

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

^SA

deg for a traveling pressure point, as

described in Sec. 10.6 on page 174 of Volume I
[Hovgaard, W., INA, 1909, Vol. 51, table facing
p. 260 and PL XXIV; Taylor, D. W., S and P,
of 19.47

1943, pp. 27-28].

Hogner's Contribution to the Kelvin

System. Owing to an apparent misunderstanding of the exact nature of a wave-pattern
diagram which was published by Ijord Kelvin
in the papers referenced in Sec. 10.5 on page 170
of Volume I, tlie planform illustrated in Fig. 10.
of that section has for the past half-century been
described in many text and reference books as
the exact crest pattern developed by him. E. Hogner brought out, in the 1920's, the fact that the
figure given by Kelvin showed only "the envelope
curves of the crests of the two-dimensional waves
from which he has constructed his three-dimensional waves" ["A Contribution to the Theory of
Ship Waves," Arkiv for Matematik, Astronomi
och Fysik, Stockholm, 1922-1923, Vol. 17, paper
12, footnote on p. 42]. Kelvin's mathematical
formulas actually showed a phase difference at
the boundary planes (marked "Line of Crest
Intersections" in Fig. 10. B of Volume I) but
this was apparently overlooked by most of those
48.3

Wave

who worked

in this field in the 1900's and 1910's,

Hogner brought it to fight.
Depending upon the assumptions made and

until

the approximations employed,

Kelvin's earlier

theory gives a phase difference, at the boundary

planes lying at angles of 19.47 deg to the direction
of

motion

of

the traveling pressure point,

of

lf)l

L,/4 between the crests of the transverse waves

and those

of the divergent waves.

The

crests of

the former system lead the others, just as

if

there

were a first transverse crest formed at a position

Lh^/4 ahead of the pressure point. A planform
diagram of such a pattern, showing the variations
from the Kelvin wave system of Fig. 10. B of this
book, is given by Hogner, from which Fig. 48.
is adapted [Proc. First Int. Congr. Appl. Mech.,
Delft, 1924, Fig. 5, p. 149]. In a reworking of the

by Hogner

entire analytic procedure, described

paper listed as the first reference in this

section, he shows that the phase difference at the
in the

boundary planes is actually Lwfi, indicated in

detail by his diagram in Fig. 17 on page 46 of
that reference.

These same phase

differences,

although ex-

pressed as 27r/4 and 27r/3, are derived

Lunde [SNAME,

by

J.

K.

1951, p. 71]. In Fig. 6 of that

reference he gives a diagram corresponding to

the solid lines of Fig. 48.A.

E. Hogner carries his analytic procedure to
the point where he predicts the nature of waves

formed in the area beyond the boundary planes.

He

also substantiates his analytic derivation

by

photographs which reveal the patterns actually

formed on the surface of the water.
48.4 Summary of the Trochoidal-Wave Theory.
The notes which follow, adapted from G. C.

Manning [PNA,
the

Chap.

9.

They

described

are illustrated, as far as practica-

the definition sketch of Fig. 48.B, which

ble, in

the elevation of a

is

summarize
and presented in

1939, Vol. II, pp. 6-7],

relationships

wave having a steepness

hw/L^ of 1:7.
The principal assumptions

ratio
^Line of Crest Interaections Qs

in Fiq

Broken Lines Depict

Full

lO.B

Pattern of

lO.B;

Fio.

Lines Depict Norninol Crest Pattern

Qccordinq to

E.

Hoqn

wave

theory,

satisfying

the

of the trochoidal-

requirements

of

equilibrium, continuity, and uniformity of pressure, are:

(a)

The motion

is

2-diml, around circular orbits

in a vertical plane
(b)

The

liquid particles revolve in circular orbits

with uniform angular velocity u (omega)

(c)

Fig. 48.A

Modification of Kelvin Wave System

According to E. Hogneb

The

liquid particles at the crest

move

in the

same direction as the wave is advancing

(d) There are equidifferent phase angles d6{theta,)
= u dt between successive particles whose orbit
centers

lie

at equidifferent distances dL^r along

a given horizontal line

The Kelvin system, corresponding to that in

Volume I, is shown in broken lines. The

Fig. lO.B of

modification

(e)

Liquid particles whose orbit centers lie in

same vertical line rotate about those centers

according to Hogner, with the transverse waves ahead of

the

the diverging waves,

in the

is

indicated in solid lines.

same phase

UN m^Oin \

162
Direction

Wove

RiM

of

Trovol
tval

\\II( s 1\

Wove LcnijtM

Dl'SICN

sllll'

Stepnwa

-^

Rotio

of the

Wove Drown a

-IS.-I

Lyv

^.

Srr.

"

-j-

Wove

Veloclt^^

or Celerity

Mommurtu-

J^

of Crest

Orbitoi Velocity

"P^b^^

'^Qve Slope

_^ ^ _'t-

..^h^

Cirtulor Orbit Fhth

An(]ular Velocitu In Orbit

Depth h

WoveLenqth Lw

"

"T^

V^fave

Celentij c

-^^^

Fig. 48.B

T^y -"y

of iiriniipal interest are, based

a wave length L

wave period

r-

72.9

gravity g for sea level

ft per sec' or 9.80G65

2-kRrc

of
of

per sec":

where R,ic

is

the radius of

struction
(2)

V gL

./2Tr

(6)

= 2.2G3\/L^,
=

.249

VL

ir

/i-

in

fpswhen L-

in

mps wlien L

= IMOVT^-,

in k( wlioii /.

= 2A27VT^-,

in kt

when

/,

is in ft

is

i.s

in

f/o,b

m.
wiiere

"=

2r^

0.1953c", in

ft

when

c is in fps

ft

when

c is in

0.5571c", in

0.<il07c", in in wiien c

i.s

in

0.1G97c', in

m when c

is

in kt.

ff2l,-/(2,r)

5.r217'H-, in

1.5(il7';',-.

"

and

3.0327',,

in kt

1.5G17',,

in

in in

wlicn

Rs =

and

and

7r/i/(0.4419

irc(/i-/L),

r,,,!, is in

c is in

(8)

5.1217',,. in fps

= 2U,

wlicn

ft

7'-

is

Y',,-

kt

mps

in .sec

is in

sec.

h-/2

as derived in See.

4.'^.7,

is

in ft

is in

Wave

Till' (irliital vcldrily,

(7)

2-KC'/g

/.,..

the rolling circle for the graphic trochoidal con-

*'e Frequencu- y-

o^

upon

and an acceleration
at 45 deg latitude

"

~C~

L-

(5)

32.174

Lir

'

wave celerity (velocity) c, a

wave height hw b, surface-

particle orbit radius

(1)

Definition Dr.\wing for a Trociioidal

(0 The depth of the liciuid body is uiiliinitcd

(g) The Uquid is ideal, without viscosity'.

The results

S urfoce- cjRs" u)(-/)- 1Tc(x^j

Orbital Veloci ty at

Wove Period

fps

VZ^) = 7.109/i-/V^

when

/i

and L^ are

in

ft

fjis.

The angular

orbital velocity

(4) preceding, 27r/7'i,.

ui

is,

from

(3)

or

2ir

(3)

ini)ersec.

l2wL,r

T = \/2rLJg
=

0.4419\//y-, in sec wh en

/vn- is in ft

(9) Tlie

particles

= O.SOOSvLic, insecwlien //
i IT

i.s

in

m.

tt/i"

level.

tli(!

(4)

I'rr'(|Ufnry

.?//>.

At

line
is

at

of orbit centers of the surface

the

distance

con^'spniiding distiineo

is

rn
i

2ir

5r(/i)V(-l^'ii)

0.7854(/i)V/.. above the still-water

any depth h, where the orbit radius is R,

2ye,

Sec.

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

4S3

At a depth h below the

(10)

surface, the radius

depth

of the orbit centers at that

given by

is

163

fortable performance

when steaming

nearly ahead
waves having a length Lw

into a regular train of

Then L^ =

of 1.2 times the length of the ship.

1.2(L)

By

substituting

Lw = 2vRrc

this

The

becomes

R^e'^'

celerity

VgL^/2T =

612

ft;

\/Z^ =

24.75

ft.

of this wave,

reckoned with
res pect to the undisturbed water, is equal to

=Rse-'""'"'

72

When h = L^,R =

1.2(510)

0.0019i?s

Thus

ft

2.263

per sec. This

is

a/L^ =

2.263(24.75)

56.01

equivalent to 33.16 kt. For an

the orbital motion is virtually zero in water as

deep as the wave is long, and for practical purposes the assumed unlimited depth is not necessary; see Table 48.f of Sec. 48.7.
(11) The total energy in the wave per unit
breadth is approximately 0.125w{hw)^L,r By this
formula, a salt-water wave 600 ft long and 30 ft
high has about 2,000 ft-tons of energy per ft of

angle of encounter a (alpha) of about 180 deg,

breadth.

wave

representing a head sea, the speed of encountering

ship,

water.

The

Of the

(12)
is

total energy in the

wave, half of

it

potential energy and half kinetic energy.

From

(13)

0.4419

hw

space in

of this

wave

or 0.4419(24.75)

w2-KLwlg =
The
the number of

is

corresponding to

/,

10.94 sec.

which would pass a given point in

crests

1 sec, is

the reciprocal of the period or

0.0914 wave per sec.

The

height

hw

oi the

wave

is

fixed

by the

assumption made in item (24) of Table 64. d,

which stated that the height would not exceed
0.55 vL;^
For the wave in question this is

2R.S

^kRrc

2TrR,

T^

period

VLr.

frequency

the relationship

Steepness ratio

is this wave speed plus the speed of the

reckoned with respect to the undisturbed

the waves

Rrc =

the rolUng-circle radius

/iiF/[27r (steepness

For a limiting steepness ratio

depicted in the diagram of Fig. 48.B,
ratio)].

Rrc =

The value

(14)

gravity

= \.\Uhw =

/iB^/0.8976

of 1/7, as

2.228Rs.

of the virtual acceleration of

is.

At the crest, {Rrc Rs)g/RRc

At any intermediate point, Rig /Rrc
At the trough, {Rrc + Rs)g/RRc
For a limiting steepness
value of the

first is

ratio

is

sin"'

{Rs/Rrc)

or,

in radians,

wave

the

irhw/L^

Rg

It
is

normal to the radius Ri For the same limiting

steepness ratio of 1/7, where Rrc = 2.228fls
the sine in question is 1/2.228 = 0.4488, whence
the slope angle f (zeta) is about 26.7 deg, as compared to 30 deg for the highest possible Stokes
irrotational wave of approximately the same

steepness ratio.

As an example

of the use of the

made

data in the

foregoing,

an estimate

teristics of

a trochoidal wave Avithin the range of

size

and proportions

ABC

is

listed for

of the

charac-

the operation of the

ship in item (24) of Table 64.d.

Assume that the

ship

would give

its least

com-

ft.

wave surface
The ordinates

TABLE

The

steepness ratio

0.0222 or

hw/Lw

1: 45.

in terms of the

wave height

are spaced at equidistant

Ordinates for Construction of a

Trochoidal Wave Profile

48.a

The data listed here are from PNA, 1939, Vol. I, p. 207.
The stations are spaced equally along the horizontal plane
from crest to trough. The base line for ordinates ia at the
bottom of the wave trough.

13.61

The velocity and period of this wave, as taken

from the tables of Sec. 48.6, are listed in that
section. Its maximum slope and orbital velocity
are found in Sees. 48.5 and 48.7, respectively.
48.5 Elevations and Slopes of the Trochoidal
Wave. Table 48. a gives the ordinates of a tro-

the

surface

occurs at the point where the orbit radius

then 13.61/612

choidal

hw/L^ = 1/7,
= 0.55^; of

of the

is

hw

.228^/2.228

last, 3.228?/2.228 = lA5g.

(15) The maximum slope

0.55(24.75)

Statio

IIVHRonVX XMICS

161

I\ SHIP

DESIGN

Sec. 48.5

Expijvnatory Sketch for Surface Slopes of a Trochoidai,

Fig. 4S.C

Wave

intervals along the horizontal plane between the

as indicated at the right on Figs. 48. B and 48. C.

and the trough, in a direction normal

the crest and trough lines.

indicated by Eq. (48. i)

crest

The

wave

It is to be noted particularly that the slope

to

that at the position of a

is

is

surface particle lying at the extremity of a radius

based upon the fact that a normal to the wave

which lies at the angular orbit position 6.

For a w-ave traveling to the left, as in Figs. 48.
and 48. C, this angle is reckoned counter-clockwise
from the top center, starting at a crest at the left
or advancing end of a wave. The horizontal
distance from the crest to the position of tlie

expression for the

surface

any

at

slope j'(zeta)

surface-particle

point

passes

through a point at a distance Rrc above the

In
diagram 1 of Fig. O.G on page 163 of Volume I,
the line P,Ci is normal to the wave surface at P,
instantaneous orbit center of the particle.

whence the wave slope f equals the angle PiCiOi

In the diagram of Fig. 48. C the line Vid is normal
to the wave surface at Vt
and the wa\e slope ^^
is represented by either the angle VidOi or the
.

angle

MiPiN*

By

u_

particle

is

P4M.
J4'>'<
_,_

Q^^j^

Ki,
/l.s

i^^^

The maximum wave

Thus

sin
a
111 P4
04

^^

for Of

tan f

(48.i)

slope occurs

Fig. 48.

normal to the

lies

(c^)

is /-/2

-'Ct)

-F

The

Rs

sin 0,

with the surface

(l(^^

Rs

O^M,

cos

fl

0.86C.,

Rhc

- ej:im)Lw

O.SGC)/?.,

sin e

- Rs

Rrc

The

+
is

0.5a

L,r/3 and

latter is

meas-

ured toward the crest, so the particle position

advance

of the

from the crest

wave, is

in the direction

and Rhc = Lw/2-k,

To
=

9.

/es(-0.5)

value of (360

that of

(3()0

position in

<-->

wave

ha
f M..

namely
offset

VM*
C^O,

desired, reckoned

sin

sin

2ir/3 or 120

Rrc

when the
line PaC'a

crest,

by the

J2s(0.8(iC))

of

Since lia

^^^ g

Hurfacc-parlicle orbit radius P3O3 or lis in the

Rs

the orbit, namelj'

where 6 is measured from the top center of the

orbit and cos
in the lower quadrants is negative.

fii..

from the

0/36O)(Li,), modified

particle Ij'ing at Pi

f^Q^

diagram of
whence

therefore the offset distance of the

center

orbit

simple geometry, indicated

in Fig. 48.C,

lan

72s

sin'

it is

2_

M8.iia)
/.

2ir

determine the niaxininn) slope of the t)12-ft

of Sec. 48.4, for the .\B(" ship of Part 4,
nece.s.sary to

a surfaic particle
circle

A';,,-

know

the orbital radius

and the radius of the

Rs

of

rolling

by which the trochoidai surface

is

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

Sec. 48.5

TABLE

48.b

Lengths, Velocities, and Periods of Trochoidal Debp-Water Waves

165

11M)R()1)\.\AMU.S IN Mill' DLSICN

166
T.\HI,I';

This tablo
velocities

is iiuluxcxi

IS.c- I'khioii, Lbnctii,

l)y iiitof^al

values of

and Vki/icity of

tlip

wave

[H-ritxl

Tro(-hoii>ai. Dkki'-Watkii

7'if in

and the frequencies nith which various waves pass a point

Sec. 48.6

Waves

wo. The table inrludos also the angular orbital

in space.

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

Sec. 48.7

TABLE

48. d

This table

Velocity,

Velocity, Length, and Period of Trochoidal

is

167

Dbbp-Water Waves

indexed by integral values of the wave velocity or celerity

c in kt.

iiM)K()n\ \ wjif.s IN

168

siiii>

L'AHLIJ 4i>.d (Continued)

Velocity,

nrsir.N'

Sec.

-Ift.?

Sec. 4S.S

50

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

169

IIM)R()in \

170

\\ll( s 1\

MIIF'

'1'aIII.K

nrSIGN

IS.Il

Src. 4S.9

-OlUllNATKS VOR A SiNK-WaVK PhOKILE

Tlio tabic gives 17 ordinut^is for the

hiilf-loiigtii

of a

aitmsoidul nave, distributed at IG equal iutcr\-alB between

crest

Ti6b

Ratios ok Wave Height to Wave Length

FOR Charactemstic Waves Used in Ship Design

Fig. 4S.E

It has

been the practice for manj''

ship-strength calculations on a

steepness ratio of 1/20. Tliis

as a "static"

wave but

following wa\-e that

as the ship, and

is

is

it niaj'

luxs

j^ears to

base

wave having a
often referred to

be considered as a

exactly the

not distorted

bj'

same speed
the presence

of the ship.

Because this wave is not as steep as tlie storm

waves which make trouble for small ships, and is
steeper than tho.se which make wavogoing

TABLE

Wave

48.g

length

Niedermaib and Wueelock WaveHeight Design Values

and trough, as projected on a horizontal plane.

Sec. 48.10

plex

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

waves with sinusoidal components, such as

those forming the basis of Figs. 48. G and 48.H of

Sec. 48.11, diagrams 2 through 5 of Fig. 48.F give

Equal

An<jles

171

ll^nR()I)^ \ wtK.s in ship

72

WluvKick

the

of

jKJSotl

having a height

/iir

of

^vll\t^<

0.")5 V/..H-

Kin.

48.10,

general direction.

wavegoing performanee of ships in lie design stage, adapted from

an initial proposal by the author in November
1950. is given in Table IS.i.
for the dotorniination of the
I

TABLK

Tentativk Sta.nti.^rd W.wk Conditions

IS.i
KOR DtrrKIUUNATION OK TIIK WaVKOOING PKnf-OR.\lANPE OF iSniPS IN TUB DkSION StAOB

(1)

dksign

This means that

Sec. IS. 11
l>oth trains are

The water depth

is

moving

(WK) ft

wave conditions

set of tPiilativp standard

train.

Wind and wind effects on the ship are not considered

The waves describc<l are assumed to be produced

in

the

same

(KM) fathoms)

or more.

C.\SK III. This is intended to represent the conditionB

obtaining in shallow water within a strong wind or storm
region, where relatively' large and steep waves are produced
by winds of short iluralion. The result is a single, regular
train of waves, in wlii<-li the wave velcx-ities may vary
from 0.4 to 1.2 or more times the maximum spec<l of the
ship under consideration. The stet'pne.'w ratio may vary

from 0.12.5(I/S) to 0.0025(1/11)) or less. The angle of

encounter of the wave Iniin may vary from
to ISO <|eg.
The depth of water may diminish to 2.5 times (he maximum draft, possibly to 2.0 times that draft.

here.

by some wind

of undefined nature.

Willi the lliicc v;Mi;il)lcs listed in

"In

.short,

that

it is

the old rule

holds,

still

and always

the waves of a storm, not

its

will,

winds, that

." IBiRclow, 11. B., and

the mariner has to fear:
Edmon.on. W. T., "Wind Waves at Sea; Breakers
and .Surf," l'. S. Navy llydroKraphic Ollice publication H. O. (>02, Washington, 1947, p. 401.
.

(2)

Table

'.V.^E

of

namely the ratio Lw'L, the steepne.ss

and the angle of eneomiter a, and
/>i,-

48. i,

ratio /(

Unless othenvise stated, the sizes and i)roportions of

the swells and waves are averages or signilicunt values for

the water areas of the world, rather than uncommon

ma.\ima of one kind or another. They mux be local averages
if the principal conditions are such that the ship can

even with the intervals deliberately made large,

the inimber of possible combinations is almost
prohibitive, rndoubtedly certain combinations of
variables, especially those producing resonant
motion, are
only

critical.

Study

of those

combinations

ultimately be found sufficient.

The wave

extended to a low range beeau.se

velocities are
is

travel only in that area.

may

it

possible for a ship with its forefoot nearly out

of the water, as in the ballast condition, to en(3) The lengths of regular or uniform swells .'ind wmvcs in
deep water may in general be taken as a function of their
velocities and \'ice versa.

counter short, steep waves who.sc impact coincides

with the

natiii:il

l2-n()(l('il

\-iiiration

of the ship

sfriiclurc.

C.\SE

This

I.

is

intended to represent the conditions

48.11

obtaining in the general but not immediate vicinitj- of an

area where a wind hiis been blowing for some time in a
nearly constant direction. The result is a simjjli', regular
train of swells, in

from 0.4 to

1.2 or

which the wave velocities may vary

more times the ma.ximum speed of the

ship under consideration. This range

large

The

enough to cover the region

is

intended to be

of resonant pitching.

steepness ratios of these swells, expressed as

wave length

wave

may

vary from 0.083(1/12)

to 0.04(1/25) or less. The angle of encounter a of the ship
with the direction of travel of the wavt; train may vary
from
(following sea) to 180 deg (head sea). The water
depth is (JOO ft (1(X) fathoms) or more.
height

CASE

to

All-

I^w

T-VBLI;; 48. j

This

is

intended to represent the conditions

storm area and in the immediate vicinity of another.

Due to a shift in storm center or other cau.ses, the wind in
the latter an-a is blowing in a direction difTcrent from that
in which it bli.'W in the former area. The result is one or
possibly
itclceted

two S4-condary wave trains impo.sed upon a

primary train of swells of C.\SE I. When the

wells arc of simple geometric form, this is known as a

complex synthelii' two-comi>onent (or tliree-c(mipone.nt)
ea. The secondary wave veliM-itics may vary from 0.
to 0.8 nf the maximum H{M-ed of the ship under consideration. In othiT words, they may exceed the primary swell
velority. Tin- flireclion of thilie

within

(SO

deg of

wcondary

tin?

(rain (or trains)

direction of the primary

Characteristics ok Tiiukk ComComplex Synthetic Sea

ro.VKNTs OK a

The data
II.

obtaining in the general vicinity of one strong wind or

nmy

Delineation of a Synthetic Three-Com-

ponent Complex Sea. As an inilicatiun of the

appearance and the characteristics of a synthetic
complex sea, a graphic example is workefl out in
which three components or trains of regular
sinusoidal waves are superpo.sed. The primary
train is a.ssumed to travel in the direction of 90
(\v^ true (east), while the secondary trains travel

listed

here apply to the superpositions of

.\l| the wave components are sinuform but their velocities of translation and periods
arc ealculateil from the fornuilius for trochoidal waves.
For a wave length L\y in ft, these are c " 2.201? v^Z/ic in

Figs. 4S.Ci anil 48.11.

soidal

ft

per

ill

.sec;

'l\y

Direction of

Wove
Wave

0.4419\//.,ir in sec.

tran.slatioii,

true

00 deg

length, ft

4(1(1

height, ft

75 dru
240

i:i5drg

120
I

Steepness ratio

/.W

l/IO

!/:)

Wave

celerity, ft |M>r sec

45.20

:i5.()0

2l.7i)

20.70

20.75

14.(i7

Wave

iwriod, sec

S.840

0.SI7

4.S12

135.7S

105.17

74.373

kt

Distance traveletl by wave in

3 sec, ft

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

Sec.-fS.lI

and 135 deg true. Their wave lengths

are 400 ft, 240 ft, and 120 ft, respectively, with
rather moderate steepness ratios of 1/50, 1/40,
and 1/30, in the order given. The corresponding
wave heights hw are 8, 6, and 4 ft. Other characteristics of these waves are given in Table 48. j.
All components have sinusoidal wave profiles.
Their elevations (or depressions) above the
assumed quiet water plane may therefore be
added algebraically to produce the elevations
at 75 deg

(considered

as

(considered as a

distance)

or

depressions

distance) of the resultant,

173

the desired

step in the graphic superposition

The

positions.

resultant

is built up on a fourth transparent sheet,

superposed on the other three, by adding the

pattern

elevations algebraically at a multitude of points

throughout the

field.

To show how much

pp.

ATMA,

on top

a starter that
to

all

of

each other,

for

1949, Vol. 48,

589-608] would be formed by three

crests piled

time

an "ilot" (French

of

[Pommellet, A.,

"islet")

it is

wave

assumed as

three crest lines intersect at the

This intersection

is

the reference point

or origin 0, taken to be fixed in space.

contour patterns, when laid

above or below the reference plane.

The

other in

down

The

three

at the proper

is

angles, are so placed that their crest lines cross the

to draw, to a convenient scale, three transparent

successive

Contours of the composite pattern are

1-ft intervals, with the result
shown in Fig. 48. G. Those portions of the composite waves whose surfaces slope downward and
to the right have the contours indicated by heavy
broken lines, as though in shadow when illuminated by a low sun at about 270 deg true (in the

divisions of the

west).

first

contour patterns for the three sinusoidal waves,

having straight, parallel

lines laid off

normal to

the direction of travel at elevations to represent

1-ft

contours, including the crests

The data

and troughs.
between

for positioning the contour lines

wave crests, for various equal subwave height, are given in Fig. 48. F.
The three patterns are laid down over each

'

y' J 1

ON

origin.

then sketched at

The

validity of this

method

N
Fig. 48.G

Contour Diageam for Three Superposed Sinusoidal Waves

of superposition

11M)R01)V.\AM1C;S 1\

174
wa-s

"111

puiiitctl

(lorstiier,

his

in

many
classic

by

Franz
paper of 1802 on the
ago

years

trochoidal wave, referenced in Sec. 48.18:

"Sine* this llutiry of \vavo
it

is

h.-t.-x"*!

followH that

ii|)on

tho cquality

waves of various sizes to cross in difTerent

dirwtions, and ronlinue their motion undisturbed, .\gain
genonU c.\|)crienco supplies ample verification. At the
e&ma time it explains the numerous elevations which
frequently ap|)onr at the surface of tho wat<ir"

Univ. of Cal., 1952, par.

Sec. 48.11

ai)ove the undisturbetl level

is

'-

ft.

toward the WSW, is a deep

iiole, extending G.4 ft below the undisturbetl water
level. Within 14.5 ft of the origin, therefore, one
islet,

all

for several

tran.<lation,

Dl.SlGN

the origin, tho hcigiit of tho water "i.slct"

Close to this

motions of the
!it^r which do not cluingc this uniformity of pressure,
neither disturb the wave motion. This makes it possible
of hydroslntic prp.isurp,

sllll'

.\t

(inds a difference

elevation of 15.4

in

steepness ratio of the

wave near the

ft.

origin

The
is

of

the order of 1/18.7, as comjjared to steepness

ratios of 1,'30, 1/40,

and l/oO

The maximum wave

about 10

for the

near

slope

components.

the

origin

is

(leg.

llOiiKli.^h

On

16, p. 14].

either side- of this group of one high crest

two deep troughs, within 300 or 400 ft, the
waver level is relatively flat, with crests and
.mil

Assuming

tliat

a ship

is

traveling through

tliis

synthetic complex sea on a course of 70 cleg true,

there results the profile in diagram

To emphasize

of Fig. 48.1.

the irregularities in surface eleva-

tion, the profile ordinatcs

above and below the

troughs less than 1.5

Following

three-component wave at
shifted to the position

undisturbed or quiet water level are magnified

time

6.308 times.

Table

,'//ti

ft in

<o

48. j.

magnitude.

composition

the

it

to

of

the

synthetic

each wave

is

then

would occupy at the

by the distance indicated in

new composite pattern is sketched,

3 sec,

Fio. 48.H

Contour Diackam m\\ Tiiuee Suruni'OBBo Sinuboidal Wavbh,

Seconos Latkr Than

Fto. 48.0

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

Sec. -fS.JZ

175

Composite Wave
Elevotion

of

Undisturbed

Water

Level

,15.

Profile

ft in

145

ot Zero

Time

tn

ft

Steepness Ratio of Wave ot

Origin is about 1/18.7 or 0.0535
Actual
Oriqin

Sections

Token

in

Space

in

the Center of

Fiqs

70 deq True

ot

Wove Slope

l/5,66 - ton"'O.I768

iOdeq.obt

46.& ond 48 H

Vertical

Scale

is

6.308

times Honzontol

Profile ot

Fig. 48.1

Profiles at 70

Deg True for the Wave Patterns

The

Scale

to+3 seconds

of Figs. 48.G and 48.H

point of origin in space remains at the center of

three-component synthetic may be used as the

base and the two secondary trains added to it.

the figure, as before.

However, the three-component sea appears at

indicated in Fig. 48.

for a time 3 sec later.

through the origin at a

direction of 70 deg true is drawn in diagram 2 of
Fig. 48.1, again with the vertical scale multipUed
6.308 times. The "islet" which was in the center
has moved toward the ENE, but it is now only
7 ft high. The trough at the origin is slightly
deeper than before, 6.5 ft. To the east, the surface
is depressed but flatter than before, while to the
west a large wave is building up.
The area depicted is not large enough to give
a reasonable indication of the variations to be
expected in resultant wave lengths and wave
periods, but within the confines of Figs. 48.
and 48.H the lengths vary from 210 to 220 ft in
one group, 270 to 280 ft in another group, and
over 400 ft in a third.
While the horizontal patterns of the waves in
these diagrams exhibit some systematic regularities, a close examination of the contours reveals
that the surface is almost as irregular as one
expects the ocean to be.
In fact, C. O'D. Iselin points out that wind
waves in nature are not symmetrical, and that
their

vertical

section

dominant

characteristic

is

the short length

of the crests of the individual waves,

plots of Figs. 48.

and

48.

shown by the

["Oceanography and

Naval Architecture," SNAME, New Engl. Sect.,

Jun 1954]. The plots could be made more irregular,
if desired, by adding two more trains to build up a
five-component

sea.

Graphically,

only

three

components need be combined at once, since the

this

time (1955) to be sufficiently irregular to

serve for ship-design purposes, as indicating the

kind of waves in which a ship is expected to travel.

48.12 Tabulated Data for Actual Wind Waves.

A table embodying

average relationships between

natural waves in deep water and the wind causing

them is given by Vaughan Cornish in his book

"Waves of the Sea and Other Water Waves"
[F.

T. Unwin, London, 1910]. Additional data

are given in his Cantor lecture before the Royal

Society of Arts, London, 1914. Cornish's table

is

quoted by E. L. Attwood, H. S. Pengelly, and

A. J. Sims on page 202 of their handbook "Theoretical

Naval Architecture," 1953.

It

is

repeated,

with some adaptations, in Table 48. k.

It is noted from this table that as the length
of

wave

increases

the

steepness

ratio

hw/Lw

According to the figures given, the

standard structural-design ratio of li^l^w = 20
stUl used in many quarters can not fairly be
decreases.

applied to ships longer than about 470

ft.

More comprehensive and more modern data

on the relationships between the winds and
waves of nature are given in the tables of U. S.
Navy Hydrographic Office publication H.O. 602,
1947, especially Table 4 on page 18 and Table 15
on page 32. The latter embodies a third and
necessary variable in this relationship, namely the
duration of the wind which is generating the
waves. Both these tables appear to take it for
granted that the wind is blowing steadily m one

iiVDRonvx

176

TABLE

-IS.k

AvKR-VGK

XNfK.s i\ Mill'

KKt-ATinvsiiii'

orsicv

Bktwkks N Alt rm. Winhs and

Srr.

\\

tS.n

avks

For the source of those diita, see tho arcompimying text. The Beaufort si-ale numbers and wind velocities do not
conform to tho latest U. S. Navy values as given along the top edge of Fig. 48.J. For this tabic it is assumed that the
waves travel at the same spocd as the vrind.

Description

Sec. 48.14

n0

4 8

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

177

!iM)R()n\.\ xMic.s ix siiir

178

30a>
0

-10

^
'

X>

o
i

^J?^-

10

,-"0
>-20

;:v
2:
10

SecticFiG. -l.S.K

i)i:si(;n'

Sec. fS.lf

Ser.4R.I1

Fig. 48.L

WIND WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

One op a Pair of Stereoscopic

Taken Abeam on the Aircraft Carrier

West of Cape Horn

PhoiocjUaiiis

camera horizontal, as was the case with the Oriskany

photographs of 1952. As many as three photographs
were made simultaneously at times. The reduction
was accomplished by the use of a Zeiss stereocomparator. A contour diagram of one pair of

number of
sections through the diagrammed wave, are reproduced on page 1980 of the reference. Photographs
are to be found on three plates bound in a separate
volume of tables accompanying the text.
Laas, W., "Die Messung der Meereswellen und ihre
Bedeutung fiir den Schiffbau (Measurement of
Sea Waves and Its Influence in Naval Architecexposures, together with a considerable

(2)

(3)

179

ture)," STG, 1906, Vol. 7, pp. 391-407

Laas, W., "Die Photographische Messung der Meere-

Oriskany,

Measurement of Ocean
Waves)," Institut fiir Meereskunde (Institute of
Oceanography), 1921; pubhshed b}' Mitler and Son,
Berlin. This report is mentioned in TMB Transl.
swellen (The Photographic

204,
(4)

Nov

1949, p. 72.

Weinblum,

G., and Block, W., "Stereophotogrammetrische Wellenaufnahmen (Stereophotogrammet-

Wave Photographs)," STG, 1936, Vol. 37, pp.

214-250 and 259-276;
Transl. 204, Nov 1949
Schumacher, A., "Ozeanographische Sonderuntersuchungen (Special Oceanographic Examinations),"
Erste Lieferung, Stereophotogrammetiische Wellenaufnahmen, Vol. VII, No. 2 of the Scientific
Results of the German Atlantic Expedition with the
research and experimental ship Meteor, Berlin, 1939
ric

TMB

(5)

HYDRODYNAMICS

180

IN SMIP

DESIGN

Sec. 48.15

Horizontal Reference Plane

Fig.

Nink Wave Phokii.ks Determined krom a Pair of Stereoscopic Photographs Taken from the

4S.M

U.

(6)

(7)

S. S.

Hidaka, K., "Stereophotogrammetric Survey of Waves

and Swells in the Ooenn," Memoirs, Marine Observatory, KoIh', Japan, 1941, Vol. 7, pp. 231-30S
'Stereophotogrammetric Apparatus for
the Study of Waves Generated by Ship Models,"
Inter. Shpbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2, No. 15, pp.
references.
537-53.S. (Jn page 53S there is a list of

Marusj<i,

A.,

Oriskany

The

iclatioa Ijctween

c^

and

is

shown gra-

\V. Taylor
and P, 194:^, Fig. 10, p. 12]. Other relation.ships
between shallow-water waves and deep-water
waves, taken from W. F. Durand [RPS, 1903,
Table \', p. 77], ini' given in Table 48.1.

phically in Fig. 48.x, adapted from

1^.

[8

48.15 Comparison Between Waves in Shallow

Water and in Deep Water. Sec. 9.10 describes
how, when a decp-wator wave move.s into .shallow
water (not necessarily up a sloping beach), its
celerity decreases for a given wave length L,p
it becomes steeper, and its crests take on a more
,

peaked

Navy

profile.

Table 29 on page 104 of U.

S.

llydrogruphic Office publication H.O. G02

gives the decrease in lengths and velocities of

waves of

advance

different dimensions as they

over a shoaling bottom.

The

stead}' tran.slational speed c* of a

shallow water of constant depth h

9.10 of V^olume

0.

where c

The

is

= .{.ah(g-

the deep-water

may

in

wave

wave

(!).iv)

speed.

velocity in a

ll'Ulll

of

also be expressed as

(IK.iii)

-{fe)'-(!;:f"
The

wave

from Sec.

I,

.shallow-water

water h

is,

pericKJ of

a shallow-water wave

fron

Sec. 18.10,

^rLJe'""-'
ffCe"*""

+
1)

1)

]"

Fio. 'IS.N

Graph Showing Ratio Dbtwbrn Wave

\'i;M)crriK8 in SiiAi.utw

and

is Df.ep

Water

Sec. 4R.17

Table

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

Comparison Between Characteristics op

Shallow-Water and Deep-Wateh Waves
48.1

18]

182
lO

lUMRODV.NAMICb

l.N

Mill'

DLSICX

Sec. tS.lS
10

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP WAVE DATA

Sec. 48.18
1802. Tiansl.

by R. M. Kay and edited by Oswald

vancement

from an article in German edited by Gilbert,

Annalen der Physik, Vol. 32, 1809. Inst. Eng'g.
Res., Univ. Gal., Waves Research Lab., Tech.
Rep. Ser. 3, Issue 339, TIP U-24940, Sep 1952.
The figures from Gilbert's paper of 1809 are
reproduced in this translation.
Cauchy, A. L., "Memoire sur la Thfiorie des Ondes
(Memoir on the Theory of Waves)," 1815. Publ.
in M6m. de I'Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1827; also
," Paris, 1882, Vol. I,
in "Oeuvres Completes
Sibul,

(2)

desirable to

1st series.

"M6moire sur la Th6orie des Ondes

(Memoir on the Theory of Waves)," M6m. de

(3) Poisson, S. D.,

I'Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1816.

(4)

Weber,

Ernst Heinrich, and Weber, Wilhelra,

"Wellentheorie auf Experimente gegriindet, oder

iiber

Wellen

die

tropfbarer

Anwendung auf die Sohall- und

or Concerning
Non-Viscous Liquids with ApplicaLeipzig, Gerhard
Fleischer, 1825. The experiments of the Weber
brothers are described briefly and illustrated by
H. Rouse and S. Ince in their "History of
Hydraulics," Chap. 7, Supplement to "La Houille
Blanche," 1955, No. 3, pp. 145-146.
In the words of J. Scott Russell [Brit. Assn.
Rep. 1844, p. 332], "The work is distinguished by
more than the usual characteristics of German
industry in the collection of materials, and contains
nearly all that has ever been written on waves since
the time of Newton, and as a book of reference
alone is a valuable history of wave research."
Young, Dr. Thomas, "Natural Philosophy," (prior
to 1833), Vol. II, p. 64ff. The matter of wave

Waves

(5)

reflection
(6)

is

considered in this paper.

and Russell, J. Scott, "Report of the

Committee on Waves," British Association Report,

Robison,

J.,

1837. Presented at Liverpool in 1838.

(7) Russell, J. Scott,

"Supplementary Report on Waves,"

Russell,

(9)

Russell, J. Scott,

J.

"Results

Scott,

of

Waves

Metropolitana,

LXXVIII,

B.,

"On Tides and Waves,"

London,

1845

(reprinted

in

(21)

(22)

Mag., Roy. Soc,

le roulis,

les qualitSs

de Saint-Venant, J.-C. B., "Histoire succinct des

recherches sur les ondes (Concise History of Research on Waves)," Annales des Fonts et ChaussSes,
1888, Vol. XV, 6th Serie, 1st semestre, p. 710f
"Expose sommaire de la thSorie
(24) Flamant, G.,
actuelle des ondes liquides periodiques (Summary
(23)

Theory of Periodic Waves in a Liquid),"

Annales des Fonts et Chaussees, 1888, Vol. XV,
1st semestre

D., "Wave Action in Relation to Engineering Structures," Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army,

(25) Gaillard,

Paper 31, 1904. This paper was reprinted in

1935 by the Engineer School, Fort Belvoir, Virginia.

(26) Cornish, V.,

(27)

441flf

"On the Rolling of Ships," Appendix 2

"On the Dynamical Structure of Oscillating

Froude, W.,

Waves," INA, 1862, pp. 48-62 and PI. Ill

Rankine, W. J. M., "On the Exact Form of Waves
Near the Surface of Deep Water," Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc, 1863, Vol. 153, pp. 127-138

W. J. M., "On the Action of Waves Upon

a Ship's Keel," INA, 1864, pp. 20-34
W. J. M., "On Waves Which Travel Along
with Ships," INA, 1868, Vol. IX, pp. 275-281.

(14b) Rankine,

The Report

Phil.

257ff

nautiquos des navires (Waves and RolUng; The

Wavegoing Qualities of Ships)," Paris, 1877, p. 37ff
WooUey, J., "On the Theory of Deep-Sea or Oscillating
Waves," INA, 1878, Vol. 19, pp. 66-79
Gatewood, R., "The Theory of the Deep-Sea Wave,"
USNI, 1883, Vol. 9, pp. 223-254

of the British Association for the

Ad-

"Waves

of the Sea, and Other Water

Unwin, London, 1910
Kriimmel, O., "Handbuch der Ozeanographie (Handbook for Oceanography)," J. Engelhorn, Stuttgart,
especially
1911,
"Der Bewegungsformen des
Meeres (The Motion Forms of the Ocean) in

Waves,"

(14a) Rankine,

(15)

"On Waves,"

5, p.

(20) Bertin, L. E., "Les vagues et

Encycl.

George G., "On the Theory of Oscillatory

Waves," Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc, 1847, Vol.

(13)

p. 676ff

(19) Rayleigh, Lord,

1876, Vol.

Height and Velocity)," Comptes

Paris, 9 Mar 1874, Vol.

Sci.,

of the

(11) Stokes, Sir

VIII, p.

Acad.

Prof.

George

entitled

of Variable

Rendus,

separate form)

(12)

of references appear in the

W. J. M., "Waves in Liquids," INA, 1873,

Vol. 14, pp. 170-178
L. E., "Nouvelle note sur les vagues de
hauteur et de vitesse variables (New Note on

47-57

(10) Airy, Sir

number

(18) Bertin,

on

Investigations

Waves," British Association Report, 1842

"Report of Committee on Waves,"
British Association Report, 1844, pp. 311-390 and
Pis.

Her Majesty's Government

(17) Rankine,

British Association Report, 1841

(8)

to

footnotes of this paper.

of

Sound and Light Waves),"

tion to

make

on these subjects. The findings of this Committee,

on page 38, listed as sources of information on
waves the references numbered (5) through (12) of
this bibliography plus a paper by Cialdi entitled
"Sul Moto ondoso del Mare" and some papers in
Liouville's Journal of 1866 by Caligny.
Bertin, L. E., "Memoir on the Experimental Study
of Waves," INA, 1873, Vol. 14, pp. 155-169. A
considerable

(Wave

Theory Based upon Experiments,

the

(16)

mit

Fliissigkeiten

Licht-wellen

183

embodies the report of a

CommitteeconsistingofMr.C. W. Merrificld,F.R.S.,
Mr. G. P. Bidder, Captain Douglas Galton, F.R.S.,
Mr. F. Galton, F.R.S., Professor Rankine, P.R.S.,
and Mr. W. Froude. This Committee was appointed
to report on the state of existing knowledge of the
Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of
Ships, and as to the application which it may be
of Science, 1869,

F. T.

Vol. II
(28) Cornish, V.,

Cantor

lecture,

Royal Soc. Arts (Lon-

don), 1914
(29)

Zimmermann, E., "Aufsuchung von Mittelwerten

fiir die Formen ausgewachsener Meereswellen auf
Grund alter und neuer Beobachtungen (Search
Average Values for the Form of Fully Developed
Ocean Waves, Based on Old and New Observa-

for

tions),"

May

Schiffbau,

28 Apr

1920, pp. 663-670

1920,

pp.

633-640;

lIMJ^JDWAMlt..-)

181

E., "A ('oiitril)iilioii to tho Theory of Ship

(in
Knglish), Arkiv fOr Mntcmatik,
Aatronomi och Fysik, Stockholm, 1922-102.S,
Vol. 17. Paper 12
(31) Hognor, E., "Notes on Somo New Contributions to
the Thi>ory of Ship Waves" (in English), Arkiv
fflr Matcnintik, Astronomi och Fysik, Stockholm,

l.\

Wiivce,"

(44)

1924-192"i. Vol. IS, Pai>er 10

"Uebcr die Theorie tier von eincm Srhiff

eneuRten Welleii uml ilcs Wellenwidprstnniies (On
the Thi-ory of Waves ami Wave Resistance
Causol l>y a Ship)," Proc. 1st Int. Cong, for Appl.

(32) Hogncr, E.,

15124.

pp.

d'aniploiir

"On

the Action of Wind," Pap<T

the Formation of Water

2.

Wind," Proc. Roy. Soc, Series A, 1925, Vol.

Paper

23, pp. 209-214.

Munk, W.

H., and .\rlhur, R. S., "Forecasting Ocean

Waves," Compendium of Meteorology, American

Meteorological Society, Boston, 1951, pp. 10821089. This paper lists 25 references.
(47)

Munk, W. H., "Ocean Waves as a Meteorological

Tool," Compendium of Meteorology, .American
Meteorological Society, Boston, 1951, pp. 10901100. There are 16 references with this paper.

(48)

Mason, M.

A.,

Wave

"Surface Water

Mar

Theories,"

ington, pp. 207-228

ASCE, Hydraulics

"Ocean Waves and ICindred Geophysical

Phenomena," Cambridge Univ. Press (England),

Separate 120. .\n excellent, readable, well-illustrated, iion-mathcmatic summary of the subject.

(38) Cornish, V.,

1934
(39) Lavrent'cv,

M.

A.,

"Sur

la

Th6orie E.vact des Ondes

Longucs (On the E.\act Theory of I/Ong Waves),"

translation from Recueil des Travau.x dc I'lnstitut
Mathematiquc de TAcad^mic des Sciences dc la
RSS d'Ukrainc, 1.04G, No, S, pp. l.'Mi9. Also, by
the sjime author, "A Contribution to the Theory
of Long Waves," translation from C. R. (Doklady)
Acad.

Sci.

UR

S.SS

(N.S.),

1943,

Vol.

41,

(49)

Div.,

1952,

Vol.

78,

There is a list of 68 references, of which the first

dozen or so give the principal historic papers.
Sverdrup, H. U., Johnson, M. W., and Fleming,
R. H., "The Oceans: Their Physics, Chemistry,

and General

Biolog.v," Prentice-Hall,

New

York,

XIV, pp. 516-537

Picrson, W. J., Jr., Neumann, G., and James, R. W.,
"Practical Methods for Observing and Forecasting
Ocean Waves by Means of Wave Spectra and
1952, Ch.'ip.

(50)

pp.

Both translations are available in the

library of the Bureau of Ships of the Navj' Department, library numbers 50655 and 50656, respec-

Report

under

27.5-277.

Statistics," prepared as Technical

tively.

Contract Nl89s-86743, BuAer Project AROWA,

July 1953. On pages 320 and 321 there is a bibhography of 39 items.

Lamb,

Sir Horace,

cations,

New

"Hydrodynamics," Dover Publied., 1945, Chap. IX on

(41) Deacon, G. E. R.,

"Ocean Waves and Swell," The

H.

Waves

B.,

and Edmondson, W.

T.,

"Wind

(52)

(53)

Navy
1947. On

at S'a; Breakers and .Surf," U. S.

Hydrographic OfTice publ. H.O. 602,

page 177 there is a list of 17 selected references,
iHjme of which are given here.

"Ocean

Swrfaix'

Waves," Annals N. Y. Acad.

(54)
Sci.,

.May 1949, \'ol. 51, pp. 343 .172. This is a collection

lifttxin paiNTH by eighte<-n autluirs, reporting on
a Oinferencc on (Jcean Surface Waves held by tho
Section of Oceanography and Meteorology of tho
of

C, "The Generation of Wind Waves on a

Water Surface," Jour. Appl. Phys., Dec 1953, Vol.
No. 12, pp. 1485-1494. Review by W. H.
Munk in Appl. Mech. Rev., Jun 1954, p. 279.
Proudman, J., "Dynamical Oceanography," Methuen
and Company, London; Wiley, New York, 1953
"Waves, Tides, Currents and Beaches: Glo.ssary of
Terms and List of Standard Symbols," 1953,
24,

Occasional Papers of the Challenger Society, 1946

(42) Bigelow,

(51) Eckart,

York, 6th

"Surface Waves," pp. 36;}-475. This book contains

many references in the footnotes.

(43)

(is

physicist.

(36) Thorade,

(40)

(il

hydraulics but there are a considerable number of

general interest to the naval architect and to the
(46)

the Sea; Physics of the Earth," 1932. This is

Vol. 5 of a work on Oceanography puljlished in
Bull. 85 of the National Research Council, Wash-

10, j)p.

Deacon, G. E. U., ".\nalysis of Sea Waves,"

G. H., "Wave Motion," Chap. XI of

"Engineering Hydraulics," 1950, pp. 711-7()8. On
pp. 76(i-768 the author lists 31 references on waves
and wave motion. Some of them appl\' primarily to

107,

H. F., "Probleme der Wasserwellen (Problems of Water Waves)," publisheil in Probleme der
Kosmischen Physik, Vols. 13, 14, II. Grand,
Hamburg, 19.^1
Patton, R. S., and Marmer, H. A., "The Waves of

interest are:

(45) Kculegan,

Waves by

pp. 1S9-206

(37)

Of particular

of references.

Neumann, C. "On the Complex Nature of

Ocean Waves and the Oniwtli of the Sea Under

Deter-

(RigorouB

mination of Permanent Waves of Finite .\mplitude\" Math. Ann., l'.>2.-., Vol. 'Xi, p. 2tiHT
(34) Von I>jiri!!ch, Graf, "Sturmsoc und Hrandung (Storm
Seas and Breakers or Surf)," Bielefeld und Leipzig,
1925. This book contains many excellent wave
photographs.
(35) Jeffreys. H.,

list

1.

17-100

(iiiif

375, 401, 441, 4(12, 474, 482, 500, 510, 521, and 54-1.
"Gravity Waves: Proceedings of the NBS Semicentennial Symposium on Gravity Waves, 18-20 June
1951," NBS Circular .521, 28 Nov 19.52, Govt.
Print. Off., Washington. Contains thirty-three
papers by various authors; each paper with its

own

(33) Levi-Civita, T., "DV-lorniination rigniireu.'Je dea ondes

p'rmanente.'!

Scc.-ifi.lS

New York Academy of Sciences on 18-19 March

1948. Separate bibliographies arc to be found at the
end of most of the pa|KTs, particularly on pp. 3.50,

CM) HopuT,

Mech., lilft,

Mlir IM.SU.N

Council on Wave Research,

Univ. Calif., Berkeley
"Gravity Waves: Tables of
Council un Wave Research,

Eng'g.

Found'n.,

I'\inctions,"
luig'g.

1954,

Found'n.,

Univ. Calif., Berkeley

(55)

Deacon, G. K. R., "Response of the Sea Surface to

Winds," Jour. Inst. Navigation (Unit4.>d Kingdom),
Jul 1954, Vol. 7, PI). 252-261

WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA

Sec. 48.19
(56)

"Ships and Waves," Proc. First Conf. on Ships and

Waves, Oct 1954, publ. by Council on Wave

Research and

SNAME,

1955.

Sci. Results, Vol.

V, Part

XV,

Christiania (Oslo), 1906

(6)

Bjerknes, V., Solberg, H., Bjerknes,

T., "Physikalische

Bibliography on Subsurface Waves.

For
the reader who wishes to pursue the study of
surface waves and the Hall Effect beyond the
48.19

185

Pole Exp., 1893-1896,

J.,

and Bergeron,

Hydrodynamik mit Anwendung

auf die dynamische Meteorologie (Physical Hydro-

dynamics as Applied to Dynamic Meteorology),"

Springer, Berlin, 1933, and Edwards Bros., Ann
Arbor, 1943, pp. 387-391. This reference gives a
maximum velocity of subsurface waves,

brief discussion of Sec. 10.20, the following refer-

table of the

ences are available:

(1)

H., liD, 1945, pp. 370-375; "On Waves due to

a Travelling Disturbance, with an Application to

Lamb,

Waves

in

Superposed

Fluids,"

Phil.

Mag.

(6),

Wave

in a

1916, Vol. 31, p. 3S6ff

(2)

(3)

Stokes, G. G.,
Vol.

(4)
(5)

(8)

Froude, W., "Remarks on the Differential

INA, 1863, Vol.

Trans. Cambr. Phil.

Stratified Fluid,"

8,

(7)

4,

pp. 216-218

Soc., 1842-1849,

pp. 451-452

"The Mariner's Mirror," Apr 1943, Vol. 29, pp. 73-74

Eckman, V. W., "On Dead- Water," Norweg. North

(9)

depending upon the thickness of the upper (lighterdensity) layer, and its sahnity content.
Milne-Thomson, L. M., TH, 1950, Art. 14.42, pp.
367-368, entitled "Waves at an Interface"
Ippen, A. T., and Harlemen, D. R. F., "Steady-State
Characteristics of Subsurface Flow," NBS Circ. 521,

June 1951
Sverdrup, H. U., Johnson,
"The Oceans: Their

M. W., and Fleming, R.

H.,

Chemistry and
General Biology," Prentice-Hall, New York, 1952,
pp. 585-602, on "Internal Waves."
Physics,

CHAPTER

49

Mathematical Methods for Dehiieating Bodies

and Ship Forms

....

180

180

Scope of This Chapter; Definitions

Ueefulne-'ss of Mathematical Ship Lines
E.xisting Mathematical Formulas for Delineating Ship Lines
Mathematical and Dimcnsioriless Representation of a Ship Surface
Application of the Dimensionlcss Surface
Equation to Ship-Shaped Forms
Summary of Dimensionlcss General Equations for Ship Forms
Limitations of Mathematical Lines
Value and Relationship of Fairness and
Curvature
Notes on Longitudinal Curvature Analysis

49.1
49.2
19.3

The

49.4

49.5

....

49.6

....

49.7
49.8

49.9

Scope of This Chapter; Definitions.

49.1

defined

wholij'

or

in

Mathematic Delineation and Fairing

Section-.\roa Curve

49.12
49.13

191

Ix)ngitudinal Flowplane Curvature ....

Checking and Establishing Fairness of Lines
by Mathematical Methods
Illustrative Example for Fairing the De-

192

Practical

189

192
193

Selected

195

be

fonnulas and equations which express the coor-

L'-ilinil

case

it

to divide the intersection or

more

200

204
204

matical Lines for Ships

JOvcn for the

199

203

Forms
Relating to Mathe-

Variation of Ship

References

199

for

Faired Principal Lines

.M;itli-

may

19S

Use of Mathematical Formulas

The Geometric

49.16
49.17

196

of a

ABC Ship ....

signed Waterline of the

by mathematical

part

49.11
187

omatiiul nicthod.s for doliiR'atiiig the forms of

bodies uiid ships are those by which the shape of
the outer surface, adjacent to the Uquid,

Graphic Determination of the Dimensionlcss

Longitudinal Curvature of any Ship Line

may be convenient
outhne into two or

parts, with a separate origin or set of coor-

dinates for each

part,

positioned

to

suit

the

mathematical formulas employed.

The term geometric shape defines a body whose
represented by some simple

dinates in terms of given reference axes. These

outline or surface

may

mathematical formula. Examples are a cube, a

sphere, a circular-.sectioa cylinder, a right circular
cone, a symmetrical pj'ramid, a parallelepiped, or
an ellipsoid. To achieve simplicitj' it may be
necessary to u.sc a particular system of coordinates and to establish limits in one or several
dimensions, as for the cube iti cartesian coordinates. For any geometric shape one such simple

be the rectangular

(x,

z)

y,

or Cartesian

coordinates in one, two, or three dimensions, the

cylindrical coordinates about an axis, the polar
or spherical coordinates about a point, or whatever

may

be convenient for the purpo.se.

With a

selected set of numerical values a.s.signed to the

symbols

of these equations,

surface coordinates or offsets

or part of the

all

may

be calculated.
Part of a bodj' surface may be geometric, such
as a nose of hemispherical or ellipsoidal shape of a
tiixly

revolution,

of

attached

rniddieb(xly or circular section.

to

a cylindrical

Some other part

may be highly

of the surface, such as the tail,

irregular, impractical for

tion with

any

.set

mathematic representa-

of reference axes.

Instead of covering a whole 8-diml body

the mathematical formulas
llio.sr>

required

ftatures.

int<T.s<-ction of

Hwcli

the

U.S

for

the

typical ca.se

may

delineation
is

.'5-<liml

the designed waterline on a

inlerticcting plane.

2-diml

of

the fomiula for the

a plane with the

reference,' axis

.surface,

be limited to

almost invariably

lies

Lines.

is

usually

sufTicieiit.

The Usefulness

49.2

of

Mathematical Ship

Before embarking on a discu.ssion of the

mathematical delineation of the lines or surfaces

and ships, it is well to answer the question
that arises immediately in the mind of the
practical naval architect and shijjbuilder: UTiy
bother with mathematical lines when faired lines
can be drawn .so quicklj' by experienced jjcrsonnel?
It is ca.sy to give two answers to this (jucstion.
of bodies

In the

first

place, analysis of the lines of

many

actual ships, in the form available to the naval

surface,

.ship.

expression

is

Hero

in the

archite(!t at

large,

strictly fair

by any

imlicates that

they arc not

criteria, graphical or

mathe-

matical. In the .second place, experienced per.son-

186

MATHEMATICAL

493

Sec.

by no means available in sufficient numbers,

especially in a national emergency, to draw all
the ship lines that need to be laid down.
There are several other good reasons, both
practical and scientific. For a ship of a new type,
nel are

or of a novel shape,

it is

still

a draw-and-erase

process, even for an experienced hand,

down

to lay

the lines of a 3-diml ship surface that will

have the proportion and shape characteristics

selected

by the

When

designer.

these charac-

teristics are achieved, the fairing process remains,

the

or

curvatures

require

to

be

checked,

as

described subsequently in this chapter. Assuming

a perfect drawing,

and

its

dimensions, coordinates,

offsets still require conversion to

numbers, so

that artisans with rules and scales can build the

These numbers have to be "lifted"

from the graphic drawing but they are a natural
product of the mathematic method.

full-size ship.

The numerical

values of those hull coefficients

and form parameters which are not used to set up

the mathematical equations may be calculated
before any mathematical lines are laid down on
paper.

The

designer

may

likewise calculate the

positions of the various centers of area

volume
they

in

which he

fall in

is

and

of

interested, to insure that

the proper places. Actually, the hull

parameters are selected by the hull designer

while the subsequent calculations and the drafting
work are performed by computing-machine opera-

and di'aftsmen.
As an example of what can be done with mathematical lines in an intensely practical case, the
shape of the large blisters added to the U. S.
battleships of the New Mexico class in the early
1930's was delineated by D. W. Taylor's mathematical method, to be discussed presently. In
some respects this was a more difficult job than
laying down the lines of the whole ship in the

tors

first place.

Entirely apart from the shipbuilding aspect,

mathematic delineation is invaluable when preparing the lines of a series of models in which some
parameter is to be varied systematically from
model to model.
The development of mathematical formulas
and methods for representing the principal lines
or the surfaces of ships has been somewhat spasmodic and is still far from a logical or practical

conclusion.

brief history is given here of the

outstanding events in the development, together

with a
(1955).

summary
'

of the results achieved to date

LINES FOR SHIPS

49.3

187

Existing Mathematical Formulas for

De-

The use of mathematical

formulas for calculating the offsets of ship lines,
lineating Ship Lines.

what may be called

mathematical ship surfaces, is not necessarily
tied to the mathematical calculation of resistance
due to wavemaking and other causes, discussed in
Chap. 50. To be sure, many of the calculations
for pressure resistance due to wavemaking have
been carried out for ship forms whose waterlines
and transverse sections could be expressed by
mathematical equations. These equations may,
however, be used for establishing the lines without
a subsequent attempt to calculate any element of
or better, for delineating

the ship resistance.

It appears to
earliest

have been

workers in this

in the

field

minds

of the

that the use of

mathematical equations to derive the usual

offsets would also serve to achieve the hull
proportions and parameters desired by the
designer and to tell him whether his volume and
area centers would be where he wanted them.
who has given an}'
down lines was probably
naval architect Chapman,
who proposed to use a system of lines composed of paraboUc curves adapted to the intended size and proportions
of the vessel" [Thurston, R. H., "Forms of Fish and of
"The

oldest writer on forms of ships

well-defined system of laj'ing

the distinguished

Ships,"

INA,

(Swedish)

1887, Vol. 28, p. 418].

Chapman's work

in the 1760's or 1770's

followed in the early 1790's by the

first

was

recorded

systematic tests on models, conducted by Mark

Beaufoy and others. These models were geometric
shapes and could be said to have had geometric
or mathematical lines. From the 1830's to the
1870's mathematical curves such as the versedsine curve of diagram A of Fig. 24.G, the cycloid,
the trochoid, and the streamlines around a
Rankine stream form were proposed and actually
worked into the lines of ships of that day by
J. Scott Russell, James R. Napier, W. J. M.
Rankine, and others. Arcs of circles and possibly
of eUipses as well have been worked into ship lines
since time immemorial [Narbeth, J. H., INA,
1940, p. 147].

John W. Nystrom, in the 1860's, expanded

Chapman's use of the paraboHc trace and developed what he called the "Parabohc Shipbuilding Construction." He utihzed parabolas of
varied order, with fractional as well as integral

make up both waterlines and secHis method, described in the Journal of

The Franklin Institute [Jul-Dec 1863, Third
exponents, to
tions.

MYnROnVNAMICS

188
Sorii-.s,

XIA

\ol.

with Pis.
fiimpU'to

ami

:U-.

PI).

111), i-nablwl

H.V.I

him

for

offsets

of

set

I,

.SSO

aiul

;{)(>.

to lak-ulatc the

a ship

body plan

represent iiiR an underwater form with a numerical

value of block cocfHcient

He

C/, selectetl in

advanre.

page 358 of the reference:

describes, on

exiTcise of tjisto."

was

DI.SIC.N

Sllll'

for waterlincs

Src. 19.3

and

sections.

The curve

full

The entrance and the

bow and stern, respec-

sections are hyperbolas.

run, extending from the

the section

to

maxinnun

of

area,

mathcmatic method, to

use reversetl i)arabolas for hollow waterlincs, to

the horizontal and the vertical

calculate both

position of the center of

buoyancy CB, and to

volume on a basis

are

because the origins of the

mathematical curves are taken at the bow and at
treated

separately,

The

the stern.

curves representing

families of

waterlincs and section-area curves are given bj'

oth-ilegree polynomials with five arbitrary

able, with this

u.se<l

familias for

fine sections are 4th-tlegiee parabolas; those for

tively,

"... a vessel coiistrurtcil wholly by the paraluilir nictlicxJ;

pvery rrosa soctioti or friiini' is ii paniliolii; tlio friiinu
ilruwiiiK or lio<ly plan is laid ilown direct from caleillation
without refen'iiee to water-lines or diaKonals and without

lie

IN

aniplilied prr)cedure, .separate fornnilas are

type y

eters, of the

tx

{ ax'

-\-

bx^

-f-

param-

ex*

-\-

dx''.

was apparently' Taylor's intention to give a

shape to the waterlinc curves that would inii)art
It

amount

a predctemiined

of

or

lateral

normal

draw a curve

of displacement

acceleration to the water flowing aroimd them.

of draft. His

methods are explained in detail in

and are illustratetl by examples.

although there

the reference

cite<l

Xystrom even goes

".

so far as to

tell,

on

]ian;e

:).")S

how:

of the reference,

Xo parallel body

mentioned in Taylor's paper

no difficulty in separating (he hull at the section of maximum area and
inserting any desired length of cylindrical prism
luuing the maxinunn-section shajje.

to form the displacement so as to present the least

possil>lc

wlien

resistance

forced

water.

throiigli

found theoretically to lie thai

the sfiuarc root of the sections (areas) should be ordinates
in a parabola, the exponent of which depends on the

diminish in a certain

series,

desired fulness of the displacement (block coefficient)."

The words

in

parent lieses arc those of

lie prcscMit

author.

ami shipyard

is

entirely suitable for practical

has been used off

drawing model and ship lines at
Wa.shiugton for the past 50 years. A number of
I'. S. naval vessels have been constructed to
the.sc lines. The body plan of a modern design,
most of which was delineated by Taylor's metlKul,
nil

iiiiij

is

Subsequent papers by Nystrom, all on the same

general subject, appear in references (.S) and (4)
listed in Sec. A\)M.
Shortly after the Wasliinglon Model Ha.sin was
put in operation in I'.KK) I). W. Taylor developc^d
a mathematic "method of deriving (luickly the

is

of course

Taylor's method

The

immer.sotl area of each frame (station) should increase or

is

in fact, it

u.se;

for

reproduced

in Fig. 4i).C of Sec. 40.7.

l']laboraling

u\wn the quotation

l)aragiaph from

D.

paper, his met hod

W.

makes

Taylor's
it

in

a preceding

Um SXAME

|)o.ssible,

by the

u.se

of

eqiiidilTerent or progressive values for the i)aram-

any desired mnnlicr of ship

This was of inestimable value
in the preparation of lines for large groups of
models such as the Taylor Standard Series.

eters,

to develop

forms

in

sysU'malically varying characteristics of models

Using

this

ISXAMI-:, IIKW, pp. 24:3-2C7]. This method

covered the delineation of waterlincs, section

.systematic, with the

and section-area curves. A somewhat

difTcrent mathematic method of producing waterlines, section-area ciu'ves, and body plans, closely
resembling llio.se of actual ships, was proposed by
J. N. Warrington .shortly tlicnnrirr |S\A.Mi;,

who had to draw the lines for each model.

An excellent sui)i)lementary slalement by
(;. P. Weinblmn |TMli Hep. "*'. ^n) I'-'ot), p. 7),

lines of a nuxlel i)o.sse.ssing certain desired characteristics,

and

practicable; anil easy

methods

of

."

lines,

l)art

series.

method the

not only of

series

became

scientifically

minimum of elTort on the

those who planned it but tho.se

from which the following is jjaraphra.sed, .says

dial T;i\liir developed mathematical formulas,
(he idea that they gave the lines of a

1909, pp. 41I~J52|.

mil

Another decade of development by Taylor,

following lii.s original concepts, produced tlu;
paper entitled "(Calculations for Ships' Kornis
and the I^ight Thrown by Model l']xpeiiments
upon Resistance, Propulsion and Uolling of Ships"
I'l'rans. Int. lOng'g. ("ong., Nav. Arch, and Miir.
Mng., San Francisco, Hll.'i). In this revised and

ship of mininnnn resistance but sim|)ly to obtain

uiili

lines po.s.se.s,sing desired shapes.

This statement

is

important. Contrary to .some attempts to a.scribe

magic

])roperlies to certain analytically delined

curves like trochoids and sine curves, the principle

of .systemali/ation
llieir .'tdnptiiin.

was the decisive argument

for

MATHEMATICAL LINES EOR

Sec. 49.4

Unfortunately, Taylor's method was described

SHIPS

189

Mathematical and Dimensionless Repre-

49.4

Weinblum

in a publication not conveniently available to the

sentation of a Ship Surface.

average naval architect. There are reprints of this

paper but they have been given only limited

references of Sec. 49.3 the problem of the dimen-

circulation. Since the equations of waterlines

and

sections are not linked together into equations of

surfaces in which the hull

it

is

treated as a whole,

by those who have

considered preferable

is

studied this problem to develop a broader system

ship-hull

of

work

equations than to

of 1915 available to a

make

Taylor's

more extended group

sionless dehneation of a ship hull

710 "Analysis

of

Wave

Resistance,"

written

Blum, Sep 1950. This report is in

the category of must reading for anyone studying
the subject of mathematical ship lines.

jointly with J.

Wave

758 "The
tion,"

May

Resistance of Bodies of Revolu-

1951

840 "Investigations of
a Thin

Written
Todd.
886 "A

Wave

Effects Produced

by

BodyTMB model 4125," Nov 1952.

jointly mth J. J. Kendrick and M. A.
Systematic

Evaluation

of

Michell's

Jun 1955, especially those portions

having to do with ship lines.
Integral,"

Weinblum has developed mathematical

sions, to

expres-

be described presently, which:

(a) Are suitable for delineating an entire ship

form of given characteristics, based upon an
origin amidships. This improves upon the Taylor
procedure of treating the forebody and afterbody
separately, mth origins at the two ends.
(b) Will produce a series of forms -with scientific

systematic variations in these characteristics

(c)

Will provide a basis for the systematic investi-

generahzed:

parallel planes at right angles to each other, long

customary

in naval architecture. In other words,

instead of defining the shape

of readers.

reports:

is

by considering the entire underwater

boundary as a surface, rather than as a series of
intersections of that surface by three sets of
First,

lines,

The broader purpose envisaged by Weinblum

some fifteen years later, explained in references
(8) and (9) of Sec. 49.17, of representing the whole
ship surface by single equations, was followed
by his more recent work at the David Taylor
Model Basin, published in the following TMB

In the

lines,

of bowlines

by

offsets of

and buttocks, and

water-

of section

usually at equidifferent intervals from three

given planes of reference,

normal case by the

it

is

defined for the

from the centerplane

or the plane of symmetry for amj point on the hull
surface having the coordinates x and z.
Second, by expressing the ^/-offsets and the x- and
0-coordinates not as dimensions in well-known
length units but as non-dimensional ratios of the
respective offsets and coordinates to the length,
breadth, and draft dimensions. These 0-diml
y-offsets

ratios are given presently.

Third, by placing the origin

of the coordinate

system in the surface waterplane, in the plane of

symmetry, and at midlength of the immersed
form or underwater hull. The length of this hull
is L, the waterline length. While the vertical
measurements on an actual ship are usually made
upward from the baseplane, in the mathematical
system they are made downward because this is
the positive direction of the 2-axis of the ship,
described in Sec. 1.6 and indicated in Fig. l.K.

In the discussion which follows

it is

assumed

that:
(a)

The

ship

is

a simple one which

sidered symmetrical forward of

may

be con-

and abaft the

midlength station
(b) The ship is symmetrical with respect to the
centerplane, as is customary for real ships. The
definition sketch of Fig. 49.A is an isometric
diagram of the outline of such a ship, correspond-

gation of wave-resistance characteristics of ships.

This

low

will, it is

if

hoped, lead eventually to forms of

Non-Dirnensional Distances

not least resistance.

(d) Will

provide a basis for the calculation and

prediction of the flow pattern and the pressure

distribution around a ship
(e)

Will form a more general foundation for

research on other problems of naval architecture

involving maneuvering, wavegoing, and behavior

in shallow

water and restricted channels.

Fig. 49.

Definition Sketch of a Simple Ship

Surface with a Single Origin

HVDROnVNAMICS

190

nisicx

I\ SIIIT

.S>r. -IP.-)

uiulinvator IukIv of a Xortli

somewhat to tlic
American Iiuliaii eaiioe.
ing

where

general dimensional equation of the hull

The
surface

then

is

l(f.

the

Tj((,

iiull.

The

y(x,

(49.i)

z)

f) is

a transverse 0-diml j;-funclion of

it is a function of both f and f

In this case

general surface equations serve

as equations of the usual ship lines

the set of coordinates

mmus signs represent

where the plus and

identical

transverse offsets to starboard and port, respec-

and the expression

tively,

y{x,

signifies

z)

(49. iv)

f)

eciuallj' well

when one

the surface waterline, where z or f

ef mat ions

of

given a fixed value. For

is

is

zero, the

T,(f, 0)

(49.v)

become

transverse (/-function for the hull. In this case

a function of both x and z. For example, if

X were 21"j ft forward of the amidships origin on
a certain vessel, and z were 20 ft below the origin
it is

7/

For the
y

and

2/(.r, 0)

whore

niiflscction,

2/(0,

and

z)

,;

r,

.r

and

are zero,
(49.vi)

,(0, f)

(the latter in the iilane of the designed waterline),

y would be some value such as 14.2 ft, measured

to starboard and to port, by virtue of the function ifc(/(.r, z). If the j/-function were 1.0 for
then the starboard and port

and

/-ofTsets

When

throughout.

etjual

and z,
would be

of absolute values of x

any combination

defined by suitable xwould have the form of a

2-limits the craft

box or parallelepiped.

wall-sidetl

the craft were un.sjnnmetrical fore and aft

If

midlength

would

be

about
normally to use two surface equations:
the

yy

y^

zkyrix,

it

z) for

2) for

2/4 (x,

the forebodj'

necessary

(49.iia)

the afterbody

(49.iib)

For a submarine hull which is not a body of

revolution and is not sjTnmetrical above and
below any horizontal reference plane, there would
be required two sets of surface equations, one for
the upper and one for the lower portion. The
common origin for the two would lie in some
convenient horizontal axis or dividing plane.
Again, however, this would break up the vessel
as an entity by splitting

it

horizontally.

pro-

cedure would have to be devised which would

retain a single ship equation for use in analytic
studies, say of underwater maneuvering.

Weinblum's general or

ba.sic

procedure for hulls

that are asymmetric with respect to the midlength

section is to split up the surface equation into a
is symmetric fore and aft and an
"asymmetric (skew) deviation" represented by

main part that

This procedure has the effect, however, of
destroying the ship as an entit}-, with a single
conclusion

its logical

two

into

single surface ec|uation. Carried to

and a

origin

di.s.similar

it

would break up the ship

one comprising

half-bodies,

the entrance and the other the run, each with

own

set of surface, area, volume,

equations.

its

and moment

To avoid losing the single ship equamay later be introduced into opera-

which

tion,

tions involving

wavemaking, maneuvering, and

wavegoing, Weinblum has developed a special

proci'<lun' for asymmetry, to be dcscrilicd presently.

fore

and

to

the

simple ship,

the next step

aft,

is

KkBi)

this

ij(eta)

= |

.symmetrical

to convert the x-, y-,

and coordinates to
m done they become

z-fifTscta

When

p. 10].

anil for other asymmetric variations,

become somewhat involved. One such case is that
in which the maxinunn waterline beam does not

lengths,

not discu.ssed here but the reader

study them

Weinblum's

may

consult page 9 and following of

TMB

Report

SS(>,

issued

r(7,eta)

fonn.

0-tliml

j^

(lO.iii)

form of tiie general (>(|ualion

beconiex, adopting W'cinbluin's notation,
(l-<linil

(l'.).i)

in

June

l'.)5l{,

pj).

180-215].
liial as more and
ami niatiiematical expressions for ship form come into use, whether
analytical or general, it becomes necessjiry to use
ratios or new symbols for (juantities formerly
expressed by abbreviations (SNAME, 19IS, j).

Weinblum has pointed

more mathematical

4l.'i].

The

The procedures involved are

who wishes to

occur at midlength.

1955, as well as his earlier paper [STCi,

Ueturning

and

[TMH Kep. SSG, .lun 1955,

Procedures and eciuations for the situation
where the section of maximum area is not at
midlength, with unequal entrance and run

a .secondary e(|uation

ca.se in i)oiiil

onl

lines

is

the

u.se of

the ratio IX"H,

with a reference jioint at the FP. Using the ship

axes of I''ig. l.K, the distance of (he ( 'H from the

MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR

Sec. 49.5

at midlength

origin

expressed as the linear

is

distance Xb or as the 0-diml ratio Xb/{L/2), plus

if

forward and minus

aft.

Application of the Dimensionless Surface

49.5

The 0-diml

Equation to Ship-Shaped Forms.

shape or surface function t]{^, f) of the hull may

take a great variety of forms, even for boat- or
ship-shaped underwater bodies. The simplest are
the binomial forms
nik, 0)

- r

'7(0, f)

(49.vii)

(49.viii)

r"

These produce what are called Chapman parabolas [Weinblum, G. P., TMB Rep. 886, pp. 13-

With different numerical values of the

14].
exponent n other than 1.0, but not necessarily
whole numbers, the shape function of Eq. (49.vii)
gives parabolic waterlines of varying curvature
and fullness, much like those described and discussed by J. W. Nystrom in the 1863 and 1864
Franklin Institute references quoted in Sees.
49.3

and

49.17.

The shape

selected for the designed waterline,

in the simplest case,

determmes the function

of the

0-diml fore-and-aft distance ^ from the origin.

The shape selected for the midsection determines
the function of 0-diml keelward distance f from
the origin. Thus the shape defined by the expression

7/

Eq.

^" of

has an nth-

(49.vii)

That
= 1 f "" has mth-order parabolic
by
sections and square (plumb) ends.
It is possible to shape the waterlines and sections independently by using a surface equation
in the form of the binomial product
order parabolic waterline and wall sides.

defined

t;

vii, f)

(1

r)(i

(49.ix)

half-body plan of a hull developed by putting

= 2 is published by Weinblum

n = 2 and

[TMB

Rep. 886, Fig.

3, p. 20].

Introducing what he

a fining function
[TMB Rep.
Weinblum produces a 0-diml equation
calls

into the first binomial of the product

886, p. 21],
of the
'!(?,

f)

form

[1

- r

(a coefficient) (^"

f)f](l

(49.x)

SHIPS

-f-

[1

With

191

(0.5757)(f

^^)f](l

this surface function

f)

(49.xa)

Weinblum produces

the half-body plan of Fig. 49. B, adapted from

Fig. 4

on page 21 of

TMB Report 886.

marked resemblance

to

some actual

This has a

ship forms.

\Mu:s

livi)K()i)\.N

192
l>y Ml).

('l'.).iiiV

forimila for this operation

'I'lic

i\ Mill' nisic;\

is

.l(i)

Sec. 19.6

'

(49.xiii)

(f, f) f/f

Bdr,

Ldt

dx
It corrr.spoiiils to

84 of

TMB

(49. xi)

Weinblum's

E(|.

midlength

on

(,2t))

Section-area curve ecjuation with unit ordinate at

|)iigt'

Roport 710.

Somewhat

unfortunately, in Appenilix

1915 paper, D.

W. Taylor gave

the

of

hi.s

name

of

Midlength section-area

coefficient

"acceleration" to the second derivative d'lj/dx'.

It might well have resulted in some further
development in the field of .ship form, in the four
decades following that paper, had he comhincd
the first and second derivatives to obtain the
well-known radius-of-curvature equation, given in
Sec. 49.9 as Eq. (49.xxi). Much more might now
be known of the hydrodynamic cfTects of surface
curvature and the best way of working curvature

^- =
l.iiail

7^

= 1'"^"'^)'^^

(^^-)

wali'rplanc cnclliiMcnt

Prismatic coefficient

into a hull.

49.6 Summary of Dimensionless General

Equations for Ship Forms. In
Report 88(5,

TMB

in

i.s.sued

down

for

Block coefficient

Weiublum derived and set

convenience a number of general 0-diml
June

IO.j.j,

equations not mentioned in the foregoing. These

are listed hereunder for convenience, as adapted

from pages 8 and 9 of the referenced report,

accompanied by some explanatory notes. Weinblum's notation is modified slightly in some places,
to bring it more nearly into agreement with the

ATTC

ITTC

and

standards, but this sliould not

inconvenience the reader.

are developed from

All etiuations listed

basic hull ecjuation (49.i),

and

namely y

dimensionless. It

all are

is

y(x,

the
z),

a.ssumcd that the

maximum

section area occurs at midlcngth.

Coordinates and offsets

{(ksi)

7,(eta)

f(zeta)

(19. ill)

Hull equation
r)

(49. iv)

j){k, f)

Waterplane c<|uation
V

49.7

make

excellent

of cones for the local enlargements

around single shafts emerging from the trailing
ends of skegs, the elongated barrels of bo.ssings,
where the conical axis need not coincide with the
shaft axis, and the basic portions of bulb bows,
such as the one illustrated in Fig. 07. H. There is
a limit, however, where the expenditure of time
and labor in this process is not justified by the
hydrodynamic improvement in the ship or by
other advantages enumerated previously. In
general, the field of usefulness of the mathematical
line, as it is \nth the accurately faired line to be
described presently, centers principally around
those traces of the hull which are parallel to the
direction of water fiow. Tli(> statements in Chaps.
24, 25, 27, and 28 indicate that neither unfair-

portions

corners and

(I9.vi)

r)

Arca-of-ucction equation

and

nor fore-and-aft

have too great a

ui)oii resistance. It is

futile as well

unnec-es-

as impo.ssible, to try to

mak(! a hyperliola of the

2()()th

or

the .WOth

a perfectly acceptable midsection composed of a vertical side line, a horizontal bottom

order

Centcrplane or profile equation

7)({, f);

discontinuities,

detrimental effect
.iary

i?=7;(0,

It

and profitalilc use of

geometric shapes and mathematical equations for
small "pieces" of ship .surfaces. Examples are
to

nes.ses in the transverse sections,

(49.V)

({. 0)

Midlength section equation

Limitations of Mathematical Lines.

is pos.sible

f ({,())

(I9.xii)

line,

lit

and a circular-arc

bilge corner.

nuithematical lines offer an advantage,

Where they

d(j not, furgcl

them.

Where
u.se

the

them.

MATHEMATICyXL LINES FOR SHIPS

Sec. 49.R

0.5

Waterline

0.338 0.277 0.215 0.154

Positions are in Fractions

Fig. 49. C

From

Sta. 2

OOSZ.
0.09E 0.154
0.215 0.277
a338
<
0.5
of Draft; Buttock Positions are m Fractions of Half-Beam

Body Plan op Ship with Mathematical Lines Following the Taylor Method

through Sta.

The body plan

14,

both inclusive, the

lines of the hull represented here are entirely of

of

Fig. 49. C, illustrating a

a multiple-screw vessel of
modern (1954) design, is a good illustration of
what can be done with D. W. Taylor's system of
mathematical lines. From Sta. 2 to Sta. 14, both

form

tentative

for

inclusive, the hull

derivation.

form

is

entirely of mathematical

Beyond those

stations

the reverse

curves and

changes in curvature call for the

customary graphic layout and fairing procedure.

For information, the principal 0-diml form

coefficients of the hull of Fig. 49.

Cp = 0.560
Cx = 0.976

Cw =

0.684

0.547

Cn

LCB =

193

0.5051L

are:

L/B =

mathematical derivation.

HVnRODVNAMICS

19}

time inuncrnorial tli:it tlio

.'ihip liull should be fair

urulerwatcr surface

of a

in

the direct ion of

water flow along it. This was achioveil by eye in

the hewing process or by bending fore-and-aft
structural members such as planks into reasonabl}'
fair elastic curves. It is entirely possible, indeed
probable, that the hewer of old usetl flexible
wooden .strips or battens bent around the hull to
check his fairing, as does the womlcn-mmlel maker
of today. If so, these were the forerunners of the
flexible strips or splines later emplo^'ed for drawin};;

to which the shipwrights anil shipwere to work.

It is often taken for granted that because a
heavj' sphne can not have an abrupt kink put
into it without splitting or breaking, it must
automatically produce a fair or smooth ship line.
Wliether carried to tliis extreme or not it is still
lines

fair

fitters

necessary,

in

order

maximum

achieve the

to

degree of what G. P. Weinblum calls "geometrical

smoothness of the ship surface," to use the

which can be bent into the desired

curve, and to supplement the elastic uniformitj'
of the spline bj' sighting along it before drawing

stifTest spline

the

lijie.

In the discussion which follows, adapted largely

from the work of Weinblum, his term "smoothness" is eliminated. This makes it sj'nonymous
with his term "fairness" and avoids confusion \\\i\i
the use of ".smoothness" to describe the condition
of a

.solid

How

surface along which viscous

takes

is difficult

to describe or to specify fairness,

in a quantitative sense. Following

Weinblum, a curve may be called fair when its

especially

first

axis,

derivative with respect to a selected ship

say dy/dx,

continuous.

is

fairness of such a curve

may

The

order

of

be further defined

OS the order of the highest derivative which

is

continuous. Thus a curve in which there is a

continuous .second derivative d'y/dx' and continuous curvature; is fair to the second order

still

[Weinblum,

Geometry

The

(I.

P.,

and Kendrirk,

of the Ship, Part I,"

J.,

"On

mii)iilil.

the

TiMB

and
17 of the referenced report, with "smoothness"
replaced by "fairness" and .some minor editing:

rep.).

following

"iSpline curvi.-a

is

drawn

Kplinc.

Since

See. 49.S

draftsman endeavors to avoid

tlie

these concentrated loads in the process of fairing, the

order of fairness will generally bo higher than 2."

Weinblum gives .several additional criteria

among which may be mentioned:

((uoted from pages

in

the pro|)cr

way

1(>

oliould be at

leant fair to tlio mpcoikI order or have continuoim curvature.

This followH inuiie<liali;ly from the proportionality of tlic
curvature of the eliuitic axis of a Hpline to the l>ending
moment on the Hpline. The Kraph of the tending momi-iit
and therefore the curvature remain continuouH oven

Ihougli horizontal conccnlrat4.-d loodii uro cxerU-d

l>y wi-lKlit-t

for

fairness,

(a) A small number of points of inflection in any

quadrant between two ship axes normal to each
other, preferably only one such point
(h) Freedom from flat regions
(() M(Mlerate changes in the first and .second
derivatives. Weinblum goes on to point out that
lie
foregoing concepts of fairness, although
derived from experience and found u.seful in
I

practice,

may

fail

completely to give indications

as to ship resistance, especially that due to wave-

making.

The

uncertainties associated with the fairing

and the lack of fairness found in the

shapes of well-known ships were two reasons
of ship lines

which led to the study

of longitudinal curvature

Volume I. Others were

M. Rankine in the 1860's

described in Chap. 4 of
the

comments

of

W.

J.

and 1870's

relative to the curvature of stream

forms developed bj' the source-and-sink process,
the procedures used to shape airship hulls, and

the findings of aeronautical engineers in the shap-

and similar sections.

Rankine chose, for the waterline of a ship, a
streamline somewhat removed from the boundary
ing of strut

of a source-sink stream

form.

Here, along the

chosen streamline or lissoneoid, as he called

place in a real liquid.

It

IX SHIP DESIGN'
on the

it,

the curvature was such as to produce only three

changes in differential pressure as litiuid flowetl

it, from well ahead to well astern. Around
the stream form itself there were five changes in
pressure undergone by a particle of liciuid in

along

moving from a great distance ahead to a great

astern ("An Investigation on Plane

distance

Water-lines," Brit. A.ssn. Rep., 1803, pp. 180-182,

under Mechanical Science; Jour. Franklin Inst.,

Jan-Jun

180-1,

For the

XLVII, Thinl

Vol.

2l-2()]; see Sec. 50.2

no,so or

and

Series,

pp.

Fig. 50. A.

en trainee portions of the hulls

Naval airships Ahron and Moron of

which were joined to parallel middle-

of the U. S.

the 1930's,
bodies,

an

elli]isoi(l

of

order was employed.

revolution of the third

Based upon a length of

entrance a and a radius of middlebixly

b,

tho

ecjuation of the forebody outline in a longitudinal

plane pa.ssing through the axis was

i'

(JO.xix)
//

'

MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR

Sec. 49.9

The

where x was the distance of any point on the

forebody surface reckoned forward of the forward
end of the middlebody, and y was the radius from
the airship axis to that point.

When

SHIPS

is

contours in the middlebody had zero curvature,

In Reports and

Memoranda 256

of the (British)

W. L. Cowley, L. F. G. Simmons, and

D. Coales report as follows:

(49.xxi)

dx'

the curvature was also zero. Since the straight

Aeronautical Research Committee, dated June

line,

this subject,

d^

which meant that

be called a continuous transition. A 0-diml curvature plot of the outline of a longitudinal axial
section would show no break at that point.

any curved

MSI

and

those of the entrance joined them in what might

of

expressed as

the middlebody, the second derivative d^y/dx^

for the outline equaled zero,

Kc

from standard reference works on

x equaled

zero, at the junction point of the entrance

195

radius of curvature

The

absolute curvature

sional because

Re

is

is

l/Rc

',

this

is

dimen-

dimensional. Strictly speak-

an irregular curved line has no definite radius

However, at any selected point it
has an effective Re equal to that of a circle, called
a circle of curvature, which coincides very nearly
with the given curved line at the given point. It
ing,

of curvature.

1916,

is

J.

ship waterlines on a basis of length along the

P. 167. "Previous reports and preliminary experiments

for the present report all

showed that the

air resistance of

a strut was extremely sensitive to slight changes in the

form and radius of curvature, especially in the neighborhood of the maximum ordinate. For this reason each strut,
of a series in which one proportion only is to be varied,
must be made with fair accuracy in those dimensions
which are to be kept constant."
P. 170. "The results of the investigation appear to show
that the air resistance of a strut depends very greatly upon
the shape of the fairing in the region in front of the maximum ordinate. In a round-nosed strut the change of curvature and slope in passing from the nose to the fairing piece
should not be too rapid, a condition which causes the
maximum width to be some distance behind the center of
curvature of the nose."

Notes on Longitudinal Curvature AnalyFor determining and analyzing the curvature of any fore-and-aft ship line, such as the
49.9

sis.

designed waterlines discussed in Sees. 4.4, 4.5,

4.7,

and

24.13, there are several

methods besides

the semi-graphic one described in those references.

Assuming an

origin of coordinates at

any con-

venient point along the ship centerplane, with

abscissas x parallel to the x-axis

measured transversely
line,

and ordinates y

in the plane of the selected

the slope of that line with reference to the

possible to plot the dimensional curvature of

fore-and-aft axis
l//?(7.
first

by using the

reciprocal values

A. Emerson has done this by employing the

and second

differences of the waterline offsets

each equal to 0.025L

[INA, 1937, Fig. 6, p. 178; unpubl. Itr. of 11 Jan
1952 to HES]. Plotting 0-diml longitudinal
curvature is described in Sec. 49.10.
Any of the foregoing methods involving dy/dx

at

40-station intervals,

or

^y/dx

is

and rates

of

satisfactory only

if

offsets,

slopes,

change of slope are taken for at

least 40 equally spaced stations along the length
of a ship. No method is satisfactory unless the
waterline itself is carefully and accurately drawn.
From Eq. (49.xxi) preceding it is apparent by
mspection that Re approaches infinity as the
second derivative d'y/dx^ approaches zero. This
is

equivalent to saying that the absolute curvature

l/Rc approaches zero with the second derivative.

Since the curvature of a straight line
suitable transition

from a curved ship

is zero,

line to

straight one, such as the parallel portion of a

is marked by a diminution of d^y/dx'
toward zero at the junction ^vith the straight line.
Proper transition is an acute problem in the
laying of tracks for railway cars and trains. If a

waterline,

be measured as a

straight section of track, called in railway parlance

natural tangent or as a function of an angle,

a tangent, were joined directly to a curved section

of track having a constant radius, the transverse

X-axis

is

dy/dx. This

where dy/dx

tan

may

6.

The rate of change of slope, called by D. W.

Taylor the "acceleration" a(alpha) in his 1915
mathematical-lines paper referenced in Sec. 49.3, is

acceleration at the junction

would be torn up. Railway

have developed several acceptable
methods for making this transition between
straight and curved portions of track. One of them
rails

[I

dx'

+ tan'

tic

or the track

surveyors

(49. xx)

= 5- sec

would be so great on

a high-speed train passing from the straight to

the curved section that the train would leave the

involves the use of a second- or third-order parab-

HVDRODVNAMKIS

I9fi

ola, x'

aij

j-'

or

'ith its viTtex at

bij,

eiul of the straiRlit soft ion of trai-k.

it

involves a similar curve with

its

IN SHIP DKSir.N
-Modern

tln'

For a ship,

vertex at the

Sec. I'l.lO

procedure

hull-<lcsigii

equally good transitions be made,

between

the

parts

re(|uires
if

fore-and-aft

of

that

practicable,

ship

lines.

parallel portion of the ship

Further, the finished lines should be as fair as

a hotly of

end of the straight or

is

modern technology can make them. This calls

for the use of some method for guaranteeing a
longitudinal curvature that will eliminate Ap

achievtHl liy joiiiinft a parallel cyliiulrical portion

disturbances along these lines or that will indicate

with half of an ellipsoid of revolution defined by

the presence of localized

the relationship jjiven in Eq.

if

line.

For a

S-tlinil

form,

perfect

revolution,

particularly

transition

of

kind

this

(4!).xL\) of Sec.

49.8

not ea.sy for a

or by the identical relationship

this transition

+^=

I'.l.wii)

the c((iuition of the

is

"i-dinil

intersection of

the outer skin with a plane pa.ssing through the

sketched in Fig. 49.D, and not of the

a.\is,

;{-(linil

train,

it is

human being to realize how sharp

may be along the .side of a ship,

ecrtiiinly not as easily as

ill

This

dLsturbances

i)re.s.sure

they can not be avoided. Unfortunately,

around

jiniiifi

would be

it

if

he were

a geoinclrically similar

cUI'X'r.
'I'lir

aerial

iew of Fig. 49. E,

nieicliaiit

(ill.")."))

permi.ssioii of the

siiip

taken of a moilern

and reproduced with the

Kockums IMekaniska Aktiebolag,

Sweden,

feature in a
almost possible
lo discern the Velox waves generated by the
Maim<'),

illustrates

this

rather extraordinary manner. It

is

liiiward-shoulder pressure disturbance, where the

(31

hollow in the entrance waterline shifts rather

-Axis oi Body^''

aorLg

'

to the parallel waterline amidships

through a convex transition region of rather sharp

abruptly

curvature.
(49*XKi)

^(l7-t^
Whani-O, -r~0 Qndo-^O

Skktch of Airship Nose Outline of

Third-Degree Eluptic Shape

Fig. 49.D

body

The

half-length of the ellipsoid,

is on the
two portions; L^ is the
and Rh is its maximum

transverse

to

surface.

origin of coordinates

axis at the jvmction of the

parallel

radius,

ec|ual

the radius of the

portion. This corresponds to the

com-

bination of no.se and niiddlebody portions of the

hulls of the airships

Akron and Macon, mentioned

in the .section preceding.

drawn on

I'^ig.

49.

The

tlu;

the after portion of the entrance or

Upon double
Eq.

(49.xxii)

extremely
no.sc.

dilTerentialion with respect to

reduces

to

the

value

of

r,

d'y/dx'

indicated on Fig. 49.13 as E(i. 49.xxiii). In this

ca.se,

as

d'l/'tlx'

shown on the
and l/lfc is

figure,
*'.

cases where

longitudinal cur\'ature in waterlines,

and diagonals, are given

the 0-diml curvature of a designed

]?riefly,

waterUne

buttocks,

here.

of a ship

is

determined for any selected

point along the length by the ratio

Beam By
Length

at the section of

maximum

area

of 1-deg arc of the circle of curvature

longitudinal section

indicates

gradual transition from the parallel niiddlebody

t(j

Methods of taking care of this situation,

there is no limitation on the

extreme beam and no parallel waterline is necessary, are described in Sees. G7.2 and 67.3.
49.10 Graphic Determination of the Dimensionless Longitudinal Curvature of any Ship Line.
Details of the graphic procedure mentioned in
Sees. 4.4, 4.5, and 4.7, for determining 0-dind
for

I'he

when x = 0,
combination of

where both

linear

dimensions are given in the

same luiit of measurement.

The value of Bx is taken

directly from the ship

beam on the
drawing being analyzed, not that of the .ship
it.self. Determining the value of the denominator
in the ratio given is facilitated by drawing on
lines;

it

is

transparent

the magnitude of the

film,

by photograjjhic reiiroduction

or the equivalent, a

and cylinder described in

the foregoing gave most gratifying resistance and
propulsi(jn results when used on the large rigid

varied radii, comprising the range of curvature

airships nicntioncd.

analyzeil. ()|)posite eaeh such arc

third-order ellipsoid

to be expected in

.series

of arcs of circles of

any body or

shi]) lines to
is

be

marketl, in

MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR

Sec. 49.10

Fig. 49. E

number

beam on

and wdth

the dramng, the length of a 1-deg arc

from the relationLength = 0.017453i?c

Three such series of arcs, on two separate
sheets of film, have been prepared by the Society
of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, which
the transparency, calculated

ship:

or location of the station

The

When

covered.

circle of

duced, but

7iot to full size,

of Fig. 49. F.

The

in the

upper

The

is

is

definitely

mean between

fit.

The

solution

obviously too
too sharp, and

the two.

1-deg arc length found for each station or

then divided into Bx and the ciuotient is

The 0-diml curvatures are plotted on

point

LH

corner

tabulated.

is

length, follomng the

method

of Figs. 4.H, 24. F,

The

prolongations of the ship along the centerplane,

measured

waterline

to be analyzed are there-

in inches.

The transparent sheet is placed over the ship

and moved aroimd until some circle of curva-

line

it fits

then which

slack,

circle

the waterline at a selected station,

beams on the drawings

ture on

repeated along

and 67. C. They are reckoned as positive and laid

off above the axis for lines convex to the water;
negative and below the axis for lines concave to it.
The method falls down for sharp corners and
discontinuities, as where an entrance (or a run)
waterline with finite slope meets the imaginary

these sheets are given in inches.

fore also

The

is

curvature makes the best

repro-

lengths of the 1-deg arcs on

process

working from large-scale ship

determine just which

determine which

to

is

sheet

all

lines it is often difficult to

select the

first

then tabulated

stations or selected points are

vary from 0.2865 to 28.65 inches on one sheet

and from 25 inches to 500 inches on the other
small section of the

is

the dimension found opposite that

the length until

is

it

circle of curvature.

can furnish film positives for the use of naval

architects. The radii of the circles of curvature

sheet.

197

Aerial View of a Ship, Showing Relatively Shabp Transition between Hollow Entrance
Waterline and Parallel Waterline Amidships

the same units as are to be used for measuring the

on

SHIPS

indicated in the lower diagram of Fig. 49. F.

1IM)R()|)N\

198

\\ll( s |\ Mill'

1)1

s|(;\

Port of

Sec. 19.1

Dio^rom on Film Overlay Carruinq

of Venous Rodii

Circles of Corvotore

Parollel
of Line

Portion

Lenqlh in Inches of o l-Deqree Arc on Eoch Circulor Arc

\

Circle of

Curvoture

.Lenqth of
This Rodius \ l-Deqree

Rodiu of Circle of
IS

Somewhat Smoller

\of Curvoture

than the Correct Value.

to

Make

^ij

'^"' "< "^^

Infinite

''""*

ts

'

Beam Bi
5.49 in

0.10 in

It Visible

-^0-Diml
Curvature!

5.49/0O

Fig. 49.F

beyond the bow

in this ca-se to

Instruction Plan foh Determining 0-Diml, Curvature ok any Ship Line

(or stern). It

appears advisable

terminate the plot at a point where

the circles of curvature no longer

fit,

say at about

0.02oB.r on each side of the centerline.

legible waterlinc

graphic method

sudden changes

in

is

extremely sensitive to

curvature,

and

unfairness,

inaccuracies in the ship line being analyzed.

For determining the 0-diml longitudinal curvature of a

bow

exactly the

line or

same

However, instead
traiKWerse Uncar
luncc the

buttock the procedure

is

as described for the watcrline.

of the

maximum beam Bx

dinicnsi(jn in the

maximum depth from

the

the

numerator

DWL

is

to the

lowest point of the buttock measured on the

drawing. This corresponds to the existence of a

mirror image of the ship above the DWL, and
to

measuring

tht; traiisvcr.sc!

tufire

the

maximum

measured

dimension from the

to

trace from its

symmetry. This is

diagonal

the waterline-analysis procedure

both port and starboard diagonal i)lancs are

swung upward about the centerplane inter.section
if

so as to coincide at the plane of the watcrline at

that intersection.

Mathematic Delineation and Fairing of

Those working on tlie
analytic phase of wavemaking resistance, developing methods whereby tiiis resistance may be
49.11

a Section-Area Curve.

calculated for certain

.shij)

forms, have endeavored

to determine the effect on ship resistance of the

volume along the length. This

shown l)y the ortiiodox sectionarea or /l-curvc, described in Sec. 24.12 and
illustrated in Fig. 24. F. Indeed, the optimum
distribution

of

distribution

is

form of .l-curve, for minimum resistance, has

l)ecn found for a soit of geometric sliij) having
rectangular .sections througliout and moving in a
non-viscous

combination.

582].

For any diagonal on the ship lines the transverse

in thf numerator is taken as

diagonal offset on the drawing,

the

intersection with the plane of

highest to the lowest point.s of the imagc-aiui-ship

linear dimension

along

equivalent

drawing of any scale may be

analj'zed, -provided the longitudinal and transverse
scales are identical. Although the circles of curvature are fitted by eye to the cur\-e underneath,
this

licpiid

SupplcniiMitiiig

ISN'.VMi;,

this

wiirk,

lit").!,

P.

(,'.

Kig.

;i.S,

I'icii

ileveloped malliriuatic section-area curves

p.

has

wliicli

MATHEMATICAL IJNES FOR

Sec. 49.13

approximate very closely the A-curves of actual

and models [SNAME, 1953, pp. 580-582].

ships

Having the equations

of these curves, a ftirther

development along the lines proposed by R.

Taggart, using methods similar to those described
in Sees. 49.13 and 49.14, should serve for the
mathematic fairing of the curves in question.
As a check on the fairing of any section-area
curve, whether represented by a mathematical

199

,S?IIP.S

ordinate increments. Drawing the unrolled and

untwisted flowline is followed by a measurement

of its 0-diml curvature.

The

process

is

not described in detail or illusit does not take account of

trated here because

the untwisting necessary to get the actual model

flowplane into the single plane of the paper on

which

it

is

laid

down. There can be a large

curvature without twist, in the buttocks of a

curvature

short barge with steeply raked ends, or there can

be determined as described for a waterline

in Sec. 49.10. For the A/ Ax curve, the transverse,
linear dimension in the numerator of the 0-diml
curvature ratio is taken arbitrarily as the height
of the maximum ordinate on this curve. It is
measured on the plot, and is expressed in the
same units of measurement as the lengths of the
1-deg arcs on the circle-of-curvature transpar-

be large twist with small longitudinal curvature,

when water flows up and around the bossings on
a twin-screw ship.
Undoubtedly a graphic method could be
developed for taking account of both twist and
curvature but this should await more definite
knowledge as to the hydrodynamic effects of each

Assuming that the height/length

vention of Sec. 24.12, plots of 0-diml longitudinal

curvature of all such curves are comparable

on the underwater hull.

49.13 Checking and Establishing Fairness of
Lines by Mathematical Methods. The measurement and plotting of the 0-diml curvature of a

provided the stations on the section-area curve are

selected ship's line, described in Sec. 49.10, serve

equation

or

dimensionless

the

not,

may

encies.

the section-area curve

spaced along

\i

ratio of

1/4, following the con-

length exactly the same as are

its

the ship stations along the ship

curvature plot of the

A/ Ax

ABC

line.

0-diml

curve for the tran-

Taylor
Standard Series parent form, and for a merchant
ship of good design are given in Fig. 67. X.
49.12 Longitudinal Flowplane Curvature. A
longitudinal flowplane around a ship hull is
defined in Sec. 4.11 and illustrated in Figs. 4.P,
4.Q, and 24.L. This plane is admittedly arbitrary,
principally because it is assumed to stand normal
to every section line from bow to stern as it
som-stern design of the

crosses that hne. It

to represent a

is

likewise

ship, for the

somewhat arbitrary

square stream tube along the

flowline at the hull as twisting so that one side of

the tube, and the same

side, lies

always in the

flowplane.

As the flowplane
strict

is

almost never a

geometric sense,

it

flat one, in a
has to be untwisted and

straightened into the flat before

tudinal curvature

its

0-diml longi-

of these features in creating differential pressures

any hne drawn

customary way with a ship's curve, spline,
or batten. R. Taggart has devised a mathematical
method of checking and establishing fairness,
entirely independent of any graphic procedure

as a graphic fairness indicator for

in the

[ASNE,

May

1955,

of

form:

ax

-\-

hx^

+ cx^

-\-

dx*

+ ex^ + fx^

(49.xxiv)

Furthermore, Taggart uses integrated relationships instead of the differential relationships of

Taylor to determine the unknown constants.

The constant first term of the Taylor expression
is eliminated if an origin be selected along a
continuous part of the ship fine where y and x
are simultaneously zero. For the customary
waterline this calls for:

may

be measured. This operation involves laying out, on paper, what would be

the shape taken by the inner edge of a piece of
sheet metal if twisted into the flowplane shape,

or run encounters the middlebody

trimmed to fit the side of a model at the flowline,

and then untwisted into the flat. It is a somewhat

(3) A slope of zero

mum value of x

(1)

Separate origins at the

(2)

A maximum

at the stern

in the ship line at this maxi-

(4)

expanded station lengths as ordinate

spacing and the developed lengths of the flowline
between stations, measured on the body plan, as

metry in the event the

Offsetting the origin

from the plane

half-siding at the

stern has a finite value.

maximum

bow and

value of x where the entrance

tedious piece of 3-diml geometry, involving the

slightly

Instead

337-357].

pp.

D. W. Taylor's fifth-order polynomial y = a -\hx -\- ex' -\- dx^ + ex^ + fx^ he found it necessary
to employ a sixth-order expression of the following

of

sym-

bow

or

For convenience the

value of x and the half-beam value of

IIM)R()l)V.\AMI(;s l\ Mill' DlSU.N

If

nrv

Ixjtli

plai'oti e<|nal

This

1.0.

tti

pliut-.s

tlu;

data in O^liml fomi.

Taggart's intrgnitiHl relationsliips are:

I'
r

(l'.).xxv)

are tho.se

xy

ilx

listcxl in

-=

.VBC ship example

the

0-<lind

tlie

li

iluced as

T.MB

T-yiLr

(ID.xxvii)

.r'//f/j

(lO.xxviii)

7.S.,la in

I'"ig.

Table

of

lix

coordinates

SX.VMIO |{D sheet

(he

miMlel

I'.l.wvi)

Col.

r,

For

places.

worke<l out here,

(ransom-s(ern design,

',

tlie

shwts the

0-<iind values are given to only three significant

th

;/

SXAME HD

decimal point. In the

de<inud

f,

Sfc. -fO.H

are accurate to 4 significant ligures following

Pari

They

I.

for the

repro-

l.jO"),

are

lisle<l in

I9.a.

Jo

T.\HI,E

(\

l)K.SI(i.Sl-;i>

.MoinKicATioNs OF OrrsFn^ on
OK .\UC SlUP TO Sl'TP LiMITINf!

W.-.i

\V.\TKKI.INK

CoNDrno.ss kor Mathematical

These may be detennincd

fiDin

iiiiy

curve

l)y

Col.

the

I'aiiu.vg

F lists the 0-diml offsets used in

Pbocess

this calculation.

application of Simpson's rule. Tlie relationship

between the constants and the eocfficients a, b,

d, c, and / are given in Taggart's Fig. 3, cor-

c,

responding to Fig. 49.11 of See. 49.14. His explanation of the mathematical procedure Ls detuilwl
and complete, hence it is not repeatetl here. His

Col.

Col.

.\

Illustrative

Example

ABC

for Fairing the

Ship.

To

ABC

"prime" from Fig. times

stations
Hi.G
1/0.990

O.IOS
239
0.3S3

0.120.'>

1217

0.20(i5

2092
430S
5909
7354
8455
9245
9707

0.013
0.121
().2o2
.

De-

illu.-trate

9 997

999
0.983

DWL

accomplished on that portion of the

from
the FP back to the position of maxinunn waterline

Fig. 07. A in Part 4 this is at

not to be confused with the foreand-aft position of the .section of maximum area,

beam B^x

which

is

:m>
0.512
0.079
0.794
0.S82
0.943
9S0

to the steps listed hereunder. Actually, the fairing

Sta. 11. It

(fi/Bx)o

l.OOS

is

Col.
Col.

from

carried out according

is

Offsets

Col.

New

RD sheet

ship

Col.

ship

Taggart's method, a sample calculation for fairing

the designetl (2fi.l(l.]-ft) waterline abreast tlie

entrance of the

C
-

stations

designwl entrance waterline of the transom-stern

ABC ship, described in Part 4 of this volume.
49.14

Col.

li/Bx

worked-out example is supplemented by a second

example in Sec. 49.14, covering the fairing of the

signed Waterline of the

Ti/By

Original

0.-l2Gri

l)..V29

0.5850

O.GGO

0.72.S0

0.7S1
0.SG9
0.930

0,8370
0.9153
0.9f.lO

S'

n 9(i7

9'

0.9S4
0.990

10'

(I

9S35

9931

9U(K)

(K)00

From

is

at Sta.

10.0.

The

successive steps are

described in .some detail:

II.

Locate on Ihe waterline ilrawing the origin

of the O-diml waterline

which

is

to be used in

the mathematical analysis. This waterline

Is

to

have a lenglli C()rrcs|)onding to 1 station intervals

on the ship, from the FP back to the position of
and it is to jiass through the point where
^ii-.v
when x = 0. Fig. 07.10 of Part 4 shows that
2/ =
the DVVIi offset at the FP is 0.5 ft, wlu'ii continued forward as indicated by the diagonal
broken liiu" in the upper right-hand corner of
Fig. 19. Ci. However, it is a.ssumed here, t<i keep
1

I.

Draw

Sta.

1 1

the designed waterline from the I'P to

as accuratel}' as po.ssible, considering the

stage of the hull design, or use a waterline drawing

already made. It is helpful to continue the
waterline for at least two stations abaft (he
po.sitiiMi

the

of lix

as

is

done

\)\\'\j in this figure is

Kcule

much

in Fig. 49.(1.

Actually,

drawn with a

vertical

larger than the honzontal .scale, lo

show the various features to better advantage.

Drawing thin or any other .ship line to a fairly
largo

Hculo

will

necdc-d to take

full

mctluKi. It

is

enough

that

Ht)

i)r(Kluc(!

accurate

olTsets

advantage of the mathematical

preferable to

li/Hx (or actual

the

make

the derive<l
ofT.si-ls

diviiled

the scale largo

0-<lind

values of

bv the half-beam)

the numerical figures coiisisttMit, that the inuldeil

ofT.set

a(

(he

FP

on the

shi))

corresponds exactly

on Fig.
dimensions on the ship this is
= 0.47') ft. A stem of .semilying inside the cutwater shown

(o 0.0i:{ times the half-beam, tabulated

78. .la. In ab.solute

0.0i:{(7:i.08/2)

circular .section,
in I'ig. 7.{.B,
0..'i|.")

ft,

would then have a molded radius of

large-.scale diagram <>f l'"ig.

from the

MATHEMATICAL

Sec. 49.11

LINES FOR SHIPS

201

^"1,000

13

5hip Centerlme-'

FP

The

Half-Sid

origin

is

accordingly fixed at the

from the ship

centerhne. A line OC, drawn through O parallel
to the ship centerline, then forms the basis for
measuring the ^/-coordinates of the 0-diml
which are to be introduced into the mathematical
at a distance of 0.013(B,x/2)

DWL

formulas.
III.

The

length of the 0-diml waterline diagram

is the distance OC in Fig. 49. G,

corresponding to the length of 11 station intervals
on the ship. This distance is divided into 10 equal
lengths and new ordinates are erected, marked on

to be analyzed

Fig. 49.

as

1'

through

at the "prime" station

The ship station 11

10'. The distance OC

9'.

then the 0-diml a;-distance of 1.000.

IV. The 0-diml value of B/B^ from

from the referenced

The 0-diml value

1.003

0.013

of

RD

to

is

is,

in Col.

VLf

of

Table

49.a.

offsets

of the

DWL

Ship

curve at the

10

"prime" stations are then taken off the diagram

of Fig. 49.G for the distances marked KL, MN,
PQ, and so forth. They are converted into 0-diml
values by dividing the half- value of

B^x

into

them, following which they are hsted in Col. E

of the table. Since the 0-diml ^/-ordinate at Sta. 11
must equal 1.000 for the mathematical computation, when the 0-diml .T-abscissa also equals 1.000,
it is made so by dividing the 0-diml ordinate at
station 10'

by itself. For this station, 0.9900/0.9900

1.000. All other 0-diml ordinates at the

stations are divided

producing the
in Col.

VI. If

the

of

final

by the same

prime

factor 0.9900,

0-diml computation ordinates

Table 49.a.
0-diml

B/Bx

values

are

already

available for a given designed waterline, as they

DE -

were for the ABC ship, it is somewhat simpler

to plot a diagram like Fig. 49. G, embodying
0-diml B/Bx ordinates on a base of ship length,
rather than ordinates of ship beam to some
selected scale. The diagram then becomes simply

The

to

DC,

is

values of the 0-diml

FG, HJ, and so on, at the ship stations,

by subtracting the constant value
0.013 from the RD sheet values. They are hsted
ordinates

are then found

The

ABC

sheet, equal to 1.003.

CE, equal

0.990.

is

V.

~^

nq~O.OI3 Byf

Definition Sketch foe Mathematical Faieing op Designed Watehline Entrance of

Fig. 49.G

49.G.

-D

a graphic means of picking

off

the 0-diml ordinates

llVl)R()l)V.\.\MiC;s IN Mill' Dl.SK.N

202
for the

ABC

prime stations.

Tliis is

fiifilitiitttl,

for tlic

ship. t>y iimking the orilinatc Dli equal to

namely 100

100.3 units to a convenient scale,

times

the 0-tiiml

made

e(|Ual

to

The

value.

I..')

units,

99.0 units. In the original

ordinate

DC

is

and C'E then e(tuals

drawing for Fig. 41). Ci

one such ordinate unit represented

ft

length in

the horizontal scale.

\'II.

final (Mlinil

coiiiputaliuii

onliiialcs in

of

lation of

Curve

constant terms

Coeilicients in Fig. 49.11, following

f9.N

, b, c, d,

c,

and

/.

Carrying through

the Check Calculation of Original Curve at the

bottom
lative

a series of cumuwhich are the mathematically

values of y for the "prime" stations

of Fig. 49.1 produces

prtMlucts,

faired O-iliml

r through

10'

on Fig. 49.G. These arc to be com-

liarcd with the unfaired Onliml values for the

Table ID. a are then enleretl as ordinates

the second column of Taggart's form for Calcu-

Col.
in

The

Sec.

Fig. 49.1, produces the numerical values of the

])rime stations in

Col.

of

Table

indication of the modifications that were

in the fairing process.

down

The

same

49. a for

faired values are laid

at the prime stations and

the entrance

which the computation outlined in that form is

carried through to obtain the numerical values
Cj Cj and C,
of the coefficients C,

portion of the designed waterlinc in Fig. 49. G

Entering these coefficients in the forni for

Calculation of Constant Terms, at the top of

is

The procedure
then

described in steps

worked backward to

2/-ordinates at

tlic

ship .stations,

CALCULATION OF CONSTANT TERMS

Multipliers

Constant

is

redrawn through them.

For Desianed

an

made

26./63-ft Woterlme of Entrance of

ABC Ship

I.

through \l.
the O-diinl

find
tlio

'By values

MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR

Sec. 49.15

SHIPS

203

CALCULATION OF MOLD" LOFT OFFSETS

For Two

Baseline

Maximum

Frame

Frame Positions Alono Desiqned 26.163-ft Wbterline of Entrance of

Intercept ot Station

Ordinate

36.175

ft

Maximum- Ordi note Tanqeno^

Half-Sidinq 0.475 ft

ABC

Ship

at Station

Length of Curve, X^

1.0

II.

Stations

I1M)R()1)\

204
mntlipmaties,
of the liuU

l\v

tlic

i)hvnc of

tlic

ill

.\

\Mlc:s

pmCilc dniwiiig

loiitniir or

symuielry. This in-

volves (usually) a straight kcol, a stem profile of

the selccteil tyjjc, and a stern profile to suit the

i.\

DISIGN

Mill'

variation

may

This situation wjus jjointed out by J. L. Kent

Lackcnby paper [p. 310].
One may visualize a ship form of low total

cally.

in his discu.s.sion of the

resistance for

propeller anil nulder.

Restrieting the calculations to these four lines

forward for

lished

matic

Fig. U).K illustrates the location

by the designer.

body

of these four sets of jjoints on a schematic

plan. Calculation of offsets for shii)s of special

may be made,

form
tional

line.'?

of coui-se, for as

many

arldi-

The Geometric Variation of Ship Forms.

Somewhat related to the use of mathematical
49.16

lines

combination

is

of

provement

in

performance. There

better

and other altered features

hydrodynamic behavior.

49.17

length remains the same in both

is

that in which a

is

made

work

but this
ening

is

(1)

(3)

mum-.scction area

Ax

may

may

(4) Jour.

have been the

first

along

II. dc, ".\ Trcati.se

Nystrom scries
same volume

of papers; also pp. 2-11-244

Franklin Inst., Jul-Dec 1864, Vol. XLVIII,

Scries, pp. 261-261. This paper contains

historical data on Cha|)inan'3 previous work

on mathematical lines (principally parabolas) in
Sweden. Plate IV of the series, mentioned here, i
bound out of place (opp. p. 236) in the volume

some

not

have a maxigreater than that of the

well

consulted.

Geometric variations are almost unavoiduljle

when laying out model series in which one parameter is systematically varied, described by D. W.
Taylor [S and P, 1943, p. 55) and others. More
elaborate procedures arc explained and illustrated
in detail by II. Lackenl)y in his paper "On the
Systematic Geometrical Variation of Ship Forms"
(INA, Jul 19r>0, pp. 280-310].

When a geometric-variation

jjrocedurc

to a given ship form to produce; a

question

witli the

although

Third

original ship.

seriouH

They begin

on Sliip-Builciiiig,"
by the Rev. James Tnman,
Cambridge and London, 1S20
Nystrom, J. W., Jour. Franklin Inst., Jul-Dec 1S63,
Third Series, Vol. XLVI, pp. 355-359 and 389-396,
with Pis. II and III
Jour. Franklin Inst., Jan-Jun 1864, Vol. XLVII,
Third Series, pp. 4(>-5I, accompanied by Plate I
of the

of uniform section. It

Chapman
not

Chapm.iii, F.

in the

speed increase, the new portion inserted

be

(2)

lengthened

by no means mandatory. If tlie lengthaccompanied by a repowering and a

for

translateti into English

ship

is

which

past

the

these lines:

a middlebody. Usually the

of

in

in the ITfiO's,

listed here for convenience.

ca.ses.

.ship is

("ortaiii rcfi'iciices

methods developed

at the maximum-scction-arca position

by the addition
cut

The

produce

will

delineating the forms of bodies and ships are

closed

inserted between them.

a.'vsurance,

Selected References Relating to Mathe-

matical Lines for Ships,

may

variation

no

is

modified section-area curve, the modified designed

his elTorts

up and those in the run are opened out,

or vice versa. Or, by closing up the sections in
both forebody and afterbody, a portion of parallel

to

however, in the present state of the art, that

becau.se of the geometric variation alone the

the maximum-area section is shifted along the

by holding the .same .sections and

section areas, the stations in the entrance are

way

be an easy

LMA

H. dc

may

po.sition
achieve what appears to be a better
and what should give a slight but definite im-

of F.

is

the entrance and

Stretching

contracting the run

describe

i-axis. Here,

LMA

Fig. GG.L to be too far

speed-length (juotient and pris-

its

coefficient.

mathematics and geometry for effecting a variation

of hull parameters and coefficients in a given ship
form. Perhaps the simplest procedure of this
kind is that in which the fore-and-aft position of

middlcbodj'

by

watcrlinc,

as are desired.

equations for ship

displacement, tiespite an

its

position that appears

is

on the basis that if four sets of points are estabon selectetl frames in accordance with the
foregoing, they should be sufficient to insure
that the principal dimensions and shape, as laid
ilown in any mold loft, will be as contemijlated

Sec. 19.16

not work out so well hydnidynami-

is

new one

whether the water

(5)

ulae,"
(6)

Warrington,

Forms Derived by Form-

N.,

"System

of

Mathematical Lines

SNAME,

Resistance,

(8)

and

Thrown by Model Experiments upon

the Light

Propulsion

and

Rolling

of

Shi[xs,"

Trans. Int. Eng'g. Cong., lOl."), Naval .\rrhitecturc

and Marine Engineering, San Franci.sco, 1915
VVcinblum, G., "Beitriige zur Thcorio dcr Schiffsoberfl.iche

(Contribution to the Theory of the

Ship Boundary),"

is

WRH,

22 Nov

l'.r>9,

pp. 462-

1929, pp. 489-493; 7 Jan 1930, pp. 12-14.

This paper illustrates a number of .ship forms whoso

t!ik(;

kindly to the change. In other words, what

appoarH to be a good geometric or iiarametric

J.

Ships'

1903, pp. 243-267

1909, pp. Ml-1.')2

(7) Taylor, D. W., "Calculations for Ships' Forms

461); 7

will

"On

SNAME,

for Ships,"

applied
there

Taylor, D. W.,

lines

(9)

Dec

were

Woinblum,

d('rive<l

('.

mathematically.
Wiuwerlinion und Spant-

P., "ICxakt<;

MATHEMATICAL

Sec. 49.17

LINES

flachencurven (Exact Watcrlines and Transverse-

Curves)," Schiffbau, 15 Apr 1934, pp.

120-121; 1 May 1934, pp. 135-142
(10) Benson, F. W., "Mathematical Ship's Lines," INA,
1940, pp. 129-151
Section

(11) Sparks,

W.

J.

C, "A New Method

of

Approximate

Quadrature," INA, 1943, pp. 104-117. This paper

gives approximate methods for calculating the
following from the values of a few ordinates taken
from a ship curve, based upon fitting a 5th-order
parabola to that curve:
(a)

(b)

Area or fullness
Center of area

coefficient

FOR
(c)

SHIPS

205

Square moment of area about a longitudinal

axis
(d) Square moment of area about a transverse axis.
Lackenby, H., "On the Systematic Geometrical
Variation of Ship Forms," INA, Jul 1950, pp. 289316
H.,
"Systematische Entwicklung von
(13) Thieme,
SchifBinien (Systematic Development of Ship
Lines)," Schiff und Hafen, Jul 1952, pp. 241-245.
On page 245 there is a list of 31 references,
(14) Taggart, R., "Mathematical Fairing of Ships' Lines
for Mold Loft Layout," ASNE, May 1955, pp.

(12)

337-357.

CM
iMatlicinaticiil

\1'

l-.K

Methods of Calculating

the

Pressure Resistance of Ships

General
Early Efforts to Aimlyze anil Calculate Ship

50.1

50.2

Hosi.stance

Moiiorn Dcvplopmentsi

50.3

Wavcmakinp

.\ii.sumption.':

50.0

Presont-Day Calculations
Formulation of the Velocity-Potential

Liniitattonti

Inherent

The Calculation
Components

Other Features Derived from Analytic Ship-

210

50.10

Wave Relations
Ship Forms Suitable for Wave-Resistance

212

50.11

Necessary Improvements
Mathematical Methods

214
215

50.12

Practical Benefits of Calculating Ship Per-

50.13

Reference Material on Theoretical Resistance Calculations

The forward-looking ship

architect

and designer, imfamiliar with higher mathematics,

has wanted to know about the.sc things but could
understand

not

written.

He

has

the

papers

and

felt,

that

justifiably so, that

story relating to the calculation of

could not be

made

made

were

simple,

it

wave

being
if

the

resistance

should at least be

Someone should take the

understandable to those who

readable to him.

trouble to

make

it

had to spend their dajs fa.shioning and building

ships rather than covering sheets of paper with
mathematical ctjuations.
Beginning in abinit 1950, several workers
prominent in the mathenuitical field .set out to
do just this. .Anumg their efforts may be men-

[SXAME,

(a)

The

l'j;il,

early paper of T. M. Havelock entitled

Patterns and

Vf.l.

7f;,

pp.

!:)

Wave

Hesistunrc!"

IIO] which, in the

(IN.\,

The

(c)

220
221

1951, pp. 13-24]

more general (and less

bj' G. P. Weinblum
"The Practical Use of Theoretical

rather brief but

mathematical) account written

and

entitled

Studies in

Wave

[MESR, Oct

1951,

entitled "Analysis of

Wave

Resistance"

pp. 49-52]

Weinblum's paper

(d)

TMB

Resistance," published as

Report 710

in

September 1950. On page 2 he states that the

purpose of the paper:
".

is

to

show

to

what extent theory has succeeded

how

furnishing valuable practical re.iults and

of its applications can

"There

is

lie

e.\t<'nded

common agreement

\\M known that

it

that theory

\\t\s

how

sensitive

be to changes, even small changes,

The most

furnisheti
it

is

less

also has given us the proof of consider-

able practical value of

(c)

in

the scope

a valuable description of general phenomena;

wave

in ship

resistjinco

can

form."

interesting accotmt presentetl

by

the mathematician-physicist-naval architect team

.1.

"Wave

219

uf ^^'. C. S. A\'iglcy, describes liie theory "without

mathematical complications"
(b) The somewhat mathematical but nevertheless
xery readable paper presented by Professor Sir
Thomas H. Havelock on two occasions in 1950
in the United States, entitled "Wave Resistance
Theory and Its Application to Ship Problems"

uf

tioned:

and

in Analytical

formance

21()

217

219

Calculations

50.1
General. 'I'lie iiiriuiiiiig and enterprising
marine architect ha.s long felt a need for a story
on the theoretical calculation of the wavemaking
resistance of a ship. He has known that mathematicians, physicists, and even some naval
architects have been engaged on this project for
nearly a centurj' but that their work was on a
plane "sky-high" compared to his own. He has
realized, from looking at some of their simpler
graphs, that their results compared rather well
with experimental data from model ba.sins, well
enough to sustain a keen interest among workers

of their caliber.

210

50.9

Wavemaking

Resistance

and E.xperimental

207

in

of \Yavcni!ikingRcsiiitancc

of the Calculated

of Calculated

Resistances

E.\-

pression

50.6
50.7

Comparison

50.8

in the Calculation of

Pressure Uc-iislancc duo to

50-1

anil

200

of

\. Korvin-Kroukovsky, and
"Theory of the Wave Resistance
|S\.\MK, liOl, pp.
Ships," e.spcci.Mliy Pari
(!.

M.

(lii'ir

'.VM\].

The
JOG

ill

S.Jil

words

MirkholT,

Kotik

presciil cliiiptcr, piep.'ired

by one

ilelinitely

CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE

Sec. 50.2

not in the mathematical part of the field, is an

endeavor to present a somewhat different version
of the story for the benefit of the practising marine
architect. It places emphasis on certain features
important in ship design. For the architect and
engineer who have progressed this far in a consecutive reading

Volumes

and

of

the preceding chapters of

II, it is possible to discuss

the

calculation of the pressure resistance of a ship in

rather

eliminating

terms,

specific

terms

the

207

and to fire the heaviest weight of broadside

from war vessels. With some few exceptions, they
vessels

nature the composition of the propelling

left to

power

of the sails

and the resistance

of the ship

into a speed through the water that would

meet

the service requirements of those days.

The

designers

who

first

put their minds to a

technical analysis of the ship-propulsion problem

appeared to have an instinctive

those

who

feeling, as did

labored at the task until about the

involving viscosity effects as found in the Wein-

period 1850-1870, that there was a ship form of

blum presentation

minimum resistance waiting to be discovered.

The fact that speed was a dominating factor in

listed in (c) preceding.

For the period from about 1950 to 1956 the

matters discussed here have been under intensive
study by the Panel on Analytical Ship-Wave
Relations, under Project H-5 of the SNAME
Hydrodynamics Committee.

The

present author takes the liberty of quoting

from the

directly

paragraph of Sir Thomas

first

Havelock's 1950 paper, found on page 13 of the

SNAME 1951 reference previously cited:
"It

work

is

impossible to give any adequate survey of this

and fortunately

here,

it is

not necessary to

make

the

attempt; there are e.xcellent summaries which have been

published from time to time, and in particular I would
for a comprehensive account with references, to
Wigley's recent paper, "L'Etat Actuel des Calculs de Re-

refer,

sistance de

Vagues (The Present Position

Wave

tion of

Resistance),"

ATMA,

of the Calcula-

Paris, 1949, Vol. 48,

most easily propelled ship form

seems to have been overlooked, because the range
of speeds at that time was still small. However,
those seeking this form of least resistance appeared
to have a definite thought that, somehow or
other, they could calculate or derive its shape by
this quest for the

analytic methods. Calculating its resistance

having an appreciable,
ship resistance, so

W.

J.

much

if

not a major effect on

so that J. Scott Russell,

M. Rankine, J. R. Napier, and others of

made use of certain properties (prin-

their times

cipally the profiles) of trochoidal surface

plotting the profile of a trochoidal

advance:

Russell,

Regardless of what he

their

work

in the past,

the

all

may have

thought of

he should realize that

who have been

analysts

engaged on this problem, for the period 1925-1955,

have followed up their theoretical work with
model experiments, in an effort to prove or to
disprove
(2)

are

their theories

They have
engaged

resistance only.

strived to
in

make

it

calculation

clear that they

of

wavemaking

Other phases of pressure resistance

have been considered, but not included

in their

Early Efforts to Analyze and Calculate

Ship Resistance.

aim
the

to

wavy water

use

"the lateral displacements of

to correct the effects of its undulating

." [INA, 1863, p. 226].

be remembered that the developments
outlined in this section all took place before the
first model basin was commissioned by William
Froude in 1872. It is apparent, further, from the

surface,

It is to

fact that proposals such as those in the preceding

paragraph were made by eminent men of the

period, that their reasoning was not equaled by
their observation of ship phenomena. It is a sign
of real progress that the testing of ship models,

tion of

Until the period 1840-1860 the

the

and builders was to crowd

merchant

lem

of ship designers

maximum

panying the afterbody, turning this profile over

on its side, and then making the waterline of the
ship's run a sort of complement to the wave
profile. This was done, in the words of J. Scott

subsequent to this time, has been accompanied

by a greatly increased attention to and observa-

predictions.

50.2

in

They

compensation could be achieved by

wave accom-

resistance

So far as known, the Wigley paper referenced

here has not been translated into English.
For the benefit of the naval architect who is
giving this matter serious attention for the first
time, two features should be pointed out in

practically

waves

laying out the waterlines of their ships.

evidently hoped that a useful degree of wave-

pages 553-587."

(1)

was

a thought and a task for the future.

Nevertheless, surface waves were recognized as

of carrying capacity into

hydrodynamic phenomena on

ships, in

full scale.

Rankine, in the early 1860's, tackled the probof the flow of water around a ship from a

iiM)ii()iiv\ \Mi(:s i\

208

purely analytic point of view.

a two-dimensional

and then brought

body
it

in

an

He

slarled with

unliniitotl

liquid

to the surface, so to speak.

When he did so he realized that surface waves

would be formed but of these "principal vertical
disturbances" he assumed them "to be so small,
compared with the dimensions of the bodj', as
not to produce any appreciable error in the
consoijuencos

of

the

supposition

of

(licjuid)

motion in plane layers" [Phil. Trans., Hoy. Soc,

London, 1S04, pp. 383-384].
Whatever may be said of Rankinc's sense of
values and of physical laws in this matter, he
did succeed in deriving mathematically an
infinite series of 2-diml and 3-dinil shapes for
which not only the boundarj' coordinates but the
velocity and pressure distribution could be calculated. It seems reasonable to suppose that
eventually he hoped to be able to calculate their
resistances to motion in a li(|uid. With the
assistance of Clerk Maxwell, as related previously
in Sec. 2.11, he devised graphic and geometric
methods of drawing the outlines of these oval
forms, called here Rankinc stream forms, as well
as the procedures for constructing the streamlines

around them. Rankine's endeavors [Phil. Trans.,

Roy. Soc, 18G1 and 1871] constitute, so far as
known, the first scientific attempt to take into
account the prime factors of velocity and pressure
around a ship hull. Tjiis important .scientific

siiii'

nisicx

contribution

cinlKRlicii

Sec. 50.2

Kankine's invention

the concept of radial flow, later to be

some

(luartcrs as source-sink

(low,

known

of
in

and subse-

quently to be utilized to some extent in practically

all

attacks on the wave-resistance problem from

1890 to the present. While

it

G. R. JvirchholT emploj-ed the

is

reporteil that

artifice of sources

hydrodynamics as early as
and Ince, S., "History of
Hydraulics," La Ilouille Blanche, B/19'}'), Chap.
9, p. 201], Rankine's search for the fundamental
velocitj' and pressure relationships in the surrounding flow laid the groundwork for the u.seful

and sinks
1845

in analytic

[Rou.se,

II.,

features of this concept today.

One interesting feature of Rankine's work,

seldom brought to mind in these years, is that
while he considered the oval shapes resulting
from his new procedure to be general forms of
waterlines, it was not at all his intention that the
blunt-ended "neoids" or stream-form outlines
generated

by placing a source-sink pair

in

uniform stream be incorporated a.s waterlines in

actual ships. lie proposed instead that one of the
stream surfaces lying iji the litiuid outboard of
the oval form, comprising both hollow regions
and convex shoulders, be u.sed as the hull surface
at the ship waterline. To this shape of boundary,
represented by the trace Ls Lb in diagram 1
of Fig. 50. A, or by any streamline farther removed
from the stream form, he gave the name "lis.sone-

CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE

Sec. 50.2

oid," signifying a ship surface over which the

water might ghde easily [INA, 18G4, pp. 327-328].
Of these surfaces he said:

"The

which are of

co-efRcients of those Lissoneoids

proportions available for practical use (the length being

four times the breadth, and upwards) range from three-

and differ but Uttle in any case from

which is also the co-efficient of fineness for a curve
of sines" [INA, 1864, p. 327).
fifths to two-thirds,

0.637,

The

latter

corresponded to

Scott Russell's

J.

waterline curve of versed sines, reproduced in

diagram

of Fig. 24.

Volume

in

I.

It

seems

clear that Rankine, as a ship designer of that

and

as well as a mathematician
siderable

renown,

use

did

scientist of con-

shapes

resembling

some

lissoneoids for the waterlines of

Rankine points

day

ships.

out, in his 1864 paper, cited

earlier in this section,

that along a lissoneoid,

clear of the stream form,

there

is

a region of

209

by the length L. of a
same speed,
with two adjacent crests opposite the bow and
stern, and with its trough amidships. Second, he
the ship was matched

trochoidal

wave

traveling at the

assumed a hypothetical barge-shaped ship with

a given constant beam and a vertically curved
bottom, shaped to a nicety so that

it fitted

exactly

wave and

into the trough of the trochoidal

rested

everywhere upon the wave surface, like a sailor

relaxing in a hammock. He took for granted, as
did everyone else at that time, that the friction
resistance along the ship's side varied as the
square of the speed. Further, that the friction

resistance along the under side of the bargeshaped ship was balanced by a forward thrust or
propelling force which, exerted by the water under

the run, just counteracted the friction effects

upon the whole

barge. This procedure appeared

to be exceedingly clever, because

it

obviated the

+Ap

necessity of estimating or computing those effects.

abreast the leading edge and another abreast the

Rankine then transformed the curved-bottom

barge into a ship with a mean girth equal to the

maximum

positive

trailing edge,

pressure

differential

maximum

with only one region of

negative differential pressure

Ap

abreast the

middle of the body. Around the neoid or stream

form proper there are two points, one on each
shoulder, where the

Ap drops

maximum

to its

negative numerical value, while at amidships

rises

it

somewhat lesser negative numerical

This means that, around and along a

to a

value.

barge's beam, and with a run which

was characby a waterline having the shape of a

trochoid. Utilizing a few more transformations
terized

that

read

a story of alchemy,

like

evolved a formula for the

Rankine

resistance of the

total

ship. Rewritten in the notation of this book, his

formula states that the total ship

neoid, the pressure changes the sign of its longi-

tudinal

gradient

and

(rises

falls)

six

times,

Resistance

whereas along a lissoneoid it changes only four

times. This situation is shown schematically in
diagram 2 of Fig. 50. A. The significance of these
changes was appreciated by Rankine, who felt

Cf;^- V'L{
,,
Vgirth
2g

[1

4 sin^ in

-F

4 sin' ia

+ sin*

in]
(50.i)

that the fewer the pressure changes along the

side of a ship the better.

With this background, and some previous woi'k

on waves [Phil. Trans., Roy. Soc, 1863], Rankine
developed two formulas, essentially similar, for
calculating the resistance of a ship having a
certain shape of waterline. They are described
here at some length, not so

much

interesting historic value,

or of their practical

because of their

and physical worth, but because of the lines of

reasoning by which they were derived. It is of
Uttle present importance that the hydrodynamics
was faulty or that they proved inadequate for
design purposes but
derivation

it

is

important that the

of hydro-

was based on considerations

dynamics rather than on the intensely practical

nautical knowledge of that day.
Rankine considered, first, that the length L of

[1

where Ir

is

the

maximum

waterline in the run and

The

sin* in]

slope of the trochoidal

is

the ship speed.

third term in the brackets, sin* Ir

may

become small enough to be neglected in comparison with the others. Based on the use of English
units

of

measurement,

the

friction

coefficient

according to the knowledge of that time,

Cp
was about 0.0036 for the clean, painted surfaces
of iron ships ["On the Computation of the
Probable Engme-Power and Speed of Proposed
Ships," INA, 1864, pp. 316-333].
The terms to the left of the brackets, combined
with the first term within them, namely unity,
gave the friction resistance only. The pressure
resistance was added by taking account of the
,

IIM)K()1)\ NAMIC.S

LMO
second ami third

ti-iins in tlic

luarkrls, hut in such

Mill' 1)1.,SU,.\

l.\

in u.se in

many

Sec.

quarters today, as

may

WJ

be noted

product of the length L, the mean girtli, and the

terms within the lirackets "tlie augnientod

from Sec. .'JO.7 of this part of the book aiul from

SX.VMI'] Technical and IJe.search Bulletin 1-2,
Marcli l'.).J2, page 3. If Rankine did not choo.se to
emphasize those factoids which have since become
important, he must at least be given credit for
outspoken discussion of the subject and profes-

surface."

sional honesty,

a manner that

in

it.

Rankine

hiter.

a t|unntity cakuhitod

way as tlie friction resistance and

More is said of tliis uuusiud feature

the same
addetl to

it ftiriiuHl

The year

callwl

the conil)iiiation

of

tlie

following the publication of this

first

and after developing his ncoids and

Rankine derived from them a similar
formula but by a (|uite dilTerent approach, taking
formula,

lissoneoids,

"into account not only the direct resistance caused

by the longiludinal component

caused

resistance

the

of the friction, but

through

indirectly

the

assuming the vertical

disturbance (of the water surface) to be unimportant" (italics and comments in brackets are

Despite his lack of knowledge of the laws of

resistance Rankine brought out the

friction

following important points:

The

(a)

thase of the present author) [Phil. Trans., 18()4,

p. 384). Rankine's reasoning here is not too clear,

there

is

no douljt that he was thinking intensely

on the subject.
The second formula, given "as a probable
approximation for lissoneoids" [Phil. Trans.,
1864, p. 390], takes the following form when put
in the notation of this book:

use of the longitudinal instead of the

tangential components of the friction drag in the

direction of motion

especially as to the source of the reduced pressure

at the stern in a region of potential flow, but

highly prized. In the referenced

Resistance."

decrease of pressure at the bow, and diminution

of pressure at the stern,

still

on page 390, he headwl the section

containing his expression for Eq. (50. ii) with the
frank statement "Provisional Formula for Resistance." On page 296 of his later 1871 paper a
similar heading reflected his increased confidence
in the formula by reading "Probable Law of
18(14 paper,

The use of the velocity with whiili the water

moved over the surface of the ship, as

(b)

actually

contrasted to the overall speed of the

.ship.

During the period from 1858 to 1863, and

prcjb-

ably at other times, Rankine (with J. R. Napier)

used the formulas of Eqs. (50.i) and (oO.ii) "with

complete success in practice, to calculate before-

hand the engine-power required to propel propo.sed

= C,|,S'r{l+4(^y]

(.50.ii)

vessels at given speeds" [Phil. Trans.,

1863, p.

136].

where

.S

is

correction

the wetted surface with no obliquity

and AV, measured abreast the

of the bfxly,

miiklle

the increa.se in the "velocity of

is

gliding" over the .speed of the vessel, due to the

potential flow around the
If the sin* i^

expressions

.ship.

term of Eq.

within

equations become

the

(oO.i) Ls neglected,

brackets in

e.s.sentially

these

the

beam

incrca.scs

both

the

1864; Jour. Franklin Inst., Jan-.Jun

ISiit,

XLVII, Third Series, pp. .308-312].

As with many other things of that

period the

similar in that both

sin"

and (AV/V)'

fact,

resistance. In

the inclusion of the.sc terms to the second

power may not be too distantly

conclusions derived

many

later,

to

the

under similar circumstances the calresistance due to wavemaking increiuses

cfTect that
culatetl

T. H., IN.\, 1018,

beam

p. Jdll.

Despitr- the inr-on)[)lctc knowli-dge

phenomena upon which they were

(.jO.i)

and

(.")().ii)

[Il.uvclnck,

bear a striking

<if

phy.sical

i)a.se<l,

I'](|s.

likeni-.ss to

those

\'ol.

formulas have long since been

forgotten, at least in their original form, but their
purpose remains as valid as when it was expres.sed
.ship-resistance

nearly a

related to the

decades

as a function of tho.sf|uare of the

the friction and the pressure resistance [Phipjis,

G. II., Inst. Civ. Engrs., London, 8 and 15 .Mar

two

are indirectly functions of the beam. Increasing

and at the .same time increases the

Other engineers and scientists, working indeon the problem in Great Britain,
endeavored to find formulas for calculating both
pendently

50.3
of

((ntur\-

ago.

Modem Developments in

Pressure Resistance

The

Due

to

the Calculation

Wavemaking.

early history of the analytit^ allaik on the

problem of ship resistance, sketchetl in Sec. 50.2,

shows (irst some groping and spasmodic efforts,
then the beginnings of an active campaign that
in the period 1920-1955 has become .systematic
and has shown increasing promi.se of practical
re.sull.s.

CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESLSTANCE

Sec. 50.3

This campaign was initiated by

H. Michell in

J.

Mag., London, 1898, Vol. 45, pp.

106-123] and carried on by T. H. Havelock,
W. C. S. Wigley, E. Hogner, G. P. Weinblum,
R. S. Guilloton, J. K. Lunde, and others, along
somewhat varied and independent lines. It is
based generally upon one or more of the following:
1898

[Phil.

(1) Utilization of the slopes of the ship surfaces

with respect to the direction of motion

(2) Utilization of source-sink combinations and

fact that it is invariably

necessary to establish the velocity potential of
the flow around the ship means that there is

concurrently available a powerful tool for deriving

of the flow characteristics and hence many

most

useful features of ship performance.

For example,
boundary-layer,

propeller-suction,
and other
should be possible to determine from
any one or all of the following:

effects, if
it

(3)

Calculation

of

the

(a)

wavemaking

from the velocity potential derived

around the ship form.

resistance

for the flow

tions of Rankine's original work on point sources

and sinks and the later development of line sources
and sinks by D. W. Taylor. The stream-form ship
is not only brought to the surface from a region
of unlimited liquid all around it, but the surface
waves are now so large that the wavemaking
effects enter as a major factor in the resistance.
A distribution of radial flow from one or more
sources and sinks which, in a uniform stream of
unlimited extent, produces a given body form,

requires extensive modification to produce the

same form at and near a

do not form a pattern which is symmetrical forward and aft with relation to the ship.
Hence, although the schematic ship moves in an
ideal liquid, it does possess a pressure drag due to
wavemaking. D'Alembert's paradox no longer
holds here, where the body is so close to the
surface that its motion produces surface waves
containing an appreciable amount of energy.
calculation of this pressure drag, along

and analytical lines, has been the

primary aim of those who have done the recent
work on this problem. However, it became evident
at a rather early stage that these methods pointed
the way to other achievements in calculation and
theoretical

prediction

procedures.

Some

them

of

are

direction of flow over the underwater

1948, Vol. 90, pp. 48-63]

The stream

function, which in turn should

enable a 3-diml plotting of the stream surfaces
in the surrounding field. This takes for granted

the ultimate practicability (not

(c)

The complete

hull

form

(d)

The

pressure distribution over the

points in the field surrounding the hull

where the

local

velocity

The

effect of

An

changes in the ship

somewhat more

of

in

detail,

it

this fact, because it

discussions

of

may
is

be well to

often lost sight

theoretical

amd mathe-

types of
size,

pro-

example showing the

effect of

changing the

distribution of section area in the forebody

given by

B and

is

Wehausen [SNAME, 1951, Fig.

The general subject of wavemaking

V.

J.

p. 26].

resistance as a function of the ship form, pro-

and dimensions is discussed by G. P.

in TMB Report 710, dated September

portions,

Weinblum

1950, pages 25-61.

Embodied in this is the disnumber of detail features.

cussion of a considerable

In connection with (e) preceding, it may often

be simpler and quicker, especially with modern
computing machines, to introduce special conditions into an equation and solve for the answer
than it is to endeavor to obtain the answer
experimentally.

Regardless of the line of attack employed for

the total resistance,

emphasize

many

and shape.

portions,

on the bulb bow, described in Sec.

in

equal to the ship

instrumentation

deriving the

67.6. Before

is

speed, such as are required for

by F. H. Todd [SNAME, 1951, pp. 78-79],

among them the analytic work of W. C. S. Wigley
proceeding to discuss the modern lines of attack

achieved)

revolution.

de-

scribed

now

stream function for the flow

around a 3-diml body which is not a body of
of expressing the

(e)

radial flow

The

INA,

free surface. Further-

more, the secondary surface waves set up by the

moving pressure disturbances incident to this

The

hull surface at selected points [Guilloton, R. S.,

(b)

This procedure involves considerable modifica-

the expression for the velocity

if

potential can be modified to take account of

distributions to represent the disturbance pro-

duced by a moving ship

211

The

matical methods.

wavemaking

of the three (or

resistance, it forms one

more) principal components of

foUomng the W. Froude

The others are

subdivision of the early 1870's.

friction

of

eddy-making or separation
and the interactions listed in Sec. 12.1

resistance,

resistance,

Volume

I, if

they are taken into account.

11M)R()1)^\ AMICS IN Sllir DlSKiX

212

To

ns

l)o suri',

is

cxplninrtl shortly, the ciirroiit

(195o) mathoiimtioal theory Uoos not recognize

the fact

the actual sliip

tliat

hqiiid, tliat it

is

moves

in

a real

thickness

varj-ing

more

simple

dcx-s the

beam theory lake account

of the complexities in the

ship, yet

stmcturc of a modern

contiiuially

is

it

employed to predict

the stresses and strains in this stmcturc. If corresponding complications do not prevent everyday

use of the simple

beam

theory, the jissumptions

implicit in the i)resenl-day applications of theo-

hydrodynamics to a prediction of ship

retical

behavior should not hinder its use wherever

applicable. Continuation of the theoretical and
analytical development of the past 50 years for
another half-century into the future, corresponding to the
lias

been

full

century that the

beam theory

may

use for ship structures,

in

well

bring to the hands of naval architects a flow

theory equally simple in application if not in
character or exprossion.

Assumptions and Limitations Inherent

Present-Day Calculations. The a.s.sumptioiis
which must be made to obtain a solution of the
theoretical wave resistance of a ship by the most
50.4

in

modern mathematical methods (1955)

believed, appear in a ch^arcr

procedure

is first

for

procedure

this

it,

[Lunde,

J.

K.,

and Wave

Apr

(1)

The

first

II.

are principally indebted

is

as follows

described

the Theory of

Profile,"

10,

Rep.

"On

the analytic

Wave Resistance

Norwegian Model Basin

1952, p. 2]:

step

is

any wave motion

to calculate

actual assumptions made, as embodied in

The

Lunde 1952

the

reference, are quite definite

and

straightforward:
(a)

The

liquid

continuity, and

homogeneous,

is

is

it

it

retains

incompressible; that

is,

its
it is

not subjected to ehistic d(?formation

The

(b)

li(|uid

ideal

is

in

that

it

is

without

viscosity
(c)

The

action has continued for a sufficiently

long time so that steady motion

is

established

everywhere
(d) The wave height is small
wave length, with a wave

in compari-son to the

and a wave

slope

steepness that are likewise relatively small

(e)

The

velocities

compared
(f)

due

wave motion are small

to

to the ship spceil

Outside of the displacement thickness 5*(delta

boumlary layer, which is relatively

star) of the

compared to the beam or draft of the ship,

motion is irrotational and can be
characterized by a velocity potential (/)(phi)
thin

the

liquid

which,

when

dilTerentiatcd partially, produces the

body axes:

three comi)oncnt velocities along the

d(t>

T^

ax

ay

dz

These velocities are as.sumed to be so small in

comparison with the ship's velocity that their
squares and higher powers can be neglected,
(g) The liquid motion around the ship can be
represented by the combination of a uniformstream flow parallel to the ship axis and a railial
flow

to neglect

wave system,

the ship resistance due to wavemaking.

will, it is

explained. Paraplnasiiiff T.

whom we

Ilavelock, to

li^lit if

pressures developed on the ship surface,

th<?

or from the energ.v in the

surrounded by a boundary layer

and velocity, that it is

generally accompanietl by a separation zone at
tlie stern, or that it is driven by propellers with
velocity and pressure fields of their own. Xo
of

From

Src. in.4

associated

combination

of

with the desired or necessary

sources,

sinks,

and

doublets,

produced on the free surface, as if the latter were

covered with a sheet of ice which moves aside to
pemiit pa.s.sage of the .ship, and to con.sider only
the lii|uid motion jjrotluccd by the ship

placed anywhere within or on the hull boundary

(h) For rea.sons largely nuithematical, to keep

(2) The second stop is to obtain the wave disturbance produced l)y this motion while ignoring

proportional to the liquid velocity.

the presence of the ship in

its effect

upon these

waves
(3)

The

theory,

third step, not yet po.ssible with existing

is

to evaluate the influence of the ship

on the waves so calculated

(4) Finally, by a stjries of HUcce8.Hive approximations whiili remain to be worked o\it, to determine
Ihc actual

wave disturbance

aroinid

the ship.

certain integrals determinate,

the ideal

li(|uid ilocs

it is a.s.sunu>tl

that

exert a small friction force

The damping

thus arbitrarily introduced is dimini.shed to zero in the analysis as soon lus it has
.served its purpose. Actually, this procedure insures
coeflicieiit

that the surface waves always

trail

the ship,

i)receding,

the

effects of viscosity in the liiiuid are neglecteil

and

(i)

Other than as

listed

in

the boundary layer as such

(j)

The

(h)

is

considere<l absent

pressure resistance due to wavemaking,

under the foregoing

contlitions,

can be

consiilercti

Sec.

CALCULATION OF VVAVEMAKINC RESISTANCE

50A

equivalent to that encountered

when

viscous flow

influence

each

a first approximation, and

be calculated separately.
least as

may

therefore

(k) The ship form possesses easy waterlines and

buttocks (with small slopes), so that separation

The length-beam

ratio

is

large

Condition

'A,

Symmetrical

Direction of

|lftl^

/.

height, the particle velocity in the

K.,

[Lunde,

J.

SNAME,

p.

Motion

'

Modification

^ ^

^ ^

^'

'i

on this Side

-I

C Shown

on This Side

Wall Sides and

Porobolic

Z.

WL

0.40

Graph
0.35
in

in linear

1951,

NPL Model l790B,with

wave, and the slopes of the ship waterhnes and

buttocks are limited in magnitude only by the
necessity of keeping the general expressions for

form

ti

B Shown

Modification

motion do not affect the pressure resistance. This

is a simplifying but not a necessary assumption.

and wave resistance

Mid length

1-^3 ft-^

(m) Change of trim and sinkage due to the ship

velocity potential

with Mode.1
Fore and Aft

its boundary
and the beam-

draft ratio moderately small

The wave

ft

ft

-4

does not occur in any region around

(1)

16.0

1.5

iBoundoru-Layer Displacement Thickness

16 is Greotly Exoqaeroted Here

at

other,

Beam,

the friction resistance and the resistance due to

wavemaking do not

Lenc^th of Model,

\*

present, as on an actual ship. In other words,

is

213

Model

for a-dimi

Diaqrom

Graph B for Conditit

0,

83].

is

Condition A,

OZS

Actually, the ship forms to which the analytic

O.ZO

procedure can be and has been applied are by no

means

excessively thin

and

0.15

fine,

as witness the

forms depicted in SNAME, 1951, Fig. 6 on page

18, Fig. 8 on page 20, Fig. 9 on page 21, Fig. 7 on
page 72, and Fig. 3.Q in Sec. 3.13 of Volume I of
this book.
Change of trim, involving slope drag in addition
to hydrodynamic resistance, is not a sizable factor
except in vessels intended to run at high speedlength quotients. The pressure resistance due to

wavemaking, in the usual model-testing and shippowering technique, is considered to be independent of the friction resistance, although there
are known to be interactions between the two,

0.16

0.18

0.20

02Z

Froude Number

0.2A

O.Zb

0.28

y-^oL

Fig. 50. B

Calculated Resistance Data for

Slender 2-Diml Ship Forms with and without
Allowances fob Boundary-Layer Thickness
and Separation

is

small in proportion to the ship's transverse

dimensions, indicated at

1 in Fig. 50. B, this is

true only from the stem to that region along the

discussed in (d) of Sec. 12.1.

run where the boundary layer thickens perceptibly

This leaves but two limitations of consequence.

The fact that the run of the ship must be suffi-

as the ship surface recedes from the water flowing

ciently tapering, both horizontally

to avoid

method

all

as

separation

and

vertically,

means that the analytic

now developed

is

limited definitely to

pressure resistance due to wavemaking. Pressure

resistances

due to separation and other factors

have to be calculated separately.

It

is effective,

therefore, in determining only a part of

what

is

generally classed as residuary resistance.

The major

limitation of the analytic procedure

to take account of the effective

change in form of the run, especially near and at
the stern, caused by the displacement thickness
of the boundary layer and by whatever separation
zones exist there. While the displacement thickness

is

that

it

fails

past

it.

When it recedes at too rapid

tion occurs in a form such as to

fill

a rate separaout or fair out

the blunt endings.

The

separation-zone effect can be allowed for

by a method developed by T. H.
Havelock and illustrated schematically at 2 in
Fig. 50. B, adapted from Fig. 1 on page 262 of
INA, 1948. Here the ship form is enlarged by the
addition of an "appendage" at the stern which is
estimated to be of the proper size and shape to
produce a potential flow (and a surface-wave
system) about the ideahzed ship that is found
around the actual ship. Unfortunately, this
estimate involves a knowledge of and an abihty
to predict separation which is greater than that
after a fashion

HYDRODYNAMICS

211
roflotttHi in
it is

Clmp.

of this part of tlio hook,

I(>

certainly a step in

Curve

tlu- rinht

in iliagrnm 3 of Fig. 50.

/'.

gives values

((0.5B)J]''J, on a basis of
\'/\/gL, for the eah-iihited

of the expre.'vsion /^h

Frouiie ninnl>er

l>tit

liiicttion.

waveinaking re.sistanec of the 2-din)l model in

diagram 1 of the figure, when moving ahead in
an iileal li<iuiii, with no boundary layer. Curve B
repre.sents the calculated wavein diagram
making resistance Ii,r divided by [{0.oB)'V'\, for
a symmetrical stern appendage corresponding to
Modification B in diagram 2 of Fig. 50. B. Curve

IN SHIP DI:SIC;N

Sec. 50.5

condition. For this purpo.se a .second 3-diml or

image source B, with a velocity potential of

is added at a distance above the
free-surface plane equal to the submergence of
source A below it.
opposite sign,

The

potentials

velocity

sources, taken

Volume

from Eq.

two

the

of

(3.xiii)

3-(linil

of Sec. 3.9 of

are expressed as

I,

'.i

The

gives similar data for Modification C.

run

effect of easing the waterline slopes in the

'i>*

They

= JT ^^

*o
/<"

arc added to form the velocity potential of

the source mo\Ting under the

flat free surface.

general term

appears to be very large comparofl to the small

size of the appendages adiled.

Allowing

boundary-layer

the

for

discussed brieflv

bv

elTect

*.s
i.s

K. Lunde [SXAME, 1951,

J.

50.5

Formulation

the

of

Velocity-Potential

Given the a-ssumjitioiis listed in Sec.

and accepting the limitations
stated there, one analytic procedure may be
outlined brief!}' as follows. Granting that the shape
of the underwater ship hull, as well as the motion
of the water around it, is defined by a given
combination of sources and sinks and a superposed
uniform flow, the internal sources and sinks,
Expression.

.50.4

then added to produce the elTect of all other

supplementary sources, whether they are "body"
sources below the liquid surface or image sources
in the air above it. Hence the velocity potential
for a moving source may, to the first approximation, be written
is

p. 83).

preceding

= *.+
In

many

.^

+.,= -

^-^+

of the references of Sec. 50. K!

2.<

Rs
it

will

be

balancing each other in strength, can determine

foiuul

the hull shape but they have no effect upon the

having 47r in the denominator. This is solely

because the 3-diml source strength ?h is defined as
equal to the quantity rate of flow Q, instead of

external resistance. This

caused solely by the

is

image source(s) used to produce the .surface

boundary condition; that is, to keep the free
surface sensibly

By

flat.

starting with the force

produced on a typical internal source by the

fluid velocity at that point resulting from the
image source, it is possible to arrive at an expres-

wave

sion for the surface

Expre.s.sed in

more

one

may

with a .3-diml .source placed at some point

the

bow

start

in.side

of the schematic ship, below the waterline.

Thi.s source is so placed that, in (Mimbination with

when superpo.sed on
produces an entrance

others to be added later, and

a uniform-stream flow,

it

for the ship of the desired size

Moving by

it.self

and

at a steady speed

shai)e.
clo.se

under

the free liquid surface, the low source, called

for

convenience,

flowing toward

surface;

it

not
at its

wave above

only

own
it.

diverts

level

is

to flatten out the

the

liquid

but also produces

Following the procedure

dcHcribed at the beginning of Sec.

bow

.50.4,

step (1)

wav' above source A,

bringing the free Hurfmc back to

its

The

as Q/47r.

original al-rest

by

latter corresponds to the notation

in this book.

Making use
passing

Theorem, ami
mathematic
complicated and

of the Bernoulli

through a long

transformations,

much

series

too

of

involved to be given here, an expression

resistance.

specific terms,

modilied

that these expressions are

is

derived

which permits almost

any finite number of sources and sinks to be used
to rejjrcsent the imderwaler form of the ship.
'J'liis velocity potential may, in fact, be expre.ssetl
number of dilTerent forms, depeiuling upon
ill a
the plienomcna which are to be predicted or
calculated from it. In any of its forms, however,
for the velocity potential

it

must

Second,

first
it

conditions

.satisfy

nuist

the continuity conditions.

the various boundary

sivtisfy

corresponding to

tlie

.shape

of

the

tmderwater form and the shape of the free surface

around the nioviiig shii) (this surface need not
nece.ssjirily be fiat in the final form of the velocity
pot.<'ntial;

indeed

In thewoi'ds of

it.

is

M.

not

fl.-il).

Mmik, when

spe;ikiiig of

CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE

Sec. 50.6

vortex theory, one might say that any method

seems not to appeal readily to minds not thoroughly

mathematically, and gives rise to confusion
among practical men rather than serving to enlighten
them" [Proc. First Int. Cong. Appl. Mech., Delft, 1924,
.

p. 435).

The

50.6

Calculation of

Wavemaking

Resist-

Having achieved a suitable expression for

the velocity potential which meets the continuity
and boundary conditions, much easier said than
done, there are several ways of using it to obtain
ance.

the answers desired. In the case of the resistance

due to wavemaking, at

approach

least six lines of

The most

This result

and obvious method, condue to wavemaking

is indeed developed as a pressure directly on the
ship, is to integrate the longitudinal component
direct

of the resultant liquid pressure over the hull.

This is equivalent, as T. H. Havelock says

[INA, 1934, p. 439], to obtaining "the combined
backward resultant of the fluid pressures taken
is

by no means

the simplest method for purposes of calculation."

(b)

Introducing

artificial viscosity as

a damping

assumption (h) of Sec. 50.4, or in

fact emplo3dng any artificial kind of liquid
resistance, means that the energy put into the
wave system has to be derived from the rate of
dissipation of energy in the liquid around the
body. This method, in the words of J. K. Lunde,
"... has certain important analytical advantages;
effect, listed in

nevertheless,
(c)

By

it is

highly artificial ..."

it is

pressure drag due to

possible to calculate the

wavemaking

not given in the later edition]. This force

if

when

and m' are

of the

same

if

sign,

is

and a

is, if one is a source

and one a sink. If we suppose a body to be at rest in a
uniform stream, we know that the resultant motion is
due to the stream itself together with the given sources

repulsion

of opposite sign, that

and sinks in the region outside the body whilst the effect
of the body is equivalent to an internal distribution of
sources and sinks.
"Now Havelock has shown that the resultant forces and
couples on the body may be calculated from the forces on
the internal sources and sinks due to attraction and
repulsion between external and internal sources and

"The

Vertical

Force on a Cylinder Submerged in a Uniform Stream,"

Proc. Roy. Soc, Series A, 1928, Vol. 122, p. 387ff].

G. P. Weinblum adds the following comment:

"When

the

velocity

source-sink distribution
is

also

is

potential

corresponding

to

known, the horizontal velocity

known, and the resistance

(the total resistance

can be written down as the

integral of the product of the distribution and the horizontal velocity over the region of the distribution" [TMB
Rep. 710, Sep 1950, p. 16].

Rt

in standard notation)

By

(e)

the method of G. P. Weinblum, in which

the shape of the hull

is

expressed mathematically,

and 49.5. In general,

Weinblum's method differs from the others
mentioned here in that the velocity potential is
as described in Sees. 49.4

developed on the basis of equations expressing

the hull shape in mathematic terms, rather than
upon an array of sources and sinks, or upon the
slope of the hull surface with respect to the direction of motion.

a direct application of the method of

energy and work,

is

an attraction

sidering that the pressure drag

over the hull of the ship; but this

sinlcs of

iiwpinm.' /r'^

sinks taken in pairs" [Havelock, T. H.,

are open, defined briefly as follows:

(a)

215

that the total force between two sources

strengths m and m', respectively, is given

where r is the distance between them
[Lamb, H., "Hydrodynamics," 5th ed., Art. 144, p. 138.

by

trained

known

is

and two

actually used:
".

"It

the

wave

By

(f)

the method of R. Guilloton, in which the

hull is represented

as a

summation

of simple

geometric bodies, in the form of wedges, and the

used to calculate the

pattern at a great distance to the rear of the ship

IVIichell velocity potential is

known. As the hquid has no viscosity, all the

energy put into the wave system remains there,
and the wave pattern at that distance is free of
all the local disturbances produced by the ship.
This is, according to Havelock [INA, 1934, p.
440], the "most natural method" under the

pressure disturbance of an elementary wedge.

circumstances.

Vol.

is

(d)

By utilization of the Lagally Theorem and

forces exerted

Lunde explains this method as

Theory of Wave Resistance and
Norwegian Model Basin Rep. 10,

follows ["On the

Profile,"

of

1952, p. 17]:

sum

potentials, is then expressed

table of offsets [Guilloton, R.,

INA,

1940,

Vol. 82, p. 69ff; 1946, Vol. 88, p. 308ff; 1948,

90,

p.

48ff;

SNAME,

I95I,

Vol.

59,

pp.

86-128; Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., and Jacobs,

(g)

strength. J. K.

Apr

by a

W.

sinks)

component

directly as a function of the hull shape as defined

equal

(or

total velocity potential, obtained as the

of the

between the boundaries of bodies

enclosing pairs of sources

Wave

the

The

R.,

ETT

Stevens Rep. 541, Aug 1954, p. 4].

Guilloton has developed a

IMore recently,

new approach

to the calculation of

wavemaking

measurements of wave
profiles taken on towing models [Guilloton, R.,
SNAME, Tech. and Res. Bull. I-I5, Dec 1953;
resistance utilizing the

n\i)Rc)i)\N.\Mit;.s IN

216

INA,

1952,

\'ol.

".II,

Kroukovsky, B.

i>.

the

it

is

Tlii.s

in

C,

J.,

Kon'in-

SNAMK,

nictliod has the disad-

difficult to

measure or record

accurately.

positions

profile

appears to shift

model

ami Kotik,

V..

1954, pp. 359-.3961.

vantage that

RirkhofT,

3i;?fr;

any one

The

run, even

profile

when the

moving at nominally constant speed.

is

significance

G. P. Weinblum gives a summary of most of

more mathematical terms, in
of

TMB

Poport 710, September

It

has been shown

liy

to exactly the

of

The

Lumlr that
same result if

all

six

carried

Havelock and Guilloton give identical

derivation of the resistance equations by

methods, as well as the calcu-

lation of the resistance for a range of speed,

exceedingly involved.

No

negative,

benefit from the interferences of all except the

bow and

stern

wave

patterns.

The

general and

physical reasons for this are explained in Sec.

10.14 and other sections of that chapter.

Furthermore, the

three terms contain a

last

and two cosines which vary with K(kappa) =

g/V, hence these terms have values which are

attempt

is

The

said to oscillate with speed.

oscillations give

the well-known hum|)s and hollows in the

rise to

liated in diagram

results.

anj- of these six

to

terms of the
indicating an everpresent
fifth

curves of resistance due to wavemaking.

out correctly. Further, that for a thin ship the

methods

are

series

50.7
is

1!).")(),

pages 89-94.

methods lead

.SVf.

dcscrilunl in the diagram. It

sine

these methods, in

Appendix 2

is

be noted that the fourth and

Further, the difTerences in profile positions for

successive speotls are small.

smv design

made

of Fig.

.3

ilhis-

."lO.B.

50.8 Comparison of Calculated and Experimental Resistances. As an indication of the correlation obtainctl between the calculated and
experimental values of resistance derived from a
model which resembles an actual ship. Fig. 50.D
gives the (c)-curves, based on total resistance, for
the destroyer model devised by J. K. Lunde and

is

to

it here but those who \\'ish to pursue this

matter further may find the work carried out in
several ways in the references quoted in Sec. 50.13.
One could wi.sh that the ingenuity of the workers
in the analytic field had been matched bj' those
in the experimental field, and that there were an
equal number of methods by which the resistance
and other characteristics of a towing model could
be determined. Further, that when so determined,
the values would all be equal!

give

i(kppa)
"

of HQvelod<^*~~''

Referente -

o/V

Term

combined gravity-wave system.

As an example. Fig. 50.C gives the formula
derived by T. H. Havelock for the wavemaking
resistance of the essentially 2-diml and symmetrical form shown there, made up of two
watcrlines

having

their

vortexes

Y
lofasu/

2/
I

(S

f jqure

""'sto't* D"E. to the Bow and the

Stern Wove Rjtterns. Assumed

^^''

'

"^' Reiton Due to the Wove

Rjt-

terns from the Two Curved Sides,

Indepsndentiv

Existinq

Term

15

(-/q^lJ / ^

coi^

cos[2.(0 5L)38ce]de, the

Pesistonce Due to the Interferenc

of the Bow ond the Stern

Wove
Term

E,

(-)

2 (-fo5|_\ )

/ ^ cos

Potterns

sin

[Z *i (05L)sec e] de the
,

Resistance Due to the Inlerferen

Bow or Stem Wavt Fbtterns

With Entrance or Run Rittcm

of

Term

"^

'

Malpil^

'^"^'^

sin[2i(a5L)sece]de, the

Resistance Due to Mutual Interference

at

midlenglh |1XA, 1934, Ei|. (28), pp. 441-142|.

Thi.H formula consists of a constant factor times
a V" term times the sum of five terms whose

this

(l +II*III+Er+Y), where

V^

^ '^Ts io/O.SLW

sion) of the

parabolic

V of

to Exist Indepandenlivy

for shapes

expressions for the surface elevation (or depres-

""""^ffeferertce -

PRESSURE RESISTANCE DUE TO WAVEMAKING

50.7

which lend themselves to this operation,

can sometimes be broken down into four or more
parts. These represent the components due to
separate wave systems formed at the bow and
stem and along the sides, plus the interference
efTects between these components. Exactly the
same unraveling process may be applied to the

'

of thie fioore

rr

Components of the Calculated Wavemaking Resistance. The matiifniatic cxiirc^sions for

resistance derived by the processes mentioned,

^Z"-^**^^ ^ Havelock

^'~^C}^^"'^'^''i^
'

g/t*

of the

Wove RrtUirns

fntronce

Fid.

5().{;

of the

and the Run

TAnULATION OK TyI'ICAI, C-OMPONENTS

OK Wavemakino Resistance

CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE

Sec. 50.9
Resistonces

Total

for Norweqion

Corresponding

-^=10.21

3.418

Cp= 0.653

For Lines of This

Form.

0.526

Form, see

Sec. 3.

Destroyer

Form, Coeflicients-

F^'f
Cg-

Cx-0.80?

Representinq

Model 41,

o nd

FVoporti'ons

217

13,

Fig. 3.Q,
Volume I

Includinq

from
1

Re&istanoe,

Friction

Qs Derived

Anolvitic

Treatment of
1

Form Generated by Source Distribution C

^Totol

Estimated

Resistance for Ship,

[Lunde,

J.

IImV 1949.

K.,

pp. 'l66-l90].

Includinq Friction Resistance,

QS Derived

0.24 az(,

032 034 Q36

0.30

0.28

from Standard Model

038

0.40

Test

042

0.44

046

048

052 054

Q50

058 060

0.56

062

0.64 0.66

Froude Number f- V/t/oL

Fig. 50.D

Comparison of Total Resistances for Lunde's Destroyer Model, as Calculated and as Determined FROM Model Tests

depicted in Fig. 3.Q of Sec. 3.13 of

Volume

[INA, 1949, Fig. 3, p. 188]. Except for the hump

in the curve of calculated resistance at a Froude
number F of about 0.30, much more pronounced
in the calculated data than in the experimental
data from a routine towing-model test, the agreement is considered to be remarkably good. The
shift in the hump of the -curve at an F of
about 0.48, from its position on the theoretical
graph to that on the experimental curve, is considered due to the fact that the displacement
thickness of the boundary layer around the towed
model gives it a greater effective length than its
actual

physical

At

length.

least,

its

naval architect are the features, other than the

resistance of a ship in deep water,
which the workers in this field have been able to

wavemaking

derive by the use of analytic methods and mathematics.

these

may

be mentioned (with

(1)

Wavemaking

resistance

in

deep water in

accelerated rather than steady motion. This

fundamental

importance

in

the

design

is

of

and

operation of model testing basins and in the

conduct of ship

trials

over measured-mile courses.

"Ship Wave Resistance," Proc.

Third Int. Congr. Appl. Mech., Stockholm, 1930,
Vol. I, pp. 58-73, esp. Figs. 6-9 on pp. 68-70

Wigley,

effective

length appears to be greater than that of

Among

the source references):

W.

C.

S.,

its

Havelock, T. H., Quart. Jour. Mech. and Appl. Math.,

Other comparisons are given by the following,

some of them original and some taken from the

Havelock, T. H., Proc. Roy. Soc, 1950, Series A,

counterpart in the real liquid.

(Oxford), 1949, Vol.

Lunde,

technical literature:
(1)

Weinblum, G.
on p. 22 and

P.,

TMB

Fig. 7

(2) Shearer, J. R.,

"A

on

Rep. 710, Sep 1950, Fig. 6

24

p.

(2)

an

Preliminary Investigation of the

NECI, 1950-1951,
Vol. 67, pp. 43-68 and D2I-D34
Havelock, T. H., "Wave Resistance Theory and Its

(3)

Application,"
Fig. 7

on

of Hull Forms,"

SNAME,

1951,

Fig.

6 on

p.

and

p. 419ff

J. K.,

SNAME,

1951, pp. 40-44

Wavemaking
infinitely

resistance in steady motion in

deep canal with veBtical walls.

(3)

Wavemaking

resistance in steady motion in

restricted waters.

18;

p. 19

Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., and Kotik,

J., SNAME, 1954, Fig. 5 on p. 366. This is the first
diagram mentioned in item (3) preceding.

(4) Birkhoil, G.,

Havelock, T. H., Proc. Roy. Soc, 1921, Series A,

Vol. 100, p. 499ff

Havelock, T. H., Proc. Roy. Soc, 1928, Series A,

Vol. 118, p. 30ff

Weinblum, G.

Other Features Derived from Analytic

Ship-Wave Relations. Of great interest to the
50.9

325ff

Sretensky, L. N., Phil. Mag., 1936, Vol. 22, p. 1005ff

Lunde, J. K., SNAME, 1951, pp. 44-50.

Discrepancies Between the Calculated and Measured

Wavemaking

2, p.

Vol. 201, p. 297ff.

P., Schiffbau, 1934, Vol. 35, p. 83ff

Sretensky, L. N., Phil. Mag., 1936, Vol. 22, p. 1005fE

Weinblum, G. P., STG, 1938, Vol. 39, p. 166ff.

IlVDROnVNAMlCS

L'18

(I)

motion
water of uniform depth and unlimited

Wnvt'iiiiikiiiK rcsislaiRo in stciuly

sluillow

in

horizontal extent.

Woinblum, G.
KinoshitA,

Weinblum, G.

1950, pp. 94-95

SN.VME,

Sh.illow Sea," Jour. Zoisen Kiokai (Society of

Japan) 1951, Vol. 73.

K., Xonvcgian Moilel Ba.'sin Rep.

Naval

J.

Streamlines or lines of flow along the hull

Wavemaking
Lumle,

rcsistanee in aci'i'leralcd niotiun

SNAME,

K.,

Diagram

1948, Vol. 90, pp. 4S-63.

adapted from

Fig.

10, .\pr.

2 on

what had been

of

.52

p.

of Fig. 50.E,

the reference,

by Guilloton as

achieve<.l

of the dat of this paper.

(11)

water of uniform
J.

motion and quiet

Guilloton, R., "Stream Lines on Fine Hulls," I.\.\,

indicates

in .-^lialUnv

1950,

water.

1952, pp. 4l>-59

('))

SNAME,

St. Denis, .M.,

surfaces of ships in steady

.\rThitt'ols,

Lunde.

Sec. 50.9

and

P,

pp. 184-248.
(,10)

TMB Rep. 710, Sep

P.,

1951, pp. 50-55

M., "Wnvi- llfsisU'ini-e of n Spliore in a

I.umlo, J. K.,

IN SHIP DllSIGN

dcplli.

Lines of etjual

prc,s.surc [f

= ( r/g)

{d<t>/dx)

corresponding to each waterline] aroiuid the hull

1951, pp. 55-57

(eon.xidiTs

motion

of a ship in steady

in quiet water.

linear acceleration).

Guilloton, R., "Stream Lines on Fine Hulls," IN.\,

(()

Wavemaking

resistance for steady motion in

1948, Vol. 90, pp. 48-63.

adapted from Fig. 3 on

a sliallow canal of rectangular section.

depicts
P., T.MB Rep. 710, Sep 1950,
SN.VMK, 1951, pp. 57-59.

Weinblum. G.
Lumle,
(7)

J. K.,

Wavemaking

p.

95

resistance for accelerated

some

Diagram 2
p.

of Fig. 50.E,

54 of the reference,

on a so-called mathe-

of these lines

matical model.

mo-

tion in a shallow canal of rectangular section.

Lunde,

SX.VME,

K.,

J.

1951, pp. 59-60 (considers

linear acceleration).

Broken Lines

(8)

Wave

moving

and

profiles along the side of

al)aft

Represent

Approximate

ship.

Troces of

"Ship Waves," NECI, 19:i0-1931,

Vol. 47, pp. 153-196
Havelock, T. H., '"Ship Waves," Proc. Roy. Soc,

W.

Wiglcy,

C.

1932, Series A, Vol. 135, p.

W. C.

Wiglry,

and

S.,

Compari.son

".\

Guilloton's

Tontjents

also Vol. 136, p. 465fT

E.\porimont

of

Both Bod^ Plons Represent W.C.S. V/iqlev's Model 755, when

and Wuve-Re.fist-

Prop. Roy. Soc, 1934, Series

.,"

IfT;

Wavc-Profiirs

Calculate<l

ance

Some

Streamlines

S.,

.'V,

Run at

Froude Number

of

0.274

Vol. 144,

p. 144ff

W. C. S., "The .Vnalysis of Ship Wave Resistance into Component!! Depending on Features of
the Form," Trans. Liverpool Eng'g. Soc, 1940,
Vol. LXI, pp. 2-35 (NBS library number TA1.L7)
HavelfK-k, T. H., SNAME, 1951, Fig. 8 on p. 20,

Wigley,

from the works of R. Guilloton

Lunde, J. K., Norwegian Model
19.52,

Guilloton's

Lines

of

Constont
FVessure ^(rel^l

Ba.iiii

Rep.

10,

Apr

wh.re^.-^||WL

pp. 60-84.

Correspondino to Eoch

(9)

Resistancr- of a ship niovinK

l'"i(;.

K., Norwegian MfMlel Ba.sin Rep. 10, Apr

pp. 8-1-97. Con.'tiderH first-order cfTects only,
neglecting reflection or scattering of waves by the

Lunde,

C.

anioiij;; \va\('s.

J.

.50.

PllK.SSrKK

E
.\.s

Sthkami.ink.'a .\Nn T,inks

DkKIVKI)

of Co.v.stant

.VN'.tl.YTICAI.I.V IIY

R. Gfll.lAlTO.N

19.52,

dhip

it-self,

IIavrl<-k,

and pitching motion.

"The Resistance of a Ship .\mong

un well as heaving

T.

IT.,

Waves," Proc. Roy. Soc, 1937, Series A,

\'ol.

|i.

'

Phil.

Drifting

Force on a Ship

Mag., 1942, Vol. 33,

p. 4fl7IT

II

Phil,

Mag.,

II.

INA,

194.5, Vol. 87, p.

S<.rie,M 7,

1910, Vol. 29,

p. 407fT

Ilavclock, T.

In Fig.
si'cl

109(T

distribution

.'il

P.,

on

of dis-

T.MB

p.

."iS,

Rep. 710, Sep 1950, pp. 38-50.

the author gives some forelxxly

ion-area curves for Mhips of

Ica.tt

re.xlstjince

Froude numbers. In

Pieii, P. C.,

SNAMi:,

l''ig.

32 on

at

60 he
reproduces some similar full-length .1-curves from
G. Pavlenko.
variou.-<

'>ti5fT

Havel.Kk, T.

longitudinal

of

Weinblum, G.

"The

II.,

Among Waves,
and

EITect

161,

p. 299fT

Mavelo<k, T.

(12)

placement and shajie of the section-area curve.

1953, pp. 5.S0-5S2.

p.

CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE

Sec. 50.11

(13) Effect of vertical distribution

of displace-

ment.
Weinblum, G.

P.,

TMB Rep. 710, Sep 19.50, pp. 50-56.

Covers influence of the midship-section coefficient,

shape of sections, shape of waterlines, section-area
curve, bulb bows, and cruiser sterns.

Ship Forms Suitable for Wave-Resist-

50.10

ance Calculations. The simplified ship of J. H.

Michell's 1898 paper was little more than a
friction form with somewhat convex sides. Many
of the forms subsequently used resembled deep
canoes more than real ships. This was largely
because the slopes of the fore-and-aft lines of
these "ships" were small, and because the sourcesink distribution,

when employed, was

for

many

years limited to positions on the centerplane.

Possibly

greater

the

part

of

the forms

were

selected because their boundaries could be defined

by mathematical formulas based upon the ship

axes. If the expressions were not to become too
involved, appreciable limitations were imposed on
the shapes represented by them. Body plans and
other lines drawings of these forms are illustrated

by:
(1)

Wigley,
Fig.

W.

C.

1, p.

Fig. 6, p. 18,
p.
(2)

S.,

and Lunde,

J.

K.,

INA,

1948, Vol. 90,

SNAME, 1951,
SNAME, 1954, Fig. 5,

97; also Havelock, T. H.,

and BirkhofT,

G.,

366

Guilloton, R.,

INA,

1948, Vol. 90, Fig.

2, p.

52 and

Fig. 3, p. 54.

While they are not to be classed as ships, the

friction forms and thick planes used in
friction-resistance tests in model basins lend
themselves admirably to the calculation of their
wavemaking resistance. No matter how thin they
may be constructed they are rarely free of wavemaking at the higher speeds.
Of late years, the calculation technique has
progressed to the point where combined radial
and uniform flow can be utilized to produce hull
shapes not unlike those of actual ships. Fig. 3.Q
of Sec. 3.13 of Volume I illustrates such a form
designed by J. K. Lunde and made the subject of
thin

rather extensive studies

Figs.

To

and

[INA,

1949,

Vol.

91,

pp. 186-187].
produce a 3-diml ship of this type, simple
1

2,

enough from the naval architect's viewpoint but

extremely complex when translated into radialflow and uniform-flow stream functions, may
require as many as 30 pairs of sources and 20

The sources of each pair are disposed symmetrically about but offset from the

pairs of sinks.

219

centerplane, as are the sinks, with offset distances

which vary from pair to pair.

While the labor involved

in

calculations increases with the

number

flow

points

or

singularities,

it

numerical

the

of radial-

diminished

is

appreciably by the use of certain tables

now

in

be reduced further in
the future by the generous use of computing

existence. It can possibly

machines.

A remark made by W. J. M.
of his 1866
retical

Rankine on page 83
book entitled "Shipbuilding: Theo-

and Practical" applies

to

many

phases of

predicting ship performance other than the one

discussed in this chapter:

".

as for misshapen and ill-proportioned vessels, there

does not exist any theory capable of giving their resistance

by previous computation."
50.11
Necessary Improvements in Analytical
and Mathematical Methods. All workers in the
field of theoretical and analytical wave-resistance
calculations

now

(1956)

agree

that

appreciable discrepancies between

there are

the derived

and observed resistance data for most of the

forms concerned. While these are hardly first-order
and while the wavemaking resistances
models can not be measured independently,
the variations are large enough to indicate that
all the hydrodynamic actions have probably not
been taken into account. One of these is the slope
drag (or thrust), due to the position of the vessel
on the back (or front) of a wave of its own Velox
system. This may be the reason for the increased

differences,

of

model of Fig. 50. D at

Froude numbers above about 0.48, T, = 1.61.
Moreover, it is recognized at the outset that
the major viscous effects are neglected, as are all
the interactions listed as (d), (e), and (f) in Sec.
12.1. It is entirely possible that the hydrodynamic
actions mentioned previously are not recognized
in routine analytic and experimental studies of
resistance and propulsion, let alone in calculations
resistance of the destroyer

of

wavemaking

resistance.

Because of the severe limitations imposed by

many analytical methods, such as the necessity
for retaining the same type of transverse section
from stem to stern of the ship being worked upon,
the use of I'adically different procedures
studied.

One

of these

is

is

being

the slender-body theory,

widely employed by aerodynamicists but hitherto

not applied to surface-ship forms. Without going
into details, this
tions that:

method is based upon the assump-

iivnuonN \ \Mi(

220
All trniisvcrso

(a)

small in comparist)n with

The

aio

tliiiiciisiinis

assiiin<'<l

to

!)(>

length

tlie

wave system,
caused by the passjige of the slender body through
the water, are as*!umed to be eonccntrated along
(b)

elevations of the Velox

the j-axis, as if the wa\e system were shifted

inward due to a transverse collapse of the body
to zero beam.

Xntwithstaniling the modifications to simplify

the problem, the mathematical equations are

still

formidable, the procedure has not yet (lOoti) been

have the results received more than

preliminary experimental verification. However,
the method ha-s the great advantage of lending
itself to performance predictions on ship forms
with any type or shape of transverse section, and
with radical changes in transverse section along
tlie length, such as that which occurs at a transom
stern. Furthermore, preliminary indications are
tliat a great many actual ship forms fail within
refined, nor

the "slender-body" category.

50.12 Practical Benefits of Calculating Ship
Performance, ^'iewed from that point in the
progress cunx' which has been reached to date
(195G), the most valuable promise which the
analytical and mathematical method now offers

i\

is

its

indication of the

relative influence of various shape parameters on

the behavior of ship hulls. Wlien the progress

shape parameters and of particular

a.ssumptions and conditions will be made readily
apparent and be expressed cjuickly in numerical
or engineering terms. This is exactly the function
of

the.se

Among
be

with

the

the conclusions aiul contributions

may

liste<l:

(a) The combination tlivergcnt- and transversewave pattern due to a moving pressure disturbance, as developed by Lord Kelvin and as worked

on by E. Hogner, T. H. Havclock, and others

(b) Extensive knowledge of the phj'sical reasons
for

the

oscillatory

\'ariations

the

in

pressure

due to wavemaking, resulting in the

well-known humijs and hollows of residuaryresistance and wavemaking-resistancc curves
(c) The reduction in pressure resistance due to
wavemaking as the displacement volume is taken
away from the vicinity of the surface waterline
and moved farther down
resistance

(d)

greater appreciation of the necessity for

fairness in all ship lines, principallj' those parallel-

ing the water flow

The

phy.sical

and

theoretical explanation for

the beneficial action of the bulb

tion of pressure resistance
(f)

Knowledge as

bow

in the reduc-

due to wavemaking

to separate contributions to

the wavemaking resistance

made by the diverging

and the transverse waves of the Velox system.
Fig. .50.F, adapted from J. K. Lunde (SNAME,
1951, Fig. 7, p. 72], indicates this feature most
vividly for a rather wide range of Froude numbers.

machine which, when it is

information and its

of the tide-predicting

supplied

SVr. 10.12

from other sources.

is

such that adequate mathematical expressions can

be .set up for ship and liquid motions, the influence

nrsK;\

Whether these c(juld have been

achieved by other methods or whether they had
already been discovered by observation, deduction, intuition, or experimentation is somewhat
beside the point. The fact is that they came out of
the analytic "machine" with negligible assistance

(e)

to the practical designer

siiii'

contributions.

basic

wheels arc set going, rolls out the data for tide
tables with effortless ease.
If

the miKlel-tcsting tcchnifiue

is

advantageous

becau.sc of its relatively low cost, (luick answers,

and

ability

to

lake

all

physical

actions

into

account, the machinc-cahulating method promises

a saving in time and labor and a greater degree of

freedom

in .setting

up the basic conditions. The

factors in a mathematical expression can be given

any reasonable

values, they can be given greater

or less weight, as appears to be called

for,

or they

can be omitted entirely.

As

020

(lis

to the indication of the influence of various

shape parameters of a ship

ulljick

number

hiia

alremJy to

of importiinl

it.s

and

hull,

cre<lit
u.'seful

the analytic

a considerable
conclusions and

?53o
Froudt

535

SSS

Number

545

535

SU

Gkaimis Indicating Sei-ar.\te ContriMai>k iiy tick Divkroino and tiik Transverse

Fio. 50.F
iii'TiriNM

065

/VsT

Wavks to thk

ToTAr,

Wavbuakino Resistanci3

CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE

Sec. 'iO.13

The

knowledge

under certain
conditions, which are as yet unfortunately not
too well defined, small changes in the longitudinal
(g)

definite

that,

(2)

of displacement, indicated by the

customary section-area curve, produce relatively
large changes in wavemaking resistance. Similarly,
that small variations in surface-waterline shape
may produce unexpectedly large changes in this

distribution

in "Marine Engineering," 1906

Admiral Fournier of France. His formula is
pubUshed in English, with comments, in INA, 1907,
page 190.
(c) D. W. Taylor, quoted and commented upon
briefly in SNAME, 1894, Vol. 2, page 14.3.

Wilda
(b)

resistance.

The work done along

these lines during the

period 1945-1955, at least in the United States,

has given a new impetus to the mathematical delineation of ship lines, described in Chap. 49. In
particular,

it

of fairing the

"Experienced

experimenters

are

somewhat

often

bewildered b.y the fact that the wave resistance

may vary

appreciably for different but reasonable types of hnes,

although

(3)

(4)

The

From a

theoretical viewpoint

function of the surface slope in the longitudinal direction,

now why

realize

the solution of the basic

almost hopeless as long as the ship surfaces (or at least

their most important features) are not defined in a rigorous
way by mathematical expressions. Hence, our first task
must be to find equations for the ship surface, continuing
the work of D. W. Taylor."

marks

Reference Material on Theoretical ReCalculations.

Supplementing the re-

in

Sec.

50.2 concerning early efforts to

analyze and to calculate ship resistance, there are

given here a few of the references which contain
interesting accounts of this work.

include the

Rankme

They do not

references mentioned in the

text of Sec. 50.2:

(1)

An

excellent

done

to predict other aspects of

bibliographies:
(5)

(6)

and most readable summary of the work

prior to 1869 relative to the calculation of

ship resistance

by formula

is

to be found in the

report of the Committee of the British Association

headed by C. W. Merrificld and counting among its

members Professor W. J. M. Rankine and Mr.

TMB

Weinblum, G.

P.,
Rep. 710, Sep 1950. Pages
98-102 Ust 116 items, principally by authors. The
individual references are extremely sketchy.
Wilhamson, R. R., "Bibliography on Theoretical
Calculation of Wave Resistance," ETT, Stevens
(unpublished and undated). This contains 62

items, listed
(7)

model basins mentioned above to estabthe resistance as a function of the form remains
of the

50.13

and

amazingly extensive. There are listed here only

a few of the references which contain large

on derivatives. On the other hand, the most commonly

used (hull) coefficients are integrals, which even when
kept constant still admit of very wide variations of the

sistance

modern

their performance, as set forth in this chapter, is

i.e.,

lish

technical literature covering the

resistance of ships

be quite natural, since the wave resistance

depends to a first approximation upon a complicated

We

Rothe, "Bemerkungen zur Schiffswiderstandstheorie

von H. Lorenz (Note on the Theory of Ship
Resistance of H. Lorenz)," Schiffbau, 8 Jan 1909,
Vol. 9, pp. 253-354; 2 Jan 1909, pp. 289-290.

(20th century) analytic attempts to calculate the

this appears to

slopes.

Nov

1907, No. 46

the form parameters generally considered

all

as decisive are identical.

problem

Lorenz, H., "Beitrag zur Theorie des Schiffswiderstandes (Contribution to the Theory of Ship
Resistance)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 16

has initiated studies of the problems

Imes of ships, so that this may be

done impersonally automatically, if need be in

a manner which mil benefit the overall hydrodynamic performance of the ship.
The discussion of this chapter may well be
concluded by some comments of G. P. Weinblum,
to be found on pages 2 and 3 of TMB Report 710,
pubUshed in September 1950:

221

William Froude, Brit. Assn. Rep., 1869, pp. 11-21.

Of the work (and workers) which followed that of
Rankine, an excellent summary is to be found in a
paper by A. W. Johns entitled "Approximate
Formulae for Determining the Resistance of Ships"
[INA, 1907, pp. 181-197]. In this paper Johns
mentions the formulas of:
(a) Middendorf, published in 1879 and given by

Lunde,

J.

K.,

by authors.

"On

the Linearized Theory of

Wave

Resistance for Displacement Ships in Steady and

Accelerated Motion," SNAME, 1951, pp. 25-85.

Pages 75-76
(8)

list

55 items.

Guilloton, R., "Potential

Theory

of

Wave

Resistance

of Sfiips, with Tables for its Calculation,"

1951, pp. 86-128.

On

SNAME,

pages 120-123 there is a

section entitled "Bibhography," listing 91 items
in seven different categories. In spite of the completeness of this list it does not give the subjects or
titles of the papers.
(9) Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., and Jacobs, W. R.,
"Calculation of the Wavemaking Resistance of
Ships of Normal Commercial Form by GuUloton's
Method and Comparison with Experimental
Data," ETT, Stevens, Rep. 541, Aug 1954. Pages
51-53 fist 29 items.
(10) Birkhoff, G., Korvin-&oukovsky, B. V., and Kotik,
J., "Theory of the Wave Resistance of Ships,"
SNAME, 1954, pp. 359-396. Pages 384 and 385
list 47 items. This list brings the bibliography on
the subject practically up to date (1955), except
for the items to follow.
(11) Sezawa, K., "Wave Resistance of a Submerged Body
in a Shallow Sea," Paper 610, Proceedings, World

HYDRODYNAMICS
Knginecring Congroxn. Tokyo,
Part

179

pa{pc>D

I.

mathrnuktiral

IVH).

Tliin

1>J'J<.>,

iixIk
is

is

Norwegian version there Is a very comprehensive

of 1S5 references on this subject.

iippan'iitly

[winiUol to tlie surf:ice

sonu-

iliscus-sioii

of the

list

i\ft)

O.

(17)

Inui,

rosdstaiicc of n moviiiR uiulerwatcr spliere.

"On

(12) Lundo. J. K.,

the Linejrizol Theory of

Wave

Resistanro for a I'ressurc DLstribution MovihR at

Constant Speo<l of Advance on the Surface of I)f'p
or Shallow Water." Skipsmcxlelltankens Meddelso,

(13)

Trondheini, No. 8, Jiin 1951

Unvrentev, V. M.. "The Effect of the Boundary
Layer on the Wave-Making Resistance of Ships,"
Section on Hydromechanics, Doklady of the

Academy

of Sciences,

USSR,

1951, Vol.

"On

and Wave

the Theory of

Wave

thcT.MB
Lunde,

Resistance

J.

Profile,"

Ikxlies

1954. In the Bibliography of this report, covering

"Japanese papers on Ship Wave Motion and

Kindred Subjects from 1929 to 1953," there are
listed
75 additional Japane.se papers. Of this
group, 48 have been tran.slated into lOnglish in

library.

K..

"The Linearized Theory

Resistance and

Moving

Its

in

.Application

to

of

Wave

Shi|>-Shaped

Deep Water," Norwegian Ship

Model Basin Re|)ort

2i,

Mar

195:5.

This

is

in

Takao, "Japanese Developments on the Theory

Wave-Making and Wave Resistance," 7th
ICSM, Oslo, 20 Aug 1954. This paper, with its
illustrations and with many additional enclosures,
was published as Skipsniodelltiinkens Meddelelse
Nr. 34 (Norwegian Model Basin Report 34), /Vpr

of

LXXX,

Xorgcs Tekniske Ilrigskole,

Trondheini, Skiixsmotlelltankens Meddelse Xo. 10,
Apr 1952. This is the printed version (in English)
of Lundc's M. S. Thesis at ICing's College, Newcastle, flnishcd in May 1945. There are copies in
(15)

!;. Pavlenko, in his "Soprotivleniye Votiy Dvizheniyu Sudov (The Resistance of Water to the
.Movement of Ships)" (Moscow, 1953), devotes
Sec. 13 of Chap. IV, pages 1S.3-1S(), to a ".Methoil
of Calculating (mathematically) the Resistance of
an .\ctual Ship," but he includes no example, and
it is doubted
whether this method is used in

practice in Russia.

Xo. 6
(14) Lunde, J. K.,

Sec. "iO.n

Norwegian, with an English summary, hut it is

IxMiig pullislii-<l as an S.\.\.ME Technical and
Research Bulletin. On pages 110-124 of the

to the exclusion

of a phyiiir.il iliHcussion. Tlio 'iHxIy"

a 2-iliml cylimlcr witli its

(ami to till- IkiI). Tlu'n?

I\ SHIP DIISIGX

XXIX.

compriwH n

(mjK-r

liirKoly

trt>:itinoiit,

Vol.

(18)

Japan and anWeinblum, G.

to be published as
P.,

"Problems

T.MB
in

Eng'g. Res., Univ. of Calif.,

Series 82, Issue 1, pp. 11-13.
Inst.

translations.

Ship
1

Theory,"

Nov

1955,

CHAPTER

51

Proportions and Shape Data for Typical Ships

General Comments
Parent Form of the Taylor Standard Series.
References to Tabulated Data on Principal
Dimensions, Proportions, Coefficients, and
Performance of Ships
References to Tabulated Data on Yachts and
Small Craft

51.1
51.2
51.3

51.4

51.1

The

General Comments.

223
223

51 5

51.7
51.8
51.9
51 10

223

228

Ships"

ship-design

Designed Waterline Shapes and Coefficients

Reference Data for Drawing Section- Area
Curves
"Standard" Body Plans
Single-Screw Body Plans
.

51.6

Twin-Screw Body Plans

Multiple-Screw Sterns

is

procedures of Part 4 are based on the development

of each new design as a separate project, to meet

and

the particular requirements set up for

page 92

it,

230
231
234
236
236

out of print. Although the body plan

parent form, and the section-

profile of the

area curves for the series are given in Fig. 28 on

rather

than upon copjdng or modifying existing designs,

no matter how good the latter may be. Nevertheless, new design requirements often call for a
ship hull that resembles one which exists and for
which there are proved performance data. It
is useful to the designer, therefore, to have proportions and shape data which may be consulted
for reference and guidance purposes.
The SNAME Resistance Data sheets were
developed, prepared, and issued to

228

of

PNA,

1939, Vol. II,

references mentioned,

and

in the

two

the complete data from

the 1943 edition of S and

are reproduced here.

Some editing has been done on the drawing but the

model and curve shapes and the numerical data
remain unchanged.
Fig. 51. A embodies the lines of EMB model 632
(modified) and the original group of section-area
curves, together with the principal proportions

and form

coefficients.

Table 51.a

lists

the original

who

0-diml offsets for the parent form of Fig. 51. A, in

an arrangement somewhat more convenient than

did not have access to the funds of information

those of the references cited in the preceding

and shipbuilding

paragraph, although not as complete as those

fill

part of this

need, especially for architects and engineers

available in large ship-design

organizations. Samples of these sheets, filled out

given by Gertler in

with test data for two models of the ABC ship

designed in Part 4, are embodied in Figs. 78. Ja,
78.Jb,

78.Ka,

78.Jc,

body plans on

78.Kb,

SNAME RD

are rather small,

and 78.Kc. The

sheets

through 100

so that the shape data are

meager with respect to the data on proportions

and model performance. Those on RD sheets 101
through 160 are

much

larger.

While limitations on space preclude the reproduction of many large-scale lines drawings in the
present chapter, there are given in subsequent
sections a considerable

number

of references to

source material embodying such drawings.

Parent Form of the Taylor Standard SerIn view of the recent reworking by M.

51.2
ies.

Taylor Standard Series data,

embodied in
Report 806 and described in
Sec. 56.5, the resistance data from this series are
Ukely to be used long after the 1943 edition of
D. W. Taylor's book "The Speed and Power of
Gertler

of

the

TMB

lists

of

TMB

Report 806. Table 5 Lb

the 0-diml ordinates for the complete series

^4 -curves in

the figure.

References to Tabulated Data on Principal Dimensions, Proportions, Coefficients, and

Performance of Ships. From time to time there
51.3

have

been

published

tables

of

dimensions,

and performance data on ships of

many types and sizes. Rarely do these data
correspond, for any two tables hsting the same
ship(s), and often they omit the very information
which the inquiring marine architect desires.
Taken by themselves, the data are insufficient for
design purposes, and perhaps too meager for
but taken together they
statistical studies,
characteristics,

frequently permit analyses of performance that

are extremely useful.

For example, many of the ships of the period

from 1850 to 1900 and later were extremely
narrow by modern standards, having L/B ratios
of 10, 11, or more. Their B/H ratios were also

223

224

ll\DRl)l)\.\ A.MICS l\

SI 111'

DISICN

Sec. 51.3

TYPICAL SHIP FORM AND

Sec. 51.3
less

than

is

now customary

(1955).

There

reason to believe that certain of these ships,

characteristics
vessels.

is

commission or

if

theless, of far

had some wavegoing

those of modern
Despite the augmented safety standards

not the group as a

class,

superior

to

of the 1950's, it is possible that studies of

a new

and improved hull form could be furthered by

data from these old vessels.
It is true that many if not most of the ships
listed

in

the tables referenced in the present

section are old, even ancient,

TABLE

51. a

and are no longer

SIIAPF,

in

225

in existence.

more than

The data

are,

never-

historical value because

they apply to ships that were actually built, and

that gave satisfactory service in eras when it was
perhaps more difficult than at present to achieve
the performance expected of them. Finally, one

may hope

that listing these tabulated data

may

bring forth corresponding information on modoi'n

ships.

In the early 1850's a project was initiated in

Great Britain wliich had as

its

aim the

Non-Dimensional Offsets for Parent Form op Taylor Standard

Series,

EMB Model 632

(Modified)

Stations in Forebody
Waterlines

DATA

collection

I1M)U()1)\ \ \\ll(

226

1\ sllll' l)lsl(,\

Sec. 5;

Sec.

TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA

513

and analysis
data for

of characteristics

many

if

not

the steamships then in

all of

operation in the United

and performance

1866 a committee of the British

In

Advancement of Science) was

formed to condense and to analyze the numerous
data. It was composed of some of the leading
engineers and scientists of the country, among
them:
Association (for the

John Scott

Russell, naval architect

and ship

distinguished

engineer

(2)

Fairbairn,

a
a

J.

M. Rankine,

ships,
(c)

(published

in

Report

Association
1869),

pages

for

114-139,

1868

recitals of the difficulties

ships studied.

The problems

in this respect, are

found

(3)

and machinery

of

in the folded tables opposite p.

profiles and main deck plans,

(e) Outboard
midship sections, machinery, shafting, and propeller arrangements of certain of the vessels in
these three groups are to be found in the same
reference. Pis. 6 through 41.
White, Sir W. H., MNA, 1900, tables as follows:

Page 642, 4 warships, 5 entries per ship,

W, and P,
(f) Page 649, 7 ships, 5 entries per ship, with
accent on indicated power Pi
(e)

tabula-

tions similar to the foregoing were published, with

accent on the dimensions, proportions, and other

on the

162 of the

centric stability

giving L, B, H,

(4)

Durand, W.

F.,

EPS,

1903, pp. 415-425; hull data

for 78 ships, 8 entries for each; propeller

(5)

(6)

vessel's per-

formance. References to a number of these tables

(7)

and

trial

data for 84 ships, 12 entries for each

Biles, J. H., "Cross-Channel Steamers," INA, 1903,
pp. 243-253. PI. XXXII lists hull and machinery
data for 45 vessels of this type, built in the era
give arrangement sketches of

mth

characteristics rather than

the

vessel Iris, 6 entries per ship, with

emphasis on metacentric stability data
(d) Page 138, 10 .ships, all saihng vessels and
yachts, 6 entries per ship, with accent on meta-

many

4 driven by paddlewheels and 10 by screw pro-

many

of

dispatch

14 ships of the time,

29 entries for each.

In the years foUomng the 1870's,

14

the foregoing three groups are to be

1886-1903, with 24 entries for each. Pis.

lists

and

entries

merchant ships, and yachts, 9 entries per ship,

with emphasis on inclining-e.xperiment data
(c) Page 136, 9 different ships, including the

by no means new.

table

21

Pages 100-101, 23 merchant steamships, 9

on inclining-experiment data
104-105,
different
warships,
19
(b) Pages

of the present day,

Report for 1869 (published in 1870). This is

embodied in a "Supplement to the Second
Report of the Committee on the Condensation
and Analysis of Tables of Steamship Performance," to be found on pages 330-333 of the refer-

pellers,

vessels

vessels,

(a)

two-page "Revised Table of Analysis,

According to Mr. Scott Russell's Method," is
given on pages 332-333 of the British Association

The

entries per ship, with emphasis

ence cited.

special-service

reference, 64 entries per vessel

encountered in obtaining

accurate and correct factual data on the

early

1883-1892,

propellers,

vessels in

entitled

"Second Report of the Committee on the Condensation and Analysis of Tables of Steamship
Performance," contains some two dozen pages of
tabulated data for a great many steamers driven
by paddlewheels and screw propellers. It embodies information on the ships, their machinery,
and propulsion devices. What is more, it contains
data worked up by Scott Russell and Professor
Rankine in an effort to find, by analysis, some
formulation which would serve as an indicator of
good or superior ship performance.
Incidentally, several pages of the British
Association Report of 1868 are taken up with

The

per vessel, pp. 1.36-1.37

(d) Additional data on dimensions, form coefficients,

British

pp. 116-1.39.

with 24 entries per ship, on pp. 132-135.

Data on

torpedoboats,

a teacher, scientist, hydro-

dynamicist, and naval architect.

The

I,

(b) Data on early armored vessels of the U. S.

Navy, 1874-1893. Similar data are given for 14

James R. Napier, a distinguished engineer

W.

1893, Vol.

dimensions and general information for 2.5 vessels,

isting 21 entries per vessel, are found on pp.
128-131.

engineer

civil

SNAME,

data in this paper cover vessels in two categories:

(a) Data on early unarmored steel vessels of the
U. S. Navy for the period 1883-1893. The principal

versed in structural mechanics

Thomas Hawksley,

John, W., "Atlantic Steamers," INA, 1887, Vol. 28;

Table III on p. 164 gives hull data for 17 large
ships of that day, 14 entries for each
Wilson, T. D., "Steel Ships of the United States

Navy,"

designer

William

who

wish to consult the data:

Kingdom and Western

(1)

Europe.

227

are listed hero for the convenience of those

many

XXXIV-L

of these vessels.

Peabody, C. H., NA, 1904, pp. 522-553; 45 ships of

10 types, 13 entries for each
Speakman, E. M., "Marine Steam Turbine Development and Design," SNAME, 1905, pp. 247-286.
This paper describes vessels driven by steam
turbines in the era 1894-1905. It gives, on PL 139,
principal dimensions and general information for
50 vessels with 18 entries per vessel.

llU)R()l)\N.\.\ll{:s IN Mill' DI-.SIGN

228
"A

(8) Steveim, E. A., Jr.,

Substiliito for

Formuln." SNAMi:,
the text, arid

cspeci.-illy in

gives n considcrnble

I'ls.

amount

;{.">10,

Adminilty
the author

of tabulated data

and merchant

n large numl>or of naval

(9)

tlip

Vol. 21, pp. 40-54. In

IOi:<.

on

ve-tseU,

ranging from the battle-ihijis of that time to fa-ot

motor launches and navy launches intended to be
CArrie<l aboard ship.
Peakett, L., "On the Design of Steamships from the
Chvncr's Point of View," INA, 1914, pp. 17.3-102.
The author presents, in Table I opposite p. 182,
some particulars of 2S vessels of the Cunard fleet,
from the Britannia of 1S40 to the Aquiiania of 1915,

with 7 entries of hydro<lyn.imic interest per

vessel.

These data arc also quoted in The Shipbuilder

(now SBMKB), Jan-Jun 1014, Vol. X, pp. 274-275.
(10) Owen, W. S., PNA, 19.39, Vol. I, Table 4, p. 53; 13
types of vessels, 22 entries for each
(11) PluNinert, N. J., "Modern Tanker Design," SNAME,
1939, pp. 168-lSS: also SBMEB, Apr 1940, pp.
134-137. This paper lists the hull and machinery
data for 5 steam-driven and 7 dicscl-tirivcn tankers,
of the era 19.30-1939, with 32 entries for each.
(12) Bates, J. L., and Wanless, I. J., "Aspects of Large
Passenger Liner Design," SNAME, 1946, pp.
317-373. Tables 1, 2, and 3 on pp. 318-319 give
the general dimensions, form coefficients, and

machinery

characteristics,

respectively,

of

U.

S.

Maritime

a total of some 25
entries per vessel. On p. 369 are given some additional data on the proposed Ferris superlincr of

1'3-S2-DM

of

1949,

with

1931 and the Queen Mari/.

(13) Robinson,

Rocske, J. F., and Thaeler, A. S.,

1948, pp. 432-443. This paper contains

H.

SNAME,

F.,

data for thirteen 13,000-t tankers,

twelve 16,000-t tankers, and twelve tankers of
18,0(X) t and larger, with about 70 entries for each.
tabulated

(14) Lavrent'cv, V. M.,

1949, p. 96.

"Marine PropuLsion," Moscow,

translation of this table, with both

metric and English units, appears as Table 51. c.

(15)

Todd, F. IL, "Some Further Experiments on SingleScrew Merchant Ship Forms Series 60," SNAME,
1953, Tabic 1, p. 518. Principal dimensions and
some hull coefficients are given for the Mariner,
the Schuyler Olis Bland, the U. S. Mar. 0)mm.
C-Z class, the tanker Pennsylvania, and a Bethlehem 400-ft design, in comparison with TMB Scries
57 models. There arc about 10 entries per ves.scl.
Other data on these vessels are given throughout

the paper.
(10)

De

ocean iron-ore carriers, with about 100 entries

while Table 2 gives similar data for 9
Great Lakes iron-ore carriers, with about 92
entries per ves.scl. Table 3 gives data on 1(X) or
more features for each of 6 oceangoing general
bulk cargo carriers.
(18) There is given, in Table 76.d of Sec. 76.4, a presentation of the principal characteristics of 14 Great
Ijikes bulk carriers of recent design
(19) Table 76.f lists tlie principal dimensions and other
]X!r vessel,

data

by

Stam, Haarlem, Holland, 19,53. On pp. 13-29

and 3.30-3S2 there are given the principal dimcnnions and characteristics, plus the general arrangts
mcnt drawings, rif a large number and variety of

The

sinnlliT skf^trhes in the IxKik projHT

arc Huppleniented

by a considerable number

large folded plates in the

of

back of the book.

pp.

"M<lem Ore CarrierH," SNAME, 19.5.5,

57-1 1. The bibliogriipliy with this piii)er

lijrtii

24 ri'ferenccH. Table

(17) Henry, J. J..

givis the characteristics

10

icebreakers

of

recent

design

and

51.4 References to Tabulated Data on Yachts

and Small Craft. Dixuii Kemp nivo.s a "TaMc of
Elements of Steam Yachts" compri.sing 22 vc.s.sels,
\vith from 25 to 2G items per vessel ["Yacht
Architecture," Cox, London, 1897, 3rd ed., pp.
317-318]. On page 319 of the reference he includes
a tabic of "Steam Yacht Performance" for 13
vessels, with 39 items per vessel. On page 52.5 he
presents a table listing 29 sailing yachts with
their displacement in tons, the total weight of

ballast in tons, the weight of this ballast in the

and the ballast ratio. The amount of ballast

compared to the displacement varied from a

keel,

as

maximum

niinimiun of 0.301 to a

of 0.081.

In the appendix of the book cited, on page 532,

Kem]) gives the names and 10 design element.s

35 sailing yachts of that day.
AV. P. Stephens, in a paper

eiitilleii

of

"Yacht

Measurcmcnt:Originand Development" [SNAME,

1935, pp. 7-11], includes lines drawings and other
design data on American ami Biiiisli yachts of
the 1870's to the 1890's.

In his paper "The 'America's'

Cup

Defenders,"

C. P. Burge-ss gave a great deal of design information, including lines drawings of the large J-cla.ss

yachts of that period [SXAME, 1935, pp. 43-87].

No tabulated data are included in the paper.
Principal dimensions and fonn coeflicients for
7 fishing ves.sels, 2 small freighters, 3 ferryboat.s,
1 tug, 24 entries per vessel, arc
1 fireboat, and

given by D. S. Simp.son
p. 503].

The

first
all

(SNAME,

1951, Table

5,

entry gives the actual length of

the others give converted data,

referred to a standard length of 100

II.

ship ty|X'H.

for

construction.

each craft;

Rooij, G., "Practical Shipbuilding," published

5l.i

of 12

si.x

(1930 to 1940), plus the

Commission projected design

recent Atlantic liners

Src.

ft.

Designed Waterline Shapes and Coeffi-

51.5

The designed

cients.

waterlines for the |)ad(lle

steamer Mary Powell (afterbody only) and for

the Taylor Slandard .Series parent form (EMIi
minlel

()32,

modified) are shown to small scale in

on page .355 of Volume I. The halfMcKay's dipper .ship

watcrline of Dunahl
Flying Cloud, described in Sec. 24.13 on pages
Fig. 24.

TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA

Sec. 51.5

TABLE

51

229

Russian Tabulation of Ship Data

.0

Translated and adapted from "Marine Propulsion" by V. M. Lavrent'ev, Moscow, 1949, Table
Supplementary columns at the right give the length and volume in ft and ft' units, respectively.

Type

of Ship

meters

V,

Speed,

Power,

meters'

kt

horses

Power

S,

page 96.

Adm'ty.
Coeff.

(metric)

Fast steamers

Large passenger ships

Small passenger ship

280.0
202.0
190.5

67,700
22,900
21,385

23.2
23.5
22.0

61,800
37,800
27,000

194.0
193.0
170.0
136.5
121.4

22,100
23,200
17,250
13,170
10,340

IS.O
15.0
16.5
13.5
11.5

17,200
9,800
10,600
4,800
2,500

69.5

2,200

10.0

1,050

302
298
327

918.7
662.8
625.03

287
315
305
308
322

636.5
633.2
557.8
447.9
398.3

0.48

190

228.02

77,704

220
211

301.9
275.0

67,638
59,867

1.07
1.65
1.26
;s

0.40
0.61

0.36
0.24

2,037,964
808,828
755,318

780,572
819,424
609,270
465,164
365,209

92.0
83.8

1,915
1,695

20,0
20.0

5,600
5,400

2.92
3.19

Steam yachts

121.9
116.6

5,710
4,260

15.0
21.5

3,700
9,650

0.65
2.27

307
291

400.0
382.6

201,677
150,463

Large cargo steamers

170.7
152.4
131.1
105.2

24,800
21,115
12,400
7,985

13.5
12.0

5,460
4,000
2,500
1,700

0.22
0.19
0.20
0.21

418
359
316
357

560
500

875,936
745,782

430.1

4.37,968

345.1

282,030

88.1

4,580
3,400
1,760
940
320

10.5

1,225
700
440

307

289.1
261.9
203.8

350
260

0.27
0.21
0.25
0.37
0.81

161,766
120,088
62,163
33,200
11,302

32.0
26.0

130

12.0

12.0

225
220

1.73
3.33

263
172

105

66

85.3

4,592
2,331

Fishing boat

41.0

445

10.9

1.10

194

134.5

15,717

Towboats

40.0
35.0
15.2

390
340
48

11.0

0.90

262
203

9.1

350
520
150

3.13

91

131.2
114.9
49.9

13,775
12,009
1,695

47.2

890

9.5

500

0.56

200

154.9

60.0

481

7.3

205

0.43

156

196.9

62.0
40.5

325
100

9.9

503
250

1.55
2.50

114

11.1

157

203.4
132.9

85

219.9

Canal

(river?) boats

Small cargo steamers

79.8
62.1
47.3
37.8
Small river steamers

Icebreaker

River freight

str.

with prop.

River passenger boats

11.0

n.o

9.0
9.0
8.0
9.0

12.1

1.53

River freight

Paddlewheel drive

Sternwheel drive

Bark (barca)

181

173

155.1
124.0

2.07
1.42

98

164.1

179

131.2

9.0
8.0

1.46

128

1.86

125

153.6
74.9

8.0

2.83

50.0
40.0

300
212

10.3

46.8
22.8

144
43

15.0

23

10.5

620
300

IIVDRODVNAMK.S

280

IN SHII'

'^tton

loK i||Hl9^4co

of flaitmuni

DLSIGN

Sec.

51.6

Biom

ptO<54 Lwi'n
16

17

15

Fig. 51. R

356-357 of ^'()lume

I,

is

L.J_i._L-l
^D

12

Desioned

dopiited

II.M.F-W.\TKni.i.sE

in Fi^. 51. B.

The

various

operating at the speed-length or Taylor

T, values indicated on

SXAME RD

One
past

is

feature of designed waterlines to which

tjTJes.

The

lengths and positions tabu-

of this length, for use in design.

attention has been devoted in the

51.6 Reference Data for Drawing SectionArea Curves. Supplementing the lines, sectionarea curves, and offsets of the Taylor Standard
Series models, reproduced in Fig. 51. A and in
Tables 51.a and 51.b, there are listed hereunder

the length and position of the parallel

portion of the waterline. This

is not to be confused
with the amount and position of the parallel

DWL's on
-Porollel

the parallel waterline

of Sec. G6.15 of Part 4

sheet numbers are given for

li.sts

optimum. Fig. GG..I

shows a range of oi)timum
length of parallel waterline while Fig. 66.K gives
the optimum fore-and-aft position of the midpoint

the diagram.

middJebody, indicated for three of the

Table ol.d

lated are not necessarily the

four of the waterlines.

insufficient

the Ci.H'pkr Ship Flying Cloud

oi--

data for over thirty ships and ship designs of

sL\ vessels typical of those for five different ship

i|Uotieiit

Fig. 5 I.e.

In Fig. 51. C there are drawn (he half-DWL'.s of

tJTJes,

10

II

Middlebod"^

i-

Cruiser A

20

19

IS

17

Flo. 51.

16

IS

14

13

12

II

Dekio.s'eu Halk-Watkki.ink.s

<tt

>i\

\ ks.ski_s

<> Imvk

'I'^

cks oh

Ci.a.s.sem

TYPICAL SHIP FORM AND SHAPE DATA

Sec. 51.7

several references to diagrams

area curves for

new

by which

section-

corresponding to selected form

coefficients

or

M., "A Reanalysis of the Original Test Data

for the Taylor Standard Series,"
Rep. 806,
Mar 1954, Gov't. Print. Off., Washington. The data
mentioned in the preceding paragraph are found on
pp. 2-6 of this report. In addition, on pp. 6-8 there
are graphs, tables, and instructions bj' which any
section-area curve belonging to the family of the
Taylor Standard Series can be reproduced mathe-

Gertler,

TMB

matically.

Encyclopedia,"

(2)

Bates,

(3)

Vincent, S. A., "Merchant Vessel Lines,"

J.

L.,

"Shipbuilding

1920,

Figs. 26, 27

MESA, Mar

1930, p. 138. These have since been improved

(4)
(5)

upon

but no published or unpublished revision is available.

Schiffbau Kalender, 1935, p. 160
Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,

TABLE
Reference

51.d

SNAME

The
which
Part

(1)

"Resistance,

231
Propulsion,

and Steering

of

Ships," 1948, pp. 92-93.

ship designs can be drawn,

parameters:

G.,

J.

Resistance Data sheets, one of

is illustrated

4,

in Fig. 78. Ja of Sec. 78.16 of

contain section-area curves, area ratios

and values of dA/dL for the models of

some 160 typical ships of many classes.
51.7
"Standard" Body Plans. At various
times so-called "standard" body plans have been
used for reference and comparison purposes. Some
of these were drawn with fixed proportions, in

A/Ax

which the maximum (or midsection) waterline

beam was always twice the draft. All underwater
and abovewater sections were distorted to comply
with this proportion. Each half-beam and the
whole draft were divided into ten equal spaces.
Thus the "standard" offsets or heights for a given
position on one ship could be compared with

Reference Data on Amount and Position op Parallel Designed Waterline

o<JO

llM)li()l)^\

wdcs

i\

siiii'

S Io
.

g o 3

^2

Sec.

^1

lO '^

nrsicN

fee

"O

I!

So"

"'
r.

>

e 1 a

<N

B--^3
O O

a*

g5

o o

8S8
*

8
O

CO

00

lO lO

00 00

J! In

go
o
m

to t^ CO
c^ e^ c<

*
"

CO 0> 05
c<5 CO ro

N
N

C<5

t^ to 00

ch
O O

to CO CI

si
1.2

OS l>. C-1 05
CO u? to to u?

o
O
lo

C->

C-l

-^

r^
CO
-^

OQN'Oio
O O -t t^
lO

co-^iO-n^co

00 <0 to 00

^ ^N
^ N to
^ 0>
CO

to

-<

i/>

ocoio

(N to to

cs-^co

00 00

CO
oi ^
oi

00
!>
CO

lOTt"
U5

N
coo

aw

^1.7

Sec. 51.7

TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA

233

IIVDKODVNAMU.S

231
tliose for tlic

IN

corresponding position on another

ship. Tracings of tlie

"standard" body plans could

\vindi)\v or over a light

be superposed against a

compare the section shapes, section-line

and other features.
However, for hyilrotlynainic analysis, and fur
shipniesign purposes as well, tlie.se "13 to 1" body
plans do not show the section shapes in their

SI 111'

1)1

SICN

table to

acquired

either because

2 to

4,

not possible to coinparc flow

2 to

ratios

may

was
(2)

using as a reference the waterline

beam

at the midsection or at the section of maxi-

mum

area.

When

tracings of these

SBSR,

SNAME,

may

good

be mentioned:

Aug

EMB model 2933

imd tested at Wiushington.

in

S.\AME UD

Francisco

of

sheet 100.

tlie

1930'8,

on which a German scientific party mado

measurements and observations at sea in 1934.

A body
shown,

is

plan of this vessel, with no appendages

published by G.

Kempf [SN.\ME,

1936,

On

pages 197 through 199 of this paper

there are to be found the original observed data

Fig.

(3)

1,

p. 197].

from ship and model tests, including open-water

tests of the model propeller. Dimensions and other
data of ship and model are given in Table 1 on
page 196 of the reference.
Passenger and cargo vessel Panama of 1939, designed
by George G. Sharp, for which a body plan was
published by Marine Engineering and Shipping Age

[May

1939, p. 206).

body plans

are superposed, the waterline offsets for a series

of 10, 20, or 40 stations are directly comparable,

as are the drafts and the underwater shapes

when

referred to the beam.

The

staff of

the old

Cramp

delphia prepared and kept on

shipyard at Philafile

a set of three

dozen or more of these "standard-width" body

plans. Table .51.e lists these plaii.s, ^nth the names
and principal dimensions or characteristics of
the proposals, designs, and ships involved. All
were drawn on tracing cloth, with a standard
waterhne beam of 10 inches. The body plans,
both underwater and abovewater, were supplemented (on the same drawing) by tables of principal ship dimensions, non-dimensional coeflicients and parameters, and large-scale layouts of
the section-area ratios A/Ax and the half-beams
of

the

designed

(or

load)

waterlines.

When

data on model resistances and sliij)

elTective powers were added to the sheets.
Fortunately, although the Cramp shipyard is
no more, the Cramp standard jjody plan tracings
are preserved in the files of the De]}artmcnt of
available,

Naval Architecture and Marine iMigincering at

the Ma.s8achu.setta Institute of Technology in
Cambridge, Mass. There they maj' be consulted
by all who arc interested in them.

is

1916, Fig. 13, p. 107;

1930, Pi. lOS.

built to these lines

many

bossing termination

angles,

lute width,

these

The d:iUi are available

German motorship San
Line,

and similar features can not be judged or

compared easily on these "2 to 1" body plans.
Most of the tip circles would be ellipses if drawn
properly, and the slopes of bossings and struts
would be the same as their true values only if
the B/H ratio of the ship were 2.00.
A more rational and useful scheme is to draw
all the "standard" body plans to the same abso-

one way or another,

and trials have been

owned and operated by the Hamburg-.Vmerican

or more.

Propeller tip clearances,

in

tests

G. S. Baker's modol 56C, of which a body plan

also in

vary from

or from G to 10, by ratios that approximate

Among

roproduccil in

patterns by this method since on vessels of the

same type the beam-draft

many

tliem, or beca\ise of outstanding

|)erfonnance.
(1)

is

prominence

made on

nor the section-line slopes at their

proper value. It

1I.S

There are

available in the technical literature a few largescale l)ody plans of nuidels and ships which have

slopes, offsets at given stations,

true form

Sec.

Body Plans.

Single-Screw

51.8

Fio. 51.

Body Plan for Run or U. S. Maritius

CaUOO VB8SEI<

coMMis8ir)N Cl-^f-^ VI Ci .A.S.S OK

TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA

Sec. 51.S

stations

Slopes
If

of Desianed

Lenqth

rH

is

ard Other Woterlines for This Form ore Excessive; Seporotion

Limited,

It is Better to

is

Certain to Occur Aboft Them,

Adopt a Different Type of Stern, to Insure Proper Flow of Woter to the

Propeller ond Rudder

235

HYDRODYNAMICS

236

V. S. Mnritimc Commission Cl-M-.\Vt rlnss of iho

1940'. The plan of the aflerl)0ly ami of the wafer-

(\)

as an e.xnmple of a stern that

with

is

definitely too blunt,

slope.i that are exoe.isivo for goo<l flow to

the

TMB

This chiss was te.'itod as

model
3S39, and the complete model results are given in
propeller.

RD

SNA.ME
U.

sheet 19.

Maritime Commission CS ty|)c cargo vessel, for

which a IkkIv plan is to be found in SXAME, 1950,
Fig. 77 on p. 5t)3. This class was tested as TMB
model 35:J4, but at the time of writing (1955) the
complete results had not yet been embodied in an
S.

RD

S.\.\MK

(6) To<ld, F. H.,

sheet.

and Forest, F. X.,

Proposed

".\

New

amount of reference data.

The Index sheets and Summarj' sheets accom-

Forms and Standard

Scries Lines,"

SNAME,

TMB

Index sheets, and Summarj' sheets, apply

to twin-screw vessels as well. Among the ships
(or designs) for which body plans arc available
in the literature there may be mentioned:
(1)

model

scale)

(9)

SNAME,

TMB

of

Body

SNAME,

1947. General

profile,

I.

H.

and some

Budd

give a

lines of

characteristics of this

beam, developed by the Sun Shipbuilding and Dry

Dock Company,

(4)

tested

in

small scale as

T.MB

models 3817 and 3821. The lines are shown in Fig.

11 on p. 107 and Fig. 13 on p. 108 of SNAME, 1947.
Table 1 on p. 109 gives the general characteristics
of the proposed ship.
model 3930, representing a twin-sorew liner,
745 ft long on the waterline, with a normal form of

TMB

-stern (Bates, J. L.,

The body plan

is

SNAME,

1947, Fig. 41, p. 137).

accompanied by a table of general

characteristics.
(5)

body

"Large Piissenger-Carrying Ships

TMB
745

Typical body plans for

(^ivoii in

72.D.
Limitations of space
of lines drawinns,

body

.sliallow-wiilcr

paddle-

Figs. 72. A, 72. B,

and

model 3917, representing a tunn-screw liner,

long on the waterline, with a twin-skeg stern

(Bates,

J.

The body

L.,

plan

SNAME,
is

1947,

Fig.

42,

p.

137).

accompanied by a table of general

characteristics.

Multiple-Screw Sterns.

51.10

great ?iiMn-

been liuilt in
the period 1000-1955, yet the published data on
lines, form coefficients, hull parameters, and other
ve.s.sels

iiave

hydrodynamic features are surprisingly meager.

the roprodiu'tion

In fact, data on the shape of the runs, the jiropeller

plans, or even tabulated

and diameters, hull (tip) clearances, and

shape of appendages carrying the jiropeller .'jhafts

i)recliide

data on other interesting and instructive designs.

Indeed, in view of the availability (in 19oG) of

SXAME

for

1945,

ft

ber of quadruple-screw

driven vessels are

SNAME,

described in the paper.

(6)

pp. 287-301.

L.,

J.

pp. 290-334. Table 1 on page 296 lists the principal

dimensions and characteristics of the five designs

plan,

Fig. 7, p. 430]

Bates,

Certain Essential Trade Routes,"

in

flow around the

[SNAME, 1950,
many cases lines

plans,

Resistance Data sheots, with

their wealth of quantitative data,

prospect of

plans are shown

116, respectively,

design are given in Table 3 on p. 113 of the reference.

(3) Proposed design of a large tanker of extremely wide

is

and in
drawings, are
published by J. Baader for a great variety of large
and small single-screw vessels in his book "Cruceros
y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers and Fast Launches),"
published in Buenos Aires in 1951, Figs. 225-239,

some 100

Body

and 24 on pp. 112 and

in Figs. IS

1955, Fig. 9 on p. 449

De Luce and W.

tanker Pennsylvania
(11)

Twin-skeg Manhattan design, tested in small scale

as
model 3898 but never worked up as a
ship design or built as a ship.

built

body plan of the Gopher Mariner

published by V. L. Russo and R. T. McGoldrick

wave

mo<lel

shijis,

small-scale

(10) II.

TMB

p. 113 of the reference.

(2)

all

and open, as

by

.\tlantic liner ^fanhaitan, represented

3041. Fig. 17 on p. HI of SNAME, 1947. General

characteristics of the hull are given in Table 3 on

are shown in Figs. 13 and 14, pages

123 and 125, respectively, of the reference.

into the

in

SXAME RD

ships, including the notes on the

TMB

closed (as tested in

it

sheets,

sufficient detail to indicate the exact

(8)

add

later)

and present

51.9 Twin-Screw Body Plans.

The general
comments of Sec. 51.8 relative to single-screw

1951,

the data in
forms of the
various models, their hull coefficients, and their
distribution of section area along the length. It also
gives corresponding data for the U. S. Maritime
Commission C-2 class of cargo ship, for the ^lariner
class, for the modified C-3 vessel Schuyler Olis
Bland, for a Bethlehem design of cargo vessel, and
for the tanker Pennsylvania.
Rus-oo, V. L., and Sullivan, E. K., give a body plan
of the Mariner cla.ss, including a wave profile at a
speed of 20 kt and a T, of 0.S77 (SNAME, 1953,
p. 1 15 and Fig. 12 on p. 122|. This design was tested
model 4358\V-3. The stern profiles, both
as

through 150 (and

slightly difTerent fa.shion.

forms.

1953, pp. 516-5S9. This pajx^r gives

sheets

to the store of information

Series 57

Todd, F. H., "Some Further Experiments on SingleScrew Merchant Ship Forms Series 60," SN.\ME,

(7)

RD

panying

Basis for the Design of Singli>^orew Merchant >Ship

pp. (}42-744. This paper covers the

Sec. 51.9

siderable

nnd run of thin vesBcl lire illuxtrnttHl in Figs,

and 51. K, resp'elivcly. These lines are included

linen
."il.n

(5)

IN SHIP DESIGN

marine architect has ready at hand a very con-

and with the

additional sheets year by year, the

positions

are limited largely to stern jihotdgraphs of these

ves.sels

on the laimching ways or in dock.

l<,l20"s and early HMO's, T. E. Ferris

In the late

made many

studies of a large, high-speed trans-

TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA

Sec. 51.10

atlantic passenger vessel.

He

reported upon these

American Superhners" [SNAME, 1931, pp. 303-350 and Pis. 1-13].

Table 1 on page 318 of this reference gives the
ship dimensions and hull coefficients corresponding to three of the fourteen models tested at the
studies in the paper "Design of

Model

Washington. All
these designs embodied 4 propellers. This paper
Experimental

Basin,

was published, practically in full, in Marine

Engineering and Shipping Age, December 1931
and January through April 1932.
E. P. Trask discussed this design problem
further in his paper

[MESA,

Liner"
vessel

"A Proposed

Jul

was designed

1932,
for

pp.

800-ft Atlantic

268-275].

This

an operating speed

of

28.5 kt.

At the conclusion of World War II, J. L. Bates

and I. J. Wanless made an analysis of existing
passenger liners and worked up a new design,
which they reported upon in their paper "Aspects
Large Passenger Liner Design" [SNAME, 1946,
pp. 317-373]. This paper tabulates many dimensions and characteristics of the Europa, Manhattan, Conte di Savoia, Rex, Normandie, and a
of

projected

U.

P3-S2-DA1

S.

Maritime Commission design

for trans-ocean service.

ships analyzed, the Manhattan,

vessel but

all

is

One

of the

a twin-screw

the others are quadruple-screw

237

justification for referring to a paper,

now almost

by G. W. Melville entitled "Notes on

the Machinery of the New Vessels of the United

historic,

Navy" [SNAME, 1893, pp. 140-175].

Plate 41 of this paper illustrates the triple-screw
States

arrangement

of the U.S.S.

Fig. 51. F is a

Columbia

(old) of 1890.

body plan resembling those

of the

coastwise triple-screw passenger steamers

Yale

and Harvard, designed in the early 1900's, and

reported upon by C. H. Peabody, W. S. Leland,
and H. A. Everett in a paper "Service Test of
the Steamship Harvard" [SNAME, 1908, pp.
167-186]. These vessels gave long and distinguished service on many difficult routes, so much
so that their designs would warrant further
analysis if accurate and reliable data and drawings
could be found.
Fig. 51.

triple-screw

Northern

is

a body plan of the high-speed,

and cargo vessel Great

passenger

(and

sister

vessel

Northern Pacific),

designed in about 1914 and famous for outstanding

performance in heavy weather. Unfortunately,
it is

not possible to add propeller-disc positions

to either of these drawings.

and appendage data

German naval

architects have probably

more experience than

all

had

others combined in the

design of triple-screw vessels. However, as almost

all of

these were combatant craft, their lines and

ships.

the design rules pertaining to them appear not

Corresponding information on triple-screw veswith sterns which are the most difficult of
any to design, is very scarce. This is partial

to have been published. What might be considered

an exception to this is the study for a medium-size
fast liner published by E. Foerster [SNAME,

sels,

Fig. 51.F

Body Plan Resembling Those of the Triple-Screw Coastal Passenger Vessels

Yale

and Harvard

ll^^K()n^\ wik.s i\

238

Fig. oi.O

Body Plan of the

Tniri.E-ScRiiw Passenger

1936, pp. 228-287]. TliLs unusual vessel, for wliich

section- and hull-shape data are given, was

some

to have

siih' nisir.N

had twin propellers carried by orthodox

bossings, plus a centerline Voith-Schncider pro-

and Cargo Vessel

Srr. 51.10

Great Northern

which was to have been used

for steering

as well as propulsion. Resistance and

power data,

peller

derived from model tests, are given for various

combinations.

One

of the

most modern

of the

German com-

batant vessels, the World War II cruiser Prim

Eugcn, was taken over by the United St-ates.
Some data on this vessel arc in the files of the
U. S. Navy Department. Fig. 51.11 gives the
general features of one of

its

transverse sections.

Vessels with five screw propellers have been

in the design stage but so far as known
no data on those studies iiavc been published
(SBSR, 17 Oct 194G, p. 439].
I''urtlier reference data on ves.sels il riven by
multiple propellers are given in Sees. 07.14 and

considered

SuiTCii OK Onb SEcnoN or tub Trii'LEScREW Gehman Ciiuihek Print Eugtn

Fio. 61.H

07.15.

CHAPTER
Analysis of

52.1
52.2
52.3
52.4

52.5

52.6
52.7

Flow Diagrams and Prediction of

Ship Flow Patterns

Scope of Chapter
Typical Ship- Wave Profiles
Wave Profiles Alongside Models
General Rules for Wave Interference Alongside a Ship
Estimate of Bow-Wave and Stern- Wave
Heights and Positions
Prediction of the Surface- Wave Profile
Typical Lines-of-Flow Diagrams for Ship
.

Models
52.8
52.9

52.10
52.11

Analysis of Model Surface-Flow Diagrams

Observation and Interpretation of Off-theSurface Flow Data on Models

Estimating the Ship Flow Pattern on the
Body Plan
Prediction of the Ship Flow Pattern at the

From

52.12
52.13

Estimating the Change in Flow Pattern for

Light or Ballast Conditions

243

52 14

Predicting Velocity and Pressure Distribu-

the Ship

256

Surface

Around Ship Forms

Use of Flow Diagrams for Positioning
Appendages
Estimated Flow at Propulsion-Device Position

244
246

52.15
52.16

248
250
254
255

Supplementing the
data on streamline
patterns around bodies and the discussion on
distribution of velocity and pressure in Chap. 42,
there is given here some representative informa52.1

Probable Flow at a Distance

239
239
241

256
257

258

258

tions

52.17

Analysis of the Observed Flow at a ScrewPropeller Position

52.18
52.19
52.20

Flow Abaft a Screw Propeller

Persistence of

Wake Behind
Wake

....

a Ship

Bibliography on

259
259
261
262

255

Bilges

Scope of Chapter.

potential-flow,

52

ideal-liquid

outstanding feature of the 3-diml flow around a

simple ship form, when the latter is
brought up from a deeply submerged position
2-diml

bution in the water around ship models. There

and run at the air-water interface. This feature

has perhaps more importance for 3-diml forms
and actual ships because, at the speeds where
surface wavemaking is prominent, the wave

are very few full-scale data on ships, either in the

pattern there influences the flow over a consider-

tion on flow

and on velocity-and-pressure

distri-

technical literature or in form available for publication, with

which to confirm the model data.

Space limitations prevent the inclusion of the

amount of model data available in America,
mostly at the David Taylor Model Basin, on the
flow around ship models, representing many ship
types. Indeed, these data comprise sufficient
material for an entirely separate study and analyvast

down

to

and

Fortunately,

the

wave

it

is

not too

difficult to

on a ship because

profile

obtain

this region is

available for observation or photographic record-

ing.

number

of ships in the past

have had

painted on one side a grid pattern of some sort

for the builder's

or the acceptance trials.

By

looking over the side, the intersections of the

sis.

52.2

able extent of the ship's side, often

including the bilge-keel positions.

Typical Ship- Wave Profiles.

An analysis

around a body or ship, at

least for a craft running on the surface, begins
properly with the surface-wave profile. This is the
of the flow patterns

FiG. 52.A

wave profile could be observed and marked

on an outboard-profile drawing carrying the same
actual

grid.

The two

for the

Observed Wave PROPitEs at

239

Two

U.

full-scale

S. battleship

profiles

Maine

Speeds on a BATiiiESHip

of

Fig.

52.A,

(new), were ob-

nVDROnVNAMIQS

!I0

Wove

FVofile at

12 hi.

Fio.

setAotl in this

1902, p. 49

and

manner
PI. 11].

Jy

0371, f'

OBSF.RVF.n

.'i2.R

[Powoii, J. W.,

Wave

259

Wove

Wave

Fig. 52.B [Peabody, C. H.,

SXAME,

profilos ob.served at

SXAME,

DESIGN

Profile ot 16

M. 1^-

Profiles at

two speeds during tiie trials of the U. S. Coast

Guard cutter Manning of the late 1890's are
drawn over an outboard profile of the ship in
93;

IN SHIP

(a)

do not show the wave

B =

(b)

is

profile directly
(c)

because

sj'stematic

procedures

wave

all,

are

(d)

interesting photograph of this kind

a small battleship of the

class at full speed

shows

(e)

German Deulschland

[STG, 1940,

p. 341].

Another,

battle cmisor Moltke of the

qucHtion are rcproductid in the .Inly

79(i to 799.

Xavnl

The

A =

T,

10,850

this

L\(-l

A =

ft,

19.4 kt; T,

475.75

18,400

t,

B =

ft,

84.75

Ps = 22,500

ft,

horses,

0.889 at this speed.

photographic wave profile of the U. S. battleship

at the stern [.\SNE,

Aug

photograph appears

in

For a

the

wave

The wave
is

1897, p. 454).

"Jane's

similar

length at this speed, assumed

waterliiic length of

0.26S2. For a trochoidal

Icngtli

Fighting Ships,"

thus about half the length of the

Lw

360

ft,

wave

for 17 kt is

thing less than half the ship

old

7',

0.9005,

deep water,
about 1(>2 ft, some-

lengtli.

in

Data

for the

Iowa, corresponding to thase for the French

ships, are:

A =
Cx =

= 360 ft, B = 72.0 ft, // - 24.02 ft,

Ps = 11,835 horses, Cp - 0.668,
S = 31,110 ft', Cr = 0.7:53, .\x - 1,635

/>,r,,

11,363
0.944,

t,

ft.

(f)

Wave

(g)

The Danish

issue

nuincrical data appenilnl here arc

L = 330 ft, B = 65.5 ft, // = 28.5

t, Ps = 12,000 horses, F = 16 kt;

shows a Velox wave length of about L/2.

ship,

27.5

profiles at two speeds for the Italian crui.'wr

Picmontc are publi.shed in INA, 1SS9, Plato XXVII.
The ship is 325 ft long, and for the higher s|>ced the
wave length is about eijual to the ship length,
minus the lag in the bow-wave crest. At 20 kt the
value of T, Is 1.11, F. - 0.331; at 21.5 kt, 7', is

1.193 !tnd
19."j4

Institiile Procecdiiig.s, jjages

0.881 at this speed.

Voltaire

ship.

crast aimft the

in

ft,

to be 17.087 kt,

World War I pcri(Kl (SchilTbau, 22 May 1912,

p. G49|. These indicate in a general way that the
first Velox wave is something less than one ship
length long, because of the lag of the first wave
bow, but otherwise they are useless
for analysis by any known method.
Some data are listed here relative to excellent
photographs of certain French men-of-war of a
half-century ago, wlion underway at what appear
to Ix; full speed and full power. The i)liotograplis

P.,

t,

to be

1910, p. 192.

German World War I battle cruiser Gocbcn

what appears to be full speed [USXI, 1912,
Vol. 38, p. 1GG8]. A third sliows wave profiles
the

of the U. S.

10,000

Iowa (old), presumably made at or near full s|)oed,

shows one crest at the bow, one amidships, and one

at

Gennan

A =

down

H =
V =

that appear in the photograph, shows

along.side the

ft,

21 kt (nominal); for 22 kt,

is

For

equally interesting becau.sc of two very large

crcstvS

24.5

by the head. The Velox wave length appears

The

profiles along-

side models or ships in advance of tests or trials.

wave

=
V =

;/

ft,

about L/2. Here

traveling.

lacking for the prediction of

One

65.33

gives the distinct impression that the ship

state the exact speed at which

Nevertheless, they are better than no data at

especially

"Jane's

of

T, = 1.034.
French crui.scr Chaleaurcnault of about 1S9S. The
photograph reveals a considerable trim by the stern
and a Velox wave length of well over L. Here
L = 443 ft, B = 56 ft, // = 22.5 ft, A = 8,01S t;
Ps = 23,000 horses, V = 23 kt (estimated); for
23 kt, 7', = 1.093. For a speed-length quotient only
slightly greater than that of the Condi, the Velox
wave length appears to be much greater.
French battleship MagctUa of 1890. The photograph

against the ship's side, or

They do not

issues

French cruiser Condi of about 1904, making about

22 kt. The photograph shows that the Velox wave
length is about L/2. For this vessel, L = 452.75 ft,

1899, PI.

either:

the ship

contemjiorary

Fighting Ships":

1904, Fig. 20S, p. 513].

(1) The}'

0.i45.

Speeds on a CiiiNnoAT

from

taken

1.161; F-

20,500 horses,

NA,

There arc in the literature litcrallj' thousands

of photographs of ships inidorway, surrounded
(on the near side at least) by the waves of the
ship's Velox system. Almost never are the.se
photographs of more than pictorial value becau-se

(2)

Two

Sec. 52.2

0..3.5.5.

ship Tjaldur

is

shown ninning at IS

kt,

revealing a deep trough at an estirnati'd position of

O.l.'iL

from

llic

bow and a

seronil crest (following

FLOW PATTERNS AROUND

Sec. 52.3

T,,-

At-Re5t Woterline
;

Fosi

SHIPS

0.689

F-

241

0.205

IlVnRODVX AMK.S
bulbs,

/, =

0.08, O.OJ,

ami

0.(X), witli

the vortical

scales exftggeratetl about 7 times, are given

E.

M. Bragg

r,

- v/Vl
1.2

in

SNAME,

by

of

/'.

first bow-wsvo crest abaft FP,

on a basis of 20 stations

varying from 0.21 to 0.38, T, of from 0.71

to 1.28.

1938, Vol. 42, pp. 543-5G9]. This plate

approx. 0.0S5/y from FP. Varied

from Sta. 1.6 to Sta.

modoLs referenced

1.9 for the three

shows not

only a body plan of the model but a transverse

water surface abreast the model at

to 0.05 and 0.95L

profile of the
1.7,

Sec. 52.3

The wave profile for a double-ended model

having mathematical lines is given on Plat 1,
page 545 of a paper on wake by C. Igonet [ATM A,

1930, PI. 51:

Station for

About

SHIP DKSIGN

IN

and 19, corresponding

from the FP.
Stas.

E. Ileckscher published a scries of wave pro1.0

About

1.2,

approx. 0.06A from FP. Varied

from Sfa. 1.0 to Stas.

three models

1.6 or 1.7 for the

files

alongside a given model, for F values of

0.19,

and 0.325, T, of 0.(54,

and 1.091, corresponding to
hump-and-hollow positions along the curve
0.23,

0.25,

0.295,

0.775, 0.842, 0.991,

0.8

About 0.8, approx. O.OIL from FP. Varied

from Sta. 0.7 to Sta. 1.0 for the three
models.

five

[WRH,

of resistance with speed

15

Aug

1939,

Fig. 4, p. 2G2].

In the Annual Report of the

Rome Model Basin

X, there are showTi two

wave profiles for Rome model C.295, at two
speeds. The corresponding T, values are 1.082 and
1.204. These profiles, with the body plan of the
model, as published in Table XII of the referfor the year 1941, Vol.

The author

of this paper

comments on the

fact,

amazing
similarity of the \va\'e profiles for all three models
at a T, of 1.2, the model with the largest bulb had
15 per cent less resistance than the one with no
still

unexplained,

that

despite

the

The present author makes the further

comment that, at all three T, values, the model

bulb.

enced report, are reproduced here in Fig. 52. E.

D. W. Taylor shows the wave profiles for two

models at various speed-length quotients

Wave

[S

and

with the largest bulb had the highest bow-wave

P, 1943, Figs. 21-25, p. 24].

This feature likewise remains unexplained.

STG paper on tests
of models in shallow and restricted waters,
referenced in Sec. 61.3, gives in Figs. 13a and 13b
the wave profiles alongside models of a heavy

traced on the body plans of two series of models

crest!

0. Schlichting, in his 1934

cruiser

and a

\videly varying midsection coeflRcients in

26-35 on page 25 of the reference. This set
of body plans is reproduced as Fig. 52. Q in Sec.
\vith

Figs.

52.7 of the present chapter.

G. do Verdi6rc and

light cruiser, respectively, for values

Wave

V
Fia. S2.E

Obbeiivko

Wavk

1'iiorii.Eu

profiles are also

Rrofile for Tq-

204,

J.

Gauticr give a series of

F-0359

Water Surtace at Re^t

on Uomk Munr.L Bakin Moiiei,

C.:^05

FLOW PATTERNS AROUND

Sec. 52. 4

wave

determined from tests of four

models of ships having waterline lengths L of
from 459.3 ft to 448.2 ft [ATMA, 1948, p. 490].
The ordinates are in meters for the full-scale ships
and the abscissas in 0-diml length ratios x/L,
with Sta.
at the AP and Sta. 20 at the FP.
The profiles in diagram a of Fig. 8 on page 490
of the reference are plotted with respect to the
undisturbed water surface at infinity. Those in
diagram b are plotted with respect to the at-rest
ship waterplane, so that they differ by the amounts
of the sinkage at each station. The T^ values for
these plots range from 0.747 for the short ship to
0.756 for the long ship; corresponding F values
profiles as

mate

Wave

profiles are

shown

for the ten tanker

wave

Six sets of

profiles for

two

self-propelled

models, showing the changes in profile over a

wide range of speed, are given by S. A. Harvald

in SSPA Report 13, published in 1949, entitled
"Medstr0mskoefficientens Afhaengighed af Rorform, Trim og Haekb0lge (The Dependence of
Wake Fraction on Shape of Rudder, Trim, and
Stern Wave)." The profiles appear on pages 13,
14, 34, 35, 36, and 40. On the last-named page
there is a set of profiles for the model running
astern. On pages 56-60 there is a summary in
English.

Wave

profiles

at three speeds for seventeen

models of coasters are given by A. 0. Warholm in

SSPA Report 24, published in 1953, entitled
"Nagra Systematiska Forsok med Modeller av
Mindre Kustfartyg (Systematic Tests with Models
of Coasters)." The profiles, apparently taken
during resistance (and not self-propelled) tests,
are printed on pages 85-90. On pages 48-50 there
is

summary

in English.

wave

of

two

locations.

114, 115,

and

Examples

of these are sheets

144.

Wave

Volume

effects. Fig.

I,

interferences

and

their effects along

Lack

(1)

the

of information as to the variation of

level along the ship of the crests

and trough of

the Bernoulli contour system, described in Sec.

This

10.3.

undoubtedly a function of the^

and it may also be a

is

surface-waterline shape

function of the section-area curve.

Lack

of a precise determination of the effect

of the presence of the ship entrance abaft a point-

pressure disturbance such as a stem

Inadequate knowledge as

(3)

to

the effect of

an

variations in the waterline slopes in such

entrance, discussed briefly in Sec. 10.6 on page

174 of Volume I and in Sec. 48.2

Uncertainty as to the amount of crest lag

in the Velox wave systems

(4)

(and trough lag)

generated by pressure disturbances abaft the

bow

Uncertainty as to the factors determining

the fore-and-aft position .and shape of a sternwave crest on an actual ship, in the presence of a
separation zone, of boundary layers, and of water
coming up from under the ship
(5)

Lack

(6)

of

knowledge as to the lengths of actual

waves for a given celerity, when

(or trochoidal)

occurring abreast a ship instead of in the open,

unobstructed sea.
In the absence of these data

down

their

it is difficult

to

wave interferences and

a moving ship. If the

specific rules for

effects

individual

alongside

profiles

could

be

positioned longitudinally, there

to believe that in
effects

General Rules for

profile,

waterline of a ship of normal form are:

set

Provision is made, on SNAME RD sheets

having numbers in excess of 100, to depict the
wave profiles at designed speed in either or both

wave

resultant

adapted from W. C. S. Wigley,

does this for a 2-diml ship having a parallel
middlebody and triangular ends. Many barges
have nearly square-cornered rectangular waterlines but on most ships the pressure disturbances
are regions rather than points. This renders it
extremely difficult to predict the shape and foreand-aft position of the wave form generated by
each such disturbance.
Several further complications in working out
lO.F in

(2)

plan of the ship in question.

243
the

taking account of wave-interference

are 0.222 and 0.225.

models reported upon by R. B. Couch and M.

St. Denis [SNAME, 1948, Figs. 2(a)-10(a), pp.
360-378]. A single wave profile is reproduced by
W. P. A. van Lammeren in RPSS, 1948, Fig, 38,
on page 88, for a T, of 0.64, without the body

SHIPS

analytically

determined and
is every reason

most cases the interference

could be determined by simple super-

Interference

position of the heights of the transverse waves in

Alongside a Ship. For a ship form having abrupt

and localized changes in waterline curvature,

each system at any selected station.

K. S. M. Davidson gives a few diagrams [PNA,

52.4

resulting in

what may be considered

pressure disturbances,

it is

as point-

possible to appro.xi-

1939, Vol. II, pp. 66-67] in which this superposition

is

indicated, in addition to the schematic

HYDRODYNAMICS

:n
tli:iRrain.s in

10 of

W.

Figs. lO.C;,

10..I,

\olume I.
P. A. van I^mmorcn,

uiul 10.

of C'liap.

ships,

ami

J.

G.

somewhat difTerent

lines

wave

profile,

in Fig. 52. F.

3.

This extreme variation

32

outlined in Sec. 52. (i, recjuires in

26

an estimate of the heights and

bow-wave and stern-wave crests. There is
an appreciat>le space lag in the bow-wave crest
positions

azo

6r

Prediction of the surface-

particular

models,

tiieir

is

undoubtedly

[RPSS,

Bow-Wave and Stem-Wave

Heights and Positions.

on

profiles ob.servcd

40

Estimate of

52.5

Sec.

Eq. (52. i), as indicated

varies from 0.3 to nearly 3.0, indicate*! graphically

1918, pp. 54-')ol.

52.5

DFSICN
for the 0-dinil

/>-,r

by the wave
L. Troost,

Koniiig discuss the features and effects of wave

interference along

IN SHIP

ojso

ZHflST

5 2"

of the

on page ISO of Volume I, especially if the speed

is high. This lag is particularly noticeable in
Fig. 52.B of Sec. 52.2 and in Figs. 52.1 and 52.J

Dst. Tender

MSXA,

18 of

^"-Ln_

Cruiser

18G5,

that the bow-wave crest lags back to a

point abreast midships.

He explains

this feature in

page G3G. A situation

reproduced in the familiar
photograph of Parsons' Turbinia at full speed
Vol.

1.0

Graph for

Fig. 52.F

is

(SNAME, HT, 1943, p. 439].

An empirical formula for

estimating

"good

average values" of the height of the bow-wave

crest is given by J. L. Kent [NECI, 1949-1950,
435]. This is in the dimensional
k{B/LE)V', where h, B, and Lg are in
ft, V is in kt, and Jc = 0.083. It resembles a formula
given by Laubcuf many years ago [ATMA, 1897,

66,

form h

p.

p. 211].

Kent's

/:-value

is

ships," derived from

for

wave

"ordinary
jjrofiles

merchant

observed when

towing a number of ship models at the XPL,

Teddington. Presumably it appHes to ships without bulb bows. Furtiiermore, it takes no account
of angle of entrance at the stem, hollowness or
fullness in the entrance wnterlines, flare of
sectioiKS,

feature

16

1.4

1.2

Estimati.n'o

20

i.a

Bow-Wave Crest

Height
The spot

.ipplying to each vessel

designed speed of

is

for the

ealeulutcti

tiiat vessel

of the reference,

almost exactly similar

Vol.

t,-vm:
0.6

Vol. II, Fig. 31, shows a ves.sol being driven so

fast

''""feS^^I

08

0.6

Scott Russell, in Plate

*v

DeslroYer

of Sec. 52.6.
J.

Seoplane lender

\\,

position al)aft the stem, described in Sec. 10.15

rake of the stem

which

bow-wave

bow

any other
augment the

profile, or of

might reduce or

crest height. Preliminary plots indicate

that the value of

/;

varies rather widelj', from

due to the fact that the ratio Bx/Le does not take
adequate account of the WL slopes at and just
abaft the stem.

Transformed into a dimensionally consistent

equality for any units of measurement, Kent's
formula becomes, for the height h of the bowwave creat above the at-rest WL:

projection of the crest on the centerplane farther

forward, toward the stem.

The models on which pressure distributions

2861 and
were observed by E. F. Eggert,
3383 [SNAINIE, 1935, pp. 129-150; 1939, pp.

EMH

303-330],

fcjrni

of displacenicnl-lyije

bow-wave

sliow

crests

considerably

higher than those given by either formula, in the

T, range of 0.76 through

the

bow-wave

1.2.

crest heights

On

the other hand,

measureil on two

narrow models by W. C. S. Wigley, in the same

speed range, are lower than the fonnida values
[NECI, 1930-1931, Vol. 47, pp. 153-196; INA,
1935, Fig. 6, PI. XXVI]. It is po.s.sil)le that on

some towed models it is difficult to tell where the

wave profile ends and the spray root begins; also
that factors additional to those in the formulas
affect this

phenomenon. For either or both of these

and the Air-curvc of Fig. 52.

regions E(|. (52. i)

arc consiiiercd

lus

preliminary only.

The estimated bow-wave

ABC

crest height for the

ship of Part 4 at 20.5 kt (34.62

ft

per sec),

using a h,r of 1.385 from Fig. 52.F and employing

Eq.

For the range of

large waterline slope not only

behind the stem, but the large slope throws the

tlie

order of 0.015 to 0.13 or more.

produces a high value of pressure coefficient close

,
''

(52.i), is

(l^A ^"

'"\J 2y

'

oor

73(l,198.r>)

^^'(2ii2T5J647rrs

_-

,-f,
f'
'

'

'

Sec.

FLOW PATTERNS AROUND

52 J

It appears proper that this height be measured

from the undisturbed water level rather than
of the ship, as might be
from the at-rest

WL

painted on

its hull,

bow due

because of the drop (or

rise)

the calculated h the value of this drop for the

0.7, is 17.85

ABC

2.35

ship,

as

ft,

measured during the

model resistance test, and allowing for the lag

in the bow-wave crest, to be determined presently,
gives a value of 9.47 ft for the bow-wave crest
height, measured above the 26-ft DWL. The full
details of this calculation are given in Sec. 66.28.

Based upon observations

of

EMB

model 2861

E. F. Eggert evolved a rule for estimating the

bow-wave

crest lag, defined as the fore-and-aft

distance of that crest abaft the intersection of the

stem and the

at-rest

WL, when

projected on the

[EMB Rep. 392, Nov 1934,

The +Ap peak may not always lie exactly
centerplane

intersection just mentioned, but

it is

p.

1].

at the

/*"

For the

ABC

ship at

works

out as 0.372(34.62)732.174 = 13.86 ft. From

Fig. 52. G the value of the crest lag for a T of
0.908

to the

245

number

20.5 kt, or 34.62 ft per sec, this crest lag

combined effects of the

Bernoulli contour system and the Velox wave
system at the ship speed in question. Adding to
of the

SHIPS

T and Froude

0.0272L.z,

is

TMB

The value observed on

model 4505 of the ABC ship and indicated on

Fig. 66. R, where the crest occurs at about Sta.
ftor0.035L;pi

Model data

from
which the graph of Fig. 52. G was derived, show
rather wide variations from the value predicted
by Eq. (52. ii) in some cases and exact agreement
in others. Thus this equation and the broken-line
curve of Fig. 52. G are both to be considered as
for a variety of ship forms,

preliminary.
S.

"Wake

A. Harvald, in his

Merchant

of

Ships" [Danish Tech. Press, 1950, pp. 81-84],

gives a diagram by which the stem-wave height

may

be estimated, as a means of predicting the

amount
Fig.

of

52. H,

wave wake

in

any particular

case.

adapted from Harvald's Fig. 41 on

near enough

for all practical purposes. Eggert's formula, in

dimensional form, says that the crest

distance x

lies

at a

0.033 F^ abaft this intersection,

where the x-distance

is

in ft

and

is

0.05

in kt. In

h = Stern-Wave Crest Height

Ly/ "= Lenqth of Trochoidal Wave of

0-diml form this becomes, for the distance abaft

WL at rest.

the stem at the

X
This equation

is

0.372

0.04

7'

(52.ii)

plotted in Fig. 52.

to give

=
-

?
s\^
0.03
o

\\^ \^
\\

\\\

L ^l on a basis of both Taylor quotient

,

\ \

\\ \

W\\\ W
\

values of the crest lag x in fractions of the waterline length

Velocitv^

\\\
s

\\

0.02\ \

\>

.\ \ \ \
-n-V^

N^O.14

0.01

0.1

-r-

0.5
Fig. 52.H

0.7

\Q.I6

Crest Lag-

\
\0.20

0.9

1.3

Graphs for Estimating Stern-Wave

Crest Height

page 83 of the reference cited, indicates the

parameters employed, B/L, h/Lw and T, Harvald admits that a number of apparently import,

ant factors are not taken account of in his diagram

but, like the other diagrams of this section, it

something better is developed.

ship, or one of its proportions,
B = 73 ft and L = 510 ft, whence B/L = 0.143.
At a Tj of 0.908, Harvald's diagram gives a value

will serve until

0.6

Fig. 52.

0.8

I.Z

1.0

G Graph

1.4

1.6

1.6

2.0

for Estimating Bow-Wave Crest

Lag Abaft Stem

For the

ABC

UVDKODVNAMK.s

:i6

for

h/L,

Lw

length

of about 0.0195.

From Table

If this

water
1.57 ft

O.OI95/.,r

0.0195(231.3)

1.57

analysis of systematic dala. This applies not only

ft.

to elevations in the wave profile but to the exact

speeds corresponding to the profiles, and to the
shapes and proportions of the ships making the

reckoned above the undisturbed

the height above the 20-ft
is

height
level,

is

DWL

plus the sinkage (about 0.75

ft),

Src. 52.6

There Is a definite lack of accurate, comprehensive,

and rcliiible information in Sees. 52.2 and 52.3,
and in the literature in general, upon which to
develop a wave-profile prediction method by the

48.d the

of a Irochokirtl wiivo having a velocity

equal to Uie ship speotl of 20.5 kt is 231.3 ft.

Then, for the estimated height of the stern wave,
h

IN Mill' DllSlCN

or 5.32

waves. Nevertheless,

ft.

Although Ilarvald's data arc not intcndcfi to

it

is

possible to sketch

approximation of the surface-wave

an
a

profile for

take care of Iraiisoni-slcrn ships, the hciglit of

tlic

ship design by using the empirical data of Sees.

obsrved stern-wave crest just forward

the

52.2 and 52.3, plus some additional experimental

data relative to the number of wave lengths to be
expected between the bow-wave crest and the

of

TMB

transom, as measured from the profiles on

model 4505, reproduced in Fig. 66.11, is about
4.1 ft. reckoned above the 2(>-ft DWL.
52.6

stern.

The

Prediction of the Surface-Wave Profile.

19

10

17

Fio. 62.1

16

15

Wavb

14

IS

Profiles for

12

II

10

TMB Sbrieb 67,

latter

data are based preferablj' upon the

Modbi, 4200W, at VARioita Spbeds

FLOW PATTERNS AROUND

Sec. 52.6

SHIPS

speed-length or Taylor quotient T or the Froude

fall

known that, in general, when

wave of the Velox system
generated by the bow coincides with the first
wave crest of the stern Velox system, there is a

edge of Fig. 66.A.

drop in total resistance. When a trough of the

bow system coincides with a crest at the stern,
there is a rise in resistance. When these effects
are plotted on a base of speed-length quotient
T, or F the humps and hollows in the curve of
total (or wavemaking) resistance are found to

in

number F

It is

the crest of a transverse

247

in the positions indicated along the lower

known,

It is also

normal form,

for ships of

that certain T, values correspond to ship lengths

that are multiples of the transverse-wave lengths

whole numbers. Roughly:

(1)

For T,

(2)

For r,

= 0.63, the ship is 4 wave lengths long

= 0.72 to 0.73, the ship is 3 wave

lengths long

AP

19

16

17

Fig. 52. J

16

Wave

15

14

13

Profiles for

la

TMB

II

For r,

(3)

10

Series

57,

0.88, the ship

is

2 wave lengths long

Model 4202W-1, at Various Speeds

FP

lIYDROnVNAMHs

218
(4) Ft>r

length

7',

l.l.'>.

sliip

till'

combatant
yachts at

By

vessels
full

the

resistance

and

about

is

some

loiiR. Tliis is tlic ciusc for

sailing

or designed speed.

same reasoning, the humps

curves occur when

the

in

ship

tlic

Icnglli

corresponds approximately to half-lengths of the

transverse
(5)

wave system. Again roughly:

0.1)7,

the ship

is

3J

wave lengths

For T,

0.80, the ship

is

L'l

wave lengths

wave

and procedures

rules

along a

profile

shij) of

for

''2.7

predicting

normal form,

in

the usual range of speeds, are described in Sec.

00.28, using the .VHCsiiij) of Part 4 as the example.
52.7 Typical Lines-of-Flow Diagrams for Ship
Models. Thanks to the work of D. W. Taylor
and his as,sociates at the Experimental Model
Basin at Washington in the period 1900-1910

mmiber

These are body plans

of lines-of-flow diagrams.

upon which the projected

long
(6)

the

Src.

there appears in the technical literature a

7',

For

SHIP DllSIC.N

Cicneral

\v:i\c

large, fast

most tugs ami

for

IN

flowline positions are

long
(7)

For T, =

D.'.i'.i

tu

IdJ,

il,(.

ship

is

\\

\v;iv('

length long
(8)

For T,

1.5 to 1.7, the ship is

about

length long. For most destroyers at

nmning at a T, of about 2.00, the ship

what less than half a wave length long.
The values given

wave

full
is

speed,

some-

in the foregoing are drrucii

from preliminary examination of published :uul

available wave profiles, without a careful study
of the effects of bow-wave crest lag. For this

wave profile shown broadside, for the

model or ship length, is much more ii.seful
and valuable than a wave profile shown in its
projected position on a body plan. When there
is a parallel watcrline portion of considerable
length, the po.sitions of the crests and troughs
abreast it are not readily apparent in an end
purpose, a
full

view of the

Fig.

52.Ka

Lines of Flow for Old Cruiseu

Wove

Model

Profiles-

hull.

and 52.J show the wave profiles for

quotients on each of two
models of TMB Series 57, having block coefficients Cfl of O.GO and 0.70, respectively. The
body plans and other data for the.se models are
given by F. H. Todd and F. X. Forest [SNAME,
Figs. 52.1

five

speed-length

1951, pp. 042-G9I].

TABLE
Thn

55. Dolt
Via. 52.1vb

.'j2.a Sini'

hip lonRths and Hpocd.s, except

fr>r

Dwk

No.

Name

or type of vessel

.'J2.Ku

Sun Francixco

(old)

J^WL

ft

:iio.o

52.Kb

liaUimore (old)

;i27.5

52. Kc

Penaacola

52.L

Great Lakes ore steamer

570.0
540.0
460.0
04.0 J

62.

Collier

.'i2..Nu

Sotoyomo,

.'i2.Nb

Siiloyomo, hIow sfiecd

.VJ.O

Sliidlou'-drafl river Hti-iiiner

62.1'

KiM.-ciiil

full

typo

speed

willi

bulges

more (Old)

Model

fou Mudei.s with Observed Lines ok Flow

the Pensacola, are from D. \V. Taylor

[SNAME,

1907,

planH carrying the lines of flow.

Fig.

Lines OK FiAJw Fou Old Cruiser

91. 01

257.0
490.25

peed, kt

j).

\\,

us are

ttie

body

FLOW PATIERNS AROUND

Sec. 52.7

Tq= 1.345

SHIPS

249

HYDRODYNAMICS

250

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 52.8

duction, for ready reference, of one such diagram

previously pubhshed.

The Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental

Tank makes use of the wet-paint technique for
depicting flowlines around selected portions of
ship models

[SSPA Rep.

Shallow-Draft

Tq=l.ie
Fig. 52.0

Lines of

River Steamer

Flow fob Shallow-Draft Steamer

For the

32, 1954, Figs. 18

and

local areas covered

they
are excellent. A. F. Lindblad includes photographs of flowlines around the bulb bow of a
model made mth this technique [SSPA, Rep. 8,
19, pp. 26-27].

and 17, pp. 18-19]. Published with

a model body plan upon which a number

1948, Figs. 15

them

is

of flowlines are indicated.

In 1947 R. Brard and J. Bleuzen published

photographs of models in which flowlines were
determined during steering tests [ATM A, 1947,
Figs. 10, 11, 12, and 13, between pp. 332-335;
Transl. 248]. H. F. Nordstrom published
similar photographs of the flow near the bowpropeller position on an icebreaker model [SSPA,
Rep. 20, 1952].

TMB

Tq

=0.855

Speciol Ship Type

Fig. 52. P

Lines of Flow for Ship with Under-

water Bulges

drawn.

considerable

represented

[SNAME,

number

of ship types are

1907, pp. 1-12, Plates 1-7].

Figs. 52.K through 52. Q are adapted from the

diagrams in the reference cited, with the proper
r, values shown on each. Table 52.a gives the
information presently available on the ships
represented by seven models of this group.
In 1910 Taylor published the hnes-of-flow
diagrams for two model series, one apparently for
a battleship and the other for a light cruiser of
that day, in which the maximum-section coefficient Cx was varied from 0.70 through 1.10 for
each group of five [S and P, 1943, Figs. 26-35,
p. 25]. Fig. 52. Q is adapted from the Taylor
reference by adding the principal hull parameters

and

coefficients, as well as the speed-length ratios.

Despite the major differences in form between

the two parent models the flow patterns are

remarkably similar.
Since 1910 a great many flow tests have been
run on ship models at the Experimental Model
Basin and the David Taylor Model Basin but
unfortunately only a few of the lines-of-flow
diagrams have been published in unclassified
EMB and TMB reports and the technical
hterature. Figs. 52.R and 52. S are copied from
two unpublished diagrams. Fig. 52.T is a repro-

In his book "Marine Propulsion Devices,"

pubhshed at Leningrad and Moscow in 1949,
V. M. Lavrent'ev shows body plans on pages 65
and 66 with fines of flow drawn over them.
A multitude of photographs have hkewise
been made of EMB and TMB models with the
flow traces marked on them, but only a few
are available for study by marine architects
[SNAME, 1947, Fig. 9 on p. 104; Figs. 25, 26,
and 27 on pp. 116-117]. Lines-of-flow traces for
a few selected locations appear on SNAME RD
sheets 114 and 115. It is hoped that, in the future,
these can be shown on all such sheets when the

data are available.

Fig.

52.U gives a rather comprehensive flow

pattern for the transom-stern

worked out

Chap.

in

ABC

66. Figs. 78.

C and

ship
78.

huU

D are

photographs of the model showing the nature

some of the flow traces.

Model Surface-Flow Diagrams. The method of analyzing photographs
and diagrams of flow fines and flow patterns
taken directly on the surface of a model depends
upon the technique employed in tracing the flow.
and positions
52.8

of

Analysis of

Wet-paint streaks are usually short but

if

the

paint fines are closely spaced in a fore-and-aft

direction they

may

be combined

fike the short

vectors that form path fines, described in Sec.

1.4 of

Volume

I.

The

traces left

ejected from orifices in the hull are

by chemicals

much

longer,

sometimes half the length of the model. They

may be assumed to give a better representation

FLOW PATTERNS AROUND

Sec. 52.S

SHIPS

C0QIQI_\3

"

55.8 for

oil

Models
Group

of this

/qoiol)^"

1674- for

oil

Models

of this

Group

Cx

Cx
1^0.894.

90

Tc[? I.34E,

0.90

Fn= 0.396 for this Group

Fn- 0.266 for

this

Group

Cx
-^

Fig. 52.Q

1-00

2.9^ and Cp = 0.56 for all

Ten Models

Vawation of Flow Pattern with Maximum-Section Coefficient Cx

HYDRODYNAMICS

252

IN SHIP DESIGN
linos of flow are

Sec. 52.S

reproduced on pages 6 and 7 of

this report.

Several flowhnes are hkely to come together as

they approach the surface, usually between the
after quarterpoint and the stern. A case in point
that of the flow along hues E arfd F on TMB
model 3898, representing the twin-skeg Manhattan
is

design,

depicted in Fig. 52.T

[SNAME,

1947,

and Fig. 26 on p. 117]. Here,

at Sta. 18.5, the two lines of flow not only join
but appear to be about ready to project themselves
up through the water surface, just above the
junction point. Apparently the two large-size
stream tubes along E and F change shape rapidly
between Stas. 16, 17, and 18.5, so that opposite
the latter point they are both very thin in a
girth wise direction and very thick in a direction
normal to the hull. The junction point is apparFig. 24 on p. 116

ently close to the separation point at that girth-

wise position, so that abaft Sta. 18.5 the stream

tubes in question have gone

The

following

is

Report 535, referenced

"A

off

and

left

the hull.

copied from page 7 of

TMB

earlier in the section:

careful study of the streamlines

on the model

will

afford a fund of information not only as to the direction of

but concerning the nature of the flow. A long, narrow

high velocity; a short, wide and smeary line
indicates low velocity; a sudden breaking off of the line
separation
from the surface of the model; and
indicates
an irregular line or an area with diagonal tails indicates
eddying along the model."

flow,

Fig. 52.R

Lines op

Flow for Run op Model op

line indicates

S. S. Clairton

of the surface flow.

The

details of the chemical

methods, some representative

results,

and

in-

The orthodox

structions for interpreting the traces are described

by

May

Hutchinson in

F.

J.

1944, entitled

TMB

Report 535, of

"The Delineation

of Surface

very mdirectly the dii-ection taken by the water

aft under a ship model, especially

Wave Profiles at the David when flowing

Model Basin." Two body plans showing if the bottom

Lines of Flow and

Taylor
TMB

Model 3594

Fig. 52.S

5NAME RD Sheet 98

Lines op

\-0858

F-0255

Flow for TMB Model

lines-of-flow diagrams, such as

those in Figs. 52.R, 52.T, and 52.U, show only

3594,

is flat.

Bow-Wqve Crest

Fig. 52.

at 5ta. 0.9. -o-

is

a fish-eye view,

0.045 L Abotl FP

Representing Minelayer U.

S. S. Terror

FLOW PATTERNS AROUND

Sec. 52.8

Lines of Flow of

Fig. 52.T

TMB

Model

389S,

253

Representing Twin-Skbg Manhattan

'^b c

greatly contracted longitudinally, of the flowlines

SHIPS

tmb

Tronsom-stern Design

Model

4505

Tc^-ogoa

under TMB model 3898, representing the twinskeg Manhattan design developed by the U. S.
Maritime Commission [SNAME, 1947, pp. 112125].

The

projection

is

made upward on

^^'

the plane

of the designed waterline; all flowlines are

shown

on the same side of the centerplane. Three

photographs are available showing the original
lines of flow

25 on

The

on the model

[SNAME,

1947, Fig.

116 and Figs. 26 and 27 on p. 118].

transverse spreading of the flow shown by

p.

~^Desi(^ned

on Plane

Fig. 52.U

Parallel

Flow Around Model of

ABC

Ship

Projected Upward

Waterline

to Boseplane
'

Lines of

Transom-Stern

Lettered Lines of Flow

Are Projected Upward

in

Similar

Fashion

Contracted Lonqitudinallu

7
Fig. 52.V

The

transverse scale here

is

Fish-Eye View of Lines of Flow Under Bottom of

TMB

Model

4,57 Times

3898

4.57 times the longitudinal scale, to permit showing the flowlines to better advantage

HYDRODYNAMICS

254

and C, and by the forward portions

of traces L and M, is typical of the flow under
models in general. It is possible that it indicates a
traces A, B,

down in the next-to-the-huU water layers

because of the thickening of the boundary layer
under the hull. The increase in x-distance from
the stem is one cause of thickening; another is the
slowing

increase in width of the flat portion, with its

small (or zero) transverse curvature.

52.9 Observation and Interpretation of Off-

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 52.9

Tufts have the disadvantage of shortness, like

the streaks from a transverse line of wet paint.
However, there is no Umit to the number of them
that can be used over the surface of a ship model.

They

are extremely valuable as nature-of-flow

indicators,

streaming

straight

out

in

fast,

and waving gently or

lazily in a slow flow that is irregular and uncertain.
Off-the-surface vane and rigid-flag indicators
regular (or uniform) flow

require

little in

the

way

of interpretation since

the-Surface Flow Data on Models. It is customary in circulating-water channels and wind

they reveal velocity direction only. This is usually

sufficient when they are employed to determine a

tunnels to observe the nature and direction of the

body or ship surface by watching the

single

behavior of short strings or tufts of yarn. These

may be attached not only to the surface directly
but to slender pins projecting any required

ends of long, thin tubes, moved to any desired

position in the water around the model. Figs.
46.E and 46.F show ink trails along a model.
To permit subsequent study at leisure, after
completion of the test, flash photographs are
made of the tuft positions, like those reproduced
in Fig. 52.W, as well as in Figs. 36.F, 36.G, 46.D,
46.E, 46.F, 78.E, and 78.F. Similar still photographs have been made at the Experimental

flow over a

distance from the surface, indicated in Fig. 52. W.

may be used to represent

normal distances from the hull. Indeed,
the tufts may be attached to the ends of long, thin
wands, moved about by hand to the desired
Different tuft colors

different

positions.

Fig.

52.W

Une

of flow

such as a bilge-keel trace.

may be ejected from the

Colored inks and dyes

Fish-Eye View of Self-Propelied Model in Circulating- Water Channel, Showing Tufts Carried
BY Pins and Tufts on Model Surface

FLOW PATTERNS AROUND

Sec. 52.11

Towing Tank, Stevens

and published in:
(a)

(b)

W.

Institute of Technology,

"Underwater Photographs of
Flow Patterns," ETT, Stevens, Note 75, May 1948.
This includes some observations made from underneath a model during a turn.
Ashton, R., "An Underwater-Photographic Method
for Determining Flow Lines of Ship Models," ETT
Tech. Memo 101, Feb 1949.
Sutherland,

H.,

tests

SHIPS

ABC

on the

(c)

Baier, L. A., "Trouble-Shooting the

(d)

Mar. Eng'g., Sep 1955, p. 54

Baier, L. A., and Ormondroyd,

(e)

Martha E. Allen,"

the forebody, show that the tentative instructions

and study.
made by
H. C. Sadler, W. Hovgaard, D. W. Taylor, and
others, in the discussion and closure of D. W.
of Sec. 66.28 require further attention

In this connection the comments

M.

S., and Weaver, A. H., Jr., "Model Flow

Around Stern of U. S. Navy Fleet Tug
ATF-16S, TMB model 3531," TMB Rep. 810,
issued in Jan 1952. This report contains 10 photographs, showing both tuft positions and ink trails.

Harper,

Studies

If

the

flow

contains

eddies,

vortexes,

and

counter-currents, or otherwise varies with time,

motion-picture photographs are taken. However,

neither type of photographic record can compare
in vividness
tion.

and

reality with direct visual observa-

Fortunately, this can include study and

interpretation also

by continuing any given

set

"An Experimental

Investigation of

Stream Lines Around Ship Models" [SNAME,

1907, pp. 1-12], will be found most helpful.
52.11 Prediction of the Ship Flow Pattern at

The

the Bilges.

portion of the hull flow pattern

most immediate and practical

of the

that in

J., "Suppression of
Ship Vibration by Flow Control," Proc. Third
Midwestern Conf. on Fluid Mech., Univ. of Minn.,
Jun 1953, pp. 397-411

The

rather large variations between prediction and

observations revealed in Fig. 66. R, especially in

Taylor's paper

Other published flow-test photographs showing

tufts attached to the model surface and ink or dye
injected into the water through small tubes are
found in:

255
ship model were made.

way

in Sec. 17.2, in Chap. 33,

59.12.

interest is

of the propulsion devices, discussed

The next

and in

in importance

is

Sees. 52.16

that in

and

way

of

the bilge or roll-resisting keels, especially if these

keels extend beyond any parallel middlebody

may be worked into the hull.

In some quarters it is considered sufficiently
accurate to place the bilge-keel trace, as projected

that

on the body plan, along a

line bisecting the angle

at the bilge between the side and the bottom at

the section of maximum area. This neglects the
effect of

B/H

quarters

it is

ratio and similar factors. In other

assumed that the flow must certainly
follow the bilge diagonal, at least close enough for
all practical purposes. Both rules of thumb ignore

the effect of the surface-wave pattern as far

down

of test conditions in the circulating-water channel

as the bilge.

may be desired, or until the observer

understands what is going on.
References to the studies of various experimenters, relating to the off-the-surface flow on
models, are Usted in Sec. 52.12 and in Sec. 22.6
on page 311 of Volume I.
52.10 Estimating the Ship Flow Pattern on the

low T, values, the surfacesmall but for fast ships,

with medium or high T^ values, the prediction
must be based on knowledge of the flow to be
expected in this region. There is ample evidence

for as long as

Body

Plan.

It will

some day be considered

as

important, and as necessary, to estimate the flow

pattern around a newly shaped hull, in advance
of

model

tests, as it is to predict its resistance or

the effective (and shaft) power required to drive

it.

Based upon the physical aspects of flow around

a ship form, described in Chap. 4 of Volume I,
with emphasis on the flow around surface-ship
forms in Sees. 4.10 and 4.11, an attempt is made in
Sec. 66.28 to formulate a few preliminary instructions for guidance in predicting the flowline and
wave-profile positions. Following these instnictions,

a flow pattern

stern

ABC

in fact, it

is

sketched for the transom-

hull designed in Chaps. 66

was drawn out

and

67;

in ink before the flow

For slow

wave

effect

ships, with

probably

is

that for ships operating at T^ values in excess of

> 0.253 or 0.268, the crests and

troughs in the surface-wave system are reproduced
to a lesser degree at the bilge-keel level. The bilge0.85 or 0.90, F

shown by V. L.
Russo and E. K. Sullivan [SNAME, 1953, Fig. 18,
p. 127], determined by both the chemical method
and the vane or flag method, are excellent
examples of this situation. Unfortunately, the
keel traces of the Mariner class,

wave

profile (Fig. 12 of the reference) does not

appear on the same drawing as the bilge-keel
traces, so as to make the surface-wave effect

readily apparent.

For ships with a considerable extent

of parallel

side at the waterhne, the surface-wave profile

is

not outhned well enough on a body plan to permit

predicting its effect on a bilge-keel trace. The

HYDRODYNAMICS

256

wave

profile in side elevation should

be

IN SHIP DESIGN

prediction of flow in

way

of the bilge keels

(c)

should cover the light-load or ballast condition

as well as that for the designed load, using the
appropriate speed-length quotients in each case.

Almost certainly the traces wiU be

different,

unless the speeds are low, although the differ-

ences

may be

small.

A decision is

called for in the

design stage to determine which load and speed

condition is to be favored in positioning the bUge
keels on the ship.

52.12 Probable Flow at a Distance From the

Ship Sixrface. At normal or lateral distances
from the 3-dunl ship form greater than those

involved in placing the roll-resisting keels, available data for predicting flow conditions become
rather rare.

A few

sources giving data on tests of

ship models, which

may

or

may

TMB

In the present state of the art, the prediction of

conditions from available reference data
only, for an important part of a ship or an important region near the ship, is uncertain at the best.
flow

Rehance upon flow

concerned,

Laute, W., "Untersuchungen iiber Druck- und

Stromungsverlauf an einem Schiffsmodell (Investigations of Pressure and Flow on a Ship Model),"

STG,

TMB
(b)

1933, Vol. 34, pp. 402-460; English version in

Transl. 53, Mar 1939. See also Figs. 22.D

and 22.E in Sec. 22.8 of Volume I.

Lamble, J. H., "An Experimental Examination of the

Numbers at Sides Indicate ftisitions

Wave Profiles and Flow Traces at
Those Stotions

a model

is

definitely

Estimating the Change in Flow Pattern

Predicting the

52.13

for Light or Ballast Conditions.

flow pattern

when the
ballast

and wave

vessel

is

profile

for a ship design

assumed to be

hght or

in a

condition requires modifications of the

rules in Sec. 66.28. In the first place, the forefoot

usually well out of water, so that whether

away or is occupied by a
lines are by no means vertical
cut

are mentioned:
(a)

mth

tests

indicated.

is
is

Model

number VM298.H11.

not cover the

distances with which a ship designer

Ship's

Placed in a Turbulent Stream," IN A, 1934, pp.

136-143 and Pis. XV, XVI
Hamilton, W. S., "The Velocity Pattern Around a
Ship Model Fixed in Moving Water," Doctorate
Ubrary,
Diss., IIHR, Deo 1943. Available in

this purpose.

Sec. 52.12

Around a

Distribution of Velocity

used for

it is

bulb, the section

in that region. In

by

the second place, the free surface, disturbed

Velox waves, is much closer to the bottom of the

ship than at normal draft. The surface-wave
pattern may be expected, therefore, to have a
considerable influence on the flow pattern, at
least as far down as the flat floor under the ship.

Maritime Commission Design

U. S.

of

T2-SE-AI
Model 3867

TMB

FULL-LOAD CONDITION
Tq = 0.684

Trim, Zero

5
l.i.i

Fig. 52.Xa

Lines of Flow in Full-Load Condition foe U.

S.

10
I

20

15
I

Maritime Commission Design TS-SE-Al

FLOW PATTERNS AROUND

Sec. 52.14

SHIPS

Numbers ot Sides Indicate Positions of

Wove Profiles and Flow Traces at

257
U.S.

Maritime Commission Desii

T2-5E-AI

TMB

Model 3867
BALLAST CONDITION

Those Stations

Trim, IZft

Fig. 52. Xb

Lines of Flow in Ballast Condition for U.

With a broad, blunt bulb as a waterline beginbow-wave crest may be

ning, at light draft, the

surprisingly high, although the upper portion of

the crest
of a

bow

is

more apparent than

real, in

the form

S.

b\j

theStern

Maritime Commission Design T2-SE-A1

on the basis of empirical data, the fund of informmust be greatly expanded. It now comprises the references listed
ation presently available

in Sec. 52.12 plus the following:

feather.

Whether the sections at the forward end of the

entrance are sharply flared outward or are of the
bulb type, the Bowlines will undoubtedly curve
and pass under the ship very close abaft the stem.
This means, for one thing, that air entrained in

(1)

Eggert,

E.

SNAME,
(2)

Eggert,

E.

ments,"
(3)

F.,

"Form Resistance Experiments,"

1935, pp. 139-150

F.,

"Further

SNAME,

Form

Resistance Experi-

1939, pp. 303-330

Yokota, S., Yamamoto, T., Shigemitsu,

Togino, S. see Sec. 52.3 for the complete
;

the bow-wave crest may be expected to flow

along under the bottom at transverse distances
rather close to the centerhne.

52.Xa and 52.Xb indicate the differences

in wave profile and flow pattern found on two
model tests of a tanker. In the light condition the

(4)

than half the full-load displacement, and the trim by the stern is very large.
52.14

is less

Predicting Velocity and Pressure Dis-

tribution Aroiuid Ship Forms.

If

the magnitudes,

and distribution of velocity and pressure

by the methods discussed in
Chap. 50, this prediction will be for a hull form
which has the shape of the physical ship plus the
displacement thickness of the boundary layer, as

Vol. 55; English translation available in Research

(5)

Y.,

Fig. 52.Y is a reproduction of one of the afterbody plans of EMB model 3383 from (2) preceding

[SNAME,

are to be calculated

isobars for a multitude of

nearly as the latter can be determined. If the

and pressure factors are to be predicted

of Ships, U. S.

"Experimental Investigations on the

Resistance of Long Planks and Ships," See. Nav.
Arch., Japan, 1934.

Hiraga,

direction,

velocity

and

Izubuchi, T., full-scale experiments on the Japanese

destroyer Yudachi, Zosen Kiokai, December 1934,

and Development Division, Bureau

Navy Department

Figs.

displacement

A.,

listing

1939, Fig. 30 on p. 314]. It carries the

Ap

values, as indicated

in the diagram.

A comprehensive measurement of pressure

around the surface of a ship or model is a prodigious undertaking, yet anything less than
comprehensive is not worth the effort, from the

HYDRODYNAMICS

258

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 52.15

the flow directions are desired

is

always of the

and bulk,
must be taken into

thin-plate variety. Its position, shape,

as affecting the flow,

all

account.

52.16

Estimated Flow at Propulsion-Device

Extended discussion

Positions.

of the flow to the

propulsion-device positions, amounting almost to

(it appears in Sec. 17.2, in Chap. 33,
and in Sees. 59.12 and 60.7), is considered justified
in view of the importance of this feature and the

duplication

insufficient

attention

quarters in the past.

it

many

has received in

However, the extensive

model-basin instrumentation

now available

(1955)

inadequate to give the ship and the propulsion-device designers all the advance informais still

tion they should

have

The huU-surface

in the design stage.

traces of the flow just

of a propeller position, particularly those

ahead
on a

centerline skeg in front of a single screw, are

usually good indicators of the type of inflow into

the wheel positions close to the centerplane. For

Pressure Distribution on Afterbody op

Model 3383 at a Speed of 3.8 kt, T, = 0.844

Fig. 52.Y

EMB

The numerals on the

isobars indicate differential pressures

same mass density

which the model was towed

in inches of water of the

as that in

standpoint either of hydrodynamic research or of

ship design.

52.15

Use

of

Flow Diagrams

The comments

Appendages.

for Positioning

of Sec. 52.12 apply

generally to the proper positioning of appendages

such as bossings, shaft struts, small skegs, and

rudders, as well as to the outer portions of rollresisting keels.

Special model-basin techniques are available to

determine

the

proper strut-section angles for

shaft struts. Since the variation from straight-

ahead positioning of these parts seldom exceeds

7 or 8 deg, and almost never is greater than 10
deg, a prediction without model-test confirmation
would have to be extremely precise, relative to

example, in Fig. 52. R it appears that the flow

just ahead of the single propeller, at least into the
11 o'clock to

o'clock

and 5

o'clock to 7 o'clock

may

be expected to have only a slight

upward component of velocity. For each offset
propeller position of Fig. 52.T, it is expected that
the flow outboard of the skeg ahead will have a
small upward component but that inboard of the
skeg it will have a large one.
Nevertheless, in the absence of any proved
general rules for interpreting them, it can not be
said that the surface traces are completely
reliable indicators in this respect. Before an
acceptable procedure for estimating the flow at
propdev positions can be formulated, it will be
necessary to make, and to analyze, companion
off-the-surface flow traces such as those described
and illustrated in Sec. 52.9 and 3-diml wakesurvey diagrams of the type diagrammed in
Sec. 60.6. Until that time the surest and most
positions,

reliable prediction

method

is

actually to observe

present (1955) standards.

the flow in the vicinity of the propulsion device (s)

When rudders (and diving planes) are of the

spade or horn-supported type they are necessarily

on a model of the vessel in a circulating-water

channel. If the propdev characteristics are approximately known, a stock model of the device can be
added to the ship model and observations made
under thrust-producing conditions. In most
cases these tests can be made and this study
completed at a sufficiently early stage in the
design to permit changing the hull or appendages
(or both), to correct or to improve the flow.

rather thick to achieve strength and rigidity.

Extended observation of flow around model

appendages in the circulating-water channel
indicates that their presence affects the flow to

considerable distances on either side.

trail in Fig.

not

46.E shows

adequate,

The ink

this feature clearly. It is

therefore,

when making

predictions, to suppose that the object for

flow

which

situation

somewhat out

of the ordinary is

FLOW PATTERNS AROUND

Sec. 52.1S

on

encountered

not-too-large

certain

vessels

SHIPS

259

To

determine a systematic wake-fraction

variation with radius if one exists, and to embody
(3)

where a relatively high power is delivered to a

single screw propeller on a vessel having a small

it,

displacement-length

propeller (or selection of such a propeller from

quotient

or

fatness

ratio

V/{0.10LY and a large keel drag. Examples are

and bay passenger steamers, tugs, trawlers,
and whale catchers. Because of the projection of
the propeller below what might be called the
main body of the hull it could be expected that
the flow would have only a small degree of nonaxiality. However, a considerable dechvity in the
shaft, downward and aft, is sometimes necessary
to accommodate the machinery position inside
river

desired, in the design of a

if

wake-adapted

stock)
(4)

To

an early stage

ascertain, at

in the design,

the liabiUty and the magnitude of objectionable

variations in thrust and torque, per blade

per wheel, for

all

This latter feature

tion.

and

angular positions in one revoluis

discussed further in

Sec. 59.17.
It is

assumed, in the foregoing, that the advance-

velocity vectors for the proposed propeller-disc

the hull.

and are determined

by the method described and illustrated in Sees.
11.6 and 11.7 and Figs. ll.E and ll.F of Volume I.
This method is, by the instrumentation such as
unaffected by the presence of the hull, lying
that currently (1955) in use at the David Taylor
mostly at an upper level. The present trend (in
Model Basin [Janes, C. E., "Instruments and
the 1950's) of eliminating the rudder shoe and
Methods for Measuring the Flow of Water
cutting away the aftfoot on vessels of this typQ,
Around Ships and Models," TMB Rep. 487,
means that the flow to the lower blades is almost
Mar 1948], somewhat artificial. For example, the
entirely free of hull influence. Although uniform
additional velocity induced by the action of the
and regular, it may be expected to have little or
propeller when it exerts thrust is not represented,
no positive wake velocity unless the vessel
on single-screw ships,
much of the water moving toward the blades of
the propeller, in their lower positions, will be
It is to be expected that,

"pulls" a large stern-wave crest above

nor

tabulated,

it is still

necessary to analyze graphic,

and other records from flow-indicating

devices at screw-propeller positions to determine

the principal characteristics of the flow. Simply

making a flow record does not

nature of the flow

whether the
acceptable or not. In fact,

is

observed

flow

at

screw-propeller

position,

suitable instrumentation on

a model, before the model

by

upon the water flowing into the propeller

However, a wake determination of this
kind is most revealing, and many features of the
propeller action can be predicted from a careful

jet acting

position.

study of

it.

Instructions for conducting such a

study, and for determining quantitative values

from

are found in Sees. 60.6, 60.7,

it,

Flow Abaft a Screw

52.18

and

60.8.

Propeller.

The

tell

there are at least four reasons for analyzing the

when determined by

the straightening effect of the propeller

is

it.

52.17 Analysis of the Observed Flow at a

Screw-Propeller Position. Although not a part
of the estimating or predicting procedure, strictly
speaking,

position are 3-diml in nature

is fitted

with or driven

model propeller (s). The record in this case

is assumed to be a 3-diml wake-survey diagram
similar to Figs. 11. F and 60.D:

water in the outflow jet of a screw propeller

producing thrust is known to be contracting at
the point where it leaves the propeller disc,
illustrated by Fig. 16.E in Sec. 16.6 of Volume I.
It is known to be increasing in velocity at that
point,

its

and there are rotational or tangential

components in it, additional to the
component of induced velocity. The brief

velocity
axial

discussion of Sec. 17.17 reveals that the screw-

To

determine, by visual inspection, whether

there are any longitudinal eddies passing through

propeller outflow

the disc, whether there are obvious differences

jet for

(1)

two or more points near each

whether there are obvious large

in flow direction at

and

other,

differences

components
(2)

To

wake

in

the

longitudinal

of flow for

or

transverse

two or more such points

estimate the probable magnitude of the

fraction for a screw propeller occupjdng a

disc region of given size (diameter)

and position

unusual among submerged

maintains its identity as a
propeller diameters astern of the
is

liquid jets in that

many

it

disc position.

The first quantitative observations on the

nature of the actual flow abaft a screw propeller,
in and around an outflow jet, appear to have
been made in about 1865 by Arthur Rigg of
Chester, England, in connection with his develop-

ment

of

the

first

contra-rudder

[Inst.

Engrs.

HYDRODYNAMICS

260

and Scot. Shipbldrs. Assoc,

Scot,

Vol. IX, pp. 52-64].

of

By

1865-1866,

suspending over the stern

a small sci'ew-propelled vessel a

flat

.ocu5 of

Centers of Lonqfd'l
Vortex

Propeller

?^^

'^"^f'

Sec. 52.18

For

stations.

three

conditions

(1)

The

vessel propelling itself only, at 144 rpm;

35 deg, 2.1 psi

(2)

Towdng a

45 deg,
(3)

large "flat," with cargo, at 160 rpm;

1.0 psi

WhUe moored

to a post at 136 rpm; 72.5 deg,

0.4 psi.

Other published data on the distinctive features

marine propellers have so
far not been discovered. Some unpublished data
from the tests of two model propellers at the
of the outflow jets of

0.61

D A baft

Fore-$n d-Aft Position of

^"'^ ^^'^'"

Disc Position

Lonqitudinal

Center of

^ Propelle-

of Propeller

Propeller

Equivalent to

0.28 V

True Velocity Vector

Lies at

an
.

-I

""
Fig. 52. Za

0.28
l.00-(-Q29)

Diagrams Indicating Components op Net Augmented Axial and Rotational Velocities in Outflow
Jet op Port Propeller on TMB Model 3613'

Transverse Vector Component;

are

Drawn

of V^

to Twice the Scale

and the Wake

Vectors

Wake Measurements
Available on

Starboard Side Only

Fig. 52.Zb

of

operation he recorded the following data:

swinging

vane with an indicator he measured "the aiigle

of the water driven off from the screw" with
reference to the centerplane. The vane was raised
and lowered to cover a range of positions from
0.285R to 0.8R below the axis. The data given
below are for a propeller radius of approximately
0.8R. By turning the vane in a direction normal
to the current at its axis and measuring the
moment on the vane Rigg was also able to obtain
a rough idea of the actual velocity at each of the

Estimated

IN SHIP DESIGN
measuring

Diagrams Indicating Axial and Rotational Components op Velocity in the Outflow Jet op
EMB Propeller 857, Running in Open Water

Sec. 52.19

FLOW PATIERNS AROUND

David Taylor Model Basin,

partially analyzed,

are presented in Figs. 52.Za and 52.Zb.

marizing these tests

Sum-

briefly:

I. A model of a destroyer, TMB 3613, was towed

and a 3-diml wake survey was made at the propeller-disc position. It was then self-propelled by
its own model propellers, TMB numbers 2170
and 2171. While self-propelled, at a simulated

ship

speed of 28.6

three additional

kt,

wake

surveys were made, at positions corresponding to

0.607, 2.075, and 3.543 propeller diameters abaft

The net axial and tangential

components of velocity (by vectorial subtraction),
due to the action of the propeller, as averaged
the disc position.

by vectors in the
several diagrams of Fig. 52.Za. The thrust-load
coefficient Ctl for the conditions given was 0.907.
for several radii, are indicated

Other pertinent data applying to this test are

added to the diagram.
II. A model propeller, EMB 857, of 9 inches
diameter, was mounted at the end of the long
shaft ahead of the propeller boat [Bu C and R
Bulletin 7, 1933, Fig. 5 on p. 24] and the assembly
run at a speed of advance of 3.26 kt. Wake
surveys were made at 1, 2, and 3 propeller diamabaft

eters

the

disc

position.

The

available

records do not indicate the thrust-load coefficient

was working but it was

apparently very high. The axial and tangential
components of velocity, due to the action of the
at which the propeller

for

several

radii,

are

indicated

by

vectors in the three diagrams of Fig. 52. Zb.

III.

series

model,

EMB

3424,

was towed and

a wake survey was made at the propeller-disc

was then self-propelled by its own

position. It
propeller,

EMB

model speed

1884. While self-propelled, at a

of 3.00 kt,

four additional

wake

surveys were made, at positions corresponding

and 24 propeller diameters abaft the

disc. These data are available at the David
Taylor Model Basin but have not been reproduced
to

1, 5,

15,

261

by noting the upward curve in the swirl core or hub

vortex trailing a screw propeller on a destroyer
model in the circulating-water channel.
It is difficult, because of the lack of observations

upper portions

in the

of the propeller outflow jet

abaft the stern of the destroyer model, to estimate

the limits and shape of the cone of diffusion
between the outflow jet and the surrounding
water. With a net augmented axial velocity in
the outflow jet which is roughly 20 to 25 per cent
greater than the ship speed, the cone of diffusion
is

rather thick. Its inner surface, as well as can be

determined,

is

of such slope that the jet core will

persist to a distance of 5 or 6 diameters abaft

the disc.

For the model mounted on the propeller boat,

the net augmented axial velocity in the outflow

about 55 per cent greater than the ship

jet is

The cone

speed.

of diffusion

is

indicate that the jet will preserve

of its identity to a distance of

enough to
some measure

perhaps 15 diam-

eters abaft the disc position.

For

EMB model propeller

1884 on

EMB model

3424, for which no graphic data are given, there

are definite signs of augmented axial velocity and
rotational velocity in the outflow jet at 15 pro-

There are

peller diameters astern of the disc.

traces of the rotational velocity at 24 diameters

astern.
52. IQ
is

Persistence of

often useful to

wake

Wake Behind

a Ship.

It

the characteristics of the

the path of a body or ship, mentioned

left in

in Sec.

know

11.11,

even though the ship propulsion

device (s), fike those of the sailboat or the flying

boat,

may be entirely

may

involve only the

clear of the water.

mean

The wake

residual velocity

along the ship track, over a section taken across

the body or ship path. It

may

involve effects of

another order such as variations from the mean

velocity, the scale and intensity of the residual
turbulence, the presence of entrained

other characteristics of interest.

here.

relatively thin,

with an inner-surface slope small

propeller in producing thrust in open water, as

averaged

SHIPS

air,

As a

or

some

rule,

the

transverse surface waves of the Velox system are

Abaft the destroyer model, it is obvious that

the longitudinal centerline of the outflow jet does
not lie along an extension to the propeller shaft
axis but rises rather abruptly. This rise begins at

the disc position, increases rapidly, and then coincides more or less with the rise in the water which
has flowed under the stern, generally parallel to the

buttock

fines

on the model. This change in vertical

position with distance abaft the disc

is

confirmed

by spreading transversely and by

dissipated,

internal viscous damping, long before the distur-

bances within the water disappear.

Quantitative data on the persistence of wake,
applying to the mean velocity only, are almost

Perhaps the most extensive and

from model-testing techniques, but the vafidity of stepping these data up
nonexistent.
refiable

are

to ship size

derived

is still

uncertain. It

is

known

that the

HYDRODYNAMICS

262

wake from a

vertical turbulence-stimulating strut

having a diameter of say 0.01 the model beam and

a submergence equal to the model draft, when
towed a short distance ahead of a small model,
causes a measurable change in its resistance. It is
often necessary to wait from 10 to 20 minutes
between runs in the basin, when towing a large,
heavy model, to insure that the residual currents
left in its wake have diminished to the order of
0.01 kit or less. On the basis of a 20-ft model
running at 4 kt, this means that if the model kept
on going it would be 200 lengths away from the
finishing point of the run in the course of 10 min.
For a 500-ft ship traveling at 20 kt in a channel of

comparable relative

size, this is

the equivalent of

one reason why a

ship has to make a long approach run before
entering a measured mile [SNAME "Standardization Trials Code," 1949, p. 7; van Lammeren,
over 3.3 nautical miles. It

W.

P. A.,

RPSS,

is

1948, p. 352] to insure that

does not meet, as a counter-current,

its

IN SHIP DESIGN

1855), the literature which has accumulated on

the subject since that time

from the preceding run.

Model-basin experience indicates that the
presence of the walls and bottom, not too far
from the model track, damps out the residual
currents due to towing and self-propelling. Since
the basin depth is of the order of 20 times the
model draft and its width the order of 20 times
the beam, the corresponding dimensions for a
ship like the ABC design of Part 4 would be 520
hardly a restricted
ft depth and 1,460 ft width

available data,
reliable

elusive,

the
52.20

how

disturbance

toAving-vessel

little

is

on a towed

on Wake. Considering
was known or understood about wake

conditions abaft a ship a century ago

(about

and

logical

conditions

problem

beginning

will

at

60.8.

It

appears

have to be studied
its

fundamentals.

In view of the inclusion in Harvald's study of

and others which have appeared

(1)

Dahlmann, W., Hoppe, H., and

since 1950:

Schafer, O.,

"Messung

der Wassergeschwindigkeiten neben der Schiffswand

(2)

(3)

(4)

(Measurement of Water Speeds near a Ship Hull),"

WRH, 7 Sep 1926, pp. 415-419
Baker, G. S., "Ship Wake and the Frictional Belt,"
NECI, 1929-1930, Vol. XLVI, pp. 83-106 and Pis.
141-146. Describes
Ill, IV; discussion on pp.
results of tests on planks and ship models, and on
the fast channel steamer Snaefell and the singlescrew merchant ship Ashworth.
Baker, G. S., "Wake," NECI, 1934-1935, Vol. LI,
pp. 303-320 and D137-D146. Describes results of
tests on two models, and full-scale observations on
the Ashworth and on the Pacific Trader.
Igonet, C., "Note on Wake," ATMA, 1938, Vol. 42,
pp. 543-569. This paper has apparently not been
translated into English.

Sohoenherr, K. E., and Aquino, A. Q., "Interaction

Rep. 470, Mar
Between Propeller and Hull,"

TMB

(6)

1940
Harvald, S. A., "Wake of Merchant Ships," Danish
Tech. Press, Copenhagen, 1950; copy in

TMB

library
(7)

practically neghgible.

Bibliography

wake

a practically complete bibliography on wake,

there are mentioned here only a few special papers

destroyer, at a T^ of about 1.4 or 1.5, the effect

of

of predicting

Fortunately for the profession at large, this work

is now (1955) in progress in the United States.

tions, that at

vessel of similar type

and to arrive at a

as indicated in Sec.

analytically,

from not-too-precise observa-

8 to 10 lengths abaft the stern of a

high-speed towing vessel of form similar to a

method

certain that the

(5)

It is reported,

short of

Uttle

from a design, but he has found the answer most

channel!

is

tremendous. S. A. Harvald has recently (1950)

made a valiant endeavor to systematize the

it

own wake

Sec. 52.20

(8)

Harvald, S. A., "Three-Dimensional Potential Flow

and Potential Wake," Trans. Danish Acad. Sci., 1954
Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., "On the Numerical
Calculation of Wake Fraction and Thrust Deduction
in

a Propeller and Hull Interaction," Int. Shipbldg.

Prog., 1954, Vol.

1,

No.

4,

pp. 170-178.

CHAPTER

Dynamic

Quantitative Data on
Relationship to Other Chapters

53.1

53.6

Wetted Length, Wetted Surface, and Friction

263

53.7

Variation of Total and Residuary Resistances

264
264

53.8

Selected

53

Partial Bibliography on Hydrofoil-Supported

Moments on a Planing

Craft

Determination of Dynamic Lift

Typical Pressure Distribution and Magnitude
on Planing-Craft Bottoms

53.4
53.5

Relationship to Other Chapters. The

phenomenon of planing is described in
Chap. 13, and the behavior of planing craft in
general is discussed in Chap. 30. Rules and profull-

Chap.

77, with a preliminary design

worked out

for one boat.

The

simple planing surfaces are rather voluminous,

when
float
field,

the test results on flying-boat and seaplanemodels are included. Several workers in the
as related in the sections following, have

....

269

(1)

and Planing Craft

271

Length, breadth, and planform shape of the

contact with the

water in any given running condition, with respect
to an axis parallel or nearly so to the direction of
motion. At running attitude and position, the
length dimension becomes the mean wetted
length Ljrs and the breadth dimension becomes

mean

chine

beam Be

Wetted area of the planing surface. This is

the actual and not the nominal area.
(3) Forward speed V with respect to the water
underneath the bottom of the planing craft,
(2)

neglecting the cosine of the angle of trim

Mass density

succeeded rather well in their efforts to assemble,

(4)

analyze, correlate, and systematize the available

the water

make them directly

new designs. It is not

Lift,

planing surface actually in

the

basic data for predicting the behavior of

209

Craft

53.1

planing type of motorboat are to be found in

with Speed
Bibliography on Planing Surfaces,

Dynamic
.

266

basic

cedures for the hydrodynamic design of a

268

Resistance

Planing
Principal Forces and

and Planing

Lift

263

Principal Quantitative Factors Involved in

53.3

53

p(rho)

and weight density w

of

planing-surface data, so as to

(5)

Trim angle

applicable to and useful for

(6)

Rise-of -floor angle /3(beta), for a planing sur-

possible, within the scope of this chapter, to

much more than

do

reference a few of the sources

which contain quantitative data

in

a form to be

readily usable to the designer of planing craft.

face that

condition.

Related to these features are the:

(8)

Dynamic

(9)

Total resistance or drag

is

The magnitude

of the

planing surface inclined at a small angle of attack

a(alpha), or under a V-bottom boat running at

a trim ^(theta) by the stern,

considerable

CP

number

a function of a
of factors. Further, the
is

of this pressure system, or the point

where the resultant dynamic

lift is

exerted,

and

location with respect to the center of gravity

is

any given running

in

dynamic pressure intensity and the dynamic lift under a

CG,

in transverse section

included as Sec. 53.9.

in Planing.

its

V-shaped

Distance of the CP from the after termination, usually a sharp edge of the planing surface,

Principal Quantitative Factors Involved

hydrofoil-supported craft

center

with reference to the horizontal

(7)

In addition to the selected bibhography on

planing in Sec. 53.8, a partial bibliography on
53.2

is

of

Among

it is

for the design of

these factors

may be

an airplane.

mentioned:

Rt

in the direction

motion

(10) Friction resistance

Rf

exerted parallel to

the wetted bottom surface

(11)

Residuary resistance Rjt

as for

any other

surface craft
(12)

(13)

Total weight W(ot A) of the craft

Buoyancy B, due to partial immersion of

the hull at some speeds

(14) Acceleration of gravity g.

There are a number

as important for the proper design of a

planing craft as

lift

craft design:

263

and
and planing-

of dimensionless ratios

coefficients utihzed in planing-surface

HYDRODYNAMICS

264

IN SHIP DESIGN

(16) Planing

be used

number Rt/W.

if it is

Its reciprocal may-

an advantage to do

so.

Ratio of the distance designated as [CP

from trailing edge of planing surface] to the mean
(17)

beam Be

chine

the drag of the appendages.

Speed coefficient Cy o r beam-Froude numwhere Cv = V/-vgBc

(18)

ber,
(19)

Load

Cw sym= W/{wBc)
coefficient, C^l = W/(qBc) =

coefficient,

where Ca or

2iC,n)/C^
(21) Resistance or

drag

is

The

relative-wind

assumed equal to the stUl-air

The thrust-deduction force is assumed

in this case

resistance.

bolized preferably as Cld,

(20) Dynamic-lift

Sec. 53.3

drawn to supplement Fig. 13. C in Sec. 13.3 on

page 206 of Volume I. The accompanying figure
shows the principal forces acting on a craft
during planing. The propulsive force and its
component, not shown in Fig. 13. C, are indicated
here, as are the buoyancy force (assumed finite
and not negligible), the relative-wind forces, and

(15) Ratio of the chine beam Be to the mean

wetted length L^s or the aspect ratio

is

probably

and rudder assembly abaft the propeller

and on the exposed shaft ahead of it, if not on the
strut

drag coefficient Cpianins r

as zero, although in practice this

never the case. In the diagram of Fig. 53. A there

would be a thrust-deduction force exerted on the

Rr/(wB^).

hull proper.

The marme architect, seeing this

first time, is amazed at its length and

list

for the

complexity,

as compared to that for a surface ship of the dis-

placement type. It is perhaps satisfying, but not

always comforting for this architect to realize
that his amazement is fully justified. The problem
of estimating and predicting planing-craft performance is indeed more intricate and involved
than that for a normal type of surface ship.
53.3
Principal Forces and Moments on a Planing Craft. As an aid in presenting, in systematic
fashion, the quantitative data relating to prediction of planing-craft performance. Fig. 53.

There are forces due to the formation of spray

and the generation of spray, indicated
on the diagrams of Figs. 13. B and 13. D, but
their positions and vector directions are not well
known.
53.4 Determination of Dynamic Lift. There
is no liquid circulation as such about an inclined
fiat plate skimming along the water surface, or
about any planing craft in the manner described
for the hydrofoils of Chap. 14 of Volume I. It is
found possible, nevertheless, to estimate the
dynamic lift of such a plate reasonably well by
calculating the lift due to circulation, as if the
roots

is

Lift

Pressure Draq Dpft^

of

Appendoaes

Direction

Woterline Lern^th L^
Croft Qt Rest
Force L
Wetted Le ngth at 5peed V

of Flow

Under Bottom

Weight
Thrust-Deduction Force AT is Assumed Zero
Buo\;Qnc\j Force B is That Due to Water
Displaced b\j Afterbodvj
Force

DE

13

Ltane3*(lnduced Droq Di)sece

^ (Slope Draq)sec0

CD is Force Dp;., times sec 9

Force AC is Bottom-Friction Force Dp times sec
Force

Fig. 53. a

Force
'

NOTE: Not shown here, to avoid confusion,

the vertical force (or upward force normal to
the shaft axis) exerted by the propeller because
of the non-axial flow in which it is operating.
This is the force mentioned in the second paragraph of Sec. 53.6 on page 268. It is developed
by the action explained in Sees. 17.7 and 33.5
of Volume I, and illustrated in Figs. 17. C, 17. D,
and 33.1 on pages 264, 265, and 485, respectively,
of that volume.
is

Definition Diagram op Forces on a Planing Boat

Sec. 53.-1

Fig. 53.B

DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING

265

Graphs fob Relating the DrNAivac-LiFT Coefficient to Otheb Features of a Planing Form

HYDRODYNAMICS

266

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 53.5

halving this value.

and X (lambda) is the ratio of the mean

wetted length L^,^ to the mean chine beam Be

Without going further into the analytic hydrodynamics of planing, set forth in detail in many

floor angle of

were

plate

and

submerged,

completely

then

of the references listed in Sec. 53.8, it is stated

simply that the dynamic lift exerted normal to a
flat inclined plate of length L and breadth B,
in contact with a hquid surface on its under side

only, is expressed

by

(3)

For a V-surface having a constant

{C^l),

/3

rise-of-

deg,

(C^l)o

0.0065^[(C^)]"

(53. iv)

Graphs giving the relationships between these

variables, convenient for the use of a planing-craf

drawn in Fig. 53.B, adapted from

diagrams previously pubUshed in the references
designer, are

normal to plate

Li,

of floor

pB'V^a
^
o

(53. i)

listed earlier in this section.

The method

of using the equations listed

and

where a is the angle of attack or trim by the stern

and Lz) is not, as customary, measured normal to

the accompanying graphs

the direction of motion.

illustrated for a specific design of planing-type

The dynamic

to be expected from a simple

lift

Murray [SNAME,
motorboat

one with straight

53.5

buttocks and keel and a constant rise-of-floor

nitude

planing surface,

defined

as

running at a trim angle

may

be derived

angle

j8,

more

precisely in terms of equations set

d,

up by
B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky, D. Savitsky, and

W.

Lehman [ETT Rep.

360, Aug 1949]. These

with their representation in graph
form, are used by A. B. Murray in his paper "The
Hydrodynamics of Planing Hulls" [SNAME,
F.

equations,

1950, Fig. 11, p. 666].

The dynamic
0-diml

is

lift

dynamic-lift

expressed

coefficients

terms of

in

Cdl

using

(CdlJo for a planing surface with zero rise of

floor

and {Cul)^ for one with a rise-of-floor angle

The equations

/3.

for these coefficients are, strictly

speaking, dimensionless in that

all

composing them have dimensions

of zero.

theless, the fact that the trim angle

the factors

6,

Never-

expressed

is

1950,

described by A. B.

669-670] and

pp.

in Sec. 77.26.

Typical Pressure Distribution and

on

is

Planing-Craft

Bottoms.

Mag-

Diagrams

showing typical transverse and longitudinal pressure distributions on the wetted bottoms of
planing forms, similar to those reproduced in
Figs. 13.B and 13.D on pages 205 and 207 of

Volume

I,

are rather plentiful in the technical

They

Hterature.

are to be found in

many

of the

and 30 and of Sec. 53.8

of the present chapter. For example, the graphs
of longitudinal -|-Ap distribution pubhshed by
A. B. Murray [SNAME, 1950, Fig. 19 on p. 675]
are taken from data developed by W. Sottorf, in
references of Chaps. 13

a paper Usted as reference (21) of Sec. 53.8.

Assuming a V-bottom craft, the transverse
pressure distribution

is

characterized

by peak

pressures over the regions of origin of the port

and starboard spray

roots,

along the diagonal

At small

as T(tau) in the references, appears to the 1.1

stagnation loci depicted in Fig. 13.D.

power and the term {Cdl)o to the 0.6 power

immersions of the keel, all the pressure is concentrated near the centerplane. At greater
immersions the two pressure concentrations move
outward toward the chines.
Reliable specific data on the distribution of

seems to indicate that other terms as yet unknown

should eventually be embodied in the equations.
Expressed in standard and ATTC notation
these equations are:

(1)

'^DL

W (or A)

pressure

Cj^
Z

(53. ii)

and the magnitude of the pressure

on the bottoms of planing craft having

intensities

given characteristics, especially

to

where Be

the

is

coefficient,

mean

and Cy

chine beam,

Cld

is

the load

For a

flat,

floor angle

/3

Much

of the available information is in a classified

status, so that the naval architect is forced to fall

inclined plate, having a rise-of-

back upon the results of theoretical analysis or

upon pubhshed data concerning measurements on
the hulls of seaplanes and flying boats.

of zero

and a trim

of d deg,

For the determination

(C^l)o

e'M0.0120\"'

where {Cdl)o

is

when subjected

relatively meager.

the speed coefficient, pre-

is

viously defined
(2)

heavy impact in waves, are

the

lift

0.0095X'
(53.iii)

ci

coefficient for

a zero

rise

of

CP

positions

in

and graphs set up by

B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky, D. Savitsky, and
W. F. Lehman are useful [ETT Rep. 360, Aug
specific cases the equations

Sec. 53.5

Fig. 53. C

DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING

267

Graphs fob Determining the Foke-and-Aft Center-of-Pressure Location Under a Planing Form

HYDRODYNAMICS

268

1949]. Both eciiiatioiis and graphs are reproduced

by A. B. Murray [SNAME, 1950, Fig. 10, p. 665].
The distance of the center of pressure CP from
the traihng edge of the planing surface, assumed
at the after perpendicular AP, is expressed as

The

.r-distance

[CP to AP]

K(L.s)\"

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. ^3.6

A. B. Murray illustrates the ETT method of

determining wetted chine and keel lengths for a

[SNAME,

towed model

1950, Figs.

14 and 15,

pp. 672-673]. Both wetted length and wetted

area may be determined by fish-eye views made

photographically, using a painted grid on the

(53.v)

where L^s is the mean wetted length, X is the

and
is a function of the angle
ratio LjTs/Bc
of trim 6 and of the rise-of-floor angle /3. This

under surface of the model and a water box,

underwater mirror, or other suitable setup [ETT,
Stevens, Rep. 378, Sep 1951, pp. 46-47]. The
general shape of the wetted area for a V-bottom

relation

craft is the same, illustrated

is

K =
where

/3

and

6 are

0.84

30.C,
0.015/3

(53 .vi)

both expressed in degrees.

m are derived from

The exponents n and

= -(0.05

m =

0.125

O.Olg)

(Sa.vii)

0.0042/3

(53.viii)

where /3 is again expressed in degrees.

Graphs giving the relationships between these
variables, in convenient form, are
53. C,

drawn

in Fig.

adapted from diagrams pre\'iously published

in the references quoted.

The method

of using the equations listed

and

by A. B.

the accompanjdng graphs

is

Murray [SNAME,

pp. 670-671] and is

design of full-planing

1950,

illustrated for a specific

described

motorboat in Sec. 77.26.

53.6 Wetted Length, Wetted Surface, and
Diagrams indicating the
Friction Resistance.
general position and shape of the wetted area
under a planing craft when running at or near its
designed speed are found in Chaps. 13 and 30. The
changes in wetted surface and wetted length at
speed are discussed briefly in Sec. 30.8. Since these
features are important factors in predicting performance, the method of estimating or determining

them, in a running rather than an at-rest condition, requires further explanation.

The shape and extent of the wetted area of the

bottom or dynamic-support surface of a planing
craft is rather easily determined by running a
model under a given set of conditions. This method
is, however, open to the objection that a model
which is towed and not self-propelled may not
run at the proper trim for the prototype because
the vertical forces exerted by the propeller (s) are
missing. A change in trim almost always means
a change in both wetted length and wetted area,
possibly a change in the center-of-pressure position

as well.

30.F,

and

77. P.

by

Figs. 13. D, 30. A,

photographs

Small-size

and diagrams, in the form of fish-eye views

.published by A. G. Smith, show the general shapes
of the wetted area and of the spray roots under
V-bottom planing forms with a 25-deg rise of
floor and a 6-deg trim by the stern [5th ICSTS,
1949, pp. 70-73 and Figs. 1-5].
C. W. Spooner, in his unpublished report "Speed
and Power of Motorboats up to a Speed-Length
Ratio of 3," dated October 1950, gives a table
and wetted-

listing the principal characteristics

number of motorboat
he includes tentative
graphs for estimating the wetted surface of craft
of this type, based on a coefficient S/{LB), which
increases slowly \vith fatness ratio V/{0.lOLy.
For a motorboat mth a single centerline skeg the

surface area of a considerable

designs.

In his Fig.

coefficient

13

is:

0.950 at a fatness ratio of 4.0

0.984 at a fatness ratio of 6.0

1.01

at a fatness ratio of 8.0,

where L and B are presumably in ft, and

is in
ft^. For a bare hull the corresponding coefficient
values are 0.860, 0.889, and 0.911, respectively.
J. P. Latimer gives the layouts, lines, principal
characteristics, and wetted surface for a USCG
40-ft utility boat ["Characteristics of Coast
Guard Powered Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect.,
13 Oct 1951].
Contour charts for determining wetted areas
Sr

EMB

of the
Series 50 models, applicable as first
approximations of the wetted areas of other
V-bottom planing craft having speed-length T",
values of from 2.0 to 6.0, are described and pubReport
lished on pages 6 and 85-94 of

TMB

R-47, revised edition, March 1949.

Further data may be found in a paper by

Korvin-Kroukovsky, D. Savitsky, and

entitled "Wetted Area and Center
of Pressure of Planing Surfaces" [ETT, Stevens,
Rep. 360, Aug 1949].
B.

V.

W.

F.

Lehman,

DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING

Sec. 55.<?

The method
is

computing the friction resistance

essentially the same as for any other type of
of

surface craft, described in Sec. 45.22.

The mean

wetted length L^s^s used as the length dimension

to determine the Reynolds number R for the
craft in any specified running condition. Throughout the whole speed range the wetted length,
Reynolds number, and wetted area all change
with speed but at and near the designed speed
they are practically constant.
Sec. 77.26 embodies an example in which the

wetted area and the friction resistance of a fullplaning type of motorboat ai'e calculated, following the methods described by A. B. Murray in a
reference cited earlier in this section.
If there is

wetting of the sides as well as the

bottom at full speed it can be taken care of as an

augment of the wetted area. Normally, however,
consistent wetting of the sides of a full-planing
craft is evidence of poor design somewhere. Rather
than to calculate the effect, the cause should be

eliminated.

A few words are in

order here relative to rough-

ness of the bottom surface. Although the

mean

wetted length of modern (1955) planing craft is

usually low, well under 100 ft or say 30 meters,
the rubbing speed of the water is high. By the
reasoning of Sec. 45.10, this means a very thin
laminar sublayer under the boat and a large
increase in drag if the bottom surface is rough.

The

permissible roughness height

though the overall R

53.7

may

small,

is

even

likewise be small.

Variation of Total and Residuary Resist-

It is most interesting to note,

from the diagrams in Figs. 20 and 21 on pages 676
and 677, respectively, of A. B. Murray's paper

ances with Speed.

[SNAME,

1950],

weight ratios of

that

many

the

total-resistance-to-

planing craft,

when

plotted

on a base of speed-length quotient T, lie remarkably close to a meanline for a rather wide range
of speed. The corresponding values for both
V-bottom and round-bottom motorboats and
sailing craft given by H. M. Barkla exhibit the
same characteristic [INA, 1951, Vol. 93, p. 237],
as do the data for many types of large vessels
plotted in Fig. 56.M of Sec. 56.10. However, the
have values that are 2,240
ordinates of Fig. 56.
times the ordinate values of the Murray and
Barkla graphs.
Murray's planing-craft data cover ranges of
displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)^ of from
100 to 180, yet it is only above a T, of about 3.5
to 4.0 that much dispersion is found. These data
,

269

by Murray, most useful for preliminary resistance estimates, when the shape
and proportions of a new design of hull have not
are, as stated

yet been determined.

Considering only residuary resistances

Rr

the few available data indicate a greater degree

of irregularity

going.

Fig.

40

than that described in the foreD illustrates variations in the

53.

HYDRODYNAMICS

270

"The Longitudinal Stability of Skimmers

and Hydro-Aeroplanes," INA, 1913, Part 1, pp.
136-147 and PI. XIII
Richardson, H. C, "Hydromechanic Experiments
with Flying Boat Hulls," US Navy-Smithsonian
Misc. Collections, 20 Apr 1914, Vol. 62
Millar, G. H., "Some Notes on the Design of Floats
for Hydro- Aeroplanes," INA, 1914, pp. 313-328
Richardson, H. C, "Aeronautics in Relation to Naval

IN SHIP DESIGN

(5)

(6)

(7)

Architecture,"
(8)

(9)

SNAME,

Richardson, H.
for Aircraft,"

C, "Naval Development

SNAME,

W.

H. C, "The Trend of Flying Boat

Development," ASNE, May 1926, Vol. XXXVIII,

(11) Richardson,

pp. 231-253. Contains a great deal of information

which still remains of value (1955) in studying and
predicting the behavior of planing craft.
(12) Richardson,

SNAME,

H. C, "Design

of

a Large Flying Boat,"

(15)

Moment

of Planing Water Craft),"

Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiffahrt, 28

(1

6)

Enghsh

Memo

1931

May

619,

Pavlenko, G.,
of

transl. in

Zeit.

Nov

NACA

fiir

1930,

Tech.

"On the Theory of Gliding; The Motion

a Plank at a Small Angle

of Inclination to the

Water Surface," Proe. Third

Int.

Congr. Appl.

Mech., Stockholm, 1930, Vol. I, pp. 179-183. For

a Froude number F of 4 and above, Pavlenko
gives the resistance formula fi = pV* tan^ a/{'^g),
where p is the mass density of the water and a is
the trim angle or nominal angle of attack.
(17)

Appl.

Mech.,

Stockholm,

1930,

Vol.

I,

pp. 215-219
(18)

(23)

739,

Mar

1934.

W.

G. A., "Porpoising of High Speed Motor

Boats," INA, 1933, Vol. 75, pp. 268-296
Wagner, H., "Uber das Gleiten von Wasserfahrzeugen (On the Planing of Watercraft)," STG,

(22) Perring,

205-227; English transl. in

1139, Apr 1948
(24) Wagner, H., "Uber das Gleiten von Korpen auf der
Wasseroberflache (Concerning the Gliding of
Bodies on the Water Surface)," Proc. Fourth Int.
Cong. Appl. Mech., Cambridge (England), 1934,
pp. 126-147. On pp. 146-147 there are listed 27
Vol.

1933,

NACA

34,

pp.

Memo

Tech.

Shoemaker, J. M., "Tank Tests of Flat and V-Bottom

Planing Surfaces," NACA Tech. Note 509, Nov
1934
(26) Perring, W. G. A., and Johnston, L., "The Hydrodynamic Forces and Moments on Simple Planing

(25)

An Analysis of the Hydrodynamic

Forces and Moments on a Flying Boat Hull,"
and
1934-1935,
Vol. II,
1646, pp.
ARC,
Surfaces and

553-575
(27) Eshbach, O. W., "Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals," 1st ed., 1936, pp. 6-50, 6-51
(28) Allison, J.

Models

M., and Ward, K. E., "Tank Tests of

Having Longitudinal

of Flying-Boat Hulls

NACA Tech. Note 574, May 1936

W., "Gestaltung von Schwimmwerken (The
Design of (Planing) Floats)," Luftfahrtforschung,
20 Apr 1937, Vol. 14, pp. 157-167; EngUsh transl.
in NACA Tech. Memo 860, Apr 1938
(30) Weinig, F., "Zur Theorie des Unterwassertragflugels
Steps,"

(29) Sottorf,

Gleitflache (On the Theory of Hydrofoils

and Planing Surfaces)," Luftfahrtforschung, 20
Jun 1937, pp. 314-324; English transl. in NACA
Tech. Memo 845, Jan 1938. On pp. 26-27 there

und der

are

references listed.

W., "Analyse Experimenteller Untersuchungen iiber Gleitvorgang an der Wasseroberflache

(Analysis of Experimental Investigation of the
Planing Process on the Surface of Water),"

Jahrbuch der Deutschen Luftfahrtforschung, 1937,

pp.

Wagner, H., "tlber die Landung von Seeflugzeugen

(Landing of Seaplanes)," Zeit. fur Flugtechnik
und Motorluftschiffahrt, 14 Jan 1931, Vol. 22,
pp. 1-8. English transl. in
May 1931.

(19)

Rep. 453, Sep 1932; 1933 reports, pp. 211-213

"Versuche mit Gleitflachen (Experiments
with Planing Surfaces)," Part II, WRH, 1 Oct
1932, pp. 286-290; 15 Feb 1933, pp. 43-47; 1 Mar
1933, pp. 61-66. English transl. in NACA Tech.

(21) Sottorf, W.,

(31) Sottorf,

Wagner, H., "Uber den Aufschlag gekielter Flachen

auf Wasser (Concerning the Impact of V-Bottom
Planing Surfaces on the Water)," Proc. Third Int.
Conf.

"The Establishment of Maximum Load

W.
Capacity of Seaplanes and Flj'ing Boats," NACA
S.,

references.

French and the original language and the references

extend back to the year 1914.
Sottorf, W., "Versuche mit Gleitflachen (Tests with
Gliding Surfaces)," Part I, WRH, 7 Nov 1929,
pp. 425-432; English transl. in NACA Tech.
Memo 661, Mar 1932
Schroder, P., "IJber die Bestimmung von Widerstand
und Trimmoment bei gleitenden Wasserfahrzeugen
(Determination of Resistance and Trimming

Vol. 21, No. 22;

TMB

library.

1928, pp. 77-88'

(13) In Vol. 32 of the Bulletin d' Association Maritime

Technique et A6ronautique (ATMA), Paris, 1928,
on pp. 319-324, there appears a long list of references on planing forms. The titles are in both

(14)

informal translation of this paper in the

Memo

variety of airplane fuselages, seaplane and flsdngboat hulls, airship cabins, nacelles, and the like.

Ang. Math. Mech., Aug 1932,

12,

(20) Diehl,

of Floats

S.,

fiir

pp. 193-215. A number of additional

references are given in the footnotes. There is an
Vol.

1926, pp. 15-28

"Tests on Aeronautical Fuselages and

Hulls," NACA Rep. 236, 1926 reports, pp. 131-150.
This paper gives drag and moment data on a great

(10) Diehl,

Liquids)," Zeit.

1916, pp. 43-51

Crowley, J. W., and Ronan, K. M., "Characteristics

of the Boat Tj-pe Seaplane during Take-Off,"
NACA Rep. 226; 1925 reports, pp. 393-401

Sec. 53.8

Oberflache von Fliissigkeiten (Concerning Impact

and GUding Phenomena near or at the Surface of

(4) Steele, J. E.,

NACA Tech. Memo 622,

Wagner, H., "Uber Stoss- und Gleitvorgange an der

320-339;

Memo

1061,

Enghsh

transl.

Mar 1944
"A Discussion

in

NACA

Tech.

of Certain Problems
W. S.,
Connected wth the Design of Hulls of Flying
Boats and the Use of General Test Data," NACA
Rep. 625, Nov 1937; 1938 reports, pp. 253-260.
Page 260 lists 24 references.

(32) Diehl,

DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING

Sec. 53.9
(33) Bollay, W.,

"A Contribution

to the

Theory

of Planing

Surfaces," Proc. Fifth Int. Congr. Appl. Mech.,

1938, pp. 474-477; published

by Wiley, New York,

1939
(34)

Sambraus, A., "Planing-Surface Tests at Large

Froude Numbers Airfoil Comparisons," NACA
Tech. Memo 848, Feb 1938. Originally published
in Luftfahrtforschung, 20 Jun 1936, Vol. 13, pp.

in

(50)

190-198.

W., "Versuche mit Gleitflachen, Part IV,

WRH,

(Tests with Planing Surfaces, Part IV),"

1

Mar

1938, Vol. 19, pp. 51-56; 15

Mar

65-70
Coombes, L.

P., "Scale Effect in Tank Tests of

Seaplane Models," Proc. Fifth Int. Cong. Appl.
Mech., 1939, pp. 513-519
(37) Truscott, S., "The Enlarged NACA Tank, and
Some of its Work," NACA Tech. Memo 918, 1939
(38) Diehl, W. S., "The Application of Basic Data on
Planing Surfaces to the Design of Fljnng-Boat
Hulls," NACA Rep. 694, 16 Dec 1939; 1940

(36)

reports, pp. 287-293.

(39) Sedov, L.

RTP

"Planing on a Water Surface,"

I.,

Transl. 2506, Brit. Min. Aircraft Prod, (from Tech.

(40)

(51)

1938, pp.

Vosdushnogo Flota, No. 4-5, 1940). Also Durand

Reprinting Committee, Calif. Inst. Tech., Pasadena 4, CaUf.
Adamson, G., and Van Patten, D., "Motor Torpedo

Boats:

Technical

Study,"

USNI,

1940,

Jul

(52)

references on pp. 17-18.

Knowler, H., "The Future of the Flying Boat,"
Fifth Louis Bleriot Lecture, Assn. Frangaise Ing.
et Techn. de I'Aeronautique, Paris, 12 Mar 1952;
abstracted in ASNE, Aug 1952, pp. 630-638; also
in Engineering (London), 14 and 21 Mar 1952
(54) Chambliss, D. B., and Boyd, G. M., Jr., "The
Planing Characteristics of Two V-Shaped Prismatic Surfaces Having Angles of Dead Rise of 20

Deg and 40 Deg,"

(55) Weinstein,

Planing

Dec 1948

W.

S., Jr.,

Murray, A.

B.,

"The Hydrodynamics

Hulls,"

SNAME,

there

is

list

(48) Savitsky, D.,

of

and Kapryan, W.

Characteristics

"The High-Speed
Rectangular Flat

of

Trim and Wetted

of

J.,

(56)

under the inchned surface, just as oil is drawn

into a wedge-shaped gap in a plain bearing.
Springston, G. B., Jr., and Sayre, C. L., Jr., "The
Planing Characteristics of a V-Shaped Prismatic
Rep.
Surface with 50 Degrees Dead Rise,"

TMB

920,

Feb 1955

Clement, E. P., "Hull Form of Stepless Planing

Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan 1955
(58) Kapryan, W. J., and Boyd, G. M., Jr., "Hydrodynamic Pressure Distribution Obtained During a
Planing Investigation of Five Related Prismatic
Surfaces," NACA Tech. Note 3477, Sep 1955
(59) Pournaras, U. A., and Sherman, P., "Model Test
(57)

"An Empirical Study

of

Low

Aspect Ratio Lifting Surfaces with Particular

Regard to Planing Craft," Jour. Aero. Sci., Mar.
1949, pp. 184^188. On page 188 of this paper there
is a list of 9 references.
B. V., Savitsky, D., and
(45) Korvin-Kroukovsky,
Lehman, W. F., "Wetted Area and Center of
Pressure of Planing Surfaces," Sherman M.
Fairchild Fund Paper 244, Inst. Aero. Sci., originally pubKshed as ETT, Stevens, Rep. 360, Aug
1949. There is a list of 23 references on pp. 19-20.
(46) Bisplinghoff, R. L., and Doherty, C. S., "A TwoDimensional Study of the Impact of Wedges on a
Water Surface," Cont. NOa(s)-9921, Dept. Aero.
Eng'g., MIT, 20 Mar 1950
(47)

Tech. Not 2876, Jan

Length," NACA Tech. Note 2981, Jul 1953. Fig.

9(b) on p. 24, also pp. 5-6 of the text, show that
there is a depression in the liquid surface just
ahead of the pile-up, under the plate, at low trim
angles. It is possible that this could be air drawn

DR

Dept.,

I.,

Plate over a Wide Range

and Thieme, H., "Klarende Darstellung

Takeoff of Seaplanes)," Bericht SUO, Hamburg,

5 Jul 1946
(42) Sedov, L. I., "Scale Effect and Optimum Relations
for Sea Surface Planing," NACA Tech. Memo
1097, Feb 1947
(43) Locke, F. W. S., Jr., "Tests of a Flat Bottom Planing
Surface to Determine the Inception of Planing,"
NAVAER
Rep. 1096, Bur. Aero., Navy

NACA

1953

der Hydrodynamischen Erscheinungen beim Start

von Seefiuzeugen (Explanatory Representation of
the Hydrodynamic Phenomena Occurring at the

(44) Locke, F.

SNAME

Kapryan, W.

(53)

Vol. 66, pp. 976-996

(41) Schubert, R.,

SNAME,

Ches. Sect., Apr 1951; abstracted

Member's Bull., Oct 1951, p. 15
J., and Weinstein, I., "The Planing
Characteristics of a Surface Having a Basic Angle
of Dead Rise of 20 Deg and Horizontal Chine
Flare," NACA Tech. Note 2804, Oct 1952
Blanchard, U. J., "The Planing Characteristics of a
Surface Having a Basic Angle of Dead Rise of
40 Deg and Horizontal Chine Flare," NACA Tech.
Note 2842, Deo 1952
Perry, B., "The Effect of Aspect Ratio on the Lift
of Flat Planing Surfaces," Hydrodynamics Lab.,
CIT, Rep. E-24.5, Sep 1952. There is a list of 16
Hulls,"

(35) Sottorf,

271

Rep. 378, Sep 1951, published by the Inst. Aero.

Sci. as S. M. F. Fund Paper FF-6 of the same date.
It lists 24 references on pp. 25-27.
(49) Clement, E. P., "The Analysis of Stepless Planing

1950,' pp. 658-692.

Planing

of

On

p.

680

of 19 references.

"Wetted Length and Center

Vee-Step Planing Surfaces,"

of Pressure

ETT,

Stevens,

EHP for a Round Bilge

40-Ft Aircraft Rescue Boat Design from Tests of
Rep. 1002, Oct 1955.
(TMB) Model 4525,"
Results and Predicted

TMB

53.9

Partial Bibliography

ported Craft.

on Hydrofoil-Sup-

A good, concise list of references on

the development, characteristics, and performance

of high-speed craft supported by hydrofoils is

and J. J.
embodied
in the following partial bibhography which contains additional references of less scientific but

M. Buermann,
[SNAME, 1953, p.

given by T.

P. Leehey,

StUwell

264]. It is

more general

interest:

HYDRODYNAMICS

272
Nutting,

(I)

W. W., "The HD-4, a 70-Miler mth Remark-

able Possibilities," reprinted Smithsonian Report

for 1919, Publn. 2595, Gov't. Print. Off.,

Wash-

ington, 1921

H. C, "The Trend of Flying Boat

Development," ASNE, Ma}' 1926, Vol. XXXVIII,
pp. 231-253. Historical data on "hydrovanes,"
now known as hydrofoils, are found on pp. 245-246.
Guidoni, A., "Seaplanes, Fifteen Years of Naval
Aviation," Jour. Roy. Aero. Soc., Jan 1928, Vol. 32,
No. 205
Keldysch, M. V., and Lavrent'ev, M. A., "On the
Motion of an Aerofoil under the Surface of a
Heavj' Fluid, i.e., a Liquid," paper to ZAHI,
Moscow, 1935; EngUsh Transl. by Science Transl.
Serv., Cambridge, Mass., STS-75, Nov 1949
Tietjens, O., "Das Tragflachenboot (The Hydrofoil
Boat)," WRH, 1 Apr 1937, pp. 87-90; 10 Apr 1937,

Richardson,

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

TMB

library.
pp. 106-109. English transl. in
(6) Weinig, F., "Zur Theorie des Unterwassertragflugela
of
Hydrofoils
(On
the
Theory
und der Gleitflache

and Planing Surfaces)," Luftfahrtforschung, 20

Jun 1937, pp. 314-324. English transl. in NACA
Tech. Memo 845, Jan 1938. On pp. 26-27 there
are 11 references listed.

i:i!(7)
,vj

(8)

jj

Grunberg, V., "La Sustentation hydrodynamique par

ailettes immergees: Essais d'un sj'steme sustenteur
autostable (Hydrodynamic Support by Immersed
Foils: Tests of a Self-Stabilizing Support System),"
L'Aerotechnique, Jun 1937, 16th Yr., No. 174
Coombes, L. P., and Davies, E. T. J., "Note on the
Possibihty of Fitting Hydrofoils to a Flying Boat
Hull," Roy. Aircraft Estab., Farnborough, Rep.
B. A. 1440, Nov 1937
Kotchin, N. E., "On the Wave-Making Resistance
and Lift of Bodies Submerged in Water," Trans.

(9)

of

;..

IN SHIP DESIGN
(14) Benson, J.

mental
(17)

(18)

(II)

(19)

down from the hull

mentions a tj^pe of boat

(12)

"Summary

Jr.,

of

Hydrofoils,"

NACA
Vol.

2,

Stivers,

of Airfoil Data,"

Hook, C, "The Hydrofoil Boat

"The

J.,

J.

North.

Abstracted in

NACA

for

Ocean Travel,"

LXIX,

1947-

Possibilities
Calif.

SNAME

Sect.,

of

11

Hydrofoils,"
ftfay

Member's BuU,,

1951.

.Oct 1951,

p. 19.

(23)

"Trag- und Dampfungsflachenboote

Motorboats)," Schiff u. Hafen, Apr
1952, pp. 121-122. This article g'ves a very brief
resume of the development work carried out on
hydrofoil motor boats in Germany during World
War II. Tlie boats did not proceed beyond the
experimental stage. A boat with an all-up weight

Kaemmerer,

(Hydrofoil

of

100,

t,

powered by two 1,600-horse engines,

attained a speed of 41 kt, while a second boat with

a weight of 60 t was expected to reach 60 kt; the
latter was, however, damaged before trials were run.
Knowler, H., "The Future of the Flying Boat,"
ASNE, Aug 1952, p. 630
(25) Biiller, K. J., "The Hydrofoil Boat," Hansa, 16 Aug

1952, p. lOOOff

"Hydrofoil Boat White Hawk," The Motor Boat and

Yachting, London, Sep 1952, p. 361
(27) "Modern Hydrofoil Boat Designed by H. F. Schertel," The Motor Boat and Yachting, London, Oct
1952, p. 414
G., "On the Economy of the Traffic
with Hydrofoil Speed Boats," Hansa, 1952, No.

(28) Sachsenberg,

30/31

H. F., "Tragflachenboote (Hydrofoil

Supported Boats)," Handbuch der Werften, Band
1952,
II, Schiffahrts-Verlag, Hansa, Hamburg,

(29) Schertel,

Plum of the TMB staff.

Adamson, G., and Van Patten, D., "Motor Torpedo
Boats: A Technical Study," USNI, Jul 1940, pp.
J.

976-996, esp. pp. 988-989, describing the Bell-

pp. 43-47. English translation available at the

DTMB. For a photograph and description of a

Baldwin HD-4
W., "Experimentale Untersuchungen ziir
Frage des Wassertragfliigels (Experimental Examination of the Question of Hydrofoils)," Rep. 1319,

The Motor Boat

and Yachting, London, Oct 1952, p. 414.
Buller, K. J., "Das Tragfliigelboote (The Hydrofoil

more modern

Ger.

Res.

Develop.,

Est.

for

Aircraft,

Hamburg, Dec 1940

Inst,

for Seaplane

45-ft hydrofoil

boat designed by

Schertel (von Burtenbach) see

(13) Sottorf,

Characteristics

SNAME,

steering rudders extend well

evolved by

S.,

(22) Oetling,

(26)

of the craft. This article

of

1948. In Fig. 3 on page 9 of this paper there are

shown diagrammatic arrangements of a number of
hydrofoil boats, captioned "Italian and German
Types," said to have been taken from a patent by
H. F. Schertel von Burtenbach, 1938.
(20) Rabl, S. S., "Pursuit of More Speed," Chesapeake
Skipper, Apr 1950, pp. 12, 31, 32
(21) Hoerner, S. F., "Aerodj'namic Drag," 1951

Moscow, 1937; EngUsh transl., Br. Adm.

Document, PG/53280/NID, May 1946
"High Speed Craft: Some Comments on a Patent
Specification Recently Filed from Dumbarton,"

May 1940, pp. 440-441. This article shows

a proposed design of high-speed motorboat supported by a planing step or a hydrofoil forward and
by a second hydrofoil aft, in which there is embodied a screw-propeller drive with a vertical
shaft and bevel gears at both top and bottom. The

Investigation of

I.

Trans. Liverpool Eng'g. Soc., Vol.

(24)

SBSR, 2

"An

Rep. 824, 1945

SNAME

311,

S.,

Tank;

Wartime Rep. L-766

Durand, W. F., "Aerodynamic Theory,"
Durand Reprinting Comm., 1943
Abbott, I. H., von Doenhoff, A. E., and
L.

"Approximate Hydrodynamic Calcua Hydrofoil of Finite Span," ZAHI Rep.

lation of

NACA

Effect of DiheSubmersion," NACA Wartime

Rep. L-75S, Sep 1942
(15) Land, N. S., "Characteristics of an NACA 66,
S-209 Section Hydrofoil at Several Depths,"
NACA Wartime Rep. L-757
(16) Ward, L. E., and Land, N. S., "Preliminary Testa
in the NACA Tank to Investigate the Funda-

and Depth

dral

the Conf. on the Theory of Wave Resist.,

1937; English transl. by A. I. (T)

(10) Vladimirov, A.,

M., and Land, N.

Hydrofoils in the

USSR, Moscow,

Air Ministry, R.T.P. 666, Mar 1938;

T and R Bull. 1-8, Aug 1951

Sec. 53.9

(30)

Boat),"

STG, 1952, pp. 119-136

"German Contributions

(31) Vertens, F.,

to the Develop-

DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING

Boat," Schiff u.
R and M 2836, Sep 1946,

Sec. 53.9

ment
(32)

(33)

(34)

of

the Hydrofoil Speed

Hafen, Mar 1953, p. 103

Grupp, G. W., "Speedboats with Wings," Motor
Boating, New Yorlv, Aug 1953, pp. 22-23

"Water Wings Add Zip to Navy Craft," All Hands

IVtag', Bu. Nav. Pers., Oct 1953, pp. 14-16
Buermann, T. M., Leehey, P., and Stilwell, J. J., "An
Appraisal of Hydrofoil-Supported Craft,"
1953, pp; 242-279. This paper

is

(37)

TMB

pp. 58-60, 127

K., "New and

(40) Biiller,

Covers

tests

at

zero

yaw

angle,

abstracted in

had

NACA

661-012 sections and one an

Warren, C. H. E., "A Theoretical Approach to the

Design of Hydrofoils," Aero. Res. Counc, London,

Jul 1955, Vol.

LXVII, pp.

Messina types, whose characteristics are given,

are 59 and 55 horses per ton, respectively.

struts

NACA

664-021 section.
(36)

IME,

102-103, with diagram of the PT SO/dJf, a SchertelSachsenberg craft, in its flying position. Brakepower to displacement ratios of the Bremen and

various

Two

Larger Hydrofoil Boats,"

4, pp. 5-8;

European Shipbuilding, 1955, Vol.

1953.

27 Sep 1954,

F. H., "The Theoretical Dynamic LongiStability of a Constant-Lift Hydrofoil

System,"
Rep. 925, Dec 19.54
(39) Miller, R. T., "Hydrofoil Craft," Yachting, Mar 1955,

Jan 1954 issue of SBSR, pp. 53-54.

Coffee, C. W., Jr., and McKann, R. E., "Hydrodynamic Drag of 2- and 21-per cent Thick SurfacePiercing Struts," NACA Tech. Note 3092, Dec
depths, and various angles of rake.

Life,

tudinal

in the 14

(35)

"Boats that Fly Atop the Waterj"

pp. 56-58, 60

(38) Imlay,

SNAME,

abstracted briefly

273
published 1953

(41)

"World's Fastest (Hydrofoil) Sailing Boat, Monitor,"

111. London News, 8 Oct 1955, p. 627; Yachting,

Nov

1955, p. 71

SBSR, 17 Nov

1955, p. 637.

CHAPTER
Estimating the Air and

54

Wind

Resistance of Ships

....

Scope of This Chapter; Definitions

Increase of Wind Velocity with Height Above

274

54.8

Comments Concerning Wind-Friction Re-

54 2

Water Surface
Flow Diagrams for Upper- Works Configura-

274

54.3

54.9
54.10

Prediction of

54.1
.

276

tions

54.6

General Formulas for the Wind Drag of

Irregular Ship Hulls and Superstructures
Notes on Wind-Resistance Models and
Testing Techniques
Bibliography of Model Wind-Resistance

54.7

Drag

54.4

sistance of

276

54.5

278
278

Tests

Abovewater

Coefficients for Typical

Hulls and Upper Works

54.1

The

Scope

general

of

This

an Abovewater Hull

Drag and Resistance with Wind on the Bow

Wind

Resistance for

ABC

of Part 4

Magnitude

54.11
54.12
54.13
54.14
54.15

of

Wind

Pressure

Wind Pressure
Wind Drag
Lateral Wind Moments and Angle of Heel
Estimated Drift and Leeway
Estimating the Forces on a Moored Ship
Surface-Water Currents due to Natural Wind
Location of Center of

Lateral

54.15
54.17

280
281

Ship

282
283
284
285
285
286
287
287

279

Chapter;

phenomena and the

Definitions.

effects of the

flow of air over the abovewater hull and the upper

works of a ship are described in

Sees. 26.15

and

masts.

The

thickness 5 (delta)

may

attain values

greater than a thousand feet [Matveyey, R. T.,

Meteorologiya
20-29;

ASCIL

Gidrologiya, No. 3, 1949, pp.

i
Transl. 490]. Large wind velocities

Volume I in purely qualitative fashion.

The winds of nature, powerful enough to propel

at high airplane altitudes are caused

saihng vessels, produce sizable quantitative effects

boundary-layer

on mechanically driven ships, often of the order

of tenths of the power and whole knots or more of
speed. Reasonably accurate estimates or predic-

the so-called reference velocity, represented

26.16 of

ments

of

huge

air

is

strictly

effect.

For the ordinary boundary layer

[/

by move-

masses and are not

in air or

water

by

that at a great distance from the body or

tions of these effects are required, especially

when

ship. Since this velocity is rarely

analyzing ship-trial data [Eggert, E. F.,

EMB

thick and high boundary layer in the atmos-

Rep. 264,

Aug

1930;

SNAME,

1932, pp. 17-44;

1933, pp. 243-295; Taylor, D. W., S

and P, 1943,

phere above a large water surface,

known
it is

to use as a reference, for ship-design

for the

customary
and ship-

pp. 167-169].

operation purposes, some velocity that

phenomena and
effects are given in Sec. 26.15, supplemented by
Figs. 26. G and 26. H. It is most important to

measured. In the past, the reference velocity has

often been considered to be that observed at a
height of 50 ft above the water. However, there
is no accepted standard height for measuring the

Definitions applying to these

keep clear the distinction made there between the

wind drag Dr which always acts dovmwind from
the relative wind direction, and the wind re,

sistance ffwind

The

latter is the

and-aft components of both the

the wind

lift,

sum

of the fore-

mnd

drag and

acting always along the principal

ship axis, opposite to the direction of motion.

This distinction

is

forces are impressed

necessary because the wind

on the ship separately from

the hydrodynamic forces.

54.2

Increase of

Wind

Velocity with Height

Water Surface. The boundary layer

formed by the -wind blo\ving over moderately

is

easily

is assumed to be acting on a
boat or a ship as a whole. Nevertheless the mnd

wind velocity which

velocities of interest to

operators

are

greater than

usually

1.0,

of

marine architects and ship

e.xpressed

as

multiples,

whatever velocity near the

taken as the reference or the standard.

the air velocity over smooth
water is zero at the water surface, as for a hquid
flonang over a solid surface. Practically, even for
model sail boats and sailing yachts having mast
surface

is

Theoretically,

Above

heights of

long stretches of water

measurable distances above the water surface are

large. Taking all things into consideration, a
reference height of 6 ft above the water surface is

is

thick in proportion to

the vertical dimensions of a ship hull, or even of

its

274

ft or less,

the actual air velocities at

AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS

Sec. 54.2

considered logical and

used as the reference in

is

this book.

The

ship designer, naval architect,

and ship

operator then need a curve or table of multiples,

to compare the wind velocity at other heights

with that at 6 ft. The necessary data can be

and have been derived from (1) theoretical considerations and from (2) observed simultaneous
wind velocities at several heights above a reasonably level water surface.
Making use of boundary-layer theory
possible to develop a simple formula

that the ratio

the wind velocities at two

of

heights

different

is

it

which shows

above a

should vary as the

root of the ratio of the

fifth

heights [Experiment

surface

level

solid,

Tank Comm., Japan, "Ab-

Notes and Data," 6th ICSTS, 1951, pp.

Taking hi and h^ as these heights, and
TTi and W2 as the wind velocities at these heights.

stract

71-92].

W2 _ Wind velocity
Wind velocity
Wi

discussion

at height h^
(54.i)

at height hi

by D. Brunt,

also based

upon

boundary-layer theory but making use of experimental observations to some extent, is given in

book "Physical and Dynamical Meteorology"

[Cambridge (England), University Press, 1944,
pp. 247-255]. Brunt is inclined to use a seventhroot velocity variation rather than a fifth-root
variation, based upon the distribution in the
1/7-power velocity profile illustrated in the righthand diagram of Fig. 5.K. It is apparent, from
his

the discussion presented by Brunt, that the rate

of

wind variation with height

ing upon a

number

is

complex, depend-

of variables

not a simple matter to find reliable experimental data known to have been taken over the
It is

water. Furthermore, the exact vertical location of

the "Surface" observations used for reference are

rarely stated.

man

high as a

Presumably they are at

least as

a small boat.

The low

sitting in

heights

of

several

hundred

interest

to

feet,

micro-heights in the

the

ship

are in

field of

designer,

the

say

category of

meteorology.

The only careful, systematic investigations

made over the sea appear to be those of J. S. Hay,
published in Porton Technical Paper 428 (un-

24 June 1954, issued by the Chemical

Experimental Estabhshment of the

lioh -{ h

(54. ii)

C/:.o

where C/1.0 is the velocity at the reference height

of 1 meter (3.28 ft), and a and h are numerical
values tabulated by Hay for different wind and
sea conditions.

The roughness of the sea surface, increasing

with the wind velocity at the reference height,
changes the type of viscous flow somewhat and
with it the numbers a and h. Hay lists 8 references
on page 16 of the report.
Because of the diminished relative roughness
of the average water surface as compared to the
average land surface, the speed of the wind for a
given atmospheric disturbance

is

greater over

water than over land. Likewise, the reduction in

wind speed as the height is diminished, due to the
increased wind friction over the land, is greater
than over the water [Curry, M., "Yacht
Racing," Scribner's, New York, 1948, p. 130].
For this reason, velocity observations made over
land should not necessarily be taken as applying
over water. However, even though it is known
that they do not apply, it has been necessary
to make some use of data taken over the land.
Based on available sources, Hsted in the next
paragraph, the graphs of Fig. 54.A have been
prepared. Briefly:

which could be

evaluated only with difficulty in actual practice.

275

above the sea. Hay found

that the local velocity U at any height h above
the quiet water surface (represented by the
symbol z in the paper) varied generally in accordance with the logarithmic formula
(1.64 ft to 26.248 ft)

The

I.

solid-line

graph

is

based upon a com-

(c) and (e) of

which follows
II. The short-dash graph B at the left represents
values derived from Eq. (54.1), based upon a
wind velocity of 1 (unity) at 6 ft above the water

bination of data from references

the

list

appears to represent the probable rate

over a reasonably smooth water
surface as well, if not better, than most of the
experimental data.
III. The long-dash graph C at the right of the
level. It

of variation

figure represents the

the following

list,

mean

of the data

indicated

from

(b) of

by the small open

circles.

classified) of

Defense
Ministry of Supply of Great Britain (copy in
library) Unfortunately, however, the observations covered a range of only 0.5 to 8 meters

TMB

The
(a)

references consulted were:

Schoeneich,

(The

"Der Windwiderstand

Wind

Schiffbau, 22

Resistance

Nov

of

bei

Seeschififen

Oceangoing

Ships),"

1911, Vol. XIII, pp. 121-129.

276

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 54.3

AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS

Sec. 54.4

where /^wud

is tlie

wind

resistance, exerted

direction of ship motion,

^^

is

the
(>DCAir)

the abovewater

277

tunnels, as well as data formerly expressed in

other units of measurement, called definitely for

non-dimensional wind-drag and wind-resistance

formulas. On the basis that substantially all the
its upper works is a pressure
due to deflection and separation drags, the
general equations for the wind drag D,^ with the
latter always measured in the same direction as the

drag of a ship hull and

effect,

relative wind-velocity vector

Dw =

W^

are

Here the mass density p(rho) is, from Sec.

X3.8 m Appendix 3, taken as 0.002378 slugs per
ft^,

for "standard" air conditions at a temperature

of 59

deg F, 15 deg C, and a sea-level pressure of

14.696 lb per in' or 2,116.2 lb per

The area

Ap^^j or

A^

is

ft'.

that of the abovewater

silhouette of the hull or structure in question,

when

projected on a vertical plane normal to the

direction of the relative wind.

wind

The

velocity of that

W^

.For rough calculations it is assumed

constant over the whole vertical span of the
abovewater structure being blown upon.
For more refined estimates the structure should
probably be considered as composed of two or
more vertical layers, each \vith its own relativewind velocity, dependent upon its average height
above the water surface, employing the windis

velocity multiples of Fig. 54. A. In addition, each

Cfl(A,|4p,iF^

layer should be composed of a typical kind of

(54. iv)

(54 .v)

A^W^

silhouette area of the ship (defined in Sec. 26.15),

as viewed from astern, and Wg is the relative

wind velocity, derived from the vectorial addition
of the ship speed V and the true-wind velocity WtFor what was supposed to be the worst case, the
true mnd was in those years assumed to be
always from ahead.
The necessity for using data derived from
aeronautical studies, many of them in \vind

D,

Cnui.^

7,

A^W^

Fig. 54. B

structure, such as (1) hull, (2)

spars and rigging, so that

upper works, and

if appropriate a
separate drag coefficient as well as a separate
average relative-wind velocity W^ may be used

(3)

Typical Wind-Resistance Model

HYDRODYNAMICS

278

with each. G.

method

omy"

Baker iUustrates and uses this

book "Ship Efficiency and Econ-

S.

in his

[1942, pp. 14-16],

but for a slightly different

purpose.

In

IN SHIP DESIGN

air,

the relative-wind velocity

W^

is

that caused by the motion of the ship itself

through the water, so that
r = V. The still-air
resistance is then

UsA

C/D(Air)o^'l

'

(54 .vi)

(2)

Made double,

symmetrical about the designed

embod3ang two abovewater

are then towed submerged

ABC ship designed in Part 4 it is estimated as

about 2.6 per cent of the bare-hull water resistance.
Although it is not general practice to allow for
the

ship-powering

in

resistance

estimates,

always with the ship, so to speak,

unless the latter happens to run in a following
natural wind having a velocity equal to its own
this resistance is

coefficient

Cd( Air)

now

available for the estima-

wind resistance of the hull and upper

works of a ship of any size and type are derived
almost exclusively from tests of special windtion of the

resistance models,

similar to

that pictured in

These have been run in water and in

air, sometimes in both. Despite the limitations in
scope of the book imposed in Sec. 1.5 of the
Introduction to Volume I, a few notes are given
here concerning the rather unusual techniques
employed with these models.
When making tests with abovewater models
to determine wind-drag coefficients, the models
Fig. 54. B.

which

circulating-water channel.

When

the

test

is

conducted by procedure

look up from underneath and

watch the position and action of tufts attached to

the abovewater hull and the upperworks. This
is also possible in a wind tunnel but streamers of
dye and ink injected into the slow-moving water
of the channel show the flow to much better
advantage than jets of gas or smoke injected into
the fast-moving air of the wind tunnel.
There is little to represent boundary-layer
development over the full-scale water surface
under these conditions, causing a natural variation
with vertical distance, because the

of velocity

mounting board
For a relative wind compounded of ship
motion and an ahead wind of gale force, the wind
resistance can form a large percentage of the
water resistance. For the second example of
Sec. 54.10, assuming an ABC ship speed of 18.5
kt and a strong breeze of only 23 kt (true velocity),
the wind resistance is 10.8 per cent of the barehull hydrodynamic resistance at that speed.
54.5 Notes on Wind-Resistance Models and
Testing Techniques. The values of wind-drag

hulls

(3) Mounted on the under surface of a flat platform and suspended, in inverted position, in a

(3) it is possible to

magnitude of this resistance, E. F.

As
Eggert estimates it as from 2 to 4 per cent of the
water resistance [TMB Rep. 264, Aug 1930, p. 1].
The first example of Sec. 54.10 indicates that for
for the

model

at any bearing from right ahead to right astern.

waterline,

still

still-air

Sec. 54.5

to represent relative ^vind impinging on the

is

only several times as large as

the planform area of the model. For the model

test,

therefore, the water (or wind) velocity is

nearly constant over

all

parts of the model, from

the lower part of the abovewater hull to the

mast

trucks.

B illustrates what is known as a drawingroom model of a destroyer but it shows well the
amount of detail which is customarily reproduced
on wind-resistance models. The mounting board
shown there is greatly enlarged for a windFig. 54.

resistance test in water.

The experimental techniques developed to date

do not simulate fully the actual ship conditions.
This is not surprising because the full-scale
conditions are not yet adequately known. However, the wind drags are usually not-too-large
fractions of the total resistance to motion, and
the available data appear to serve well for
estimating

purposes in the preliminary-design

stage and for analysis and reduction of full-scale

trial data.

54.6

Tests.

Bibliography of

There

is

Model Wind-Resistance

given hereunder a partial

list

of

are:

published data relating to model \vind-resistance

(1) Mounted on the under side of a flat board or

platform representing the water surface, and then
towed inverted in a model basin. The under

tests.

surface of the board

is

with the model upside

board, with the model,

held at the water surface,

down

in the water.

The

may be oriented in azimuth

Other data undoubtedly exist but they

have not yet been collected. In addition, the list
contains references embodying shipboard observations on air drag and wind resistance and other
references describing the use of these data in

analyzing ship

trials.

The

list

follows:

AIR

Sec. 5-1.7

AND WIND RESISTANCE OF

"Experiments on the Froude,"

SNAME, 1911, Vol. 19, pp. 114-115
Schoeneich, "Der Windwiderstand bei Seesohiffen
(The Wind Resistance of Oceangoing Ships),"
Schiffbau, 22 Nov 1911, pp. 121-129
McEntee, W., "Notes from the Model Basin,"
SNAME, 1916, Vol. 24, p. 86, and Pis. 70, 71
Smith, W. W., "Effect of Wind and Fouling Resistances on the U. S. S. Neptune," SNAME, 1917,
Vol. 25, pp. 41-69
Biles, H. J. R., "Notes on the Effect of Wind on
Power and Speed," INA, 1927, Vol. LXIX, pp.
164-173
Kempf, G., and Sottorf, W., "Probefahrtsmessungen
(Ship-Trial Measurements)," WRH, 22 Jun 1928,
pp. 232-236
Hughes, G., "Model Experiments on the Wind
Peabody,

H.,

C.

Aug

Resistance of Ships," Engineering, 8

p.

(22)

Kent,

J. G.,

San Leandro,

Wind on Ship Trials,"

EMB Rep. 264,

Aug 1930

Room Model

"Test of Drawing

of 10,000-Ton Light

Cruisers (Pensacola and Salt Lake City, CL24, 25)

in

Water

EMB

to Determine Forces
Rep. 276, Dec 1930

"Test of Drawing

Room Model

Due

to

Wind,"

"Sea Trials on a 9,500-ton Deadweight

Motor Cargo Liner," joint INA-IME (Institute
Marine Engineers) mtg., 5 Apr 1955; abstracted

S.,

"Trial Analysis Methods,"

SNAME,

1932, Vol. 40, pp. 17-44

Baker, G. S., "Ship Design, Resistance, and Screw

Propulsion," 1933, Vol. I, pp. 213-221
Hughes, G., "The Effect of Wind on Ship Performance," INA, 1933, Vol. 75, pp. 97-121 and Pis.

VIII-X
"Test of Model of U. S. S. Salinas Inverted in Water
to Determine Forces Due to Wind," TMB Rep.
345, Jan 1933
Stevens, E. A.,

"Wind

SBMEB,

in

Jul 1955, p. 434.

the adverse effects

that

depended

upon

other words,

in

the

ASNE,

Feb.

SBSR, 2 Apr

1936,

Resistance,"

1936, pp. 19-31; abstracted in

pp. 408-409
Eshbach, O. W., "Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals," 1st ed., 1936, pp. 9-64 through 9-69,

ratio;

craft

was

W. Lap, in a published lecture on ship resistance,

quotes extensively from Report 1 of the Japanese
Shipbuilding Research Assn., 1954, in a discussion
of the air resistances of ships

structures [Int.

and

their super-

Shipbldg. Prog., Sep 1955, Vol.

No. 25, pp. 509-513]

(25) Richter, E., "Strommgsgiinstige

Formen von

Schiffs-

aufbauten (Flow Around the Most Favorable

Form of Ship Superstructures)," Schiff und Hafen,
Jun 1955, pp. 351-356.

In addition to the tests on the wind-resistance

models

of the ships hsted in the foregoing refer-

ences and on Figs. 54. C, 54. D, and 54.E of Sec.

54.9, it is reported that tests have been made on

models of several large tankers and

(1955)

it

Up

54.7

Drag

Coefficients for Typical

resistance; in a 30-kt

head wind as only

0.08 of the total.

Nolan, R. W., "Design of Stacks to Minimize Smoke

Nuisance," SNAME, 1946, Vol. 54, pp. 42-82

Abovewater

to the dimensional form,

D^ = kA^W^
When Dw

is

in lb,

^a

is

in

ft^,

(54.vii)

and

Wg

in kt,

the value of k varies from 0.003 to 0.0056, for a

relative-wind velocity from directly ahead. A

round value for k, easily remembered, is 0.004.

R. Ellis quotes a dimensional coefficient k of
0.0055 for determining the wind drag of a moored,
cruising-type sailing yacht, based upon wind

A^

resistance as only 0.02 of the total hydro-

writing

Hulls and Upper Works. Modifying Eq. (54.iii)

of Sec. 54.4 by applying it to the wind drag
rather than the wind resistance, and adhering

hurricanes.

have reduced the wind resistance only by the

ratio of 0.17 to 0.12. Further, they estimate the

of several
of

present these data.

sectional area

streamlining on the Lusitania would

to the date

has not been possible to locate and to

velocities in

dynamic

power-displacement

(24) A. J.

"The Transatlantic Liner of the Future," IME, 14 Dec 1937;

abstracted in SBSR, 30 Dec 1937, pp. 811-818,
esp. pp. 813, 817. The authors estimate that

still-air

The author found

wind and weather

upon how hard the

covering wind pressure on structures

Malglaive, P. de, and Hardy, A. C.,

maximum

of

being driven.

of U. S.

TMB

A.

Ships,"

of

floating drydocks.

Destroyer
Hamilton in Water to Determine Forces due to
Wind,"
Rep. 312, Oct 1931
Schoenherr, K. E., "On the Analysis of Ship Trial
Data," SNAME, 1931, Vol. 39, pp. 281-301
Pitre,

Seakindly

of

Vol. 66, Part 8, pp. 417-442

the cargo vessel Pacific

Trader, and the liner Mauretania (old).

Effect of

1948, pp. 24-26, 69

"The Design

L.,

and Koning,

(23) Aertssen, G.,

3,

of the tanker

RPSS,

J.

279
P. A., Troost, L.,

NECI, 1949-1950,
and D159-D174

184

"The

(20)

Van Lammeren, W.

1930,

Hughes, G., "Model Experiments on Wind Resistance

of Ships," INA, 1930, Vol. LXXII, pp. 310-329
and Pis. XXXIII-XXXVI. This paper gives the
results of wind-tunnel tests on abovewater models

SHIPS

(21)

beam and

He

reckons the cross-

as the product of the

maximum

the height of the cabin top above

water [Yachting, Jun 1955, p. 60]. However,

EUis uses a wind velocity in mph; replacing this
with a wind velocity in kt, the dimensional
coefficient k should be increased by the factor
(1.15)^ or 1.3225. The coefficient k then becomes
(0.0055) (1.3225) or 0.00727.

When
and

Wr

D^r of Eq.

(54.vii) is in kg,

Aa

is

in

m^

in meters per sec, k is of the order of

HYDRODYNAMICS

280

0.045 to 0.063 for ship superstructures only [van

Lammeren, W. P.
RPSS, 1948,

J. G.,

A., Troo.st, L.,

and Koning,

p. 69].

On

the basis of the foregoing, tests with abovewater models towed upside down in basins give

a 0-dinil drag coefficient CccAir) of the order of

0.85 to 1.2 or more; This agrees well with values
for short, blunt-ended, 3-diml bodies [S

and P,

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 54.8

the high portions of the ranges listed previously

in this section.

Table 54. a presents a number of dimensional

wind-drag coefficients, taken from the material
referenced there. In every case, so far as known,
the coefficients given apply to mnd forces
generated by a relative wind of incident velocity
Wb blowing from directly ahead, where the
,

1943, pp. 52, 159-160; RPSS, 1948, pp. 25, 69].

When the deck erections and upper works are

relative-wind bearing angle e(theta)

not yet laid out, or are known only sketchily, it

is possible to approximate the projected area of
the abovewater silho\iette, as seen from directly

account, and

ahead, by E. t. Eggert's formula,

Aa=

(0.5)B1:

This assumes an average maximum effective

height, above the water, of half the beam Bx
For the ABC ship of Part 4, mth its tentative
beam of 73 ft, the projected area by this rule
works out as (0.5) (73)' = 2,665 ft'. For a passenger-cargo ship it is probably on the small side.

When
are

the mass density of the air

dimensional

taken into

measurement
and the

consistent units of

the

used,

deg.

is
is

formula

coefficients listed in

Table

values for

the 0-diml formula

Cfl(Air) in

Dnr

ClXAir)

54. a give

cf

a range of

-^AryR

(54. iv)

which vary from 0.974 to 1.505. These are to be

compared with the C^'s for flat plates of various
aspect ratios, placed normal to the stream, which

When

The method of using the projected or silhouette

area as the basis for the wind-resistance estimate,
especially with the relative wind directly ahead,

are fisted in

open to some objection because it takes no

account of the fore-and-aft positioii of the parts
of this silhouette with respect to each other. A
large deckhouse right forward, close to the bow
and in the lee of the updrafts from the blunt
bow, as on large Great Lakes freighters, probably
causes less wind resistance than the same deckhouse farther aft. Further, on a large tanker, the
forward house may be so far from the forecastle,
and the after house so far from the forward
house, that the shielding offered by each on the
one astern is negligible, even with a relative Avind
from right ahead. Vessels with large fore-and-aft
gaps or separations between major transverse

of this section, is converted for use in the 0-diml

is

TABLE

54.a

wind, and

Wr

is

in

Group

area Aa [SEE, 1942, pp. 14-16).

Non-Dimensional Values of 0^,(^1 r)

fc

beginning

Eq. (54. iv), the value of C^xAir) works out as

about 1.18.
54.8 Comments Concerning Wind-Friction Resistance of an Abovewater Hull.
In Sec. 54.4
it is

assumed that, because of the irregular shape

abovewater portion of a ship, its wind drag

of the

all pressure drag, varying as W^

This is
probably true for the general case, where the
relative A\dnd may blow from any bearmg relative

is

to the ship.

With the

wind nearly ahead, a ship

upper works, resembles
somewhat a train of streamhned cars behind a
relative

hull proper, excluding the

streamlined locomotive. In both cases the sur-

S.

fc

listed at the

where fiwind is in lb, Aji is in ft^, projected normal to the

tlie formula R^/iad = kA^W^
Unless otherwise stated Wr is directly ahead.
0.004 and Aa if not known, is taken as (Sx)V2 [EMB Rep. 264, Aug 1930, p. 2]
0.004 [S and P, 194.3, pp. 51-52]

Baker, G.

employing units as

let.

W.

Chapman, C. F.
Chapman, C. F.

the coefficient

Approximate Wind-Drag Coefficients for Various Types of Ships

Barnaby, K. C. k

Taylor, D.

55.B.

of k.

=
=
=
=
=

Eggert, E. F.

Fig.

0.004 of the dimensional wind-drag Eq.

(54.vii),-

areas therefore call for the use of coefficients in

Group I. Dimensional Values

The values of k pertain to

0.00454 for an anchored motorboat [SSBH, 1951]

0.0051 for an anchored sailboat, measuring Aa to top of deckhouse [SSBH, 1951]
0.004 but A^ is determined by adding to the projected area of the superstructure and upper works

a diminished projected area of the hull proper, equal to that projected area times 0.45 (Cb) [BNA,

II.

See the text.

fc

1948, Art. 163, pp. 192-193]

0.0033 for an Atlantic liner and 0.004 for a cargo vessel, combined with a reduction factor which
calls for using only about 0.3 of the actual projected hull area when computing the overall projected

AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF

Sec. 54.9

faces in contact with the air are large

many
and

and

long,

of the contours are reasonably uniform,

friction

drag

no longer

is

StIIPS

281

-Tanker SALINAS
-Carcjo Ship CLAIRTON
-Passenger Ship 5ANTA

negligible. If the

R05A
^

frontal area of such a ship hull is taken as equal

or even
to the maximum underwater ai'ea Ax
,

as B{H), with an

L/B

abovewater area

of the

ratio of say 7, the

smooth

= 2{7B)H =

the order of 2L{H)

"wetted"

side portions is of

14B(i7). This

proportion of wetted to frontal area is about the

same as for a railway coach. Unfortunately, a

reasonably accurate prediction of the friction

drag for the coach must await more knowledge

as to the actual air flow around it [Hoerner, S. F.,

AD,

1951, pp. 169-170]; the

same

is

true of the

ship hull.

54.9 Drag and Resistance with Wind on the

Bow. For the reasons explained in Sec. 26.15
and illustrated in Fig. 26.1 of Volume I, the
relative wind blowing at an angle on the bow

impinges separately on d-eck erections, stacks,

and certain other elements of the upper works

which normally benefit from shadowng when the

relative wind is dead ahead or nearly so. Furthermore, a ship hull, lying at an effective angle of
attack to the relative wind and acting as a shortspan airfoil, cantilevered above the water surface,
is creating an induced drag as well as the lift
depicted in diagram C of Fig. 26. H. This induced
drag, although not

shown

there, is additional to

measured as part of the

wind drag and wind resistance when model tests
are made, and is included in the coefficients set
the pressure drag. It

is

forth in this chapter.

As a
lift

result,

and drag

velocity

the

bow

Wr

the axial component Rwid of the

forces due to the relative-wind

at a range of relative-wind angles on

usually exceeds the value of the wind

resistance i2wind
directly ahead.

when the
The ratio
6,

is

from

Then for any

measured toward the

pressed for convenience as kg

angle of relative wind

wind

relative

of these forces is ex.

from ahead, /2wind = kgDw when D^r

measured at 6 =
deg. This is equivalent to
right

jRwind at angle d

The

rates at

fc9(i2wind at

which the

deg)

coefficient kn

is

(54.viii)

vary with

the direction of the relative wind for several

ships of different types are illustrated in Figs.

54.C, 54. D, and 54. E.

Two

similar graphs, one

for a cargo vessel with forecastle, centercastle,

and poop, and the other for a passenger ship,

are given by W. P. A. van Lammeren, L. Troost,
and J. G. Koning [RPSS, 1948, Fig. 8, p. 25].

10

20

Angle
Fig. 54. C

30 40

of Relative

Graphs of

50 60 70^-80 90
Wind f rom Aheod, deg
kg

for Three Merchant Ships

Anqle of Relative Wind from Aheod, deq

O 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 96

HYDRODYNAMICS

282

Anqle of Relative Wind from Ahead, deq

10 20 30 40 50 60 10 80 90,

-^

1.5

O
1.4

-s

"?

1.3

>
Q^

I.Z

o
^^

''

"^

1.0

for a Typical

Cruiser
PENSACOLA (CLZ4)

0.9 -S

0.8

01

az

0.6

speed of 20.5

kt.

area

Aa\s

by Eggert's

(0.5)Bx

taken,

With a beam

0.5(73)'

2,665

transverse abovewater
rule of

of 73

ft,

thumb, as
becomes

Aa

The dimensional Eq.

ft'.

and k is taken
no true or natural
wind blomng, W^ is equal to V, and there is no
variation of wind velocity with height, due to
(54.vii) is

used for a

first

estimate,

as 0.004. Also, since there

boundary-layer

RsA =

effect.

DjfT for this

= kA^Ws =
Assuming a
the

still-air

The

0.0263.

is

Then

case

0.004(2,665) (20.5)'

4,4801b.

hydrodynamic resistance Rt for

from Chap. 66, as about 170,000

total

the bare hull,

lb,

o
0.5:?

be approximated for the

The

trial

<D

Heavv^

Sec. 54.10

stUl-air resistance is to

.6

iota

IN SHIP DESIGN

resistance ratio

bare-hull

Rr

is

4,480/170,000

value

is

used so that

may be added as a percentage,

appendage resistance, to predict

the stUl-air drag

Kke the

overall

the probable total trial resistance.

tn

0.4 '^

consider

the

relative-Avind

resistance

3:

deg (^\'ind ahead), the ship speed at

sea is 18.5 kt, and the true wind velocity is 23 kt.
The relative-mnd speed is then (18.5 + 23) = 41.5

'S

kt.

-a

0.3 .E
0.2

Next,

when

0.1

Hence

i2wiod

= kA^W^ =

0.004(2,665)(41.5)'

=
10

20

30 40 50 60 70 60 90
Wind from Ahead, deg

18,360

lb.

This represents a resistance augment, over that

trial speed of
20.5 kt, of (100) (18,360/170,000) or 10.8 per cent.
It would be a much larger proportion of the total

/'^ngle of Relative

estimated for the bare hull at the

Fig. 54. E

Gr.\ph of

kg

for a Heavy Cruiser

Three additional graphs are given by G. Hughes

for a tanker, a cargo vessel, and a transatlantic
liner [INA, 1930, pp. 321-324 and PL XXXVI].
These graphs are reproduced in SNAME, 1932,
Fig. 14, p. 41. Additional graphs for an express
cargo hner are given by G. Kempf in Fig. 7 on
page 51 of this reference. A graph for the U. S.
Maritime Administration Mariner class is published by V. L. Russo and E. K. Sullivan in
SNAME, 1953, Fig. 45, page 212.
54.10

ABC

Prediction

Ship of Part

4.

of

Wind

Resistance

As examples

by which the formulas and data

sections are

employed

wind resistances
Part

4,

of the

for

method

of the preceding

in practice, the probable

of the

ABC

ship, designed in

are calculated for several design stages

and conditions.
It is assumed

first,

that at an early stage in the

preliminary design, before the abovewater body

is

dra%vn and the upper works are laid out, the

resistance at the 18.5-kt smooth-water ship speed

of the

problem given.

As a third approximation it
mate the \\dnd resistance of the

is

desired to esti-

ABC ship,

having
abovewater hull and upper works of the general
form shown in Figs. 66.0, 66. S, and 68. M, when
conducting a full-speed run during standardization
over the measured mile. Assume that the measured speed is 20.4 kt for a particular run, that the
amemometer on top of the after pair of kingposts
reads 41.5 kt, and that the Avind direction indicator
gives an angle of 22 deg on the port bow. The
latter two readings are both for the relative wind,
so

it is

ship

is

not really necessary to know how fast the

gouig through the water to predict the

wind resistance to be encountered.

From the dimensions on Fig. 54. F, corresponding to those on the three dra^vings mentioned,
the silhouette area, looking from ahead, is estimated to be about 3,880 ft'. This is nearly half

AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS

Sec. 54.11

Silhouette from
Calculated Lateral Area

of

Fig. 54.F

Abovewater Form, 20,167 sq

Abeam,

Correspondincj

to

Layout

in

Fiq,

68.M

ft

Wind-Resistance and Cbnteb-of-Pressube Layout for the

Aa = (0.5)5i value originTo keep the problem simple it is assumed

ABC

Ship of Part 4

again as large as the

more than its rated maximum power

ally used.

whether the ship could make 20.4 kt on the trial

course against a 41.5-kt relative wind on the bow.

that the relative-wind velocity over

is

all this

area

the same, eliminating any boundary-layer effect.

The value

of kg is

taken from the Santa Rosa

short-dash curve of Fig. 54. C, for 6

as approximately 1.15. Then, for Wr

Eq.

22 deg,
41.5 kt,

(54.viii) gives

2?wud

= {ke)KAA)Wl
=

From

Pe

=
=

(1.15)(0.004)(3,880)(41.5)'

30,739

Fig. 78. Nc of Part 4, the effective

for the transom-stern design of

predicted from model tests,

For the water speed

is

lb.

power

ABC

ship,

about 9,940 horses.

of 20.4 kt, equivalent to

Rt with
appendages, works out as 9,940(550)/34.45 =
158,694 lb. The predicted wind resistance then
34.45 ft per sec, the total resistance

54.11

Magnitude

of

Wind

it is

doubtful

Pressure.

It

is

magnitude
of the forces exerted by a natural wind on a flat
plate or a flat surface normal to the wind direction.
A number of authors have given tabulated data
of this kind in the past, among them Dixon Kemp
["A Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing," Cox,
London, 3rd ed., 1882, p. 599, on which there is a
table of wind-pressure intensity]. His values of
normal pressure in lb per ft^, for a range of wind
helpful at times to have

velocity of

to

an idea

of the

100 kt, corresponding to the

complete range of the Beaufort scale from 1 to

12, were based upon a constant drag coefficient
Cd of 1.87. It is now known that this drag coeflacient varies from about 1.16 for a square plate

resistance at 20.4 kt of (100)(30,739)/158,694 or

with free edges to about 1.90 for an infinitely

long strip, also with free edges.
The figures iia Table 54.b are adapted from a

19.4 per cent. Unless the machinery could develop

table published

represents an increase in

the estimated

total

more recently by K. C. Barnaby

HYDRODYNAMICS

284

TABLE

54. b

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 54.12

Nominal Force, Velocity, and Pressure Due to Natural Winds

The ram pressures are based on a p-value of 0.002378 slugs per ft'. The flat-plate pressures are based on a thin plate
mounted in the open, with a separation zone on its leeward side.
Column 5 is calculated for a Co of 1.16; column 6 for a Cd of 1.90.
The vAnd. velocities correspond exactly to the Beaufort-scale numbers pubUshed in "Instructions for Keeping Ship's
Deck Log," NavPers 15876 of July 1955, Bureau of Naval Persoimel, U. S. Navy Department.

AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OE SHIPS

Sec. 54.14

285

wind-resistance load of 22.6 long tons for a large

with multiple derricks.

of the dimensional drag coefficient for

collier

The value

a broadside relative wind

0,50

wind or

as for an end-on

very nearly as large

having a

is

for a flat plate

0.45

length ecjual to that of the ship and a depth of

0.40

twice the ship height (including the mirror image

below the water surface). However, tests on
models indicate a somewhat smaller drag co-

0.55

broadside presentation.

efficient for the

For a dimensional expression

0,30

D,

0,25

of the

form

ksA,,W^

(54.viia)

Data Token from

EMB Rep.- 276

EMB Rep. 512
EMB Rep. 334
EMB Rep 345

020

-1

0.15

EMB

Rep 562

for

FENSACOLA

for

HAMILTON
CLAIRTON
5AL1NA5 3ANTA ROSA

for

for
for

the dimensional coefficient ks for 6 = 90 deg has

values ranging from 0.003 to 0.0042. In their
analysis,

Fig. 54.

Theoretically,

50
60
30
40
Wind from Centerline

of

Farrell

of 0.004.

make an

estimate of the

mnd
10
20
of Relative

Thorpe and

for practice,

It is interesting to

of the Model Tested

Anqle6

and

recommend a kg

Each Report Contains a Photoqroph

0.10

70
80
90
Ship Aheod,decj

m Fig.

54. F

mnd. The

Centee-of-Wind-Pkessure Data fob

Five Typical Ships
=
all graph values should be zero when

ABC

drag exerted on the

when

ship of diagram 3

lying beam-to in a 60-kt storm

silhouette area for 6

90 deg and for

the ship at designed draft, estimated from Fig.

68.M and from diagram

3 of Fig. 54.F,

is

20,167

For a /c-value of 0.0042, the maximum quoted

by T. Thorpe and K. P. Farrell in Sec. 54.13, the
lateral wind drag is
ft^

models of the

five ships listed in the

graphs of

and 54. E. Schematic wind-drag

force vectors for a few representative relativewind directions are indicated on diagram 2 of
Fig. 54. F. G. Hughes gives center-of -pressure data
for three aboveAvater models tested m a Avind
tunnel [INA, 1930, p. 321 and Fig. 2 on PI. XXXV;
Figs. 54. C, 54.D,

INA,

1933,

from
54.13

PL

VIII, Fig.

4],

for values' of

Wind Drag.

Ships underway

are often subjected to strong relative \vinds from

abeam, at an angle d of approximately 90 deg,

measured from ahead. Vessels anchored and at
moorings, lying to the tide or moored at both
ends in assigned positions, are subject to cross
winds. Moreover, vessels often have to be berthed
and unberthed when the true wind is about at
right angles to their axes. The wind resistance
under these conditions is nearly zero, but the
wind drag may be very large.
The most extensive and probably the most
rehable data as to lateral wind drag appear to
be those of T. Thorpe and K. P. Farrell [INA,
1948, pp. 116-117]. These list transverse winddrag loads for a wind velocity of 60 kt as ranging
from 37.5 long tons for a large battleship to 7.85
long tons for a frigate or escort vessel.

Smith, in reference

=
This

is

304,925

(4)

of Sec. 54.6,

W. W.

mentions a

0.0042(20, 167)(60)'

lb.

almost twice the ahead hydrodynamic

resistance at the designed speed, as predicted

Under

the model test.

to 180 deg.

Lateral

Dw = keA^Wi =

would,

if left

to

itself,

by

this lateral force the ship

heel

and

drift

downward,

as described in subsequent sections.

54.14

Heel.

Lateral
It is

Wind Moments and Angle

of

unfortunately possible for certain

craft, especially

when

a light or nearly light

wind about abeam,

moment which
exceeds the righting moment. The craft then
capsizes. This can happen in areas of relatively
smooth water, if a vessel is struck by a sudden
high-velocity squall. In areas where waves
already exist, the menace is obviously greater if
the ship is perched broadside on a high wave
condition, with the relative

to be subjected to a wind-drag

Avith

crest,

a diminished metacentric stability,

at the instant that

it

experiences the

maximum

force of the squall.

to beam winds on
about an axis in the waterplane,
be estimated by using a 0-diml formula

The

heeling

moment due

full-scale vessels,

may

HYDRODYNAMICS

286

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 54.15

where Ck is the 0-diml heeling moment coefficient

due to wind
^A is the abovewater area for 5 = 90 deg,
projected on the plane of symmetry, with the

As an indication of the values to be expected

under violent beam winds, a model of the World
War I Eagle class patrol boats was floated in a
shallow pan of water in a wind tunnel, where it
was blown upon at various relative-Avind bearings
6 from 30 deg (on the bow) to 150 deg (on the
quarter). The scale ratio was 48, the weight
of 480 t, and
corresponded to the designed ship

vessel upright

the full-scale

developed by the Bureau of Ships of the U,

Navy Department. It is

hx

C;c(0.5p).4^/u(cos=

(54.ix)

the height above the waterplane of the

is

center of the area

0(phi)

Wjt

^)Wl

S.

is

is

A a mth

the relative-^vind velocity, assumed as

value

give

of

the

product

Ck(0.5p) of about 0.00147, from which

0.00147/(0.001189) = 1.236. Entering the

Ck =
known

assumed values for a given situation, and

assuming successive values of heel angle <^,
increasing by 10 deg up to as great a range as
desired, a curve of heeling moment on a basis of
heel angle is plotted for a given wind velocity.
Comparing this with the curve of righting
or

moments

in stUl water, the intersection gives the

angle to which a ship will heel under the wind

effect.

Assuming a given maximum or allowable

angle of heel, the righting

may

be set down as

moment

in Eq.

and the

This procedure is in the nature of a rough

approximation because, like the example of the
preceding section, it assumes a constant wind
velocity over the whole lateral abovewater area.

Further,

takes no account of second-order

it

such as the downwind motion of the ship

by the wind, or
away from the
wind. For a sudden squall, it takes no account of
the kinetic rolling energy in the ship when it
due to the

lateral force exerted

the fact that the ship

is

heeling

reaches the nominal angle of equilibrium, which

means that the ship would heel beyond the equihbrium angle. However, L. Gagnatto, as the
result of a more rigorous analysis [ATM A, 1929,
Vol. 33, pp. 53-74], finds that the rigorous method
gives a

maximum

angle of heel sensibly less than

that derived from the approximate method.

further analysis

was

carried out

and reported a few years

later

by Guntzberger

[ATM A,

1934,

Vol. 38, pp. 341-355].

E. A. Wright has published a photograph, with

accompanying notes, of a destroyer model undergoing a wind-resistance test (in a wind tunnel)

when

heeled

[SNAME,

At a

simulated in the tests was

This corresponded to (1.012/26.23)5 or

The dimensions and

SNAME RD

full-scale

lines of the vessel

sheet 118.

wind velocity corresponding to

uncommon
maximum angle

100 mph, 86.84 kt, by no means

in

hurricanes and typhoons, the

of

heel

was over 37

deg. Surprisingly, this occurred

bow 130 deg away from the wind. The

next greatest heel, 35 deg, was encountered with
the bow 70 deg from the wind. With the wind
abeam, or at bearings of 50 and 110 deg, the heel
with the

was

less

deg,

than 33 deg. The smallest

occurred

when the bow was

heels,

150 deg from the relative-wind direction

Rep.

An

20-22

either 30 or

[EMB

15, Jul 1920].

interesting

passage

from

this

report

is

quoted as follows:

for that angle

(54. ix)

corresponding wind velocity be found.

effects

ft.

are found on

the angle of heel

tests

1.012

0.039S.

the vessel upright

directed abeam.

Model

GM

1946, Fig. 25, p. 393].

"3. The center of lateral resistance was previously determined by towing a larger but similar model of (an) Eagle
boat sidewise and was found to be substantially at the

water surface."

Estimated Drift and Leeway. It is

advance, just how fast a
ship, mthout power and under given weather
conditions, may be expected to drift under the
action of wind alone. This is principally because
ships vary in their attitudes to the wind when
54.15

difficult to estimate, in

drifting, so the relative position of the ship axis

and the wind direction must generally be assumed.

Granted that the ship drifts broadside to the
wind, and that it is of normal form, a reasonable
value of the 0-diml water-drag coefficient of its
underwater body is 1.15. This is derived by

assuming an actual

L/H

ratio

of 20,

but an

low speeds the ship

behaves essentially as would its underwater hull,
plus a superposed mirror image, drifting downwind in infinitely deep water. At these low speeds
the effect of waves resulting from the broadside

effective ratio of 10, since at

motion can be neglected. The drag coefficient

Cd of a flat plate of these proportions is, from
Fig. 55.B, about 1.5, but the ship has few sharp
edges like the thin plate, especially under the

AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS

Sec. 54.17

287

bottom. In any case, too high a value of Co for

the lateral water resistance represents an unsafe

operating propulsion device (s) due to the current

flowing by them.

downwind

A ship with a normal proportion of its total

bulk volume under water usually rides to the

estimate, since the calculated rate of

then smaller than

drift is

The

resistance to drift

found on the ship.

may be expressed by
is

current rather than to the wind. This means

may blow at any bearing relative

and that the greatest drag due to
both current and wind may be expected when the
ship is riding head to the current, with the wind
about 30 deg on either bow. T. Thorpe and K. P.
that the wind

(54.x)

The

force causing drift

the wind drag of the

is

Wr

ship at the relative wind velocity

expressed

by

to the ship,

Farrell, in the reference cited,

emphasize the effect

because the wind drag varies
as the square of the maximum instantaneous
of gusts

D^ =

C^(Air>(0.5p^)4^Tf'

(54.iv)

and

assuming that

velocity,

The

wind force

lateral

equation,

latter

substituted

FDri.t

is

the

for

lateral

Eq. (54.x), and this

then solved for the drifting speed

resistance to drift

equation

calculated from the

is

Rorut

of

the abovewater lateral projected area A a

assumed equal to the underwater lateral area
A and Co for wind drag is taken as 1.18, then
for equal wind and drift drags
If

is

I,

it

blows with this aug-

mented velocity on the whole ship at once.

Wind-drag forces on groups of moored ships,
lying alongside each other, are given by M. E.
Long in TMB Report R-332 of December 1945,
entitled "Wind Tunnel Tests to Determine Air
Loads on Multiple-Ship Moorings for Destroyers
of the

DD692

The naval

Class."

architect will require drag data on

moored

vessels only infrequently.

therefore
(1.18)

(for air) TF^

(1.15)

(for water)(7Dri,t)'

54.17

FLift

1.18(0.001189)

TFi

1.15(0.99525)

be remembered
downwind,

It is to

drifting

Wr =
54. 1 6

IFt.u,

that, since the ship is

F:,n,t.

Estimating the Forces on a

brief discussion of the forces

is

included in Sec. 12.8. It

Thorpe and K.

is

that a ship lying at a mooring

mentions that

when the

it

pointed out by T.
is

1948, p.

116]

subject to forces

tidal current. Sec. 12.8

also subject to slope drag

ship rides at anchor in an appreciable

current, with the

To

is

cored Ship.
on a moored ship

P. Farrell [INA,

due to wind, waves, and

moored end higher than the

free

the usual resistance forces derived from

motion of the ship and the water there
added the drag of the non-rotating or non-

end.

relative

attempt

is

Surf ace- Water Currents due to Natural

of drift and leeway in

wind resistance in general, is
not complete without some mention of the surfacewater currents produced by a natural wind blowing over a body of water. Some data are available
to relate the magnitude of this current to the
wind velocity but without the necessary information as to the height above the water surface at
which the velocity is measured.

particular,

0.035

No

here to include, with or without

adaptation, any of the tables, graphs, or diagrams

Wind.

Wr

made

given in the references.

whence

is

squalls,

discussion

and

of

E. F. Eggert states that this surface current,

presumably more-or-less uniform for the draft
of a surface ship of moderate size, has a magnitude of 0.015 times the wind velocity [EMB
Rep. 264, Aug 1930, p. 1, based on data furnished
by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey]. C. O'D.
Iselin states that on the average the surface water
moves at about 3 per cent of the wind velocity.
This is twice the value just quoted. Further,
Iselin

reports

that

the

surface-water

current

moves in a direction about 30 deg to the right

the wind in the northern hemisphere (30 deg
the

left

of

to

below the equator) ["Oceanography and

Naval Architecture,"
Jun 1954].

SNAME, New

Engl. Sect.,

CHAPTER

The

Calculation of

55.1

General

55.2
55 3

Scale-Effect Problems

55 4
.

55.5

55.6
55.7

55.1

GeneraL

Appendage Resistance

288
288

Customary Values and Proportions for Overall Ship Appendage Resistance

Classification of Appendages by Predominant
Type of Drag
Lift, Drag, and Other Data for Typical
Bodies Representing Appendages ....
Allowances for Wake Velocities on Appendage Drag
Shadowing AUowanoes for Appendages in

Chaps. 36 and 37

list

describe the use and effect of a considerable

Tandem

55 9
55. 10

The Drag of Exposed Rotating Shafts

Drag Data for Holes, Slots, and Gaps

55 1 1
55.12

The Resistance

55 13

The Calculation

290

and

num-

of bare-hull resistance

and form.

The drags listed in (b) are determined separately

by towing a model and removing the appendages
one by one. This involves some experience and
knowledge as to just how much of each type of
appendage to reproduce to small

scale.

This

is

comphcated
objects such as handrails, antennas, and fittings
on submarine models.
Screw propellers which are prevented from
turning by casualty, or which are locked within

especially true of representations of

the ship for other reasons, constitute a special

kind of appendage, at least as far as drag is
concerned.

They

of

The Displacement

55.14

submerged geometric

size

Appendage Resistance

295

for

represent a special case of the

295
295

Submerged Vessels

292

appendages
(b) Observed drag data for various ship appendages, generally from model tests

Ranges of percentage
appendages of normal

294
294

'

"

bodies and shapes approximating those of the

(c)

293
293

...
.

291

several sources of information:

for

for

Estimated Resistance of Discontinuities

of Large Appendages Considered as Parts of the Ship

This

is

of

to determine the

Appendages

hydrodynamic loads on

the various parts of the appendage, so that these

to

of

in

Abreast

288

parts

coefficients

Appendages

Modifications

found on many types of surface vessels of normal

form. Within the space available, this chapter
endeavors to furnish data by which the resistances
of the most common of these appendages are
estimated or calculated. This is possible from

Drag

292

Drag

55.8

ber of fixed and movable appendages, respectively,

(a)

55

may

meet

be made sufficiently strong and rigid

all service

requirements.

A great deal has

been written in the technical literature about the
problems of assessing or determining the Correct
resistance of appendages when added to a towed
or self-propelled model. An excellent resum^
covering all aspects of this situation in which the
55.2

Scale-Effect Problems.

ship designer

is

interested

Mandel [SNAME,

is

presented by P.

1953, pp. 493-495].

Despite

their efforts to solve the model-prediction problem,

the

techniques

and prediction procedures

various model-testing estabhshments

still

of

vary

rather widely.

The difficulty here is that almost all ship

appendages are completely submerged, they do
not make gravity waves, and hence dynamic
similarity of flow is gauged by the Reynolds
rather than by the Froude number. Only in
exceptional cases, in model basins, can dynamic
similarity on the i2 basis be achieved while the
test of the model as a whole is being conducted on
a Froude-number basis.
It may be assumed by the marine architect
that, until these problems are resolved by the
model-testing establishments, each one has good
engineering reasons for

its

own

procedure. Its

predictions of appendage resistance

\vill,

in its

situation where the propeller rotates at other

own

than a thrust-producing rate, and as such are

discussed in Part 5 of Volume III.
There is a second engineering reason for calculating or predicting the resistance of appendages.

necessary, as indicated in the latter part of Sec.

meet the needs of the ship designer,

the shipbuilder, and the ship owner.
Customary Values and Proportions for
55.3
Overall Ship Appendage Resistance. It is often

288

opinion,

APPENnACE-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 5y.3

TABLE
The

55.a

289

Percentage Increases in Effective Power P^ to be Expected on Trials of Three Types of Ship

source of these data

is

given in the accompanying text.

Ship Type

HYDRODYNAMICS

290

Lammeren,

G. Koning [RPSS,
They are reproduced in Table 55.a.

L. Troost,

1948, p. 69].

The graphs

of Fig. 55.

power Pe

effective

and

show the

for a large destroyer

individual percentages

An appendage

may

surface

and

Sec. 55.4

considered to add wetted

is

drag only

friction

if:

increases in

when

four types of appendage are added, one by one.

The

IN SHIP DESIGN

J.

be obtained by

the proper subtraction, on the basis that the

dimension

Its greatest

(a)

motion; in other words,

it

the direction of

lies in

has a low aspect ratio

Its surfaces lie in the general direction of flow

(b)

when the

ship motion

is

steady

Its thickness, as a fraction of its length in the

resistance effects of the four appendage types are

(c)

independent of each other.

direction of flow,

small or neghgible.

is

is an excellent example
Both long and short bossings
and large skegs are considered

roll-quenching keel

for all the foregoing.

for propeller shafts

essentially as parts of the hull in that their wetted

added to that of the hull. Docking

and resting keels are in the same category if their
edges and endings are fair and they lie in the lines
of flow. The friction drag R,, added by each is
surfaces are

then proportional to

its

discussion of Sec. 22.9 of

there

is

wetted area

Volume

<S.

I indicates

The
that

as yet no definite rule for assessing the

for these appendages, and for determining the Cf value for each.
The appendage is presumed to add pressure
drag only when one or more of the following

proper

72^

conditions obtain:
26

30
32
34
Ship Speed, kt

28
Tq

I46

36
To

38
=

40

1.98

Graphs Indicating Percentage Increments OF Babe-Hull Resistance for Four Series

OF Appendages on a Destroyer

Fig. 55.A

dimension

across the flow,

(1)

Its greatest

and

has an appreciable or a high aspect ratio

Its thickness, as a fraction of its length in the

(2)

direction of flow,
(3)

lies

it

Its

is

about 0.1 or more

fore-and-aft

length

is

short,

say

not

exceeding 0.02 the length of the ship. If wake

The graphs
at

least,

of Fig.

that

the

55.A indicate, for this model

percentage additions vary

somewhat with the ship

Table 55.b

lists

speed.

the percentage differences of

when a quadruple-screw
run at three values of T, =
V/ L, with all appendages, and when six series
of appendages are removed, one by one. Again the
percentage differences are found to vary somewhat with the speed.
total bare-hull resistance

cruisei^

model

is

P.

Mandel

gives data on appendage resistance

velocities are neglected,

a whole. This

is

the appendage

55.4

Classification

dominant Type

of

Appendages by PreIt is customary to

each ship appendage as

of

Drag.

treat the resistance of

predominantly friction or pressure drag. This

avoids the complicated extrapolation method
customarily used for the ship prediction.

R,, for

Diving planes, short skegs, rudder support

horns, strut hubs, exposed shafts, guards, fixed

screw-propeller shrouding, and sound

adapted from the reference.

are always

than about 0.02i2 for the

ship. The arm of the strut for an exposed shaft
is an example falUng within the limits of (1), (2),
and (3).

types of ship, at three speed-length quotients

is

;'(nu)

equivalent to saying that

among the appendages

1953, Table 8 on p. 494]. Table 55.c

and

is less

as a percentage of bare-hull resistance for five

[SNAME,

the same, for both the appendages and the ship as

domes are

causing pressure drag only.

forming a continuation of the ship

may have its wetted area
included in that of the main hull, with its drag
assumed as entirely frictional. If separate from
rudder,

if

hull or of a large skeg,

the hull, like an underhung spade rudder,

resistance

is

its

usually reckoned as a pressure drag

W. P. A. van Lammeren, L. Troost, and

G. Koning give 0-diml drag coefficients for
seven types of rudders of varied section, all
only.

J.

APPENDAGE-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 55.5

having an aspect ratio of 2.5 [RPSS, 1948, Fig.

Form

Dimension

Body

of

291

55.5 Lift, Drag, and Other Data for Typical

Bodies Representing Appendages. Appendages
are also classified by types or shape of body, on
the basis that, if they resemble certain geometric
forms, there are 0-diml drag coefficient data
available in the Uterature by which their resistances may be approximated. The shapes in this
category include symmetrical and asymmetrical

and other parts of airplanes

which published drag data are
rather extensive. For example, W. S. Diehl gives
fuselages,

airfoils,

and

airships, for

Sphere of
Diameter J)

p/'

Hemisphere,

ConcQve to
Stream

Number

Drag

of Bodvj

Ratio

Number

Coefficient

^\___U_

Droq
Coefficient

10=

0.50

3(10^)

0.20

"jT

>I0^

33

j. _^

"y

Hemisphere,

Convex to

Stream

JL

>I0^

1^

Ellipsoid,

Major Axis

<50o)

0.60

>5(I0)

021

-L to Flow

Ellipsoid,

Dimension Re\(nolds

Form

Reynolds

Rotio

216, p. 326].

XI

Mojor Axis
II

to Flow

f^ )\<^ ^M.8

Is^.^^
UJ,
i_

>2(l0')

Circular
Flat Plate,

Normal

^IC^

Stream

=>I0'

l/d-0

>I0'

A Pfoj'acted

^bRecto ncjular

^-i

>I0^

Normal
to Stream

.1

^-0

1-"

K-T:
Axis

Ffarallel

to Stream

flow in each case

085
087
099
0.63

0.68

074

Axis

Perpend icubr to Stream

10

0.82

20

090

40

98
1.20

L/d-5

>5(l0')

0.35
0.34

2-Diml Strut
Section

of

Elliptic

moment data on a

on Aeronautical Fuselages and

Rep. 236, 1926 reports, pp. 131150]. S. F. Hoerner, in his book "Aerodynamic
Drag," 1951, devotes his entire Chapter VIII, on
pages 121-155, to the drag of aircraft components.
He also gives a vast amount of 0-diml drag data,
applicable to appendages in water, in other
hulls

["Tests

Hulls,"

NACA

parts of the book.

Figs. 55.B and 55.C present the readily available
geometric-shape data, with the values necessary

0.06
0.063
Strut

Q094

Fig. 55. B

Drag-Coefficient Values fob a Number

OF Well-Known Geometric Shapes

The

velocity vector

flow in each case

Cr,^Ar,,U'

0.20

QIO

2.-Diml StreomlJned

great variety of these

elements, as well as on seaplane and flying-boat

D =
c/t.

indicates the direction of uniform

for insertion in the 0-diml drag formula

Abt6(l0*)

velocity vector

drag and
1.12

L/D" 1

Cylinder,

The

1.90

0.91

TCirculor

>\0^

Drag-Coefficient Values for a Group

OP 3-DiML Geometric Shapes

1.50

Circular Cylinder,

Fig. 55.C
1,16

1.20

Plote,

indicates the direction of uniform

Here Ap,j may be 0.25tD\ 6(/i), L{D), or b(t),

as the case requires. These data are adapted from
the^foUowing sources:
(a)

"The Physics

(b)

Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,

J. G., RPSS, 1948, Fig. 26, p. 52
Rouse, H., EH, 1950, Table 2, p. 126; also Fig. 90 on

(c)

p. 124.

of Aviation," 1942, p. 75

HYDRODYNAMICS

292

As an example

may

one

velocity in the prediction of appendage resistance.

This means that it is necessary to estimate the

probable actual velocity past the appendage
(or its several parts) from the known or estimated
flow pattern around the ship, considering wakes

in

diagram

of

D in Sec. 55.7. This is on the basis of no

hydrodynamic interference between neck and
hull or between neck and head, and the absence
of alternating cu'culation effects due to the
vortex trail. It may be assumed that the ship
speed is 12.3 kt, that the water is salt, at 59 deg F,
and that no account is taken of variations in
Fig. 55.

velocity across the boundary-layer thickness of

the hull.
(1) For the neck, assume a diameter of 1.22 ft
and a length below the hull of 3.22 ft. The L/D
ratio is about 2.64 and the c?-Reynolds number
for 12.3 kt, or 20.77 ft per sec, is Ud/v = (20.77)

(1.22)(10')/1.2817 = 1.98 niilhon. This is greater

than the value of 5(10'"') in the lower portion of
the box of Fig. 55.B, devoted to the circular
cyhnder, with its axis normal to the flow. For

Co =

this situation

(for

neck)

0.35,

hence

= 0.35^^^^

[(3.22)(1.22)](20.77)-

590.1 lb.

For the head, assume a diameter

(2)

(10')/1.2817

3.419 million. This

is

greater than

the 5(10^) referred to in the foregoing but

than

(for

infinity.

head)

much

Hence
1

0.35

545.3

and

Volume

For instance, in the example

concluding Sec. 55.5, if the shape of the ship and
the sound-dome position in the ship were given,
it could be estimated that for the 3.22-ft length
of the neck the local velocity in the boundary
layer would average only 0.78 of the ship speed.
For the head, it could be predicted that, because
in

Chap.

flow

potential

of

52.

outside

boundary-layer

the

head would
be 1.04 times the ship speed.
The modified drag, not calculated here, might
not differ greatly from that derived in Sec. 55.5
but the moment of the drag, taken about the
point of support at the hull, would be considerably
greater. This is because the drag at various
^/-distances is proportional to the square of the
local velocity U, which increases with the' y-distance from the hull.
Some appendages Ijdng abaft propulsion devices
cloak, the average velocity past the

acted

upon by augmented

velocities,

to

develop thrust-deduction forces. Because of the

V^ effect, the percentage increase in drag for a
given condition

is

at least twice the percentage

augment of velocity.
Those appendages

(or

parts of them)

lying

within separation zones might have drag values

9905

^^^^

of all the kinds listed in Sec. 11.2 of

are
of 2.11 ft

and a length of 1.72 ft. The L/D ratio is about

1.23 and the Reynolds number is (20.77)(2.11)

less

Sec. 55.6

estimate the drag of the extensible

sound-dome assembly shown

IN SHIP DESIGN

of the application of these data,

[(1.72)(2.11)](20.77)'

of the order of zero.

Shadowing Allowances for Appendages

Tandem. The shadowing allowance(s) for the
downstream unit(s) of a system of similar append55.7

The

in

lb.

total predicted drag

is

then 590.1

545.3

1,135.4 lb.

A
some
55.

word may be

said here about the drag of

of the bodies represented

on Figs. 55. B and

been reached.

after the cavitating range has

The drag

Cd for a cavitation number

found to be related in fairly simple
fashion to the non-cavitating drag coefficient, as
described by P. Eisenberg [TMB Rep. 842, pp.
o-(sigma)

19-20],

ages in tandem, like the fins or portions of a

discontinuous roll-resisting keel, diagrammed in

on page 553 of Volume I, or for any

lying downstream from another,
indicated in diagram 2 of Fig. 55. D, depends upon:
Fig. 36.

appendage

coefficient

is

who

gives values of the variables for a

few well-known forms.

55.6 Allowances for Wake Velocities
on
Appendage Drag. With friction drag varying as
a power of F in the range of 1.8 to 2.0, and pressure drag excluding that from wavemaking
varying as V, it is important that a reasonably
correct value be used for the relative water

(a) Whether or not the after unit is actually

downstream from the leading one, having in
mind the local direction of flow rather than the

overall direction of motion.

wake

If

directly in the

upstream unit, th following one

may benefit from positive wake velocities due to
viscous flow or separation. If slightly to one side
of the

or the other
of the

it

may

suffer increased

augmented velocity -\-AU

drag because
the water

left in

that passed around the leading unit.

(b)

The shape

of the bodies, particularly their

APPENDAGE-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 55.9

^^^^^H^

293

leading unit and the fore-and-aft distance to the

For well-streamlined sections,

it may be the ratio between
the section length and the fore-and-aft center-

following

unit.

normal to the

flow,

to-Center spacing.

Whether the traihng unit

(d)

so close to the

is

leading unit as to modify the flow around the

it would be by itself
change the drag of the
leading unit. When placed close enough behind to
lie in the separation zone of the leading unit, the
follomng one may have negative drag, as discovered by G. Eiffel [Hoerner, S. F., AD, 1951,

latter,

in

kh^i
%^

Center-to -Centar DistanC'

/struts for Guord-Skeq-

an

over and above what

infinite stream,

and

to

Fig. 7.1, p. 93].

_t____^

!^^

Supp ort I^^'II;:^*^^^

Quantitative

^^__ _j-

indications

of

what

may

be

when the two appendages or units are

the form of struts are given by D. Biermann

expected
Offset from (^
'

in

^Length
-^

u_

and W. H. Herrnstein,
of

1933,

entitled

Jr., in

"The

NACA

Report 468

Interference

Between

Struts in Various Combinations." Their conclusions,

to be found on page 522, indicate that

are to be expected

interference effects

if

the

leading and following units are closer than 5

section lengths to each other, center to center.
S. F.

Hoerner also gives a considerable amount

of interference drag data for airfoUs (or hydrofoils), flat discs,

strut sections,

and cyhnders

in

1951, pp. 83-84, 93-94]. A. Borden,

D. B. Young, and W. M. Ellsworth, Jr., discuss

tandem [AD,

the drag situation in "Hydrodynamic Induced

Vibrations of Cylinders Towed in Various Combinations,"
FISH-EYE VIEW

TMB

Report C-452, September 1951.

Modifications in Drag for Appendages

55.8

Abreast.

The

general situation relative to ad-

jacent appendages which must, to

Fig. 55.

IN

Definition Sketches for Appendages

Varying Flow, Appendages in Tandem, and

Appendages Abreast

they are long and slender, with

their axes roughly parallel. A leading unit of
circular section generates a long separation zone

section shape

abaft

it,

in

diminished.

if

which the drag

On

leading unit leaves in its

mented

velocities,

following unit
(c)

is

of the follo\ving unit is

the other hand, a streamlined

in

wake a

trail of

which the drag

velocities

of two 2-diml circular rods and of two 2-diml

streamlined strut sections, placed abreast, are

pubUshed by S. F. Hoerner [AD, 1951, Fig. 7.4,

p. 95]. These show that, whenever practicable,
the

center-to-center

transverse

be at least 4 times the

section thickness tx

the

between the centers

spread

maximum

For a spread

should

transverse

of 2tx (or

2D)

of a pair of circular cylinders

drag coefficient Co of each

cyhnder is increased from its normal value of
1.2 to about 1.54.
55.9 The Drag of Exposed Rotating Shafts.
of infinite length, the

from the leading

unit, positive or negative as the case

largely dissipated

some

design requirement,

aug-

increased.

Whether the wake

may

be, are

by the time the following unit

comes along. This is, as a rule, a function

between the thickness and bluntness

ratio

of

fulfill

be placed abreast
each other, is depicted in diagram 3 of Fig. 55. D.
Graphs indicating the single and combined drag
special

of the
of the

An

exposed rotating shaft, such as that driving

a screw propeller, generates two kinds of friction

HYDRODYNAMICS

294
drag, in addition to a

The

Effect.

The

by the Magnus
and discussed in

force

component due

to non-axial flow at the shaft

flow

illustrated in Fig.

shaft also generates a pressure-drag

general flow in the vicinity, at an angle to the

Volume

and

be described presently. Rotation of the

shaft surface involves tangential friction and an
increase in torque to keep it turning. The forward
motion of the ship and shaft involves longitudinal
friction, much the same as though the shaft were
covered by a casing which did not rotate. A
pressure drag, due to the oblique flow of water
force, to

past the shaft,

is

exerted in the general plane of

flow, at right angles to the shaft.

may

Sec. 55.10

be calculated presently.
Neglecting rotation and considering only the

latter is described

Sec. 37.25 of
37. Q.

lift

IN SHIP DESIGN

This drag

position, to

shaft, the axial

normal to the shaft

8.23 ft per sec.

is

The Co

The component

[(59.11) sin 8 deg] or

about

of a 2-diml circular cylinder

L/D ratio 40/1.00 = 40 is, from Fig. 55.B,

about 0.98. The normal force expected to be
exerted on the shaft, neglecting the effect of
rotation, is then

may

F = C^Ap,,C/=

not have a longitudinal

or divergence

of velocity is [(59.11)

of

component,
depending upon the declivity and convergence
or

component

cos 8 deg] or 58.53 ft per sec.

of the shaft axis.

0.98(lf5) [(40)(1)](8.23)='

Taking the last item first, the shaft is considered

as a fixed appendage in the form of a 2-diml
circular cylinder, placed normal to a flow having
an effective velocity equal to that component of

=
The drag

lb, for

2,640

the single shaft.

of locked screw propellers

Volume III.
Drag Data for Holes,

is

discussed

the actual velocity perpendicular to the shaft axis

in Part 5 of

and in the plane of that axis. In the absence of

any better data, the actual streamline velocity

What might be

may be

the form of recesses and holes, are considered here

taken as equal to the speed of the ship,

and the direction of flow as parallel to the hull
along an appropriate diagonal flowplane, indicated by surface (or preferably off-the-surface)
flow markings, described in Chap. 52. This drag

have a vertical or lifting component for

most ship installations, possibly having a slight
effect on the trim.
The exact nature of the axial and tangential
components of the viscous flow around an exposed
force will

rotating shaft remain

unknown

in the present

is customary, therefore, to
both friction-drag components on the

state of the art. It

neglect

shaft, unless the latter is excessively large

and

rotates at high speed, or unless

it

it is so long that
has to be supported by two or more bearings,

give an idea of the magnitudes involved,

assume two

each 12 inches in diameter,

revolving at 400 rpm, and having an exposed
length of 40 ft, lying at a mean angle of 8 deg
shafts,

to the lines of flow at a speed of 35 kt, equivalent

to 59.11 ft per sec.

The layout

of P.

Mandel

[SNAME, 1953, Fig. 2, p. 466] shows the starboard shaft of a twin-screw arrangement of this
The

tangential velocity at the surface of

shaft,

due to rotation only (neglecting cross

kind.

one

is (12/12)x(400/60) =
per sec. This is about one-third the forward

flow due to non-axiality),

20.95

ft

speed of the ship and

is

about 2.5 times the cross-

Slots,

and Gaps.

called reversed projections,

in the category of appendages, especially

if

in

they

have physical dimensions corresponding to the

appendages usually found on boats and ships.
S. F. Hoerner has collected drag-coefficient data
for holes and gaps, some based on a reference area
equal to that of the opening in the fair surface

and some based on the so-called frontal area of

the downstream face [AD, 1951, pp. 55-56].

stagnation point

in

diagram

may

be found here, as at Q
but if not it may be
expected that some -|-Ap's are developed on the

of Fig. 7.J,

downstream face.
Because of the rather comphcated nature of the
drag effects, the marine architect is referred
directly to the Hoerner reference for such data
as he

external to the hull.

To

55.10

may

The

need.

design of recesses to reduce their drag

is

discussed in Sec. 75.13.

55. 11

The drag

Estimated Resistance of Discontinuities.

of

any

large discontinuity, invariably

much

body such as a ship

from an appendage projecting well away from the hull, is dependent upon
the flow pattern around it. The latter is, in turn,
affected by the presence of the boundary layer
on the large body, with its variation in local
attached to a

larger

hull, as distinguished

velocity across the boundary-layer thickness.

In aerodynamics the resistance of discontinuities

under the heading of interference

of this type falls

APPENDAGE-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

Sec. 55.14

two essendissimilar forms. Again the marine architect

drag, as developed at the junction of

tially

Hoerner's "Aerodynamic Drag," 1951, Chap. VII on pages 93-120,

as embodying the essence of most of the known

is

F.

referred directly to S.

Although written for the aeronautical engineer it should be intelhgible to and

useful for the marine architect who has read and is
data in this

the

55.12 The Resistance of Large Appendages

Considered as Parts of the Ship. Large appendages such as deep skegs and long bossings do not
resemble bodies for which appUcable and rehable
pressure-drag data are available. Further, a skeg
or bossing of a given shape may produce different
flow, velocity, and pressure patterns, depending
upon the form of the hull to which it is applied.
There are companion interference effects here, both
of the ship on the appendage and the appendage

on the

ship.

It is usually necessary to predict the drags of

these large appendages by:

(1)

statistical

percentage data, as in Sec. 55.3

(2) Taking account of the increased wetted area

appendage

when

is,

the external area of the

the bare-hull area covered by

less

applied. This involves

Rp

resistance

and

45.22,

an increased

it

friction

although, as explained in Sees. 22.9,

55.4, there are

no acceptable rules for

estabhshing the correct R^ values for these parts.

(3) Determining the drag from model tests, run
with and without the appendage(s) in question.

55.13

The

Calculation of

ance for Submerged Vessels.

Appendage ResistThe notes of the

preceding sections of the present chapter apply

to the calculation of the resistance of

all

append-

ages on submerged vessels, irrespective of their

position relative to the hull.

Those mounted on

top of the hull will, upon occasion, break the

water surface. In this case some pressure drag

due to wavemaking, of an amount as yet undetermined, is added to the pressure drag due to forward

may

indeed be more necessary to

predict this added drag as a design load on the
appendage, rather than as an increment of
motion. It

resistance of the vessel as a whole, because this

partly awash

condition

is

not one for which

resistance predictions are made.

The
hull

ratio of

resistance

appendage resistance to the bareof

a submersible

is

inherently

resistance

of

the

both the abovewater and

This

is

because

The

(a)

provision of diving planes, and possibly

fixed

of

also

of:

stabilizers,

and rope and cable

guards, in addition to steering rudders

The

necessity

carrying

for

one

or

more

periscopes

The high drag

(c)

radio,

of

radar,

and other

antennas, and of the masts or supports for

(d)

The

hull discontinuities

embodied

them

in large

main-ballast flood-valve recesses or large flooding

openings for the main-ballast tanks

(e) The provisions for normal handling of the
vessel as a surface ship

and

for safety of the

crew

when working about the superstructure deck

(f)
The provision of resting keels
(g) The work and expense involved in fairing
and streamlining the abovewater portion of a
vessel of the submersible type which is to spend
only a small portion of

Estimating the pressure drag from

of the ship; that

bare-hull

total

the underwater portions in the surface condition.

(b)

book.

greater

entire vessel, including

field.

familiar with the previous chapters of the present

295

larger than for a surface ship, notwithstanding

its

operating time sub-

merged.

For a craft in the category of (g) preceding, the

appendage resistance may well reach 80 or 90
or more per cent of the bare-hull resistance of the
craft as a whole. For a true submarine which still
requires steering rudder (s) and some kind of deck
erection but must also carry diving planes,
guards, and other excrescences, the appendageresistance ratio submerged may be as high as
2.0 or 3.0. P. Mandel mentions that, in some
cases [SNAME, 1953, p. 466], the appendages
added to a submarine may cause the total drag
to be 5 times that of the bare hull alone!
55.14 The Displacement of Appendages. The
drag of an appendage is of course related to its
size,

It

although

may

many

other factors are involved.

be of advantage to the marine architect,

in the early stages of a preliminary design, to

know

the approximate size and volume of the

average appendage, for ships of a rather wide
variety of tj^jes.

Table

55. d gives

this kind, in the

some

form

available information of
of individual weights of

salt water displaced. From the data given, the

percentages of the overall displacement can be

calculated. While these data are by no means

modern (Jan 1924) they may serve as the beginning of a more comprehensive and up-to-date

compilation.

296

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 55.14

CHAPTER

Observed Resistance Data

General

56 1
56.2
.

Comments

Typical Ships
Systematic Resistance Data from Model
Series; Taylor Standard Series with Contours of fijj/A

Japanese Fishing- Vessel Standard Series

Gertler Reworking of Taylor Standard Series
Data of 1954, with Contours of C^
Resistance Data for Very Fat Ships
.

56 6
.

for

297

56.7

297

56 8
56 9

298
300

56 10

Resistance Data for ParallelMiddlebody Variations

Resistance Data for Very Low Ship Speeds
Rate of Variation of Model Residuary Resistance with Speed
Variation of Total Resistance of Model and
Ship with Speed-Length Quotient ....
Changes in Resistance with Changes of Trim
and Displacement
Measured Thrusts and Towing Pulls on Ships

....

General Comments.

56.1

303

This chapter gives

literature of observed resistance data

of

many

on models

types, particularly those tested

as systematic or methodic series to determine the

effect of certain variables.

Accompanying notes

where necessary, the location of the

of the models or ships.
These data are supplemented by information
concerning the resistance of unusual ship forms or
of more-or-less standard forms run at unusual

indicate,
lines or

body plans

speeds.

Means

are described

resistance of ships

when

approximating the

for

their exact shape is not

known, when they have not been tested at model

scale at the speed desired, or

ments are

different

when

from the values

for

self-propulsion

test

data

for

which
typical

vessels, plus references to other published data,

are to be found in Chap. 60. In almost every case

these give the predicted effective power

Pe

for

the ship (or ship design) represented by the model.

56.2 Resistance Data from Tests of Models of

Attempts have been made from

time to time, by interested individuals, to list,
collect, and systematize the enormous mass of
pubhshed data on the resistance tests of models.
With so much time and energy devoted to this
particular field, in the model basins of the world
Typical Ships.

over the past seventy-five years, it is a pity that

only a fraction of the existing test data are in a
form usable for analysis and design, and in locations available to the naval architect

1 1

56.12

and marine

engineer.

The graphic data published by D. W. Taylor

in

306
306
306

308
312
312

"The Speed and Power of

one form or another, the
resistance-speed curves of models representing
many forms and types of ships, usually as parts
the three editions of

Ships"

contain,

in

of small groups or series.

War

The

period since

World

brought a reafization of the necessity

for more systematic presentation of data of this
kind, as witness the work of the Swedish State
Model Basin and of the David Taylor Model
Basin in reporting test data on numerous models
of vessels of a given class. There is also a wider
realization of the fact that, for analysis purposes
II has

on the part of a number of workers, the most

comprehensive data on models and ships is none
too complete.

their displace-

data are available.

Some

301

information as to the availabihty in the technical

and ships

56

Models and Ships

Systematic

Resistance Data from Tests of Models of

56.3

56 4
56 5

56

leader in this respect has been the

Model Basin. In the annual

reports

Rome

of

this

estabhshment ["Annali della Vasca Nazionale per

le Esperienze di Architettura Navale"], of which
Vols. I through XI are in the TMB library, there
are included very complete data sheets and
graphs giving the results of tests on selected ship
models of a rather wide variety of types. As
examples, there are included in Vol. X, published
in 1941, test results for six models constructed to
the

order

of

various Italian

firms.

For these

models there are given:

(a)

Tables

sions,

form

one to five
each model

the principal dimenand other data for from

displacement and trim conditions on

and

II, listing

coefficients,

Tables III and IV, giving the observed drag

for the six models, at different
displacements and trims, with water temperatures
(b)

Rt and speed V

and other necessary data

297

HVnROnYNAMICS

298

IN'

SHIP DESIGN

(c) Tables V and VI, self-propulsion data for one

model and model propeller
(d) Tables VII through XII, body plans, outboard profiles, details of appendages, and sectionarea curves for the six models
(e) I'able XIII, drawing of the model propeller

most

tested

per sheet.

XIV through XIX, curves of R^ ,Rb,

expanded P e for the six models

Tables

(f)

and

Table

(g)

XX,

curves of self-propulsion data from

them run

of

of the

in

A'^^ A'^^ and A='^''

XXIX,

values of

for all models.

There have been published, to the date of

writing

Data
test

(1956),

some 160

SNAME

Resistance

These carry complete descriptive and

sheets.

data for the same number of models, repre-

senting a great variety of ship sizes

The observed

and

resistance data are supplemented

by

ships of appropriate standard length, say 100

ft,

400 ft, or 1,000 ft. An example of the latter is the

Uner Normandie, RD sheet 39. Two sets of resistance data sheets are included in Sec. 78.16, made
up for the model tests of (1) the ABC ship with
the centerline skeg and transom stern, TiMB
model 4505, and (2) the ABC ship with the archtype stern,
model 4505-1. The RD sheets
model 4505 were also published in
for
7th ICSH, 1954 [SSPA Rep. 34, 1955, pp. 302-

TMB

TMB

304].

There are available, to accompany the whole

set of sheets:

Explanatory Notes for Resistance and PropulData Sheets, SNAME Tech. and Res. Bull.
1-13, Jul 1953
II. Index to Model and Expanded Resistance
Data Sheets Nos. 1-150, SNAME Tech. and Res.
Bull. 1-14, Jul 1953
III. Summary Sheets, 7 in number, containing
summarized data for RD sheets 1 through 160,
and additional information needed for analysis.

I.

sion

A series of 29
test

data sheets containing the model-

data on that number of fishing-boat

hulls.

SNAME RD

sheets

Copies of this catalog may be

on application to the Fishing Boat
Section, Technology Branch, Fisheries Division,
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of
United Nations, Rome, Italy.
56.3
Systematic Resistance Data From Model
Series; Taylor Standard Series with Contours of
craft.

To make

possible the calculation of the

approximate residuary resistance of ships of

widely varied shape and proportions, D. W.
Taylor devised his now-famous Standard Series,
with the thought that the residuary resistance of
a ship could be predicted reasonably well from
the measured resistance of a model of the same
proportions.

types.

predicted resistance data for geometrically similar

World," reThese

76.12.

There has recently been issued (November

1 of a group of "Fishing Boat Tank
Tests," comprising data sheets on 150 models of

i2fl/A.

through

of the

part of Sec.

1955), Part

ship

XXVII

first

described elsewhere but contain less information

obtained

Tables

the

sheets are similar to the

fishing

(k)

at .several displacements, are

book "Fishing Boats

viewed

Table XXI, curves of Ct for the six models

Tables XXII through XXIV, curves of Cp
(i)
and Ct for the six models
Tables
and XXVI, friction-resistance
(j)
coefficients / in the dimensional formula Rp =
jgyi.s25^
for varied lengths of both model and

XXV

563

published by Jan-Olof Traung on pages 281-310

the one model tested

(h)

Sec.

Taylor's primary purpose was supplemented

eventually

by another, equally valuable

if

not

equally important. This was the gradual but wide

acceptance of the Taylor Standard Series residu-

ary resistance as the yardstick for evaluating the

worth of a particular shape of hull. This is done

by comparing

residuary resistance to that of

its

the Taylor Standard Series parent form of identical

proportions. So outstanding

was the shape

of this

parent form, derived from the hull of the British

armored cruiser Leviathan [S and P, 1943, p. 181],
it is a definite mark
achievement to beat the Taylor Standard
Series in that part of the speed range where
optimum ship behavior is sought.
The parameters varied in the Taylor series,
now known as the proportions of the models (and

that even a half-century later

of

ships), were:

B/H

(a)

Beam-draft

(b)

Displacement-length quotient, A/(0.010L)^,

ratio,

defined in Appx.

(c)

Prismatic coefficient, Cp

(d)

Speed-length quotient, T^

fined in

Appx.

= V/ a/L,

also de-

1.

The parent form used by Taylor is described in

The lines and principal features of this

Sec. 51.2.

form, together with eight curves of section areas

OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA

Sec. 56.3

CONTOURS OF RESIDUARY RESISTANCE

IN

POUNDS PER TON OF DISPLACEMENT

Beom-Draft Ratio

Q50

0.55

Q60
Lonqitudinol

0.70
0,65
FVismotlc Coefficient

Cp

299

HYDRODYNAMICS

300
for

Cp values

of 0.48 through 0.80, are

shown

in

upon data from the following

Fig. 51. A, based

references:

S and P, 1910, Vol. II, Figs. 79 and 80

S and P, 1933, Figs. 70 and 71, p. 191

(3)

PNA,

(4)

S and P, 1943, Figs. 184, 185, and 186, pp. 182-183.

fatness ratios of from 6 through 15, corresponding

to a range of Taylor displacement-length quotient

1939, Vol. II, Fig. 28, p. 92

The end

the form of contours of

in

results,

Rr

pounds per ton of

displacement A for the given proportions, were
pubhshed in the three editions of "The Speed
and Power of Ships," as noted:
residuary resistance

in

1910, Vol. II, Figs. 81 through 120, covering a range of

r, from 0.60 through 2.00, for two B/H ratios, namely
2.25 and 3.75, and for various ranges of displacement-

length quotient and prismatic coefficient

1933, Figs. 72 through

HI, pages 193 through 271,

A/(0.010L)', and Cp as

covering the same range of Tq

of 171 through 428.

3.0,

from the

sets of contours

latter reference

are reproduced in Figs. 56. A and 56. B.

selected to

To
(a)

fit

the

ABC

use these contours, values of

Picked from two sheets for a

2.25,

(1)

They were

ship example of Sec. 57.6.

Rr/A

B/H

are:

ratio of

for a speed-length quotient just

below

that desired and (2) for a speed-length quotient

just above it. The contours are entered with the

Cp value along the horizontal

scale

and the

A/(0.010L)' value along the vertical scale.

(b) Picked from two sheets for a B/H ratio of
3.75, (1) for speed-length or Taylor quotients
just below and (2) just above the desired value.
These are the same T, values as for (a) preceding.

The
of 2.25

and

3.75,

Rr/A

is then found by
between the B/H ratios
and then between the two speed-

correct value of

linear interpolation

first,

length quotients.

To

illustrate

worked out

this

transom-stern

ABC

an example is
and Table 57. b for the

procedure

in Sec. 57.6

ship having the preliminary

characteristics listed as the fifth approximation in

Table 66.e of Sec. 66.11.

56.4 Japanese Fishing- Vessel Standard Series.
Because the Taylor Standard Series extended
only to a maximum displacement-length quotient
of 250, corresponding to a 0-diml fatness ratio
V/iO.lOLf of 250/28.51 or 8.77, it could not be
used for predicting the performance of fat, chubby
ship forms such as those of tugs, fishing vessels,

B/H values were

2.2

and

to 1.28.

Following their procedure of putting

all

param-

eters in 0-diml form, the Japanese plotted contours

of specific residuary resistance

where C

The data were published in

final form in 1950 by the Fisheries Agency of
Japan in a book entitled "Graphical Methods for
Power Estimation of Fishing Boats."
Z?^/(0.5pV'^'F').

1943, Figs. 189 through 240, pages 189 through 240,

covering a range of Tq of from 0.30 through 2.00, with the

other variables remaining the same.

The

while the Cp values were 0.55, 0.60, 0.65,

0.70, and 0.75. The range of Froude number F

was 0.16 to 0.38, corresponding to a T^ of 0.537

for the 1910 edition

Two

Sec. 56.4

a standard fishing-vessel series covering 0-diml

(2)

(1)

IN SHIP DESIGN

and icebreakers. During the years 1946-1949 a

group of Japanese, Atsushi Takagi, Takao Inui,
and Shoichi Nakamura, undertook the testing of

B/T

OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA

Sec. 56.5

more than 2.00 m or 6.56 ft in length; some of

them were as short as 1.80 m, or 5.91 ft. There
are no data to indicate the water temperatures at
which these models were run nor what steps were
if any, to insure turbulent flow throughout.
Copies of these books, for those who wish to
use the data, are to be found in:

taken,

(a)

(b)

SNAME
Bureau

Headquarters in

(c)

Bureau

TMB

56.5

of Ships Preliminary

Library, U.

S.

Design Section

Library.

Gertler Reworking of Taylor Standard

transition flow

at low Froude
resistance

correcting for the effects of

of

based on the assumption that

is

numbers the

constant,

practically

as

residuary-

specific

Cr

coefficient

Rr/(0.5pSV^)

indicated

in

the

is

left

The original data showed that

Cr decreased with decreasing speed so
long as wavemaking resistance was important.
There was then a short range of speed for which
Cr remained constant, after which, as the speed
was still further reduced, the coefficient again
began to

decrease.

This

latter

decrease

was

When

attributed to transition flow, and was ignored.

Towing Tank Conference decided

adopt the Schoenherr friction-resist-

The practically constant value of the coefficient

Cr is therefore used for all lower Taylor quotients
T and Froude numbers, down to values of

Series Data of 1954, with Contours of

Cr

the American
in 1947 to

in general

Navy Department
(d)

to give the residuary-resistance

Cr
The method

coefficient

portion of Fig. 7.H.

New York

of Ships Technical

was subtracted

301

ance formulation

it

was

realized that this pro-

cedure would predict effective powers not directly

T,

0.5,

0.149.

comparable to those calculated from the original

TSS contours mentioned and illustrated in Sec.

number

56.3.

which were towed with and without a turbulence-

The

differences

in

the

calculated

effective

powers result from two causes:

(a)

The

differences

between the

PNA,

friction resist-

1939, Vol. II, Table

(a) is reflected as

9, p. 114].

a difference in residuary

and thus requires that a lengthy cormade to D. W. Taylor's Rr/A conrender them comparable to modern data.

resistance

rection to

tours to

Item (b) merely requires a substitution of the

Schoenherr formulation with the appropriate
roughness allowance to correspond to the Tideman data in the ship-prediction procedure.
In view of this situation, plus the fact that
water temperatures and turbulence stimulation
were not taken into account in the original TSS

was decided at the David Taylor Model

Basin to reanalyze the original test data on the
Taylor Standard Series models. In the reanalysis,

testing, it

the

methods and procedures employed were

same as those currently used at

essentially the

Carderock.

of recent tests of

is

not rigorous,

TMB

20-ft

a
models

stimulating device indicate that in general tur-

bulence stimulation results in no resistance change

models which experience only minor transition

and those from the old EMB 20-ft friction-plank

results in the model range
(b) The differences between the friction resistances obtained from the Schoenherr formulation
in the ship range and from the Tideman data used
by D. W. Taylor [Schoenherr, K. E., SNAME,

Item

procedure

this

for

ances obtained from the Schoenherr formulation

1932, p. 285;

Although

total-resistance coefficient for the

model was computed, from which an

ATTC

1947 or Schoenherr friction-resistance coefficient

and those only at the lowest speeds. Good

agreement was attained in most of these cases
between the residuary-resistance coefficient curves
from the unstimulated experiments, faired in the
effects

manner
tests

described,

with

the

and those

resulting

from the

turbulence-stimulating

device.

This seems to be especially true with forms having

the TSS type of bow. Two 20-ft models of the

Taylor parent form, having (longitudinal) prismatic coefficients Cp of 0.613 and 0.746, were
tested at the Taylor Model Basin in 1951. In
both cases it was found that turbulence stimulation Avas required only at low speeds. The procedure described in the foregoing gave reasonable
agreement with the curves in the turbulent range
[Todd, F. H., and Forest, F. X.,

SNAME,

1951,

p. 678].

Corrections for restricted-channel effects in the

Washington Basin were made by using the formulas given in TMB Report 460 entitled "Tests of
a Model in Restricted Channels," by L. Landweber, dated

May

1939, with the appropriate

model and basin dimensions. This correction was

in most cases small; even for the fullest model of
the series it amounted to a decrease in resistance
of only 2 per cent.

The

results of the re-analysis of the

Taylor

M.

Gertler

Standard Series data, carried out by

HYDRODYNAMICS

502

B/H=3.00
Cp=0.62

Froude Number

11

0.15

IN SHIP DESIGN

0.16

0.17

0.18
1

0.19
1

0.20
1

0.21
1

0.22

Sec.

VgL

0.23

0.24

II

0.25

II

0.26

0.27

0.28

0.29
1

56

OBSERVED SHIP-RESTSTANCE DATA

Sec. 56.6

and other members of the TMB staff, are given

in a form which employs a completely 0-diml

"A

presentation [Gertler, M.,

Reanalysis of the

Test Data for the Taylor Standard

Series,"
Rep. 806, Mar 1954, Govt. Print.
Off., Washington]. The faired resistance data are
given as curves of specific residuary-resistance
Original

TMB

Cr on a

coefficient

basis of both Taylor quotient

T, = F/VL and Froude number /^ =

Two of the major proportions used are,
the

B/H

and the

ratio

coefficient

Cp

(longitudinal) prismatic

The scope

F/V^.
as before,

of the series has been

enlarged to include a third

B/H

ratio of 3.00 in

addition to the ratios of 2.25 and 3.75 published

and 1943 editions of D. W.

Taylor's "The Speed and Power of Ships." The
intermediate values were obtained by interpolain the 1910, 1933,

reworked data for the hitherto

unpublished EMB Series 20 which had a B/H
tion, using the

ratio of 2.92.

Instead of Taylor's dimensional displacement-

makes use
Cv = F/L3

length quotient the Gertler reworking

of the 0-diml volumetric coefficient

expressed as a simple

number, without the 10"^

same as the
origirial

ATTC

T aylor

10~^.

This

factor, is exactly the

The
Cws =
replaced by

fatness ratio F/(0.10L)'.

wetted-surface coefficient

S/'VAL, which
the 0-diml Cs

number times

is di mens ional,

is

= S/VVL.

These and the remaining steps

in the

reworking

process are explained most comprehensively and

meticulously by Gertler in the Preface and intro-

ductory portions of

TMB

Report 806, previously

referenced.

The new

303

By moving

apparent.

and

right

left

across the

page, the original Taylor contours show clearly

the change in

Rr/A

for a

in the range of T, or F

change in Cp However,
where friction resistance
.

predominates, say below a T^ of 1.15, F^ of 0.342,

the selection of Cp is not made on the basis of a

minimum

value

of

The

Rr/A.

of

effect

A/(0.010L)' or F/(0.10L)' on residuary resistance is shown well by both the Gertler reworking
and the original Taylor Standard Series contours.
The Gertler data have the advantage that, with
three

B/H ratios,

interpolation

accurate. Indeed, for

is

easier

many B/H

and more

values close to

2.25, 3.00, and 3.75, and for a preliminary resistance estimate, interpolation for beam-draft ratio
may be omitted entirely.

Although never stated in print in so many

words it was felt by many that the Rr/A contours of the 1910, 1933, and 1943 editions of "The
Speed and Power of Ships" were rather "heavily"
faired, probably because in some regions there
were not many spots with which to establish the
proper contour positions on the diagrams. Comparisons of Pe for random models with the Pb
values of the TSS models of the same proportions,

EHP/Taylor EHP ratios of

Expanded Resistance Data sheets,
when plotted on F or T^ produced what are
known as "angleworm" curves. Although many of
these random models represented ships of superior
and outstanding performance, their "angleworm"
curves showed rapid and often violent plus and
corresponding to the
the

SNAME

minus fluctuations in the values of

Taylor EHP], on a basis of variation

[1

EHP/

in the speed-

presentation differs markedly from the

Examining a pair of facing pages, reproduced as the two parts of Fig. 56. D, one sees the

length quotient T^

graphs of C^ for various volumetric coefficients

Nevertheless, variations in the ratio of

Cv = V/L\

reworked TSS Pe values still occur. If not angleworm in shape they are sinuous and irregular,
and they are not always consistent with the varia-

original.

or fatness ratios F/(0.10L)', extend-

ing from the lowest speed-length quotient T, of

0.5 to the highest value of 2.0. All the humps and
hollows in the complete range of Cr
for any
,

volumetric coefficient, are visible at a glance.

The pair of facing pages embodied in Fig. 56.D

used with another pair of pages, not reproduced
here, to derive a preliminary estimate of the
residuary resistance of the ABC ship, by the
is

method described in Sec. 57.6 and

Table 57.c. The characteristic spot

illustrated in

ship values listed in that table

added to the

is

for the

ABC

1951, all

the

TSS

have the disadvantage that the

variation of Cp on Rr/A is not readily

Gertler's data

data were reworked in 1948-

"heavy"

fairing

was

carefully avoided.

tions of the original data. Additional

on

P^

to the

comments

found in Sec. 57.6.

56.6 Resistance Data for Very Fat Ships. The
lack of resistance data for ship forms of large
0-diml fatness ratio F/(0.10L)', for which the
Takagi Series described in Sec. 56.4 fills a partial
this feature are

need, led to the analysis of

EMB

and

TMB

data for 44 fat models by R. F. P. Desel and

Collins.

The

results are

thesis submitted

figure.

effect of

When

the

TMB

models

embodied

in

an

test

J.

T.

MIT

by them, dated 1952 [copy

in

Ubrary]. Although there were 13 tug

in the group,

and 15 combinations

of the

HYDRODYNAMICS

304
old U.

S.

Shipping Board parallel-middlebody

bows, midship portions, and sterns [EMB Series

53, reported in S and P, 1943, pp. 70-72, 257-271],
the models of the whole group forming the basis
of this study were only loosely related. Some were

065
Tq-y/VT

IN SHIP DESIGN
tested in bare-hull condition,

various combinations of appendages.

|3/^//
10/

/ /

'

10//

'////

^^

\',i.'\

"'A^Jl]

7/ ^J/

^26

'//

/ /
/ /

r
[0.\OLf

/ /

'L
///

/ /

//
-H-

//
/

Fn-V/^
020

02/

022

Fig. 56.E

Q20

0.21

024

025

026

027

028

0.29

030

C Data for Fat Ships, Cp = 0.58

Q22

Fio. 56.F

023

Cfl

aZJ

024

025

Data for Fat

026

027

Ships,

0.26

029 030

Cp = 0.60

B/H

The form coefficients were calculated

on a basis of length on the waterline. Residuary
resistances were derived by using the ATTC 1947

of 2.0 to 3.0.

/.b

Cp-0.58

The

ratios varied irregularly but lay within the range

\5///

Sec. 56.6

and others with

OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA

Sec. 56.6

friction

formulation.

Unfortunately,

the speed

range extended only from Froude numbers of

0.20 to 0.30, corresponding to T, values of 0.672
to 1.007. Takagi's F^ range was from 0.16 to 0.38.

The

thesis data thus derived are in the

form of

contours of fatness ratio F/(0.10L)^ on a basis of

Cr and Cp

Cp

for eight equidifferent values of

plotted on ten sheets for as

many

different F's.

The cross-contours of fatness ratio, when plotted

on Cr and F for seven equidifferent values of
Cp appear in Figs. 56. E through 56. K. When
,

thus presented they resemble those for the Gertler

reworking of the Taylor Standard Series described

The Desel-Collins data for Cp = 0.72
are omitted because this is much too large a Cp
value for easy driving of a chubby, fat form.
Because of the unrelated forms and the rather
in Sec. 56.5.

severe

fairing

pattern of data

necessary
it

to

was not

of models to indicate the

known

achieve

regular

possible in this group

humps and

hollows

and F^ For
this and other reasons the contours are shown as
broken lines. Although lacking the reliability to
be expected from tests of a comprehensive
to occur with change of speed

systematic

series,

an indication

14

13

12

these data nevertheless furnish

of residual resistance to be expected

305

HYDRODYNAMICS

306

rr-r
1

0.35

IN SHIP DESIGN

0.95

Tq-y//r

I6__/.

(2)

(3)

U
Ti

Cb-0.70

Sec. 56.7

S and P, 1933, pp. 47, 67, 68, and Appendix D, pp. 299
through 327
S and P, 1943, p. 50 and pp. 70 through 72; also
Appendix D, pp. 255 through 271
Brief extracts from these data are given by K. S. M.
Davidson in PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 67-69.

(1)

It is to be noted from the body plan of the

parent form, given on page 257 of reference (2)
above, that the Series 53 models had practically

//

no bulb and were not patterned on the Taylor

Standard Series lines.
The analysis of these parallel middlebody data,
not completed for the 1933 and 1943 editions of
"The Speed and Power of Ships," still remains to

-/

be done.

:/3^ /
Z-

/ ^

Speeds.

-7^

dicted from model tests rarely include the range

"7'

"''

Data for Very Low Ship

Published data on ship resistance pre-

Resistance

56.8

\/^

(0.101)"

the way down to zero speed, yet it is often

convenient to have some idea of the low-speed

all

^^

resistance, or at least to

know how

it

varies with

speed in this region.

The

tables of

Bull. 1-2 of

F=V/v5l
O.ao

0.2)

022

0.25

Q24

0.25

Q26

Q27

Cp
March

SNAME

Tech. and Res.

two small portions of
which are reproduced as Tables 45. c and 45. d of
Sec. 45.9, extend down to an i2 of 0.1 million,

,^

02a 029

in

1952,

corresponding to a fore-and-aft space dimension

Q30

and a speed of 1 kt. The Taylor

Standard Series contours [S and P, 1943] stop at
a speed-length quotient T^ of 0.30, F value of
about 0.089. The SNAME RD and ERD sheets
carry down to a T^ and an F of about the same
of about 0.73 ft

Fig. 56.K

Cr Data for Fat Ships, Cp

0.70

guide in making resistance and power estimates

for ships

having displacement-length quotients in

excess of those of the Taylor Standard Series.

The data given

are based

upon the use

Froude circular-constant system of notation.

56.7 Systematic Resistance Data for ParallelMiddlebody Variations. The first systematic
model test data on the effect of varied amounts of
parallel
middlebody inserted between given
entrances and runs were those published by W.
Froude [INA, 1877, Vol. XVIII, pp. 77-97]. He
plotted

curves of residuary resistance

Rr

for

on a basis of length Lp of
parallel middlebody, a procedure which has not
been improved upon to this day. The low points
in the Rr curves for a succession of speeds, or for
a given speed, indicate the Lp values for minimum
residuary resistance. These are not necessarily the
constant speed

values for

minimum

Data from

EMB

total resistance.

tests of the

value.

of the

156 combinations of

Series 53, tested in 1931 for the U. S.

Shipping Board and plotted on the Froude
system, are pubhshed in:

residuary resistance composed entirely of

pressure resistance should vary as F"

all the_way
However, plots of i2/A on V/Vh for
low speeds in the Taylor Standard Series show
that it is the exception rather than the rule for the
exponent of the curve oi RrOhV to approximate
2. This is due partly to the extremely low resistances being measured but there appear to be
evidences of viscous and other effects not entirely
eliminated in the Froude model-testing procedure.

to

F =

An

0.

approximation to the residuary resistance

F = is derived from a plot of Rr/A on

close to

V/'VL on

somewhat

log-log paper,

similar to

vL

=
that of Fig. 30. B, for say three values of F/
0.40, 0.35, and 0.30. Extending the line in a
downward gives an
Rr on T^ desired.
Variation of Model Residuary

generally straight direction

idea of the low value oi

56.9

Rate of

Resistance with Speed.

ysis

it is

useful to

For certain

know

lines of anal-

the rate at which the

OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA

Sec. 56.9

307

residuary resistance of the hull of a model varies

residuary-resistance formula Rjt

with speed in the equation Rr = fc(0.5p)SF".

This matter was investigated many years ago by
D. Kemp [INA, 1883, pp. 124-125]. He stated
that on the steam yacht Oriental the resistance
(total in this case) varied as about V^ in the low-

principal forms of ship hulls, there are plotted in

speed, range, but increased to about

range of 0.82 to 1.04, F

F"*

Fig. 56.L the values of

RD
RD

1948, pp. 368-369]

humps and hollows in the predicted ship-resistance

curve, similar to those due to surface-wave interferences in model tests. It is to be expected,
therefore, that graphs of pressure drag on a
basis of speed will show rather pronounced irregularities.

D. W. Taylor made up graphs of this type for

two groups of five models each, representing
400-ft ships. The two groups had Cp values of
0.56 and 0.64, respectively, and five different
displacements, with ship values ranging from
1,920 to 11,520 tons. Using the formula Rr = aV"
and plotting the velocity exponent n on a basis
of ship. speed, he obtained the curves

shown

in

on page 48 of S and P, 1943. For some of

the models the residuary resistance varied at a
rate exceeding the 11th power of the speed V.
This diagram shows definite, rather narrow lanes
embracing all the n values over certain speed
Fig. 54

to 6 variation in displace-

ment-length quotients.

To determine whether

there are systematic or

characteristic patterns in the exponent

of the

Design

TX-7

U. S. Mar. Comm.
cargo vessel
Wilfred Sykes

92 Ore ship
96 Destroyer tender
119 Destroyer

probably of the order of the 1.9 or 1.93 power.

Although the absolute values of Cf cover a
rather wide range, the rates of change of Cf with

Analytic work on pressure drag due to wavemaking, described in Chap. 50, indicates that
what may be termed the V^ component is only
one of those acting. There are components of this
drag which vary as the 4th, the 6th, the 8th, and
higher powers of V. The expressions for these
components are periodic in form, and they produce

TCB

74 Tug
79 Cargo ship

as slightly less than the square of the ship speed,

physical entities.

data on

SNAME

Normandie
Tanker E [SNAME,

56 Tanker

of 0.244 to 0.310. It is

hitherto been classed as residuary resistance into

test

sheets listed hereunder:

sheet 39 Passenger ship

known from measured .ship-thrust data that

Rf for hull surfaces of normal roughne.ss varies

ranges, despite the

n from model

nine different vessels, as reported on the

in a T,

V, as indicated by a plot of Cf on R (with L

and j'(nu) constant), are comparatively small.
That portion of the hull drag due to deflection of
the water, separation, and similar effects is
assumed to vary as V~. Unfortunately, since Rr
includes these effects plus the drag due to wavemaking, it is still difficult to break up what has

kV", for the

C-i

U. S. S. Dixie
U. S. S. Hamilton
U. S. S. Pensacola
121 Heavy
ABC ship of Part 4 Transom-stern design.
cruiser

residuary resistances for these models were

The

calculated from the formula

Rr =

Cii{0.5p)SV^,

using the values of residuary resistance coefficient

sheets for a range of
lO^Cjj fisted on the

RD

quotients.

speed-length

These

were,

in

turn,

calculated from the observed model resistance

data and the

described

ATTC

1947 friction formulation, as

SNAME Explanatory Notes

the RD sheets. Technical and

the

in

accompanying

Research Bulletin 1-13, July 1953.

The ship wetted surfaces were obtained from
the model wetted surfaces by multiplying by
X^(lambda). The Rr values were plotted on
log-log paper on a basis of T and F The velocity
exponents n were obtained by measuring the
slopes of the Rr curves at even T^ values. This
.

work

is

facilitated

by the use

of special log-log

David Taylor
Model Basin, which have a supplementary scale

plotting sheets, available at the

of slopes around the margin, to which a slope

anywhere on the sheet is transferred by a set of
parallel rulers.

curve oi

Rr

increasing with

V on

Fig. 56. L is

associated with a finite positive value of n. If the

resistance remains constant with increasing V,

= 0, whereas if R decreases as V increases,

which it does in certain speed ranges for planing
and other craft, as shown on Fig. 53. D, n becomes
negative. Large circles on the n-curves indicate
then n

the T, for the designed speed along the curve for

each ship.

The new velocity-exponent curves indicate

that:

(a) The curves for various ship types by no

means follow the same pattern, nor do they fall
in lanes, as do D. W. Taylor's earlier data [S and

P, 1943, p. 48]
(b)

The n-value

for the big ore ship reaches 5.75

HYDRODYNAMICS

308

0.2

0.3

a5

0.1

0.6

0.7

O.S

0.9

1,0

IN SHIP DESIGN

1.2

I.I

1.4

1.3

Sec. 56.10

1.5

1.7

.6

I.S

at the designed T^ of 0.544. This indicates that

expected that, at T^ values near the

the large volume on a given length, characteristic

of this ship,

price in

2.0

1,9

2.1

Variation of Speed Exponent in Rbsiduart-Resistance Formula Rr = kV" FOR Nine Large Ships

Fig. 56.L

carried at an unreasonably high

is

wavemaking

resistance.

The n-value

is

will

maximum,

be negative. This occurs for the

PT

boat

in Fig. 53.D.
(f)

There

are

irregularities

n-curves

the

in

only slightly over 3.0 at a T, of 0.4. This reveals

unexplained on the basis of wave interference

an acceptably low wavemaking drag for the lower

speeds customary with this type when it was

alone.

first

developed into large sizes in the early 1900's.

For actual ships which are driven hard,

values of n exceeding 7.0, 8.0, and over are by no
means unusual. High-speed ships may reach the
(c)

56.10

Variation of Total Resistance of

and Ship with Speed-Length Quotient.

Model

It is use-

times for the designer to be able to find

ful at

quickly the total resistance of a ship in some

maximum,

everyday terms such as pounds of total resistance

with a greatly diminished n at that speed, as for

the heavy cruiser Pensacola and the destroyer
Hamilton in Fig. 56.L. The following footnote by

per ton, expressed by flr/A, at say the designed

greatest n-value at a speed less than the

C. Rougeron

quoted from the U.

is

S.

Naval

Institute Proceedings, February 1953, page 190:

"Actually, the speed-power ratio increases in a some-

what more complicated manner. In a recent French

leader the 'direct' resistance is found to vary in
proportion to the square of the speed at low speeds, to the
6th power of the speed in the vicinity of 28 knots; and only
flotilla

to the 1.35
of

power

of the speed for speeds in the vicinity

38 knots."

(d)

Some

planing craft show pronounced knuckles

Rr on V, with accompanying
sudden drops in the value of n, as in Fig. 30.B.
The data from which Fig. 53. D of Sec. 53.7 were
plotted show no such sharp discontinuities but
they do reveal that at several points the resistance
levels out so that it varies with V at some power
only slightly greater than 1.0.
(e) For
high-speed planing craft it may be
in the curve of

when only the type of ship and the approximate Taylor quotient T, = F/vL or Froude
number F are known. For example, the Rt/^
value for a large, modern Great Lakes freighter
speed,

at designed speed

Atlantic liner

is

is

about 2

some 10

lb per ton, that of

and that

lb per ton,

an

of a

motorboat is of the order of 600 lb per ton.

H. M. Barkla has published a log-log plot showing
values of the ratio Rr/W on a base of T^ for
eleven sailing-yacht and motorboat hulls, as
listed on page 237 of his paper "High-Speed
Sailing" [INA, 1951, Vol. 93]. The range of T, is
from 0.4 to 10 and of Rr/W from 0.004 to 0.3.
fast

Barkla's resistance-weight ratio

the ratio

Rt/^, when

is

the latter

pounds resistance per long ton

1/2,240 times

is

expressed as

of weight.

To

provide data for a greater variety of water

craft,

both large and small, there have been

plotted on Fig. 56.

designed

speed,

of

M
a

the values of flr/A, at the

considerable

number

of

OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA

Hec. 56.10

309

i^kl

4
Fig. 56.

6 7 8 S

10

Plot of /?r/A on T, for Many Vessels at Their Designed Speeds

many types. The data indicated by the

small circles on the figure are derived from calvessels of

are considerably larger than the apparent varia-

respective

tions on the figure. It is possible that a single

meanline will not suffice in this region, especially
in view of the large variations in characteristics
of vessels running at the same T, value. For

Unfortunately, the model

instance, the upper circle at a T, of about 1.93

data on some sheets are for bare hull only; on

other sheets they are for the hull plus simple
appendages. This variation is considered not too
important as the plot is intended for indicating

represents a small patrol boat with a displacementlength quotient of 93.4, while the lower circle at
a r, of about 1.985 represents the destroyer
Hamilton, with a displacement-length quotient

culated values of the total resistance of the ship,

based upon model

tests, at

general-information

SNAME RD

sheets.

block

the speed listed in the

on

the

approximate values only.

It is found that a single tentative meanline
passes close to or through most of the designedspeed spots, regardless of the size or type of
vessel or of the T, at which it runs. For the higher

plotted in the upper right-hand corner of this

Tj values there

considerable dispersion in the

graph, the final meanline will be considerably

few available spots, especially as the vertical

scale is logarithmic and the variations in per cent

high-speed craft of good to e.xcellent performance.

is

of only 40.

The

plot of Fig.

56.M

does, however,

indicate regions of T^ where the data for certain

classes of vessels are to be found.

It

is

probable that, as more model data are

lower than the one

now

indicated, especially for

SIO

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Src. 56.11

OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA

Sec. 56.12

removed; sec the

series of reports listed

Resistance

subsequently

directly, has

of ships, without their propulsion

been a subject of active discussion

architects since about 1850. The

thought that it constituted the only valid method

of attack on ship-resistance and propulsion
problems was, in fact, put forward in the late
1860's and early 1870's as one of the arguments
against the proposals of W. Froude to establish
the first model-testing basin. Froude, with his
usual wisdom and thoroughness, tackled both
the full-scale and the model problems. Under his
supervision the hulk of H.
propeller,

was towed

M.

Greyhound,

less its

somewhat disappoint-

(7)

571; also

Yarrow, A.

TNA,

Due

to surging of the

D =

7.177

21.0 ft (molded)

Cb = 0.685
5.0 ft, to bottom

390

S =

Lpp = 190.5

B =

A =

ft

Data from tests

models of the launch are men-

tioned also in Sec. 52.3.

hulk of Japanese destroyer Yudachi,

about 1934. Reports published by Hiraga in the
two papers "Experimental Investigations on the
Y.,

of

append-

Cm =

0.972.

1896, Vol. 4, pp. 93-104, esp. pp. 93-94.

Yokota, A., Yaraamoto, T., Shigemitsu, A., and

Togino, S., hull of 40-ft steam launch, about 1929.
Report embodied in the paper "Pressure Distribution Over the Surface of a Ship and its Effect on
Resistance," Proc. World Eng'g. Congr., Tokyo,
1929, Vol. XXIX, Part 1, publ. in Tokyo in 1931.
The steel steam launch forming the subject of
these tests had an Lpp of 39.37 ft, an extreme beam
of 9.79 ft, and a draft of about 3.99 ft. The tests
included measuring the thrust at the thrust bearing
during self-propelled tests. Further details from
this paper and additional general data relative to

Hiraga,

incl.

Conn, J. F. C, Lackenby, H., and Walker,

W. P., "B.S.R.A. Resistance Experiments on the
Lucy Ashion. Part II The Ship-Model Correlation
for the Naked-Hull Conditions," INA, 1953, p.
350ff. The first two parts were published as
B.S.R.A. Rep. 107 in 1952.
(c) Lackenby, H., "B.S.R.A. Resistance Experiments on the Lucy Ashion. Part III The ShipModel Correlation for the Shaft-Appendage Conditions," INA, Apr 1955, Vol. 97, pp. 109-166
(d) Smith, S. L., "B.S.R.A. Resistance Experiments on the Lucy Ashion. Part IV Miscellaneous
Investigations and General Appraisal," INA, 1955.

(8)

the tests are given in Sec. 42.10.

(5)

4,488 ft^

(b)

Double-ended ferryboat Cincinnati (for New York

harbor), 1896. Report published by F. L. DuBosque,

of one-third scale

(molded)

ages

Cp = 0.705

24, pp. 111-117.

(4)

ft

hull proper

torpedoboat, 100 ft

1883. Report published by Yarrow in the

paper "Some Experiments to Test the Resistance
of a First-Class Torpedo-Boat," INA, 1883, Vol.

SNAME,

vessel,

Scale Measurements,"

long,

(3)

vessel, the

and other
to standard and
have not as yet (1955) been fully analyzed.
British Shipbuilding Research Association, Lucy
Ashlon, 1950-1951. This was an ex-paddlewheel
steamer driven by abovowater gas-jet engines. The
complete set of test reports follows:

1952, p. 449].

F., British first-class

towed

wake from the towing

the test data are not up

(a) Denny, Sir M. E., "B. S. R. A. Resistance

Experiments on the Lucy Ashion. Part I FuUINA, 1951, Section on Int.
Conf. Nav. Arch. Mar. Engrs., p. 40ff. The principal characteristics of the Lucy Ashion are:

Froude, W., H. M. S. Greyhound, about 1874. Report

published by Froude in the paper "On the Experi-

ments with H. M. S. Greyhound," INA, 1874, pp.

36-73 and Pis. III-XIII. The towing-test data
from the Greyhound experiments have been analyzed by A. M. Robb [INA, 1947, Vol. 89, pp.
6-15; abstracted in SBSR, 5 Jun 1947, pp. 568(2)

S. S. YTB 602; 100-ft, 1,000-horse single-screw

harbor tug, early 1950's. This vessel was towed,
with its propeller removed, by the U. S. S. LSM
458, the latter fitted with Kirsten rotating-blade

factors,

data have been published, including the Greyhound experiments, are listed hereunder:
(1)

XXVI-XXXIII, and

presence of

(by modern standards) of the hull surface.

Since that time others have engaged in similar
using improved methods and instrumentation. The full-scale towing tests for which

U.

propellers.

partly because of the excessive roughness

projects,

Pis.

that paper.
(6)

for resistance in the early

1870's but the results were

ing,

S.

and

INA,

Ships,"

"Experimental Investigations on the Frictional

Resistance of Planks and Ship Models," Society of
Naval Architects of Japan, Dec 1934, Vol. LV.
The INA paper described and gave the results of
towing tests on the destroyer Yudachi, on a so-called
"plank ship," 77 ft long and 0.525 ft wide, as well
as on a tug (unnamed), having a length of 114.83
ft and a displacement of 296.93 t. The displacement
of the plank ship was 3.356 t; its L/B ratio was 147.
Included in the towing test was a 26-ft model of
the Hashike and of a 56-ft Vedette boat; see PI.
XXVI of the INA paper. Lines and other data of
the 300-t twin-screw tug are given on PI. XXXI of

devices, to determine their full-scale resistances

among naval

311
Planks and

TiOng

1934, pp. 284-320

in this section.

The towing

of

(9)

Nordstrom, H. F., hulk of Swedish destroyer Wrangel,

about 1952. Report published as "Full-Scale Tests
with the Wrangel and Comparative Model Tests,"
SSPA Rep. 27, 1953 (in English).
Large-scale self-propelled model D. C. Endert, Jr.,
representing a Victory ship; about 1953. Full-scale
trials of a Victory ship were conducted by the
Dutch in conjunction with tests of five model
geosims, plus an independently powered 72-ft

HYDRODYNAMICS

312
model built

One

named the D.

IN SHIP DESIGN

of the first installments of the published

dummy

data

sister ship),

with

hubs substituted. Otherwise the append-

ages on both vessels were the same, comprising

this project

with the mines weeperfSiriits (a

Sec. 56.12

the two propellers of the Aldebaran removed and

C. Enderl, Jr.

was prepared by W. P. A. van

Lammeren, J. D. van Manen, and A. J. W. Lap,
entitled "Scale-Effect Experiments on Victory
Ships and Models. Part I, Analysis of the Resistance and Thrust Measurements on a Model Family
and on the Model Boat D. C. Endert, Jr.," INA,
Apr 1955, Vol. 97, pp. 167-245.
French minesweeper Aldebaran, about 1954. The
report of this work was published by R. Retail
and S. Bindel in a paper entitled "fitude k la
Mer de la Resistance ^ la Marche et de la Propulsion; Rapprochement avec le Module (Sea Trials
to Determine Towing Resistance and Propulsion:
Correlation with the Model)," ATMA, 1955. These
trials 'involved towing the minesweeper Aldebaran
on

(10)

of steel,

(11)

roll-resisting keels, twin rudders, exposed twin

propeUer shafts, and twin supporting struts.
Towline tensions were measured, both on the
towing and on the towed vessels. Shaft torques
were observed by torsion meter on the towing
vessel but no propeller-thrust readings were taken.
The vessels were 140.95 ft long on the waterline,
with a maximum waterline beam of 27.95 ft and a
mean draft of about 7 ft. The displacement with
appendages was 380 long tons.
Silovi6, S., and Fancev, M., "Measurements on
M. V. Rijeka, with their Attempted Practical

Application,"

INA Autumn meeting,

SBMEB. Apr

Yugoslavia; abstracted in
264-266.

1955,

in

1956, pp.

CHAPTER

57

Estimate of Total Resistance for Surface and

Submerged Ships
57.1
57.2
57.3
67 4
.

67.5
57.6

67.7

General

Summary of Kinds of Ship Resistance

...

Ratios of Major Resistance Components

Methods

of

Method

315

57 12

Calculating the Overall Wetted Surface and

310

57 13

Drag

Mathematical Methods

Ship Still-Air and Wind Resistance from

Chapter 54

Bulk Volume
.

316

of

Coefficients

a Submerged Object
and Data for Submerged
.

Pressure Resistance of Submerged Bodies as

57 15

a Function of Depth
Resistance Due to Flow of Water Through
Free-Flooding Spaces

321
321

322

322
322

57. 14

of

Predicting Pressure Resistance

General.

Bodies

318

Analytical and

57.1

An Approximation of Separation Drag

Slope Resistance and Thrust

of Predicting Ship Resist-

ance

57.8

57.9
57.10
57.11

Approximating the Total Resist-

ance of a Ship
Ship Friction Resistance Calculation from
Chapter 45
Residuary Resistance Prediction from Reference and Standard-Series Data
Telfer's

313
313
313

323
323

321

This chapter covers methods

and 12.10

Sees. 12.1

of

Volume

and defined

in

and predicting full-scale

Sees. 12.2 through 12.7. This subdivision, based

resistance data for bodies or ships, intended to run

on the Froude theorem that the resistances due

to tangential and to normal forces on the ship
are for the most part independent and therefore
can be segregated, is repeated here in Table 57.
for the convenience of the reader. However, the

of estimating, calculating,

on the surface or submerged, based upon available

information. It does not discuss the extrapolation
of model-test data to full scale for

any

specific

ship design. Descriptions of this procedure, at

least as utilized

Towing

Tank

by members
Conference,

of the

are

American

published

in

SNAME

Technical and Research Bulletin 1-2,

"Uniform Procedure for the Calculation
of Frictional Resistance and the Expansion of
Model Test Data to Full Size," of March 1952.
Details of the testing and extrapolating proceentitled

interactions listed in Sees.

12.1

and 12.10 are

placed under a separate heading.

The following sections describe, in turn, various

means of estimating these different kinds of
resistance.

57.3

Ratios of Major Resistance Components.

Useful ratios in analysis and design are the per-

dures, corresponding to those in general use in

centages of the friction and residuary resistances,

America, are described in Bureau of Construction

according to the Froude subdivision, making up

the total hull resistance. The solid line in Fig.

"The Prediction
by Methods in Use
at the United States Experimental Model Basin,
and Repair Bulletin
of Speed and Power

7, entitled

of Ships

57. A, dividing the total Rt into friction R^ and

residuary Rr over a T^ range of 0.4 to 2.0, is

Washington," 1933.
This chapter also gives some information concerning the resistance of fully submerged bodies
resembUng submarines. These data may be found
of benefit to the marine architect when he is
called upon to approximate the drag of a non-ship
form to be towed submerged.
57.2
Summary of Kinds of Ship Resistance.

adapted from V. M. Lavrent'ev ["Marine Pro-

The various

sheets for about twenty ships,

categories into which, in the present

state of the art, the resistance of a ship to steady

straight-line

motion

is

divided,

are

listed

in

pulsion Devices,"

Moscow,

The same

diagram

original

1949, Fig. 37, p. 85].

is

published by G. E.

Pavlenko ["Soprotivleniye Vody Dvizheniyu Sudov (The Resistance of Water to the Movement

Moscow, 1953, Fig. 5, p. 16, covering

a range of F from 0.1 through 0.6]. The broken
line is based on data from the SNAME
of Ships),"

RD

more

easily driven

than those of the Taylor Standard Series. It

includes a roughness allowance (lO')ACp of 0.4.

313

HYDRODYNAMICS

314

TABLE

IN SHIP DESIGN

Classification and Subdivision of

THE Resistance op a Ship to Steady, Straight-

Sec. 57.3

57.a

0,20

0.25

0.30

0J5

0.45

O.40|

Ahead Motion
I.

Pressure

Drag

or Resistance, due to

Normal Pressure

on the Ship
(a)

Deflection drag and closing thrust for the hull proper

(b) Deflection

drag and closing thrust for the hull

appendages

Rg and cavitation drag,

appendages
(d) Wavemaking drag Rw
for the hull proper and for
such appendages as may be near enough to the surface to
generate waves
(e) Drag due to the generation of spray roots and spray.
(c)

Separation or eddying drag

for the hull proper

and

for the
,

II. Friction or

Area. This
(a)

Tangential Resistance

Rp on

OA

Tanvis resistance, varying as

Z7 or

0.6

1.2

1,0

1.1

the Wetted

first

ABC transom-

(b)

The

(c)

stern ship designed in Part 4, for the sustained

Tanqua resistance, varying as U^ or V^

Some unknown combination of (a) and (b), varying
an unknown (and probably varying) power of f7 or F

between

20

text
to the

power

as

I.S

I.

Typical Percentages op Friction and

Residuart Resistances for a Range op SpeedLength Quotients
The significance of the two graphs is explained in the

considered to be either:

is

0.6

Fig. 57. a

and

Both curves are

embodying a

subdivision into:
(c)

Friction

sea speed and trial speed, respectively.

2.

different classification could be used here,

smooth

circled spots are values for the

on

resistance

such

surfaces, flat or curved, as

may

hydrodynamically
be incorporated in

loci of division points for

de-

signed speeds at the various T^ and F values

given. It

Rf vary

is

to be noted that the ratios of

Rk

to

rather widely over the speed-length range

the ship

indicated. If ships are overdriven the percentage

due to roughness superposed on

the hydrodynamically smooth surfaces, flat or curved.

oi Rii

(d) Friction resistance

in
III. Interactions

between

and

I.

II.,

as follows:

may

be up to twice as great as that shown

the figure. If underdriven,

it

may

be only

two-thirds as large.

(a) Interaction effect of viscous or friction flow on the

pressure resistance due to wavemaking, and the reverse,

symbolized by

Rwf

(b) Interaction effect of separation or

eddying on the
pressure resistance due to wavemaking, or the reverse,
symbolized by

Rws

Interaction effect of viscous or friction flow on the

pressure resistance due to separation or eddying, or the
(c)

reverse, symbolized

IV. Air and

by Rsf

Wind Drag and

Resistance, embodying:

due to ship motion alone,

with a true or natural wind of zero
(b) Wind drag D,f,
exerted always downwind from the
relative-wind direction. This drag has both transverse
and axial components, due to aerodynamic lift and drag.
(a)

Still-air resistance

Rsa

>

0.6

0.4

08

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.6

2.0

Wind

composed of the net axial

by the wind, acting opposite to the direction
of ahead motion. The definitions of and distinctions
between these terms are explained in Sees. 26.15 and 54.1
and illustrated in Figs. 26.G, 26.H, and 26.1.
(c)

resistance iJwind

Percentages of Friction and Residuary

Resistances for Three Specific Cases

Fig. 57.B

>

force imposed

57.

Fig.

and

indicates,

for

an

EMB

ABC

research

ship design,

for destroyers as a class, the variation of

friction

V. Gravity Forces Acting on the Ship:

model, for the transom-stern

and residuary

resistances throughout the

intermediate and upper speed ranges of those

EMB model 2861 is the subject of the

model pressure-distribution tests made by

ships.
Slope drag Ds due to the inclination of the buoyancy-force vector to the weight-force vector, with a force
component opposing motion
(a)

(b)

Slope thrust Ts

similar to (a) preceding but with

a force component assisting motion.

first

E. F. Eggert [SNAME, 1935, pp. 139-150]. As

expected, in the low-speed ranges before appreciable

wavemaking

begins, the total resistance in

TOTAL

Sec. 57.4

each case

is

largely frictional. In the high-speed

and near designed-speed T, values

ranges, at

than O.Sflr

of

only slightly greater

is

Methods

57.4

Rp

or more,

1.7,

1.6,

RE.Sl,STy\NCF.

of Approximating the Total

Re-

OF RODY OR SHIP

315

This compares well, as a quick approximation,

with the value of 171,830 lb derived in Sec. 66.9
by the use of the Schoenherr mean friction line
and the Gertler reworked data of the Taylor

Standard Series described in Sec.

Ct

56.5. Actually,

at 20.5 kt would

sometimes necessary to
estimate the total resistance of a ship at a given
speed, usually the designed speed, when nothing
more is known of it than its principal dimensions

for the destroyer tender, the

and weight displacement. The ship

shape, and form coefficients close to those .selected

for the vessel being designed. Reference to the

sistance of a Ship.

It is

in question

ma}' not even be designed or the one making the

estimate

may

never have heard of

ship has not been tested in

is

no opportunity

estimate

model

it

before.

scale

The

and there

of doing so before the resistance

SNAME RD and ERD sheets having proportions,

crude approximation of the total resistance,

by the formula

for a speed V, is given directly

(57.i)

where Ct is estimated for the T, or F^ in question

by reference to the full-scale values for one or
more similar ships of nearly the same size, such

SNAME RD

as those listed in the

The wetted

for the

area

similar ship

or

S
is

is

Summary

taken as the value

derived by the Cs

Care is required that the

reference ship is of about the same length as the
ship for which the total resistance is to be derived,
so that for a given T, or F the Reynolds number
R and the specific total friction drag coefiBcient
Cp are both nearly the same.
For example, in the early stages of the ABC
coefficient of Sec. 45.12.

design, described in See. 66.9, the total resistance

is

required to furnish a

first

approximation of the

SNAME RD

power. Reference to the

Summary Sheets indicates that the destroyer
shaft

tender of

RD

sheet 96 closely resembles the ship

being designed.

The

latter sheet indicates that

the appendages are limited to a half -rudder only.

For the tender, at

its

designed speed of 20 kt,

the value of the total specific resistance coefficient

Ct

is

3.023(10^^)

ship

is

and the wetted surface S

The designed speed

46,509 ftl

for the

is

ABC

20.5 kt, or 34.625 ft per sec; the numerical

value of

is

sheet gives directly

the values of total resistance

per ton of weight

or 1000

Rt

total resistance

Rt/^, and Pb

for a geosim

1,198.9.

Then, for the

ABC

ft,

as indicated on the sheet.

The

total

resistance of the geosim ship of the length under

design

Rt = Cr(0.5p)SF'

Sheets.

SNAME ERD

appropriate

vessel having a "standard" length of 100, 200, 400,

required.

is

be higher than the figure quoted.

One may, of course, pick a vessel from the

is

then determined by correcting for the

difference in friction resistance

due to the

differ-

ences in length and in speed between the reference

ship and the "design" ship. This scheme, or a
it, has the advantage that curves
can be constructed for a range of
Tj or F considerably greater than will be encoimtered in practice. The full-scale data on the

modification of
oi

Rt and Pe

SNAME RD

Summary

Sheets

are

for

the

designed-speed spot only.

Another rapid method

of approximating the

total resistance for the designed-speed spot is to

pick the value of

the

meanhne

Kt/A,

of Fig.

at the proper T^

56.M. Multiplying

from

this value

by the weight displacement A gives fir at once.

For example, the i2j./A value for the ABC ship,
at a T, of 0.903, is 10.2 lb. Multiplying by 17,300
tons, the displacement at

an early stage of the

design, gives a total resistance of 176,400 lb. This

compares with the 171,830

lb

quoted

earlier in

the section.
It is customary,

if

time

is

available, to estimate

the friction resistance

separately

residuary resistance

Rr hy

Rp and

the

the methods of the

two sections following, using model-test data

from a parent form such as the Taylor Standard
Series. They are added to give the total resistance
Rt This method enables the designer to draw
curves of estimated Rp Rt and Pp for a very
large range of Taylor quotient T^ or Froude
number F
.

ship,

on the assumption of the same Ct and the same

S, and for roughly the same speed,

Rt = Ct{0.5p)SV^

Strictly speaking, the use of standard-series or

from models or ships of different

same dimensions and
proportions and having exactly the same form
reference data

3.023(10~')(0.9905)(46,509)(1, 198.9)

shape, even though of the

166,960

coefficients, requires the use of a shape-correction

lb.

HYDRODYNAMICS

316

For example, it has to be decided whether

the shape contemplated for the design will have
less (or more) resistance than the standard-series

factor.

or reference hull of the

same proportions. This is

by the EHP/Taylor

after a fashion,

afforded,

EHP or "angleworm-curve" ratios of the SNAME

ERD

However, with many such ratios

to formulate anything

sheets.

at hand,

it is still difficult

approaching systematic rules for guidance in

this matter. A bulb bow carried by the new
if appropriate, will reduce its resistance
below the Taylor Standard Series value. This is
one reason why the resistance of the ABC tran-

design,

som-stern design, determined by model test, is

less than the values calculated earlier in this
section.

IN SHIP DESIGN

may have

walking

provide

The

deck.

Sec. 57.5

rather wide flat surfaces on top, to

on

space

the

superstructure

transverse curvature along portions of

the deck edges, even though they are rounded,

is

be more severe than along the bilge

corners of a surface vessel.
57.6 Residuary Resistance Prediction from

likely to

Reference and Standard-Series Data. It is possible to approximate the residuary resistance of

a surface ship, at a given speed V, or at a series
of speeds, by assuming that it is the same as the
residuary resistance Ra of a model having the
same proportions. Data of this kind can be found
in the SNAME RD sheets and similar sources.
Continuing the discussion of Sec. 57.4, it is
somewhat risky to rely on the proportions Cp
B/H, and A/(0.010L)' (or ^/(O.IOL)') as com,

Most books on naval

architecture give several

formulas and methods for predicting the total

and

resistance

power

the

prising

well

as

sole

the

as

preponderant

the

influences on residuary resistance, neglecting the

drawn
and certainly before models are built and tested.
For example, G. E. Pavlenko describes no less
than eleven methods, dating from 1899 to the

shape factors entirely. What appear to be minor

differences in shape or proportions often produce
appreciable changes in resistance. These will not
be explained, and can not be allowed for, until
our present (1955) knowledge of ship hydrody-

effective

of ships in

design stage, perhaps before the lines are

present,

including

Standard

Taylor's

Series,

Ayre's method, and Doyere's method, for finding

the resistance and effective power of merchant

namics

and. naval vessels of different kinds ["Soprotiv-

of speeds

Vody Dvizheniyu Sudov (The Resistance

Water to the Movement of Ships)," Moscow,

leniye
of

1953, pp. 305-379].

In

all

these cases, however,

it is

most important

or method,

as given in the text.

If

no

limitations are mentioned, they should be sought

in other references or directly

from those who

prepared and published them.

57.5
Ship Friction Resistance Calculation from
Chapter 45. The methods used and the numbers
required for a calculation of the ship friction

is

considerably extended.

Rr/A

calculation of values of

and a given

set

"phantom"
ship

it

ship

of

for a range

of proportions,

assuming that these are the same as

takes

to note the limitations on each formula, graph,

table,

The

exactly

for a

by

TSS

those proportions,

for granted that the shape of the proposed

good as (and no better than) that

of the
This does not prevent a designer,
however, from estimating that his proposed hull
is

TSS

as

ship.

have x per cent

will

less

or

residuary resistance than the

The

hull.

difficulty here, as

y per cent more

TSS "phantom"

mentioned previously,

the lack of systematic and reliable data for

is

selecting the x-

and y-values.

The contours

of

Rr/A

for the

Taylor Standard

Two sets of them,

resistance, including all types of roughness, are

Series are described in Sec. 56.3.

set forth in detail in Sees. 45.12

= 0.90, are illustrated in Figs. 56.A

These contours are intended to be used
for ships having the same proportions Cp
B/H
and displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)^.
The designer may apply, as x- and y-values,
increments or decrements of Rr/A.
An illustrative example of the Taylor Rr/A.
method, for the fifth approximation of characteristics in the preliminary design of the transom-

The method
and

thje

for

through 45.20.

calculating the wetted length

wetted area S for planing hulls

is

dis-

cussed in Sees. 45.24 and 53.6.

The method

of calculating the friction drag of

a submerged submarine

is

essentially the

same

as for a surface ship, except for the inclusion of

the entire outer area, surrounding what is described elsewhere as the bulk volume. The transverse curvature of the lower part of the hull of a
submarine is, as a rule, relatively less than for the
bilge corners

nearly

flat

on a large surface ship with flat or

However, a submersible hull

floors.

for

V/Vl

and

56. B.

stern

Table

ABC
57. b.

ship described in Part

The

4, is

given in

basic data for this stage of the

design are listed in the right-hand column of

Table

66. e in Sec. 66.11.

The proportions required

TOTAL RESISTANCE OF BODY OR

Sec. 57.6

for this calculation are

and A/(0.010L)' =

Cp =
123.6,

0.62,

B/H =

2.808,

while the value of

r at the designed speed selected for this example

0.908.

is

The displacement

The

linear interpolations described in Sec. 56.3

down

in

Table

57. b,

W.

adapted from D.

56.

characteristic spots

A/(0.010L)'
2.25

drawn

No

and

values of

123.6 for both

(of

The

quotient

of /? a/A of 4.014 lb per ton

then multiplied by the displacement

TABLE

57.b

ABC

ship.

made

is

here for the difference

between the salt-water specific gravity of 1.024

for all the TSS data and the specific gravity of
1.027 for the

ABC

The method

ship.

of predicting the residuary resist-

is

ratios

for this speed-length

The derived value

allowance

B/H

were picked from the originals of Figs. 56. A and

56. B, drawn to a scale over three times larger
than that of the reproductions. Normally it is
not possible to determine the values of Rr/A by
inspection to more than three significant figures,
indicated in Table 57.b for a T, of 0.95.
is

"phantom" TSS ship having the

ance of a given ship from the "phantom" Taylor

Standard Series ship having the same proportions

3.75, respectively), at a T, of 0.90.

Rr/^

317

A and
Cp = 0.62 and

in Figs. 56.

indicate the coordinates of

the

proportions of the

Taylor's Table VIII-A [S and P, 1943, p. 63].

The

SHIP

to give the predicted total /? of 65,829

for

lb,

assumed here as

is

16,400 tons.
are set

16,400

of

rather different

TSS data

when

the Gertler reworked

are employed. These are described in

and a sample calculation is set down in

Table 57. c. The ship selected is the fifth approximation of the ABC design, hsted in Table 66.e of
Sec. 66.11, but the basic data now involve the
wetted surface S and the fatness ratio F/(0.10L)^.
These are, from Table 66.e, 44,759 ft' and 4.327,
respectively. The mass density p is taken as
1.9905 slugs per ft^ for "standard" salt water.
Sec. 56.5

The volumetric

Residuaby-Resistance Prediction for

ABC

Ship

coefficient

F/L^

of the Gertler

From Taylor's Rr/A Contours

The characteristics and proportions listed correspond to those of the fifth approximation in Table 66.e in Sec. 66.11.
The method illustrated here is adapted from D. W. Taylor's Table VIII-A in his "The Speed and Power of Ships,"
1943, page 63. One particular pair of contours required here is reproduced in Figs. 56. A and 56. B.
The calculation is made for one speed only, 20.5 kt (the designed speed), at a T, value of 0.908.
Length on waterline,
Displacement,

A =

L =

510

16,400

Cp = 0.62

123.6

(0.0 lOL)'

B/H 1.50

2.25

2.808

1.50

2.25

fi

73

ft

Draft, ff

26

ft

Beam,

ft

0.372

B =

2.

HYDRODYNAMICS

318

TABLE

IN SHIP DESIGN

57.0 Residuary-Resistance Prediction for

ABC

Ship

Sec. 57.7

From Gertler's Cr Contours

The characteristics and proportions listed correspond to those of the fifth approximation in Table 66. e of Sec. 66.11.
The Cr contours are given in TMB Report 806, "A Reanalysis of the Original Test Data for the Taylor Standard
Series," by M. Gertler, March 1954. One particular pair of contours required here is reproduced in Fig. 56.D.
The calculation is made for one speed only, 20.5 kt (the designed speed), at a T, value of 0.908.
Length on waterline, L = 510 ft
Displacement volume, V = 574,000

Wetted surface, S = 44,759

Beam, S = 73 ft
20.5 kt

=0=

34.62

ft

per sec

ft^

Draft,
ft'

V/(0.10Ly

B/H =

26

ft

4.327

2.808

= 0.62
0.5p = (0.5) (1.9905)
Cp

slugs per

ft'

0.9953 slugs per

fts

TOTAL RESISTANCE OF BODY OR

Sec. 57.7

XIV-XVII. These

plates contain several of the

Telfer extrapolation diagrams.

(4)

Horn,

"Die Weiterentwicklung des Modellver-

F.,

suchsverfahrens zur Ermittlung des Schiffswiderstandes (The Further Development of Model Test

Methods

(6)

U.
(7)

(8)

(9)

on

507
Telfer, E. V., "Frictional Resistance and Ship Resistance Similarity," NECI, 1928-1929, Vol. XLV,
pp. 115-184
SNAME, 1932, Fig. 13, p. 89, for three models of the
16

(5)

Nov

to Obtain Ship Resistance)," Schiffbau,

S. S.

1927, pp. 504-510, esp. Fig.

North Carolina

p.

(old) series

Van Lammeren, W. P. A., "Propulsion Scale Effect,"

NECI, 1939-1940, Vol. 51, p. 115ff
Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
J. G., RPSS, 1948, pp. 39-40 and Fig. 13
Telfer extrapolation diagrams have been prepared for

the Lucy Ashton family of models; see the references

hsted under
Fig.

20 opp.

INA, Apr

(10)

(11)

(12)

in Sec. 56.12, esp.

(7)

p.

372 and Fig. 23 opp.

INA,

1953,

p. 378; also

and 13 opp. p. 122

Birkhoff, G., Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., and Kotik,
J., "Theory of the Wave Resistance of Ships,"
SNAME, 1954, pp. 359-396, esp. Fig. 1 on p. 361
Acevedo, M. L., Comments on Skin Friction and
Turbulence Stimulation, 7th ICSH, 1954, SSPA
Rep. 34, 1955, pp. 110-117, esp. p. 115
Van Lammeren, W. P. A., van Manen, J. D., and
Lap, A. J., "Scale Effect Experiments on Victory
Ships and Models. Part I Analysis of the Resistance and Thrust-Measurements on a Model Family
and on the Model Boat D. C. Endert, Jr.," INA,
Apr 1955, Vol. 97, Figs. 21 and 22 on pp. 184-185
and Fig. 25B on p. 232
1955, Figs. 12

(13)

Sund, E.,

"On

the Effects of Different Turbulence-

Exciters on B.S.R.A. 0.75-Block Models

Made

to

Various Scales," Norwegian Model Basin Rep. 11,

Aug 1951. Figs. 1 through 11 on pp. 19-22 embody

SHIP

319

G. Birkhoff, B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky, and J.

Kotik [SNAME, 1954, p. 361], it affords a plausible separation

coefficient

excellent

Ct

of the total specific resistance

into components,

representation

visual

ponents. Further,

allowance

and

as well as an

com-

those

of

visualizes the ship roughness

it

illustrates

discrepancies which

still

rather

the

forcibly

exist because of inade-

quate model-testing techniques, lack of complete

knowledge of scale effects, and similar factors.
The diagram of Fig. 57. C, deliberately drawn
in schematic fashion, illustrates most of the features mentioned. The formula for the smooth,
flat-plate, turbulent-flow friction line is assumed
for simplicity to be an explicit function of Cf and
log Rn so the Cf line is straight when plotted on
those coordinates. The horizontal gap between
the model range and the ship range is deliberately
closed to enable the features to be shown to
better advantage. It is assumed that the average
roughness allowance to be added to the friction
line representing hydrodynamic smoothness is
practically zero at the point Bi and increases as
indicated by the long-dash line B1B2 corresponding to the line CC on Fig. 45.E.
The vertical distance between Ci and Ai or
between C2 and Bj is a measure of that portion
of the total specific resistance Ct which corresponds to the separation drag, at speeds below
which there is practically no wavemaking drag.
However, as i2 increases toward the ship range,
the hne C1C2 is not extended straight to C3 but
beyond C2 becomes parallel to B1B2 occupying
the short-dash position C2C4
At small values of R in the small-model range,
,

on Reynolds
number, for four models having scale ratios of 15,
22.5, 30, and 45.
Pavlenko, G. E., "Soprotivleniye Vody Dvizheniyu
Sudov (The Resistance of Water to the Movement
of Ships)," Moscow, 1953, Fig. 154, p. 250. The
diagram given is not exactly that of Telfer but the
specific total resistance values, plotted

(14)

graphic method

is

the same, including the addition

of a roughness allowance to the friction resistance

for the ship.

the boundary-layer thickness

5 (delta)

increases

rapidly as the absolute model size diminishes.

Even though

stimulating devices on the small

models render the flow completely turbulent the
boundary-layer thickness is so large in proportion

that the transverse velocity gradient at a given

The graphic procedure has

advantages.

First,

it

is

several

definite

easy to visualize the

agreement (or otherwise) of the several spots for

model tests at a given T^ or F with the inclined
extrapolation

The

line

for

made

that speed-length ratio.

easier by plotting R
on a log scale and Ct on a uniform scale because
the extrapolation hues are then all straight (or
very nearly so) and parallel, depending upon the

analysis

is

still

formulation used. Indeed, analysis by

any method other than a graphic one might be
intricate and laborious. Second, as pointed out by

friction

point along the run

is

smaller than

it is

at the

even
normal size. This means, by reference to Fig. 7.B on page 124 of Volume I, that
the port and starboard separation points on the
small model are farther forward than on the large
model or on the ship. The separation zone is thus
wider and the separation drag is larger. Further,
on the small model, there is a curvature effect,
transverse in particular, which adds to the specific
friction resistance Cp to be expected at that R
As a third item, listed on Fig. 57. C, the small
corresponding point on the

on a model

full-size ship or

of

HYDRODYNAMICS

320
Re'ynolds

IN SHIP DESIGN

Number R^

Number Fn

Line of Constant Froude

for Models of All Sizes and for the Ship

at which Wavemokinc^

Sec. 57.7

Resist-

Rbjnolds- Number Abscissa for each

ance Beqins
on the Small

Circle

IS

Determined

by

as

Absolute Value of

Model

Same

Usinij
in

the

Respective Froude Number and

L as for the Respecti\

Same

Model orShip^~~^^

Loq

of

Reynolds

Fig. 57.C

its

length,

on

Uniform

Stale

Schematic Representation of the Telfer Extrapolation Diagram to Illustrate Various

Resistance Factors

model has a greater

to

Number,

effective

volume, in proportion

because of the greater relative

displacement thickness 5(delta) of

its

boundary

D2 and D3 both lie on a line parallel to

H2H3H4C4. Almost certainly Di Dj and D^ do
not, as may be noted by consulting the many
as

layer.

Because these three effects increase as the

size diminishes they give the impression,
apparently not real, that the basic friction line
should be steeper in this region.
If there are no effects other than those which
have been enumerated, and if the wavemaking
and other normal-pressure drags vary only as V'
in the normal model and ship ranges, it should be
possible to extend a hne such as D2D3 by drawing
At a ship R corresponding
it parallel to C2C4
to the F value for this line, the point D4 should

diagrams in the references

model

section.

give the total specific resistance coefficient for the

model and on the ship

listed earlier in this

The accuracy and reliability

method therefore rest heavily

of

the

upon

Telfer
several

factors, as yet not properly resolved:

(a)

Exactly

the

proper

degree

of

turbulence

stimulation on small models to insure that the

transition

from laminar to turbulent

onset of separation,
relative positions

The

if

flow,

and the

any, occur at the same

along the length as on the large

correct allowance for roughness of the

ship at the given F value. Similarly, other lines

(b)

such as E2E3 could be drawn, so that the complete

Cr curve HiGiDj for the ship would be predicted.

This is of course equally

important, whether or not the Telfer method is

Rarely

is it

found in practice that points such

full-scale ship surface.

employed.

TOTAL RESISTANCE OF BODY OR

57.10

Sec.

Wisdom,

(c)

experience,

and perhaps intuition

series of parallel extrap-

know how

to

draw a

olation lines,

in

semi-log or any other

to

known

type of plotting, when the lines joining the

corresponding spots for the different geosims are
neither straight nor parallel.

Although
the

has been most useful for analysis,

method manifestly does not lend

in

its

present stage of development,

57.8

must be given in numbers of certain units.

Analytical and Mathematical Methods of

Predicting Pressure Resistance.

The use

of pure

analytical or mathematical procedures to calculate

the pressure resistance of a body or ship due to

wavemaking, as of 1955, is described in Chap. 50.

This method has not yet progressed to the stage
where a quantitative design prediction for a ship
of normal form is a practical proposition. Furthermore, the pressure resistance due to eddying or
separation can only be approximated, and the
resistances due to the interactions listed in III
of Table 57. a can not as yet be estimated by any
known method.

An

57.9

Approximation of Separation Drag.

It is explained in Sec. 7.9 of

tion

may

Volume

that separa-

and cause added drag, abaft

Although

occur,

water at the same loading, may be used for the

slope angle B, provided account is taken of the
change of trim caused by the ship's speed through
the water.

estimated with any degree of assurance.

An

The
slope

mate delineation

first

an approxi-

of those hull areas

bounding

the separation zone. Several methods for making

this prediction are described in Sec. 46.3.

of estimating the drag due to

Means

Ap's in separation

zones are discussed in Sec. 46.5.

Some

differential pressures

have been observed

at selected points on the transoms of certain

square-stern models, but at the time of writing

the data are incomplete and the results inconclusive.

57.10 Slope Resistance and Thrust.

It may
be assumed for a calculation of slope drag or
thrust on a body or ship, described in Sec. 12.7,
that the effective-slope angle in the equation
sin ^(theta) is that of the conDs (or Ts) =
stant-pressure water subsurface passing through

the center of buoyancy CB. If this subsurface

not plane
is

(flat)

along the ship length,

measured at the

slope

is

CB

not known

it

its

is

slope

position. If the subsurface

may

with a surface

be assumed roughly

is

ft) to the
only 2(10~).

slope drag of a 10,000-ton ship on such a

is

about 45

The

lb.

slopes of

many

navigable

rivers are of the order of 5 to 8 ft to the statute

sin 6 may vary from 0.001 to
W. F., RPS, 1903, p. 119;
"New Knowledge on Ship Propul-

mile, in

which case

0.0015

[Durand,

Nowka,

G.,

sion," 1944,

BuShips Transl. 411, pp.

such a river

is

from

sufficient to give it

The
down

4-5].

slope thrust on a 1,000-ton barge floating

to 1.5 ton, 2,240 to 3,360 lb,

a sizable differential down-

stream speed. This may be 3 or 4 kt over and

above the river speed in the middle of the channel,
sufficient

to render

it

controllable

by

its

own

rudders.

For convenience, Table

57. d gives values (1) of

the natural sine of the slope angle d and (2) of the

TABLE

Drop

estimate of the separation drag on the

afterbody or run of a ship requires

will flow

statute mile. In this case sin 6

drag unfortunately can not be

this

water

It is reported that

slope as small as 0.125 inch (0.0104

certain discontinuities in the forebody.

explained,

in turn, the latter

to

routine predictions of ship resistance, where the

forces

321
If,

can not be determined, the change of trim of the

body or ship, reckoned from its attitude in level

it

Telfer

itself,

SHIP

equal to the surface slope.

in

Slope Drag and Thrust Data for

57. d
Varying Water-Surface Slopes

HYDRODYNAMICS

322
slope

drag Dg

weight

W of

(or thrust

Ts)

a ship

in lb for

long ton, covering a range of water-

IN SHIP DESIGN

Vb

The

outer

Snr. 57.11

area (Sb of a

tanks,

from 0.02 to 10.0 ft. These correspond to a range

of d from 0.01 deg to 5.7 deg. The values so
derived may then be related directly to the values

erections, fairwaters,

Rt

ment A, mentioned

per ton of weight displace-

in the sections preceding.

For

example, the 100-ft version of the 944-t barge on

SNAME RD
down a

river

0.12 ft per 100

V of 4.03 kt.

If drifting

having a surface slope of about

ft,

the slope thrust

is sufficient

to

overcome the hydrodynamic drag for a 4.03-kt

speed through the water. If steered properly the
barge would go at least 4 kt downstream through
the water. If the current velocity in

barge were say 3.5 kt,

its

way

of the

speed past the banks or

over the bed would be about 7.5 kt.

For the ABC ship of Part 4, ascending the
river to Port Correo, it

under

certain

may

be assumed that

conditions,

flood

with

river

current of 4 kt in that portion of the channel

section occupied

by the

drop in surface
The corresponding slope

ship, the

level is 0.1 ft per 100 ft.

drag from Table 57. d is 2.24 lb per long ton of

weight displacement. Assuming a
value of

plus

that of the

that

the

of

and

deck
appendages except

superstructure,
all

those in the "short" category defined in Sec.

The area Sb

45.12.

general

is

of a

submerged object in

the area bounding the portion which

pushes the water aside as the object

is

self-

propelled or dragged along.

The bulk volume V^

sheet 141 has a value of fir/A of

2.414 lb per ton at a speed

is

or of the pressure hull with outer

hull,

level drops per 100 ft horizontal distance varying

of total resistance

submarine

is

the entire volume within

all of that volume

buoyant and weight-supporting or not. Any
Hquid in free-flooding spaces lying within the
overall boundary is considered as solidified or
frozen in place, so far as resistance to motion is
concerned. For instance, the bulk volume of a
whale with a mouth full of water includes the
volume of that water because, for this example
at least, it moves along with the animal. However,
the overall wetted surface does not include that
of the inside of its mouth, because there is no
friction drag on that surface affecting the body

the wetted boundary, whether

is

motion.

The 0-diml bulk

fatness ratio

is

defined as the

volume Vb or Vs to the quantity

(O.lOLo^)^, where Lqa is the overall external

ratio of the bulk

length of the hull

when submerged. Values

of bulk

and submarines
range from about 3.4

fatness ratio, for submersibles

of

added to the
ship's hydrodynamic drag. At the same time the
current speed is subtracted from the ship's speed

varied type and service,

to

through the water, say 15 kt, to give a speed of

11 kt made good over the ground.
Ship Still-Air and Wind Resistance from
57.11

The overall maximum-section area ^4.y of a

submerged body or submarine, as projected on
the y-z plane, is measured to the same external
boundary as the bulk volume. It is customary to

16,000

at this stage of the voyage, the calculated

slope drag

is

35,840

lb.

This

is

to be

Chapter 54. To all the resistances derived or

mentioned in Sees. 57.5, 57.6, 57.9, and 57.10,
where appropriate, there should be added the stillair or the wind resistance of the abovewater hull,
of upper works, and of all projections from both.
The ship creates a relative-wind speed Wr equal
to its own trial speed V, even though there is
no natural wind blowing over the trial course.

The
drag,

significance

and wind

of

still-air

resistance

is

resistance,

described in Sec.

26.15 and illustrated in Figs. 26.G and 26.H.

methods

of estimating

wind

The

and calculating them are

5.4,

with values rising to 8.5 for craft intended

for .special .service.

take this area as the

maximum

erections

area

lie

and fairwaters forming a part

in a different transverse plane

maximum

of the

57.13

Drag

fortunately, the validity of

are questionable, because of:

methods,

requires

overall wetted surface

first

Sb and

calculation

of

the

of the bulk volume

main hull.
and Data for Sub-

merged Bodies. There are many technical papers

and reports in existence giving resistances, drag
coefficients, and similar data for fully submerged
bodies, most of them bodies of revolution intended
to serve as basic shapes for airship hulls. Un-

Wetted Surface
and Bulk Volume of a Submerged Object. A
prediction of the pressure and friction drag of
any submerged object, by any one of several
Calculating the Overall

of this

than that

section of the

Coefficients

described in Chap. 54.

57.12

transverse pro-

jected area or frontal area, even though the deck

many

of these

data

and 1920's of
wind tunnels at Reynolds
numbers too small to produce flows that were
dynamically similar to those expected on the
(a)

practice of the 1900's, 1910's,

testing

models in

TOTAL RESISTANCE OF BODY OR SHIP

TMB Rep. 758, separation decreases with

Sec. 57.15

323

prototypes [Wuinblum, G. P.,

May

1951, p.

external pressure

1]

is

depth because more

available to create a pressure

(b) Uncertainties as to the interference effects of

gradient which will turn the water to follow the

supporting struts attached to the sides of the

body

bodies, with their axes

normal

(or nearly so) to

Towing models in water at inadequate suband picking up wavemaking drag

when the latter was supposed to be absent.
(c)

mergence,

F. Hoerner abstracts

most

modern

of the

(1940-1950) drag data for streamlined bodies on

pages 67-72 of his book "Aerodynamic Drag,"

pubhshed

in 1951.

Both Hoerner and W.

S.

Diehl

give extensive drag data on a great variety of

fuselage

and

hull shapes

and components

in the

effect

actual

references listed in Sec. 55.5.

It is necessary in all these cases to differentiate

much

between published Co values for total

and the Co values for
pressure drag only, often called "form drag" in
the literature. Induced drag becomes a factor
when the submerged bodies run at yaw or pitch
angles and develop circulation around themdrag, including friction,

selves because of this effective angle of attack.

57.14 Pressure Resistance

Bodies as a Function of Depth.

of

Submerged

Sees. 10.16

and

10.18 of Volume I emphasize that pressure resistance due to wavemaking remains a factor in the
motion of a submerged body or simple ship, often
of considerable importance, until the

submergence

great enough to produce a flow pattern sub-

stantially similar to that at infinite depth. It is

void,

turning

the

effect

nevertheless

remains.

clearly

is

this

bodies not

the body axis

S.

slopes in the run. Of the quantitative nature

around streamlined submerged

is known, except that at infinite
depth there is sufficient pressure to turn the water
around any corner, however sharp. This is on the
basis that, if the water did not so turn in any
region, a cavity or void would be left, in which the
pressure would be substantially the vapor pressure
of water. The decreasing-pressure gradient toward
this cavity would then be very large, and would
immediately generate sufficient lateral force to
deflect the water and cause it to follow the surface.
Although in practice there appears to be no
of

third factor enters here, primarily because

water for practically

is

it

necessary to rely upon model tests in air or

is

all

pressure-drag data. This

the interference effect of the struts or supports

necessary to hold the model in the wind tunnel,

in the

water tunnel or channel, or in the model

basin. If attached to the top, bottom, or sides of

the

body,

the

struts

interfere

with the flow

pattern and change the velocity and pressure

fields.

If

attached at the stern, a single longi-

tudinal support or "sting" interferes with

separation zone that

may

any

exist there.

It is unfortunate that many of the published

drag data on submerged bodies are to be taken
with caution, because in these cases:

not possible to establish an arbitrary limit for

this depth of submergence h, reckoned to the

(1)

body

supporting struts are not described or shown in

without taking into account the submergence-Froude number of Sec. 10.17, the ratio

h/Lw
ship,

axis,

the

L/D

and other

form of the body or

A square-bowed body

ratio, the

factors.

obviously needs more depth to eliminate surface

wavemaking than one with a tapering bow. A
body or ship of normal L/D ratio, reasonably well
streamlined and having a transverse section not
drastically different

from that

of a circle,

with no

topside appendages or protuberances,

is reasonably free of pressure drag due to wavemaking at

a submergence, to its top, of three times its

vertical diameter.

G. P.

Weinblum tackles this problem for stream-

Uned bodies

May

of revolution in

TMB

1951, on an analytical

Report 758, of
and mathematical

basis corresponding to that described in Chap. 50.

Sec. 7.2 points out that pressure drag

due to

The

type, nature, shape,

and position

of the

the test reports

The depth of submergence of bodies tested

water is not known, nor are there any data of
record concerning visible or measured wavemaking
on the surface.
(2)

in

57.15 Resistance Due to Flow of Water

Through Free-Flooding Spaces. The flow of

water through the free-flooding spaces of both

surface ships and submarines in straight-ahead

motion is discussed in Sec. 20.9 of Volume I.

There it is mentioned that free-flooding spaces
which extend for a considerable distance forward
and aft, so far that openings through the shell
at the forward end lie in a. +Ap region while
those at the after end are in a Ap region,
may be expected to have longitudinal flow

HYDRODYNAMICS

324

through them. The action

is

much

the

the flow through a heat exchanger with

same

as

its inlet

forward and its discharge aft. The energy required to maintain this flow within the freeflooding spaces

is

necessarily

taken from that

developed by the propulsion device (s).

is

method
fit (if

of eliminating this

waste of power

is

to

practicable) transverse bulkheads within the

Sec. 57.15

no circulatory
any one compartment. Another

free-flooding spaces so that little or

flow occurs in

method

is to so fashion the flooding (and venting)

openings that entry and egress, and circulatory

flow, is discouraged.

Eddying, with separation drag,

not possible at present (1955) to calculate

this effect in terms of numbers; the designer must
resort to large-scale model tests. However, one
It

IN SHIP DESIGN

is

liable

to

occur around the edges of shell openings improperly formed. While this drag may be minute for
any one opening it can assume sizable proportions
for multiple openings, such as often occur by
the hundreds in submarines.

CHAPTER

58

Running-Attitude and Ship-Motion Diagrams

58.1
58.2

58.3

Data for Predicting Sinkage and Change of

Trim in Open, Deep Water
General Conclusions as to Changes of Level
and Trim with Speed
Data on Sinkage and Change of Trim in

58.1

General.

The diagrams

58.5
325

58.6
325

in this section,

ships

of

various proportions and shapes,

supplement the general discussion in Chap. 29.

These data are likewise related to the waveprofile data of Chap. 52, since the trim attitude
for displacement-type hulls at sub-planing speeds
is

related directly to the

wave

profile.

Data for Predicting Sinkage and Change

of Trim in Open, Deep Water.
It is beheved
that most of the large model-testing establishments have a great amount of data on file relating
to the change of level and trim of ship models
undergoing test. Unfortunately, most of the
58.2

published data apply to single ships or models,

here and there, or to hull forms of unrelated and

unsystematic proportions and shape. Examples

of this are the data presented
[S

and P,

1943],

where in

Figs.

1.61

ft,

0.181 deg.

designed load draft at the FP, reckoned to the

by D. W. Taylor

undisturbed water surface at a distance, increases

from its nominal at-rest value of 26.00 ft to

21-25 on page 24

28.35

ft,

an augment of 9 per cent.

by

data for models of high-speed

ships [INA, 1935, Vol. 77, p. 81ff and Pis. XI,

XII]. H. Lackenby shows the change of trim, for
several different conditions, of the 190.5-ft
16-ft model, for

speeds from 6 to 15 kt [INA,

Fig. 15

on

329
331

It is significant that, at the trial speed, the

and no numerical data, and where in Figs. 84-93

on page 73 there are given data on ten more-or-less
unrelated models. W. P. A. van Lammeren,
L. Troost, and J. G. Koning give change-of-trim
data on only one model [RPSS, 1948, Fig. 38,
p. 88]. J. L. Kent and R. S. Cutland present some

its

329

corresponding to an angle of (1.61/510)/

0.01745

to the point, the freeboard at the

Ashton and

328

For the fifth approximation to the hydrodynamic features of the ABC ship of Part 4,
covered in Sec. 66.11 and listed in Table 66.e,
the Cp is 0.62 and the fatness ratio F/(0.10L)' is
4.327. To estimate the probable sinkage and trim
from Fig. 58.A, at a T, of 0.908, the 0-diml change
of level of the bow is found by inspection and
interpolation to be 0.46 per cent or 0.0046L.
For the stern it is 0.145 per cent or 0.00145L.
With a waterline L of 510 ft, these work out as
2.35 ft and 0.74 ft, respectively. The change
of trim at 20.5 kt, by the bow, is 2.35 - 0.74 or

of the reference there are only trim indications

change-of-trim

58.7

representing the in-motion trim attitude of models

and

Shallow and Restricted Waters

Changes of Attitude and Trim of Ships with
Fat Hulls
Variation of Attitude and Position of Planing
Craft with Speed and Other Factors
References to Published Data

325

General

Lucy

a range of ship

Apr

FP

is

more

decreases

same speed, without any com-

pensating advantages.

Published change-of-trim data on self-propelled

models are almost nonexistent, possibly because
experimenters thought that there would be little
or no difference in level or attitude between the
model when towed bare hull and when selfpropelled with appendages. Figs. 58. B and 58. C,
embodying the data for TMB models 4505 and
4505-1, representing the transom-stern
stern variations of the

ABC

and arch-

ship hull of Part 4,

show that for this design at least the changes in

and attitude with speed are significantly

1955, Vol. 97,

p. 124].

level

The published data of D. W. Taylor on the ten

models referenced have been incorporated in one
set of graphs, embodied in Fig. 58. A. These
endeavor to present the information in somewhat
systematic fashion, although this

2.35 ft at the

What

is difficult

based on data from only ten models.

when

different.

General Conclusions as to Changes of

Despite the handicaps enumerated in Sec. 58.2, it is possible to
draw certain rather comprehensive conclusions
from the available model-test data on change of
58.3

Level and Trim with Speed.

325

HYDRODYNAMICS

326

Change

of Level

of

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 58.3

Bo

For Cp=0.55 to 0.65

-6.98

/
10.52

NOTE: These Data Apply to De.zp Water Onl\j\

0.2
Fig. 58.A

0.4

0,6

0.6

1.0

Graphs Summarizing the Data of D.

1.2

VV.

\.A

1.6

Taylor for Change op Trim

l.fl

in

Deep Water

2,2

RUNNING-ATTITUDE DIAGRAMS

Sec. 5S.3

Trim
-0.3

0.16

of

Deq

b^

Bow

at

Designed Spaed
Solid Line
BriDken

Line

is

is

for Model

ABC SHIP

5-0.7

.mI,,J

Towed Bare

Hull

for Model Self-Propelled witli Appendaqes'

TMB

FP
Model 4505

Qt Woterllne

Beginning at Bow

T- , V
I'^.YTi
L

1.2

Fig. 58.B

Non-Dimensional Change-of-Trim Data for

ABC

Fig. 58.C

Ship,

Representing Transom-Stern
Self-Pkopelled

TMB

and trim with speed. These are based upon

W.

and P, 1943, pp. 72-74], taking account

on many models other than the ten
on page 73 of the reference. So many vari[S

4505,

Model

When Towed Bare Hull and When

the conclusions previously formulated by D.

Taylor

Model

When Towed Bare Hull and When

Non-Dimensional Change-of-Trim Data for

ABC
level

Srap,

TMB

4505-1, Representing Arch-Stern

Sblf-Propblled

veloped by changes in hydrostatic pressure in the

surface waterline region predominate over those
due to Ap's resulting from hydrodynainic action
the displacement type, having the

of test data

(2) Vessels of

listed

waterline area concentrated near amidships, and

ables enter the picture, however, that

it is difficult,

not impossible to extend them over the entire

range in which the marine architect is interested.

if

The modified

conclusions, taken with the graphs

of Fig. 58. A, enable reasonably precise predictions

to be

made

for the running attitude of vessels

large

waterline

areas

their

for

bodily about in proportion

their waterline endings

and

to

length,

drop

the fineness of

to their displacement-

The drop is
with smaller prismatic coefficients Cp
because of the rather direct relationship between

length quotient or fatness ratio.

greater

supported

Cp and Cw indicated in Fig. 66.H. For vessels

having Cp values less than 0.65, with fine waterline endings and the waterline area well con-

primarily by buoyancy, the vertical forces de-

centrated amidships, the bodily settlement and

not too different from the normal forms:

(1)

For

displacement-type

vessels,

HYDRODYNAMICS

328

bow

the trim by the

increase with the displace-

ment-length quotient or fatness

IN SHIP DESIGN
(8)

The

center

Sec. 58.4

gravity

of

planing) vessels rarely rises to or above

ratio.

At low and moderate speeds, below a T, of

F of 0.3, both bow and stern settle, the bow
somewhat more than the stern, for the reasons
given in Sec. 29.2 of Volume I
(4) Vessels having Cp values higher than 0.65,

(non-

ordinary

of

its original

any practicable speed. Since the

(3)

at-rest level at

1.0,

effect of the

with

water immediately surrounding it, there may

be an impression, at very high speeds, that the
vessel does rise above its original level.
(9) Vessels of special form and planing craft,
when driven to their designed high speeds, do
rise bodily. Their behavior is described and illustrated in Sec. 29.3, on pages 415-417 of Volume I.

ends, level off at a T, of 1.0 or just below.

full

For T, values

in the

range 1.0 to

1.2,

there

may

be oscillations or perturbations in the trim values.

At

may

greater values of T^ the stern

much more than

to drop

be expected

the bow.

As the speed is increased beyond a T, of 1.0,

for vessels with Cp values of 0.65 and below, the
bow settles more slowly. It reaches its lowest level
(5)

at a Tj of from 1.05 to 1.30 (averaging about 1.15)

and then

rises rapidly.

The bow reaches

level in a T,

range of 1.3 to

continues to

rise.

(6)

The

stern

beyond a T^
settles

by the

At a T,

stern

settlement

of speed.

As a

1.1

or 1.2. Thereafter

is

bow

rises,

it

so

rapidly increasing.
1.7 to

Name

58.a

1.8,

than the bow

reaches

the stern

cussed in Sees. 18.7 and 35.7 of

sufficient

information

is rising,

speed while doing

is

so that

maximum. The
much beyond a T^

its

bow always

rises

with increase

result the vessel is rising bodily at

speeds beyond a T^ of about

TABLE

speeds in shallow and restricted waters,

is

Volume

dis-

Only

given here to enable the

2.0.

so.

on page 530 of Volume I reproduces

some trim data given by D. W. Taylor for a
Fig. 35.

scout-cruiser model. Fig. 58.

sinkage of
ratios

h/H

bow and

D indicates the 0-diml

stern for three depth-draft

over a wide range of speed-length

number F Paulus gives

German torpedoboat S119 in

quotient T^ and Froude

similar data for the

Characteristics of Prototypes for Which Trim Data are Presented in Figs.

of Vessel

is
I.

These are important because of the extremely

limited bed clearance with which large vessels
transit certain canals, channels, and shoal areas,
and the desire to maintain the highest practicable

stern does not change level

of 2.0, while the

subject of change of level and trim, at various

more and more rapidly

rapidly than the

of about

settling less rapidly

bodily

58.4 Data on Sinkage and Change of Trim in

Shallow and Restricted Waters. The general

marine architect to predict the sinkage and change

that the ship as a whole continues to settle while

(7)

to depress the

it

about

much more

the trim

is

of trim in confined waters in quantitative terms.

settles

of

its at-rest

beyond which

1.5,

passage of the vessel

58.

and 58.E

RUNNING-ATTITUDE DIAGRAMS

Sec. 58.6

by D. G. Davies

329

in reference (12) of Sec. 58.7 for

Cp values, reveal
that at the low speed-length quotients customary

lake freighters having very high

in confined waters the ship trims

means

as in deep water. This

keel or

bottom slope

by the bow,

that,

and

is zero,

if

if

just

the initial

the speed

too high, the ship touches the channel bed at

forward end.

Changes of Attitude and Trim of Ships

58.5

with Fat Hulls.

and

is

its

forms

full

In former years, excessively fat

and pon-

like large scows, barges,

could rarely be towed or propelled at

speeds through the water high enough to change
toons,

attitude and

even in shallow and

and squat was therefore
not much of a problem. With the advent of higher
speeds and more powerful tugs and pushboats, the
marine architect is left with little or no model
their

trim,

restricted areas. Sinkage

OZ

04

0.6

0.8

1.0

I.E

Toylor Quotient

1.4

16

18

20

Tu'V/Vt

Non-Dimensional Change-of-Thim Data

FOR High-Speed Scout Cruiser op D. W. Taylor

Fig. 58.D

data or full-scale observations for predicting the

changes in normal bed clearance likely to be
encountered by these craft in given areas. This
situation

towing

by the

aggravated

is

blunt-ended

and

full

possibility

forms

of

through

reference (4) of Sec. 61.22. Other data are listed

regions where the water

in Sec. 58.7.

and where the position of a craft upon a solitary

wave will have a large effect upon the actual bed

It is obvious

h/H =

from the short-dash graphs for

and

2.38 in Fig. 58.D that the sinkage

change of level are greatly affected by the position

of the vessel on the solitary wave which travels
through the shallow water at the speed Cc = \gh.
This critical speed can change rapidly with depth,
as can the normal sinkage due to the Bernoulli
contour system and the ship's Velox-wave
system, so it must be remembered that a prediction of sinkage and trim for a nominal constant
depth is that and no more.
For the prediction of the sinkage and change of
trim in the cargo-vessel category, W. H. Norley
has published rather complete data on the behavior of the models of four vessels in three
depths of shallow water as well as in deep water
[TMB Rep. 640, Feb 1948]. The graphs of Fig.
58.

istics

bow and
whose character-

give the 0-diml sinkage of both

stern for the four ship designs

are listed in Table 58. a.

self-propelled

conditions

for

The data

represent

both models and

ships.

An example of the use of these graphs, involving

extrapolation to lower h/H values than those
given,

is

worked out

for the

ABC

ship of Part 4

in Sec. 72.8.

shoaler than expected,

clearance.

In

ETT,

Stevens, Report 279 of January 1945

there are given on page 15 the change-of -level

data for the two groups of models having displacement-length quotients A/(0.010L)^ of 300

and 400, and Cp values

The

of 0.50, 0.60,

characteristics of these

the referenced report and in

and

models are

0.70.

listed in

SNAME RD

sheets

105-110.
58.6

Variation

of

Attitude

and Position

of

Planing Craft with Speed and Other Factors.

The matter of bodily rise of a planing craft above
its

position at rest, together with the changes in

trim which occur throughout the whole speed

range,
29.4

are

described

and 30.2

of

Volume

and
I.

illustrated

in

Sees.

In fact, the sinkage and

trim are related to the whole planing behavior.

This, in turn, as brought out in Chap. 77,

most important function

of

is a
both weight and

power.
Unfortunately, there are no known data by
which the trim and vertical position of a planing
craft may be estimated or predicted directly,

corresponding to those in Fig. 58.A. Possibly

there will never be a simple procedure for deter-

The data derived by Norley

and blunt-ended

is

for full-bodied

vessels, as well as those derived

mining these values, because of the considerable

of parameters
that are intimately

number

HYDRODYNAMICS

330
TQ\^lor
0.1

-0.1

0.2

IN SHIP DESIGN

Quotient Tq-tTt^
0.3

0.4^

^'- 0.5

0.1

Ta^ylor
0.2

Sec. 5S.6

Quotient To- rn=

0.3

0.4

''^0.5

RUNNING-ATTITUDE DIAGRAMS

Sec. 5S.7

appreciable until the water depth approaches or

less than the beam of the planing form. In
view of the known performance of displacementtype vessels under similar circumstances it is
not surprising that the drag and the trimming
moment about the trailing edge of the planing
form also increase with diminishing depth of
water. Other features accompanying these changes
is

are

described

V138.5 =
stern

However,

together by no means covers the needs of the

marine architect and ship operator of today
(1955).
(1)

(2)

Some

(4)

placement-length

quotient

Cx was 0.743, and Cw

Cp was 0.556.
(3)

Gillmor, H. G.,

46.4.

0.659.

Torpedo Boat Morris

(old),"

A.,

ASNE, May

S.

1898,

507 of the reference

it

says of the Morris

wave

with a normal disturbance of the surface of the

water."
White, Sir W. H., MNA, 1900, pp. 466-467, 475-477.
80-ft torpedoboat

mentioned

in

(5)
(6)

Saunders, H. E., and Pitre, A.

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

S., "FuU-Scale Trials

on a Destroyer," SNAME, 1933. Table 6 on p. 251
gives the trim data for the U. S. destroyer Hamilton
(DD 141) for a range of speeds from 20 to 35.6 kt.
Davidson, K. S. M., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 107-108
Havelock, T. H., "Note on the Sinkage of a Ship at
Low Speeds," Zeit. fiir Ang. Math. Mech., Aug
1939, pp. 202-205

Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, Figs. 21-25, p. 24;

Figs. 84-93, p. 73

Van Lammeren, W.
J. G.,

(11)

RPSS,

Sund, E.,

"On

P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,

1948, p. 88

the Effects of Different Turbulence-

Exciters on B.S.R.A. 0.75 Block Models

Various Scales,"

these data,

"The U.

The trim by the

T, of 2.07, F of 0.616, the

trim by the stern was about 2.5 deg.
Durand, W. F., RPS, 1903, pp. 121-123

(12)

and Anderson, M.

0.608.

this reference, at a

Cb was 0.413,

From

1.72 deg.

For the Yarrow

of the available references follow:

Yarrow, A. F., "Past Torpedo Boats," Cassier's

Mag., Jul 1897, Vol. XII, p. 294
Anderson, M. A., and Gillmor, H. G., U. S. torpedoboats Talhot and Gwin (both old), ASNE, May
1898, Vol. X, pp. 493-501. These vessels were
99.5 ft long by 12 ft wide by 3.81 ft mean draft
(2.1 ft forward and 5.54 ft aft). The change of
trim at speeds of about 21 kt "amounted to about
41 inches (3.41 ft)." This corresponded to a T, of
21/V'9a5 = 2.10, Fn = 0.625, and a trim by
the stern of about 1.95 deg.
The displacement was 45.75 tons and the dis-

2.04; F

was about

On page

all of

it

.'502-508.

that "she traveled on the back slope of a

greater part of the pubhshed information appears

in the older technical literature.

X, pp.

by K. W. Christopher [NACA

Tech. Note 3642, Apr 1956].

As is
58.7 References to Published Data.
the case with quantitative experimental or observed resistance data in shallow water, the

331

For this ve.sael, Ll was

138.5 ft, Bx was 15.0 ft, and H (mean) was 4.25 ft
(2.75 ft forward and 5.75 ft aft). The trial displacement was 98 tons, with a displacement-length
quotient of 36.88. Cb was 0.425, Cx was 0.755, and
CwL was 0.687. Cp from the foregoing, was 0.563.
At a speed of 24 lit the change of trim was about
5 inch es, or 4.17 ft. At this speed, T, = 24/
Vol.

Norwegian

Made

to

Model Basin
12, 13, and Fig.

Ship

Rep. 11, Aug 1951, esp. pp. 3, 4,

12 on p. 23
Davies, D. G., "Changes in Draft in Shoal Water,"
SNAME, Great Lakes Sect., Apr 1955; abstracted
in SNAME Bull., Jul 1955, Vol. X, No. 2, p. 39.

CHAPTER

59

Predicting the Performance of Propulsion Devices

59.1
59 2
59.3

Relationship to Other Chapters

59.4

Performance Data from Screw-Propeller

Design Charts
Performance Data on Paddlewheels and

332
332

Estimate of Propulsion-Device Efficiencies

Open- Water Test Data for Model Screw

333
59 12
.

335
59 13
.

Sternwheels
Bibliography on Paddlewheels
Test Results on Rotating-Blade Propellers
Available Performance Data on HydraulicJet, Pump-Jet, and Gas-Jet Propulsion
Devices
Performance Data on Controllable and Re-

59 6
.

59.7
59.8

335
335
337

59.9

337

59.17

338

Other Chapters.

The

form, use, behavior, and performance of

many

Relationship

to

types of ship-propulsion devices are described in

and 17

Chaps.

15, 16,

and 33

of Part 2.

of Part

and

rather complete discussion of

The Thrust-Load Factor and Derived Data

drive a single device

to

Approximation of Screw-Propeller Thrust

from Insufficient Data
Relation Between Thrust at the Propeller
and at the Thrust Bearing
Estimates of Thrust and Torque Variation
per Revolution for Screw Propellers
.

specifying whether this

339

340
341

343
345

346
347
348

x horses, without
an indicated, brake,

is

is

shaft, or propeller power.

Chaps. 32

in

Performance of Miscellaneous Propulsion

Devices
Area Ratios, Blade Widths, and Blade-Helix
Angles of Screw Propellers
Pertinent Data on Flow Into PropulsionDevice Positions
Data on Induced Velocities and Differential
Pressures

59.14
59.15
59 16

versible Propellers

59.1

59. 11

Propellers

59 5

59 10

Estimate of Propulsion-Device Efficien-

59.2

The matters

cies.

and the factors

relating to

the aspects of efficiency of propulsion devices in

governing the efficiency of various kinds of ship-

is found in Chap. 34. The application of

data on and values of efficiency in the powering
estimates for vessels is covered in Chap. 60.

propulsion devices are discussed at considerable

Notes, rules, and procedures for the design,

tive values of propulsion-device efficiency, there

general

zation,

and adaptation

propulsion device to the

of the

many

many

utili-

forms of

its

effects,

marine engineer who wishes absolute or quantitaare the following:

types of ships are

described in Chaps. 69, 70, and 71 of Part

Cavitation and

length in Chap. 34. For the naval architect and

4.

as applied to screw

(a)

For screw

efficiencies

propellers, the expected

jjoCeta)

open-water

and the probable range

of

propellers in particular, are discussed in Chap. 47.

efficiency for selected characteristics or for charac-

The present chapter endeavors to present, in

some of the quantitative
information required by the marine architect

teristics

concise but useful form,

who

sets out to design a combination of ship

and

propulsion device. While a great deal of analytic

work has been done along these lines, the designer

who is called upon to fashion and proportion the
propulsion device (s) for a particular ship
large extent forced to

is

to a

work ahead from the known

performances of existing installations. Unfortunately, published data on the behavior of propulsion devices
of

is

and

design.

in

the

sense

imreliable

Further,

that

the

it

is

may

state that the

For other types

mechanical propulsion
on the water surrounding
the ship, there are some published data on systematic series, such as the paddlewheel data
referenced in Sec. 59.6, and some comparisons of
efficiency to be found here and there in the technical literature. Two examples of these are the
(b)

of

devices, acting directly

efficiency curves for (1) screw propellers within a

often

quantitative

data are not completely defined. For example,

the source

are found readily from

charts listed in Sec. 70.4

often inadequate for purposes

predictiort

commonly used

the numerous groups of screw-propeller design

power developed
332

fixed shrouding such as a

Schneider

rotating-blade

Kort

nozzle, (2) Voith-

propellers,

and

(3)

paddlewheels in the three sets of graphs of Figs.

34.
and 34. N. However, one serious short-

coming

of data such as these

is

the lack of ade-

Sec.

PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE

593

quate and precise definition for the information

presented. Only rarely are the particular forms

propulsion

of

device,

corresponding

to

the

diagrammed or illustrated. The

graphs or accompanying text do not always state
whether the efficiencies are maxima, averages, or
efficiency curves,

service values.

rather large array of tabulated data derived

from the self-propulsion

vessels with tunnel sterns

tests
is

of

shallow-draft

published by A. R.

Mitchell [lESS, 1952-1953, Vol. 96, pp. 125-188].

These data do not, unfortunately, include values
of

the screw-propeller efficiencies but they do

embody information on wake and

tion fractions

and on propulsive

thrust-deduc-

coefficients.

H. Mueller has presented, for screw propellers

of four different

P/D

tions of the current

peller,

two

sets of

ratios

and

for three varia-

(1955) rotating-blade pro-

graphs showing variations with

333

334

^0.15

\0.\0

?0.05

0.00

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec.

593

PROPULSION DEVICE PERFORMANCE

Sec. 59.6
pp. 601-619].

The Cq and Ct

plots in these figures

embody dimensional

data. This paper gives no

drawings of any of the model propellers but all

the

TMB

model numbers are included, and the

file at the David Taylor Model

met by the

availability of

many

design charts

for the screw-propeller designer.

Bibliography on

59.6

Paddlewheels.

There

drawings are on

appears to be no lengthy

Basin.

pended to any of the better-known published

papers and books on paddlewheel propulsion. The
list given hereunder is by no means complete
but it may serve the reader as a source of background information, as well as a source of experimental data and of information useful in design:

59.4 Performance Data from Screw-Propeller

Design Charts. The systematic data derived
from the open-water tests of a multitude of series
propellers, made in model basins all over the
world, are published in the form of charts suitable
for use in ship and propeller design. Thirteen

(1)

and

illustrates

later altered to carry feathering wheels of smaller

diameter and higher rate of rotation. On these

paddlewheels the blade spacing was
only slightly greater than the blade width, the
blade faces were flat, and the blades were apparfeathering

ently
(2)

designer with the same sort of information from

systematic series as was included on the screw-

(3)

To meet

this

need H. Volpich and

undertook, in the early 1950's, to

on a new

who needs

series of

to

adaptable

to

Pollard,

(5)

Lovell, L. N.,

(7)

Durand, W. F., RPS, 1903, pp. 164-169, 198-203

Paddle steamer C. W. Morse, Marine Engineering,
Jun 1904, p. 279 ff

(8)

Kaemmerer, W., "Raddampfer

(6)

ftir

die Anatolische

Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft, erbaut von den HowaldtsI.

werken

in Kiel (Paddlewheel Steamer for the

Anatolian Railways, built by the Howaldt Works,
Kiel)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 12 Nov 1904,
pp. 1725-1729. Figs. 9 and 10 on p. 1726 show the

C. Bridge

make systematic

models and to present the

his

refers to

J., and Dudebout, A., "Theorie du Navire

(Theory of the Ship)," 1894, Vol. IV, pp. 179-193
"American Sound and River Steamboats," Cassier's Magazine, Jul 1897, pp. 459, 482

(4)

designer with tabulated and graphic information

readily

Rankine

the preceding paper by J. R. Napier.

Riehn, W., "tjber die Wirkungsweise der Schaufelrader und der Schrauben bei Dampfschiffen (On
the Operation of Paddlewheels and Propellers in
Steamers)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 1884,
Nos. 18-22

propeller charts of that day. Unfortunately, these

data are not readily applied by one

design a modern paddle wheel.

made of wood rather than iron.

J. W. M., "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and

Rankine,

Practical," 1866, pp. 248, 251.

59.5

several sets of charts, intended to provide the

and Economy

These vessels originally had radial wheels but were

SNAME

paper, pages 161 and 162.

Performance Data on Paddlewheels and
Stemwheels. In 1916 E. M. Bragg published a
paper on "Feathering Paddle-Wheels" [SNAME,
1916, pp. 175-180, Pis. 90-98] in which he gave

the Effects of Superheated Steam

Oscillating Paddles on the Speed

table on p. 90 gives the principal paddlewheel and

blade data for the steamers Concordia and Berlin.

ance predictions from three of these chart types.

Other examples illustrating the manner in

The calculation of screw-propeller performance,

by a method derived from analytic considerations,
is covered by J. G. Hill in Appendix 2 of his 1949

"On

of references ap-

Steamers," Trans. Inst. Engrs. Scot., 18631864, Vol. VII, pp. 86-102, Pis. V and VI. The
"oscillating" paddles mentioned in the title of this
paper are the feathering paddles of today. The

the procedure to be followed in making perform-

which screw-propeller performance is predicted

from published propeller charts are found in
Sees. 66.27 and 77.35, and in a paper "Propeller
Coefficients and the Powering of Ships," by F. M.
Lewis [SNAME, 1951, pp. 612-620].

J. R.,

list

of

comparisons of these charts are to be found in

Sec. 70.5, while Sec. 70.6 describes

Napier,

and

kinds of screw-propeller-series charts are listed

and described in Sec. 70.4. Comments on and

tests

335

problems.

The

first

installment of these data appeared in the paper

"Paddle Wheels; Part I, Preliminary Model

Experiments" [lESS, 1954-1955, Vol. 98, Part V,
pp. 327-372], It is understood that at the time of
writing (1955) this systematic test program is
still underway and that Part II of the report will
appear in 1956. The data in this series of papers,
taken with those of F. Gebers in reference (31) of
Sec. 59.6, should go far toward filhng, for the
paddlewheel designer, the need which has been

arrangement of a 4.5-meter (14.75-ft) outside

diameter 8-bladed paddlewheel with the eccentric
mechanism centered ahead of
and slightly helow the wheel center.
Hart, M., "Note sur le Changement des Roues des
Paquebots Le Nord et la Pas-de-Calais (Note on
the Alterations to the Paddlewheels of the Channel
Steamers Le Nord and Pas-de-Calais)," ATMA,
1906, Vol. 17, pp. 169-186 and Pis. I through VIII
Ward, C, "Shallow-Draught River Steamers,"
SNAME, 1909, Vol. 17, pp. 87-88
for the feathering

(9)

(10)

(11)

Feathering paddlewheel, Schiffbau, 27 Dec 1911, pp.

210-211

(12) Teubert, O., "Binnensohiffahrt (Inland-Waters Ship

HYDRODYNAMICS

336

Operation)," Leipzig,
I, pp. 224-442.
A later edition of this book was published in 1932.
(13) "Experimental Tovvboats," House (of Representatives), 63rd Congress, 2nd Session, Document 857,

IN SHIP DESIGN

1914, Vol. 27. This report gives the results of

p. 15 of

about
(24)

and charts of
based upon the work described

this report

were

(26)

"The Bristol Queen:

SBSR, 6 Mar 1947,

K.,

(15) Sehaffran,

mit Schaufolrad-

"Modellversuche

Propellern (Model Tests with Paddle Propulsion

Devices)," STG, 1918, Vol. 19, pp. 475-520.

Describes tests

made on

number

models of

of

feathering wheels, together with correlations with

on several paddle steamers, the Hugo Marcus

on the Elbe and the Thommen on the Danube.
The efficiencies of the model paddlewheels do
not exceed 0.50 in any case.
Fig. 7 on p. 486 is a construction drawing of a
pair of paddlewheels side by side on a single shaft,
each pair with its own feathering mechanism.
Sadler, H. C, and Kirby, F. E., "Design of Pa.ssenger
Vessels for the Great Lakes," SNAME, 1925, pp.
101-108. PI. 81 shows the design and dimensions
trials

(16)

of

the

paddlewheel design.

in the preceding

reference.

paddlewheels

the

K.

EMB Rep.
1)0

and

E.,

176,

characteristic

curves

for

(29)

R., "Leistung und Wirtschaftlichkeit von

Flusschleppern verschiedener Antriebsart (Power

(18) Zilcher,

556-561

"Notes on the Development of Tug-Boat

Machinery During the Past Forty-Six Years,"
NECI, 1935-1936, Vol. LII, pp. 89-102 and
D19-D22. This paper depicts, on pp. 98-99, two

tug paddlewheels of the feathering type, with 6

and 8 blades, respectively.
(20) Suberkriib, F., "Der Radschiffsantrieb (Paddlewheel
Ship Propulsion)," Schiffbau, 15 Mar 1939, pp.
115-119
(21) Gras,

"Dieselelektrische

V.,

Schaufelrad-Schlepper

Szechenyi (Diesel Electric Paddle

WRH,

15

Aug

15 on p. 250

Tug

Szechenyi),"

1939, pp. 247-256. Figs.

show a

3, 4,

and

direct electric-motor drive to

the paddlewheel shafts. There are double paddles on

each wheel, end to end.

R., "Das Diesekadschiff (The Diesel
Paddlewheel Ship)," Schiffbau, 15 Sep 1939, pp.
326-327; 15 Oct 1939, pp. 349-357. Fig. 21 on
p. 354 gives the lines of the Danube River vessel
Stadt Wien, which has a peg-top underwater mid-

(22) Blumerius,

ship section.
(23)

Kretzschmar,

Henschke,

W.,

(Shipbuilding

of

(19) Baird, G.,

fiir

mit einem

Schiff

und Hafen, Mar

"Schiffbautechnisches

and

Ship

Design

"Einige Schiffbautechnisclie mit-

(E,x-

1952,

Handbuch

Handbook),"

(32)

Ostend-Dover Paddle Packet Marie Henriette of

1893, SBSR, 15 May 1952, p. 630
Gebers, F., (with a contribution by F. Horn), "Daa
Schaufelrad im Modellversuch: Zwei Berichte der
Schiffbautechnischen Versuchsanstalt, Wien (The
Paddlewheel in Model Test: Two Reports of the
Vienna Model Basin)," Vienna, Springer, 1952
(book in German).
Krappinger, O., "Schaufelradberechnung (Paddlewheel Calculation)," Schiffstechnik, Aug 1954, pp.
30-36. This paper gives a number of graphs
embodj'ing the results of model tests, in a form
useful to the designer. No translation known to be
available in 1955.

(33) Volpich,

H.,

and Bridge,

I.

C, "Paddle Wheels:

Part I, Preliminary Model Experiments," JESS,

1954-1955, Vol. 98, Part 5, pp. 327-372. A bibliography of 8 items appears on p. 359, several of

which are listed here.

The paper gives a brief general history of paddle
propulsion and paddle research with a comment on
the scarcity of experimental data for wheel design
and analj'sis. Important deviations from the laws
governing screw-propeller performance are noted
and the purpose of the present investigation put
forward. The apparatus used in testing two sizes
of model wheel is described. The results of experiments with a radial and a feathering 9-float wheel
at one immersion are given in detail for both wheel
sizes and are discussed, together with methods of
presentation.

As the

results

are incomplete for

design purposes, proposed future

F.,

speziellen

verkrautete Gewasser

Berlin, 1952, pp. 193-195

onl^r.

and Economy of River Tugboats with Various

Kinds of Propulsion)," WRH, 22 Dec 1927, pp.

"Erfahrungen

Water with Weeds),"

of efficiency

number

article gives

pp. 80-81

(31)

variations of radial wheels

The

perience with a Special Paddlewheel for Use in

"Model Tests with Paddlewheels,"

Sep 1927. Gives curves

R.,

Schaufelradantrieb

vessels of the Greater Detroit class.

(17) Schoenherr,

Paddle Steamer,"

pp. 224-227.

138-139.
(28) Deetjen,

(30)

for

A Modern

photographs of the model feathering paddlewheels

tested and of the self-propelled model of this vessel.
(27) Barr, G. E., "The Histor3r and Development of
Machinery for Paddle Steamers," lESS, 20 Nov
1951, Vol. 95, Part 3, pp. 101-148. Paddlewheels
are discussed on pp. 128-130, with numerous
illustrations. There is a list of 7 references on pp.

large

feathering

Switzerland),"

in

pp. 97-134.

analysis of these paddlewheel tests.

of the data

Progress

Helm, K., "tJber den Heutigen Stand der Schaufelradfrage (On the Present Status of the Paddlewheel)," HSVA Rep. 881, 26 Jun 1944 (copy in
TMB library). This report contains a treatise on
paddlewheel developments and includes curves for

(14) Bragg, E. M., "Feathering Paddle-Wheels," SNAME,

1916, pp. 175-180 and Pis. 90-98. It is believed that

many

(Some Information

Schweiz

der

Shipbuilding

und Werft, 1 Mar 1943, pp. 74-77

Gardner, J. H., "The Development of Steam Navigation on Long Island Sound," SNAME, HT, 1943,

(25)

the report there are listed ten conclusions

drawn from an

Sec. 59.6

Schiff

many

comparative tests run at the Univ. of Michigan,

Ann Arbor, on models of radial and feathering
paddlewheels, with many parameters varied. On

aus

tcilungen

1012, Vol.

this will

be published

in

work

is

a second paper.

outlined;

PROPULSION DEVICE PERFORMANCE

Sec. 59.8

Part II of this paper was presented to the lESS

on 13 Mar 1956.
"Quarter-Wheel Tugs for the Sudan," SBMEB, Deo
1955, pp. 705-700. This reference describes the
six tugs of the Tagoog class, 125.5 ft long overall,
32.0 ft beam, and 3.0 ft draft, driven by a pair of
radial-blade sternwheels, one on each quarter.

(34)

Test Results on Rotating-Blade ProMany open-water tests of rotating-blade

propellers, principally of the Kirsten-Boeing and
the Voith-Schneider types, have been made by
the old Experimental Model Basin and the David
Taylor Model Basin at Washington, by the

A few other
embodied in Sees.
Kempf,

(3)

(4)

59.7

results of these tests are rare.

The most

useful

although not in the form of the usual

characteristic curves, are those presented by
data,

Dr.

Hans

Mueller in his paper "Recent

Design and Application of

F.

Developments

in the

the Vertical Axis Propeller"

pp. 4-30].
Figs. 59.

Two
and

of his
59.

[SNAME, May

1955,

graphs are reproduced as

in this chapter.

Dr. Mueller advises the author [unpubl.

to

HES

May

of 4

Itr.

1955] that the pubhcation of

open-water test data on rotating-blade VoithSchneider propellers, corresponding to those

mentioned in Sec. 59.3 for screw propellers, were
not

made

available in the technical literature for

two reasons.
development

of these devices in the I930's

hesitant

release

perfected

to

those

First,

the

practical

responsible

data

design

until
of

the

for

rotating-blade

which could compete with the best

screw propeller. Second, a great deal of the openwater testing with models was done at the Netherlands Model Basin in Wageningen during the
German occupation of that country in World
War II. The latter data are in existence but have
never been published.
Dr. Mueller points out that references (1) and
(2) which follow may be of help to a designer
employing this type of propulsion device. So far
as known, these two references have not been
propeller

"Der Massstabeinfluss
beim Voith-Schneider-Propeller (Scale Effect En-

Mueller, H., and Helm, K.,

countered
(2)

with

the

Voith-Schneider

Propeller),"

WRH, 15 Dec 1942, pp. 334-338

Mueller, H., "tjber das Zusammenarbeiten des VoithSchneider-Propellers mit

dem

Schiff

(On the

Ship)," Schiff

37.22, are:

(6)

Propellers (The Steering Force of the VoithSchneider Propeller)," WRH, 1 Jul 1938, pp. 202-204
"Cycloidal Propulsion on Army Vessel {Truman O.

Olson)," Naut. Gaz.,

Mar

1950, p. 25.

Performance Data on Hydraulic-Jet, Pump- Jet, and Gas-jet Propulsion

Available

59.8

It is unusual, yet unfortunate, to find

Devices.

that in a search for performance data on hydraulicjet propulsion to supplement the descriptions of
Sees. 15.8, 32.5,

and

34.13,

most

pubUshed

of the

data are largely historic. It is known that an

English patent was granted to Toogood and
Hayes, as far back as 1661 [Schoenherr, K. E.,

PNA,

1939, Vol. II, p. 122]; also that

made

Franklin

Benjamin

a proposal for jet propulsion of

a boat in 1775. K. E. Schoenherr states, in the

was actually
by James Rumsey in 1782 to propel an
ferryboat between Washington and Alex-

reference cited, that jet propulsion

applied
80-ft

andria, Va.

Most

of the references

on the older forms of

propulsion might almost be termed ancient.

jet

The

newer references are almost equally remote from

the modern (1955) marine architect because most
of

them

are in a classified status.

Among

the

older references are:

(1)

Brin, C. B.,

INA,
(2)

White,
1882,

"On

the Efficiency of Jet Propellers,"

1871, Vol. XII, pp. 128-149

W. H., "The Water-Jet Propeller,"

pp.

532-538;

MNA,

MNA,

1900, p. 587ff. These

references mention installations on the:

(a)

Waterwilch, 1866

(b)

Swedish torpedo boat, 1878

(c)

British Admiralty torpedo boat, 1881

(d)

German naval

craft

Hydromotor, Fleischer, 1879; Engineering,

London, 9 Sep 1881
(f) American jet-propelled boat.
"Verso la Soluzione del Problema del la Propulsion
Idraulica (Toward a Solution of the Problem of
Hydraulic Propulsion)," by Dr. Giacomo Biichi,
Engineer, La Marina Italiana, Feb 1935, pp. 45-57.
ONI, U. S. Navy, Transl. 76 (copy in TMB Ubrary).
(e)

(3)

Inter-

action of the Voith-Schneider Propeller and

und Werft, Jun

and

and Helm, K., "Ergebnisse naturgrosser

Mueller, H. F., "Die Steuerkraefte des Voith-Schneider

translated into English.

(1)

G.,

(5)

were

they had

additional to those

15.13, 15.14,

Schleppversuche mit dem Motorschiff 'Augsburg'

(Results of FuU-Scale Towing Tests on the Motorship Augsburg)," WRH, 15 Oct 1931, Vol. XII,
pp. 347-348
Betz, A., "Grundzatzliches zum Voith-SchneiderPropeller (Fundamentals of the Voith-Schneider
Propeller)," HPSA, 1932, pp. 161-170

pellers.

Netherlands Model Basin, and by other testing

establishments.
Unfortunately, the published

337

references,

the
1944, pp. 113-119.

One of the most systematic accounts is recorded

by J. Pollard and A. Dudebout, in their "Theorie

HYDRODYNAMICS

338

du Navire"
following

[1894, Vol. IV, p. 201],

translated.

is

from which the

The comments

in paren-

theses are those of the present author:

IN SHIP DESIGN

"As examples

of the application to (ship) propulsion

of the turbine-propulsors of the first

kind

(in

which the

water passes through the turbine radially), we

will give

them in chronological order:

"The Enterprise, built in 1853 by John Ruthven;
vessel was not successful and was (later) converted
a

this

into

be deflected so that they act as

rudders. One jet may be reversed so that the boat

same year by Seydell at Stettin,

ran successfully on the Oder for ten years
"The Seraing II, built about 1860 by Cookerill, at the
same time as the identical ship Seraing I, fitted with
Albert, built the

articulated (feathering?) paddlewheels

"The Jackdraw, on which, in 1863, the British Admiralty

attempted, but without success, an application of hydraulic propulsion
"The Nautilus, constructed in 1863 for the British
Admiralty, which on trials on the Thames achieved a
speed of 10 kt
"The English armed gunboat Watenvitch, built in the
same

year, successfully

underwent comparative

trials

with

the Viper, of the same type, fitted with twin screws

"The
a

Rival, built in 1870

failure,

by the German Navy, proved

due partly to an excess

of draft over the predicted

draft

"Finally,

structed

a rescue or lifeboat recently

by R. and H. Green

(1894?)

of Blackwall

for the National Lifeboat Institution. It

con-

(England),

was

fitted,

by

Thornycroft and Company, with an internal hydraulic

propulsor, intended to prevent damage from shocks,
beaching, or running foul of another ship."
A table on page 203 of this reference gives 20 items of
technical data for the:
(a) Waterwitch
(b) Viper
(c) Two Swedish torpedoboats with hydraulic propulsion and with screw propellers
(d) Two Thornj'oroft torpedoboats, with hydraulic
propulsion and with screw propellers.

by Pollard and Dudebout of the screwbe found on pages 206-210 of the reference

discussion

turbine

is

to

is

when both are reversed the

very powerful.

Performance Data on Controllable and

Open-water test data and
performance characteristics of controllable and
reversible propellers, defined and described in
Sec. 32.19 of Volume I, are found only rarely
59.9

Reversible Propellers.

Rupp gives openwater characteristic curves derived from tests of

a model representing the controllable propeller

and tested on the U.

installed

YTB

[SNAME,

502

cited earher in this section.

1948,

S.

Navy

278-279].

pp.

tug

The

graphs in Fig. 6 on page 279 of this reference

embody

characteristics

settings

of this

shown

five

for

propeller.

different

The

propeller

pitch
itself,

in Fig. 4 on page 277 of the reference, has

the following features:

Number

of blades,

Diameter, 9.50

ft

Pitch at Q.IR, helix angle 20 deg, ahead position,

7.60 ft

Developed-area

"A torpedo boat with hydraulic propulsion, built in

1878 by the Swedish Government, to be tested comparatively with a ship of the same type fitted with two screws
"A torpedoboat of the second class, built by Thornycroft and Company in 1882, for the British Admiralty, and
which was run through comparative trials with a similar
ship having a single screw propeller

axis;

its

stopping action

in the technical literature. L. A.

sailing ship

"The

from

jets issuing

may

the vessel

turns on
"379. Principal Examples of Turbine-Propulsors of the
First Kind.

Sec. 59.9

The

flow either astern or ahead.

Mean-width

ratio.

Ad/ An

0.502

ratio, 0.268

Blade- thickness fraction, variable.

More extensive open-water data are given by

W. B. Morgan in reporting the tests of a series of
controllable

propellers with

3,

2,

4,

5,

and 6

[TMB

Rep. 932, Nov 1954]. In this case

three different hubs were used, to which the proper
number of blades were clamped. The report
includes a model propeller drawing, with five
sets of characteristic curves for normal ahead
blades

operation.

Morgan

publishes,

as Fig.

the 4-bladed controllable propeller,

when run

3227,

7 of his

the open-water characteristic curves of

report,

in the astern

TMB

model

direction, xjalled

"back driving."
L.

C. Burrill discusses the "Latest Develop-

ments

in Reversible Propellers"

[IME and IN A

joint mtg., 1949, pp. J3-J32] as applying to three

types developed in Europe but unfortunately he

includes no open-water test data for models or

One of the few modern references describes a

new ferryboat with so-called hydraulic-reaction
propulsion, built by the Etablissements Billiez
(in

any of these propellers.

van Aken and K. Tasseron
have published a paper entitled "Comparison
Between the Open-Water Efficiency and Thrust

side of the vessel

of the Lips-Schelde Controllable-Pitch Propeller

[Nav. Ports Chant., Jul 1952, Vol.

French)].

One pump on each

3, p.

418

takes in water through a converging conduit and

discharges

it

through a valve which directs the

full-scale pi'ototypes of

More

and

recently, J. A.

those

of

Troost-Series

Shipbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol.

2,

Propellers"

No.

5,

[Int.

pp. 30-40].

PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE

Sec. 59.10

by R.

contribution

F.

P.

Desel,

entitled

"Controllable Pitch Propellers in Ship Propulsion,"

appeared in Bureau

of

Ships

Journal,

April 1956, pages 2-6.

59.10

Performance of Miscellaneous PropulWater Intake Through

&rille\

Water Discharge Aft, Forming

Propulsive

Jets.

Under Bottom
of Boat

Devices.

general

curves for screw propellers.

characteristic

The

may

be mentioned as sources of reference information on the Hotchkiss propeller:

following

Centerline of Ship-""''^

for Single-Unit

339

The

arrangement and
method of operation of the Hotchkiss propeller
are illustrated schematically in the diagram of
Fig. 59. Da. A drawing showing the use of a Gill
axial-flow propeller in a hydraulic propulsion
device is reproduced in Fig. 59. Db.
It has not been possible to find in the technical
literature any published systematic performance
data on these and other types of miscellaneous
propulsion device, corresponding to the orthodox
sion

(1)

Hotchkiss,

D.

Propeller,"
(2)

SBMEB, Apr

V.,

The

"The Hotchkiss Internal Cone

Shipbuilder, 1931, p. 180

1937, p. 188. Illustrates "60-in

Drive Cone Propellers for

May

1937, p. 321,

Wood

Worm-

Vessel."

Also

and Jul 1937, pp. 382-384.

(3)

The Motorship, 1937-1938,

(4)

lifeboat fitted with

p.

110

Hotchkiss cone propellers

is

and described on pages 45-50 of the

13 January 1938 issue of Shipbuilding and Shipping
Record. The following is quoted from pages 45-46:
"The Hotchkiss system of propulsion consists
of cones constructed of steel and provided with
illustrated

Inflow

Inflow from

" Outflow.

Downward
and Aft

Fig. 59. Da

Fig. 59. Db

Forward

Explanatory Diagram for the

HoTCHKiss Propeller

rotary impellers. One side of the cone is cut away,

forming an aperture in contact with the water,
which divides into inlet and outlet portions.

As the impeller
the water causes

rotates, the centrifugal force of

it

to be projected tangentially

from the larger end.

Longitudinal Section Through a Hydraulic Propulsion Device Utilizing a Gill Axial-Flow

Propeller

This drawing, reproduced from page 111 of the July 27, 1939 issue of Shipbuilding and Shipping Record, shows a Gill
propeller (marked "rotor") with a close-fitting fixed shroud ring. In other installations the ring is attached to the blade
tips and rotates with the propeller.

HYDRODYNAMICS

340
"Water

drawn

is

in

through about two-thirds

measured from the
flows into the cone in the

of the length of the opening,

smaller end.

The water

direction of rotation

and the resultant

spiral flow

causes the water to leave the cone with increased

thereby producing a reactive thrust

velocity,

which takes

effect

upon the

internal surfaces of

the cone."

SBSR, 10 Feb 1938, p.

The latter reference

(5)

176; 2 May 1940, pp. 444-445.

contains rather detailed draw-

ings of a 25-ft launch equipped with a double-cone

propeller

designed

by Donald V. Hotchkiss

for

operation on the Irrawaddy River where floating

debris and weeds are encountered. A grille is pro-

vided to exclude "objects which might damage the

impellers if drawn into the intakes."
Baader, J., "Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers

(6)

and Fast Launches)," Buenos Aires, 1951;

on p. 221 illustrates a Hotchkiss propeller

Fig. 175

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 59.11

propeller-design discussion of Chap.

by the

down

the approximate

in Sec.

67.24,

to

is

no

is much reduced; the cone propeller

can pass through weed beds, or over ropes or
obstructions
without fouling, by reason of
other
the self-clearing grids provided; installation is a
simple matter and the cones can be installed in

craft using it

the most suitable part of the boat.

further

important advantage is that the impeller can be

employed to pump out the bilges, by providing
piping connected to the small end of the cone."
Gill propeller, the available information

somewhat more scanty:

H. W., "Der Hydraulische Schiffsantrieb fiir
besondere Fahrtverhaltnisse (The Hydraulic Ship
Propulsion for Special Ship Operating Conditions),"

(a)

Gill, J.

(b)
(c)

The
The

(d)

MENA,

(e)

SBSR,

Bull. Tech.

du Bureau

Veritas, 1921, p. 199

Shipbuilder, 1921, p. 24

Engineer, 1921, Vol.

of that year, pp. 140, 172

1923, p. 345

19

Aug

1926, Vol. 28, pp. 202-204; 1939, Vol.

54, pp. 111-115.

59.11

Area Ratios, Blade Widths, and Blade-

Helix Angles of Screw Propellers. The various

blade-area ratios of a screw propeller are defined
rather precisely in Sec. 32.8 of
the

"Explanatory

Notes

for

Volume

and in
and

Resistance

Data Sheets," SNAME Technical

and Research Bulletin 1-13, July 1953, page 16.
Propulsion

The expanded-area

Ae/Aq

ratio

also

known

rather indefinitely as the blade-area ratio or the

disc-area

ratio,

exclusively

in

is

this

know

rules laid

maximum blade width for a screw propeller

having Z blades and a specified (or approximate)
expanded-area ratio As/Ag
or for a propeller
having a given mean-Avidth ratio Cm/D. The
maximum width will depend to some extent upon
the blade outline and shape but approximate
values can be derived for blades of average shape,
to permit establishing aperture and edge clearances in the preliminary-design stage. The brokenline graph of Fig. 59. E enables a designer to
,

Expanded Chord

projection outside the hull so that the draft of a

For the

laying out propeller

fitted in

pages 358 and 359 of the September 1952 issue of

The Motor Boat and Yachting there is an article,
with drawings, about a small cone propeller installation suitable for dinghies. The following is quoted

from page 358:

"Advantages of the system are that there

is

when

It is often convenient,

apertures and edge clearances

the side of a vessel

On

(7)

70 of the

present volume.

the

one

book,

employed almost

particularly

in

the

Left-Hand Scole

is

Rotio of

Cf^

^eon Expanded Chord Length

PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE

Sec. 59.12

propeller design of Chap. 70. It could

and should

be increased when making the revisions to the

preliminary design described in Sec. 78.18.
In the event the mean-width ratio of a particular screw propeller

is

not known,

it

can be deter-

mined by the formula

m
2Z

Table 59.b

lists

341

the blade-helix angles

series of ten 0-diml radii x',

and

<j)

for a

for five pitch-

diameter ratios covering the range normally

encountered in ship work. The pitch is assumed
constant at all radii for this tabulation.
59. 12
Pertinent Data on Flow Into PropulsionDevice Positions. The flow into the positions
occupied by propulsion devices around a ship

(59. i)

hull

is

discussed

in

and covered by various

and 69. The

sections in Chaps. 17, 33, 52, 60, 67,

duplication and repetition involved are considered

by the great importance of this phase of

hydrodynamics as applied to ship design, and
by the necessity for devoting increased thought
and study to it in the future. The present section

justified

Table 59.a

lists

the blade-helix angles <^(phi) for

ten values of 0-diml ratio x'

= R/Rmx

for

EMB

model propeller 2294, used as the stock propeller

for the self-propulsion tests of the transom-stern

ABC

ship model,

propeller

is

TMB

is

59. a

and

lists

material available for reference.

Derivation op Blade-Helix Angles for

ABC

helix angle is given for the tip section,

X'

a few particular features of this

a number of sources of published

calls attention to

flow,

TMB

Model Propeller 2294

a drawing of this propeller, used as the stock wheel for the self-propelled test of

senting the transom-stern design of the

The

drawing of this

reproduced in Fig. 78. L.

TABLE
Fig. 78. L

4505.

= R/Rua.

ship of Part 4.
even though the blade width there

is

zero.

TMB

Model 4505,

repre-

HYDRODYNAMICS

342

One such

feature applies to the element of a

IN SHIP DESIGN
screw propellers, the effective velocity

screw-propeller blade on which the instantaneous

the

incident-A'elocity vector impinges in a plane not

normal to the blade

non-axial flow situation described in Sec.

and depicted in diagram

again emphasized that for
velocity across the blade

17. D.

of Fig.

the incident velocity

effective

and the thrust

0.9455, but

dR vary

The

must be remembered
any blade element

it

for

as the square of the incident

effective thrust

[1

equal to the stream velocity

times the cosine of the angle of sweepback [Collar,

A. R., "Aeroelastic Problems at High Speed,"

Jour. Roy. Aero. Soc, Jan 1947, pp. 15-16].
Theoretically, this situation should apply also

2iD abaft the disc position, respectively.

and

to a screw-propeller blade with skew-back,

lift

- (0.9455)'] or about 0.106.

Applying also to Fig. 59.G of Sec. 59.13, the
graphs of Fig. 59. F indicate the ratios of the
inflow-jet and outflow-jet diameters to the diameter of an imaginary actuator-disc propeller, for
a range of thrust-load coefficient values up to 6.0.
The data given are for positions 3D ahead of and

is

to the blade axis, in a plane generally parallel to

is

is

that the

on the tip blade

element therefore appears to be reduced by the
factor (1 cos' B), where 5(theta) is the convergence angle. For the case mentioned this is

the component of the speed vector l3'ing normal

the wing. This

of this angle

velocity.

here corresponds to that of the flow over an

lift,

of

of 24, rarely reached in

of thickness

on a plane passing through the base chord of the

blade element and the blade axis. The situation

wing with sweep-back. The

service, the

times the sine of the angle which that velocity

vector makes with the blade axis, as projected

airplane

of Fig. 59.

any kind of ship

convergence angle of the inflow jet,
at the propeller tip, is about 19 deg. The cosine
Ctl

17.7
It is

UR

velocity of the air stream, for generating

assumed

is

as the nominal incident velocity.

Sec. 59.13 indicates that for a thrust-load factor

this case the effective

is

same

In the latter case, diagram

corresponding to the

axis,

Sec. 59.12

Only

the case of systematic variations in

in

converging flow of an inlet jet when

approaching the propeller disc. In the former

inflow, occurring over

throughout most of the length of the blade,

is not normal to
the tangent plane of the local incident flow.
However, since the effect and the magnitude of
sweep-back have not as yet (1955) been incor-

formance. For instance, general prerotation in

the inflow jet, in a direction opposite to that of

porated in any of the analysis or design phases for

propeller thrust.

to

the

case,

the local blade-axis direction

2.4

0-7 1=1

0.0

0.4

0.&

).2

1.6

2D

2.4

increase in efficiency for the generation of a given

Z.8

M
3.2

C^l
A.O

3.

3.2

2,8

3.G

Thrubt-Load Coefficient
Fig. 59. F

of the disc area, is it

the propeller, results in a slower rate of rotation,

a reduction in power absorbed, and (usually) an

Thrust-Load Coefficient
2.0

most

possible to predict their effect on propeller per-

4.0

4.4

A.&

5.2

11

5.G

07

1^
G.O

Ctl

Graphs Indicating Ratios of Inflow- and Outflow-Jet Diameters to Disc Diameter of an Ideal
Screw Propeller

PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE

Sec. 59.13

The

following references

may

be found useful

Data on Induced Velocities and Differ-

59.13

by the reader who wishes to pursue further the

ential Pressures.

study of inflow to a screw propeller:

Volume

(1)

2,

(2)

Betz, A.,

(3)

Betz,

Propeller,"
A.,

NACA

of the Inflow

Tech. Note 24,

"The Theory

of

Theory

Nov

of the

1920

Screw Propeller,"

the

(5)

Tech. Note 83, Feb 1922

Munk, M. M., "Notes on Propeller Design-Ill. The
Aerodynamical Equations of the Propeller Blade
Elements," NACA Tech. Note 95, May 1922
Lock, C. N. H., and Bateman, H., "The Measurement
of Airflow Round an Airscrew," ARC, R and
1955, Nov 1924, pp. 385-399

(7)

(8)

(9)

AT,

\z

Fig. 59.G

+Ap

of

Volume

I.

Ap

ahead

of the disc

Here, utilizing the Bernoulli Theo-

3
1

At

+ VCtl + 1
+3VCrL + 1

zero speed of advance, where

nominal value of

4-Ap reaches

IME, Mar

its

infinity,

in

Terms

of

Ctl has a

Ap

low limit of 0.333 [Troost,

to
L.,

1946, Vol. 58, p. 14].

velocity far astern, 0.5 f//

ob

(59. ii)

the ratio of

Numerical values of the ratio

Vol. IV, 1936.

Longitudinal Scale

magnitude of the

and the

rem, the ratio

Weick, F. E., "Propeller Design: Practical Application

of the Blade Element Theory-I," NACA Tech.
Note 235, May 1926
Weick, F. E., "Aircraft Propeller Design," McGrawHill, New York, 1930
Helmbold, H. B., "Goldstein's Solution of the Problem
of the Aircraft Propeller with a Finite Number of
Blades," NACA Tech. Memo 652, Dec 1931
Glauert, H., "Airplane Propellers,"

relative

indicated by the graph of Fig. 16. B on page 249

(6)

explained in Sec. 16.3 of

abaft the disc for any given Ctl is

similarly a function of that thrust-load factor,

NACA

(4)

is

I that the

functions of the thrust-load factor Ctl at which

the actuator is assumed to be working. The

pp. 553-576

"Development

It

induced flow and the contraction of the jet passing through the imaginary
actuator disc representing a screw propeller are

Wood, R. MoK., "Multiplane Interference Applied to

Airscrew Theory," ARC, R and
639, 1919-1920,
Vol.

343

of half the

induced

to the undisturbed

Hodius R

Theoretical Jet Outlines, Axial- Velocity Distribution, and Axial-Pressure Distribution

FOR an Ideal Screw Propeller

HYDRODYNAMICS

344

stream velocity

U^

at a distance, are listed in

Table 34. a on page 508 of Volume I for a range

of thrust-load factor Ctl of from 0.040 to 360.0.
These ratios are indicated graphically in Figs.
34. D and 34. E on page 510 of that volume.
In diagram 1 of Fig. 59. G there are plotted, to
scale, the longitudinal jet outlines for the liquid

passing through an imaginary actuator disc from

6i2

or 3Z) ahead to

QR

or 3Z) abaft the disc

position, at varied thrust-load factors. If

is

the

radius of the actuator. Table 59. c gives the theo-

T.\BLE 59. c Inflow- and Outflow-Jet Diameters

AT %R Ahead and Astern of an Imaginary Actuator
Disc of Radius

The

ideal liquid

and no external

Thrust-load Ideal
factor,

values tabulated are entirely theoretical, for an

Ctl

interferences.

efficiency.

vi

Inflow-jet

Outflow-jet

radius

radius

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 59.13

PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE

Sec. 59.14

.^.
ror this model,

^T(for

Lf-i -

-rz
0.5p

propellers)

all

^
2 Ao(.for all
.

345

/,

\T727

propellers) V/f(avera()i

M''
--K-

.,--K
JfT'

07

1
I

III
0.8

Taylor

0.9

Quotient, Tc^

V/C

ITl

3CP3

346
19
18
17

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 59.15

PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE

Sec. 59.16

course of a conversion project, to estimate the

(10) 17,000

screw-propeller thrust long before the propeller

lb thrust.

is

347

170,0001b to (15) 17,000

TD/Q

255,000

value from the Prohaska

Only the proposed ship

speed may be known, or at most the power and

logarithmic propeller chart in Fig. 70. B, by the

rate of rotation of the engine.

method diagrammed

A rule-of-thumb

often used involves the dimen-

T = kPs

sional relationship

units

is in lb,

Ps

is

in

where in English
horses, and k varies from
,

30 on a tug exerting bollard pull at zero speed to

a range of 10-15 for normal propulsion. For highspeed racing motorboats it may drop to 3 or less

D.

[Spencer,

Selecting a

designed.

or

selected

Pac.

B.,

N. W.

TD/Q =

and the rate

rpm

It is pointed out in Sec. 34.7 of

is

relationship between the thrust

Part 2 and Sec.

a rather definite

T and

signed speed

The torque
is

readily

with equal facility by one or the other of the

following 0-diml equations, depending upon the

With a

T =
From

TMB

the fraction

K^/Kq

TD

0.148

0.0265

T =

from

and other

design,

mate those which

is

probably be used in the

contemplated design. The TD/Q ratio varies only

slowly with the real-slip ratio Sg or advance
coefficient J. In any case the open-water data

At a

estimated from

and

T = R/{1

t),

where

and the thrust-deduction

are estimated as described in Sees.

60.9,

self-propelled

Using the

respectively,

model

ABC

or are found

from

5.58

817,600

5.58

20

228,110

1b.

Sec. 70.6 the predicted propeller thrust,

is

later stage of the

only about

193,500

lb.

Fig. 78.

Nb

ABC
The
test,

ship

thrust

taken

for the 20.5-kt designed speed,

only 172,170 lb. The range of prediction covered

by the preceding examples is rather large, but at

least the estimated values are conservative.

59.16
peller

and

Relation Between Thrust at the Proat the

ship as an example for the

successive stages of this estimate,

/c-values of

ceding section,

Thrust Bearing.

For a propeller-

the rule-of-

10 to 15 for

normal propulsion, and for an estimated shaft

power of 17,000 horses, gives a range of from

it

is

usually assumed that the

thrust bearing takes the whole propeller thrust.

Actually,

the

thrust-bearing

propeller thrust only

when

load

equals

the

the friction effects in

the bearings between the propeller and the forward

end

tests.

thumb method, with

is

thrust estimate of the type described in the pre-

coefficient.

the hull resistance

fraction

57.4

real-slip

later stage in a ship design the propeller

is

derived from the self-propelled model

from

thrust

at a real-slip ratio of about

found to be

From

advance

for the transom-stern,

corresponding to a J-value of 0.735,

0.25,

principal characteristics of the propeller approxi-

ratio or

lb.

2294, presented in Fig. 78.Mc, the value of

worked out at a

any desired

237,104

the open-water test data of the stock

model propeller selected

data.

give appropriate values for

20

from open-water model propeller

will

ft-lb.

the thrust

ft,

7 817,600 =

5.

Kc

available plots, provided the pitch ratio

817,600

Hence

a value derived from propeller charts

latter relationship is easily derived

6.2832(1.82)

propeller diameter of 20

Thrust-torque factor

The

Sec. 70.6 as 109.2

prediction works out as

information available at the time of the estimate:

TD =

Again

1.00.

found by

the torque

to be exerted by a propelling
determined from assumed or
known values of the shaft power and the angular
rate of rotation n. The thrust may be estimated

p^

is

17,000(550)

developed by a screw propeller when working

imder any given set of relatively steady condiplant

of

ratio

from

of rotation

2im

tions.

P/D

or 1.82 rps, the expected torque at the de-

2 Feb 1951].
70.5 of Part 4 that there

in Fig. 70. A, gives the ratio

for a

taking the power as 17,000 horses for this example,

SNAME,

Sect.,

5.8

the

and working with

and when the shaft

of all elements attached to

shaft

are

neglected,

declivity in the running condition is zero. Otherwise the thrust-bearing load equals the propeller

thrust plus or minus an axial component of the

weight of the propeller, shaft, and

all

engine

HYDRODYNAMICS

348

parts whose longitudinal position

component

axial weight
aft.

depending

bearing,

thrust

The

is

is

by the

fixed

upon whether the

directed forward or

axial friction effects in the various shaft

and machinery bearings, with the parts rotating

at any speed above very slow, may generally be
neglected. The axial weight component is usually
a secondary factor in the selection or design of a
thrust bearing, but it is a factor of importance in
the analysis of shipboard thrust measurements,

where

magnitude

its

is

often appreciable, com-

pared to the propeller thrust

[SNAME,

1934,

pp. 151-152].

adapted from Figs. 13 and 14 on

151-152 of SNAME, 1934, illustrates

Fig. 59.L,

pages

diagrammatically several types of machinery, the

weights of each to be included in the computation
for the axial

component, and the manner

in

which

the various forces are combined at the thrust

bearing. As further refinements, not always
carried out in practice:

The weight

(1)

of

The

by

water may be reduced by the buoyant forces of

the water on those parts
(2) Part of the measured thrust is due to the
hydrostatic head over the section area of the
shaft where it enters the hull stuffing box

Sec. 59.17

-|-Ap's exerted over the projected axial

area of the hub abaft the blades, as well as the

Ap's

exerted over the forward exposed area

measured in
and reckoned in ship trials as part
the thrust exerted by the blades.

of the hub, outside the shaft, are

model
of

tests

For high-speed vessels such as destroyers, in

which the attitude changes materially from the
at-rest to the running condition, the actual shaft
declivity at any .speed is a combination of that
built into the ship (or that imposed by the particular loading condition) and the running trim
at that speed. Assuming a change of trim from
zero to full speed of 1.5 deg, not

these craft, the axial weight

rotating parts of one

uncommon

component

main propelling unit

of the full-speed thrust

[SNAME,

1933, pp. 268,

Estimates of Thrust and Torque Varia-

tion per Revolution for

Screw Propellers.

The

reasons for the generation of thrust and torque

variations on the blade of a screw propeller as
rotates,

and

for the application of offset forces

Volume

I.

The

equalization of the thrust

and

Restraint

A^T are the Products of the Wcltjhts W, and

W2 and the Sines of the Respective ArKjIes of Declivity,

Forces Zi|T and

with Friction Effects

of the
of

Rotating

Parts, the

Weiqhl

Weiqhls

the Propeller and of the Shaftino

Sections Surrounded
to

be Diminished

of

that Water

b"y

Water are

the Buoyancy

b'^

On Slow-Speed and Medium-Speed

Vessels the Chanoe of Trim and of
Shaft Declivity
the Water

is

Due

to

Usually

Speed Through
Neqli(jible.

it

and

bending moments on the shaft, are described in

Sees. 17.3 through 17.7, 17.12, and Sec. 33.13 in

Fore- and- Aft

Calculating the Total

is

275, 277].

Jaw Couplinq with No

When

in

of the

changed by the sine of this angle, or some 2.6

per cent. This may amount to 3 per cent or more

59.17

the propeller and of those

portions of the shafting completely surrounded

IN SHIP DESIGN
(3)

Nei^lected

PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE

?9.17

Sec.

torque for

all

angular positions and the reduction

of the bending

moments

a design problem of

is

long standing. Nevertheless, the advent of higher

on vessels carrying
propellers abaft skegs, and the increasing emphasis
on freedom from vibration, has made it necessary
to devote much more intensive and thorough
study to this project than was formerly the case.
powers per

shaft, especially

Several decades ago R. J. Walker and

Cook gave some data on wake and torque

S.

S.

varia-

encountered on the single-screw tankers

San Florentino and Sa7i Fernando [Mar. Eng'g.,
May 1921, p. 395]. They reported variations in
tions

maximum

torque ranging from a

of 1.35 times

the mean, at a blade position of about 102 deg,

in

mean

taken as

is

at a position, for the

deg, with angles increasing

a clockwise direction, looking forward, cor-

responding to diagram

symmetry

of

fractions

at

the

of Fig. I.E. In the plane

disc

were found

to

position

the

wake

vary from 0.536

at

6 o'clock in the tip circle to 0.627 at 12 o'clock in

that

circle.

At

4:30 o'clock the

wake

was

0.255.

0.041; at 10:30 o'clock

Diagrams

Failures"

314-381], have given the

wake-survey diagram of a single-screw ship,

together with the calculated variations in propeller thrust, propeller torque,

and other

factors,

lb at the 9 o'clock position to 126,000 lb at 12:20

shafts at sea.

position

pp.

same

motion of the machinery parts and generate

vibration in both hull and machinery but to
account for actual breakage of the propeller

of about

Shaft

Propeller

of

1952,

143 deg. Here the 12 o'clock

great deal of clever experimentation, carried

blade,

[SNAME,

on a base of angular position of the propeller.

These are supplemented by measurements of the
axial, torsional, and bending .strains on the protoand 59. N are
type propeller shaft. Figs. 59.
adapted from Figs. 33 and 34, respectively, of the
paper. A list of 20 references is to be found on
pages 364-365.
Supplementing the foregoing, E. P. Panagopulos and A. M. Nickerson, Jr., made further
full-scale tests on a larger vessel. The results of
this investigation were published by them in a
paper entitled "Propeller-Shaft Stresses under
Service Conditions The S.S. Chryssi Investigation" [SNAME, 1954, pp. 199-241]. This paper
is concerned largely with the bending stresses in
the propeller shaft but Fig. 23 on page 227 is a
graph showing the variation in the calculated
thrust of- one blade throughout a single complete
revolution. The thrust varies from about 15,000

out in the period 1940-1955, has demonstrated

that the variable forces and moments can be
large enough not only to produce objectionable

to 0.59 times the

Investigation

349

of thrust

it

fraction

o'clock, to 42,000 lb at 4 o'clock,

and to 123,000

lb at 6:36 o'clock.

realistic

definitely

look

at

this

situation

indicates

that an analytic procedure must be

developed whereby the magnitudes, directions,

and positions of the variable forces exerted by one

was

and torque variations on a

basis of angular position around the shaft axis,

for the single blades of a 3-bladed screw propeller,

and

for the overall propeller, are given in Fig. 218

on page 281 of the Russian book "Korabelnye
Dvizhiteli (Marine Propulsion Devices)," written
by U. I. Soloviev and D. A. Churmack under the
scientific supervision of I. G. Hanovich, Moscow,
1948. These page and figure numbers are the
same in the Bureau of Ships (Navy Department)
Translation 408 of this book, March 1951.
A paper by J. R. Kane and R. T. McGoldrick
[SNAME, 1949, pp. 193-252] was devoted to an
analysis of the longitudinal vibration of marine
propulsion-shafting systems, resulting from variations in the thrust forces with angular position of
the screw propeller. On pages 231-232 this paper
lists 20 references.
More recently, N. H. Jasper and L. A. Rupp,
in their paper "An Experimental and Theoretical

x'=R/Rm,

59.M Variation of Thrust-Load Coefficient

OF A Screw Propeller with Dimensionless Radius,
on a Basis of Dimensionless Radius, At Four
Angular Positions

Pig.

350

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 59.17

Sec. 59.17
l.b

PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE

351

HYDRODYNAMICS

352
10,000

8,000

6,000

8.

S4,000

2,000

480

460

420

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 59.11

Sec.

PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE

59.n

Qz{(l)

is

F zifi)

is

the torque per blade at the angle Q

Tzid)

%.

T{x'

e)

all

blades at one blade

Qivipan

For a 4-bladed
going becomes

ne) = Tz{6

= Zl
"'

^z( ^

propeller,

TT

r^"'

^^^)

'^^

"

Setting

'\

-^1

Z =

[F{d)]^.

equal to the total horizontal

transverse force of
angle,

where

blades at

4,

the fore-

and

[F{e)],

transverse force of

all

blades at any one blade

equal to the total vertical

all

blades at any one blade

angle,

+ 2^p) +

all

Qi6), then

'"'

designated as T{B), then

Ti^)

T{Q) dQ

and

dx'

Jo

Similarly, letting the total torque for

dx'

any one blade angle be

7,

the total thrust for

= tt
^T

7'Ma

Hx
is

353

is

2,

Then

'^"''

If

thrust

the transverse tangential force per blade

at the angle

angle

The mean

T.(.

Tz{e

+ 2^)

+ ?fl) +

Tz{e

f)

[Fie)i

t Fz{e + ^f) cos [e + ^f)

[Fie)i

t Fz{e + f

) sin

{e

f)

CHAPTER

60

Ship-Powering Data for Steady Ahead Motion

60.1
60.2

General
Estimation or Calculation of Effective and

60 3

Trim Changes on
Power
Methods and Factors Involved in Predicting
Shaft Power
Axial-Component Wake-Fraction Diagrams

Friction

Power

Determination of the Propulsive Coefficient

Data from Self-Propulsion Tests of Model

355

60 13
60.14

Merit Factors for Predicting Shaft Power

Shaft-Power Estimates by the Ideal-Effi-

Effective

60 4
.

358

60.15

358
360

60 16

Estimating Shaft Power for a Fouled- or

Rough-Hull Condition
Increasing the Power and Speed of an Existing Ship
Powering for Two or More Distinct Operating Conditions
Backing Power from Self-Propelled Model
Tests

60.5

at Propulsion-Device Positions

Three-Dimensional Wake-Survey Diagrams

Interpretation and Analysis of the
Three-Dimensional Wake Diagram
Estimating the Ship- Wake Fraction ....
Prediction of the Thrust-Deduction Fraction
Finding the Relative Rotative Efficiency

60.6
60.7

many

362
368
370
374

marine engineers for the past century or more

has been to find an adequate method of calculating
directly the power necessary to drive a given ship

By

direct calculation

is

60.17

words, one aim of naval architects and

at a given speed.

meant a

determination of the ship power in the early

60.18

that

may

or reference data

be necessary, but without the building

or testing of a model.
is

handbook

The

limited generally to

discussion in this chapter

methods of

direct estimate

or calculation.

total hull resistance

use

several

of

Rt

different

making
methods and various

oi ship forms,

sources of test data. Certain of the powers used

in

design

ship

Method

are

derived

readily

from

resistance. Others, like the shaft power,

this

those for one kind and size of ship

resistance

is

Many graphs and

can not

method

to

may

it.

either
is

the

by estimate,

by-passed, so to

power

for

a given ship form.

methods to give the required

precision required in

known,

in a single step, the probable effective

which of several successive

approximations is to be used, depends upon the
time available for finding the answer, and the
or as

be mis-

speak, by having the marine architect determine,

of the book, that the ship designer needs

selected,

may

Pe = RtV. When

since

not

calculation, or test, its value

in Parts 3

engineering answers. Choice as to the

388

Estimation or Calculation of Effective

60.2

A rule-of-thumb procedure

be most appropriate for one situation yet

highly unsuitable for another.

354

for ships

tables for finding the effective

have been prepared and published

over the years.

several different

388

and Friction Power. The derivation of towrope

or effective power for a ship, when its resistance
is found by the procedures described in Chaps.
56 and 57, involves only one simple step in

easily.

and 4

387

borderline cases.

power

emphasized here, as elsewhere

385

leading or result in downright inaccuracies for

be calculated directly nor can they be estimated

It is

383

hensive as possible. Limiting one's basic data to

multiplication,

Chap. 57 describes methods of estimating the

377
380

One caution against all methods of estimating

and predicting ship power is that they shall be
based on test and other data that are as compre-

stages of the design, directly from the data on

paper, using whatever

ciency

Although not always expressed

General.

60.1

375

Ships and Propellers

.

TMB

60.8
60.9
60.10

354

Effect of Displacement and

in so

60 1 1
60.12

354

It

is

difficult

to

assess

their

validity

and usefulness because

of uncertainty as

what

basic data were used

and how reliable

In most cases,

to

these data were in the

first place.

the graphs and tables cover vessels of one type

only; possibly even of a small range of size or
shape. For example, J. C. Robertson and H. H.
in their paper entitled "A Century of
Coaster Design and Operation" [lESS, 1953-1954,
Vol. 97, pp. 204-256, esp. Fig. 3 on pp. 212-213],
give curves of brake power Pb for this type of

Hagan,

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.3

ship on a base of displacement_weight

for
various values of T, = V/'VL, where V is
(apparently) the trial speed in kt. H. Volpich, in
a discussion of this paper on pages 236-239 of

SBSR, 20 May
nomogram (Fig. 12)

the reference [also

19.54,

pp. 634,

355

selected vary as to type they vary only

little in

those proportions affecting hydrodynamic resistance.

great

many

additional sets of contours

would be needed to cover the whole ship-design

field.

power

Bates' effective-power data are based upon test

approximation of single-screw diesel-driven coasters embodying deadweight carrying capacity,

ship length, brake power, and ship speed. It is
useful for a quick and ready approximation to the

from the Taylor Standard Series of models

and from miscellaneous EMB models. While ship
forms have changed somewhat since this analysis
was made, the data should still serve for quick
estimates of effective power for vessels of the

636], gives

power of a small

for the

ship.

Bates has published contours of constant

effective power P e for fast yachts having lengths
in the range of 100 to 500 ft, speeds in the range
J. L.

of 10 to

20

kt,

and the following ranges

of

form

(b)

Prismatic coefficient Cp from 0.62 to 0.66

Displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)^

from 40 to 45
(c) Maximum-section coefficient Cx from 0.75
to 0.83. These curves are to be found in MESA,
September 1921, pages 678-680. Similar contours
of constant effective power, for speeds in excess
of 22 or 23 kt, are to be found in the 1920 edition
of the Shipbuilding Cyclopedia

man,

New

proportions

[Simmons-Board-

York].

is found by a
any case, the friction power
derived invariably by the formula Pp = RpV.

direct calculation in
is

vessels, gunboats,

and

difficulties

determining

in

the

effects

of

roughness, described in Chap. 45, are of course

reflected in a determination of the friction power.

Numerical values of friction power are rarely

employed in ship design but they are useful in
the effects of changing the wetted

illustrating

area and of surface roughness.

60.3
Effect of Displacement and Trim Changes
on Effective Power. Knowing the effective power
P E for the designed displacement and trim of a
given vessel, usually as the result of a model test,
it

Contours of constant effective power for vessels

of fine underbody, comprising yachts intended
primarily for ocean cruising, coastal passenger

listed.

Since friction resistance for a ship

The

coefEcient:
(a)

results

is

often required to estimate the

somewhat

Pe

for a

different displacement of that vessel;

and

possibly also for a different trim. Designer's

operator's requirements, besides calling for the

certain seagoing tugs, are

effective-power variations corresponding to the

given by Bates in Figs. 3-5 on pages 681-683 of

usual 10 per cent light and heavy displacement,

the

MESA

reference.

The curves cover a Cp

of

0.56, a range of displacement-length quotient of

from 100 to
to 0.93.

150,

and a range

of

Cx

of

from 0.87

Representative vessels in the selected

groups have, according to Bates, the characteristics listed in Table 60. a.

Here again

TABLE
The

60. a

references

it

is

noted that while the craft

often extend to the so-called ballast condition,

especially

for

displacement

cargo
for

vessels.

its

Length,

ft

listed in the

Displacement,
long tons

Passenger vessel

may

designed draft.

As an

aid in estimating these effective-power

accompanying

Prismatic
Coefficient,

Cp

J. L.

Bates, 1920-1921

text.

Longitudinal

Type

design

approach half the designed value, and the trim

by the stern of that vessel may be 0.3 or more of

Characteristics of Selected Vessels in the Powering Groups of

from which these data were taken are

Here the weight

cargo-vessel

(1^
\100>

VI

HYDRODYNAMICS

356

changes without recourse to additional lengthy

calculations or model tests, data have been
analyzed from the tests of some two dozen models
of ships of various types.

to determine the

is

gA)
Pe for A
or Pe for (A sA)

Pe

of this analysis

in the relationship

SA

(A

for

The aim

exponent n

may

It is to

Sec. 60.3

be noted that, because of the arithmetic

the exponent n is extremely
changes in the power ratio. For

the situation,

of

sensitive

to

example, for a displacement ratio (A

of 0.9,

and a power

ratio

5A)/A

[{Pe for 0.9A)/(P

A)] of 0.9, the exponent n = 1.0. For the same

displacement ratio and a power ratio of 1.0, the

for

exponent n
(60. i)

0,

0.81 the value of

Avhereas for a

power

2, since 1.0

ratio of

(0.9)

and

Thus, while the possible selections

of n for a given T, from Fig. 60. A vary rather
widely, the range of estimated Pe derived from
0.81

f..A,(^)"
It

IN SHIP DESIGN

be expected that these relationships will

vary somewhat with speed-length quotient; possibly also with hydrodynamic ship proportions
such as prismatic coefficient and fatness ratio.
Fig. 60. A gives a tentative mean line for a
variation of n in Eq. (60.i) with T or F as well

them

is

(0.9)".

rather small.

To avoid

multiplying large numbers by factors

very close to unity, which is the case when sA is

small, and to avoid taking powers, the following

formula can be used:

as a lane in which the majority of

gA

or

bW

percentages as for small ones.

In general the exponent n

-t-5A or -\-bW than for a

- SA

is

or

greater for a

- bW,

especially

when r, > 1.0, F > 0.30.

The plotting of Fig. 60. A is based only indirectly
on physical reasoning. The hulls which are less
deeply immersed, more deeply immersed, or
inclined with trim by the bow or stern, can only
in exceptional cases be geosims of the designed
underwater hull. Further, because of the different
proportions in each case, the surface waterline
changes, the wetted surface varies, and the flow

pattern

5 0.8

is different.

Pe =

n values may

be expected to lie. They conform reasonably

well for SA, bW, or 5 values ranging from +0.18
to 0.40, and for large-trim as well as zero-trim
changes accompanying the changes in displacement. The lane appears to be as valid for large

cIPe

/,:nA""' f/A

A-A"

or

bPe

hiA"~'

sA

whence
bP,

n(5A)

Pe

and

bPs

= Pf

For small percentage changes

"n(5A)"|
(60. ia)

in the

displacement

A, Eq. (60. ia) is more accurate than Eq. (60. i)

and easier to evaluate.
Take for example the ABC ship of Part 4,
at a T^ of 0.9. Assume that the effective power
Pe for the designed displacement and trim is
11,902

horses,

equal

to

the

estimated

10,820

horses of Sec. 66.9 plus 10 per cent for appendages

and other factors. Assume also that n is selected

from the mean line of Fig. 60.A as 0.72. Then for
a partial-load displacement of 16,400
13,975

t,

2,425

as listed in Table 66.f of Sec. 66.16,

Sec.

SHIP-POWERING DATA

60 J

sA

representing a reduction

of 14.8 per cent

from the designed value, the corresponding

tionships are, from Eq. (60.i),

Pe

for (16,400

Pb

2,425) tons

for 16,400 tons

"

(16,400

=
If

A =
for (1

SA

P^

16,400

for

["

"

(1.000-0.148) 1"
1-000

=
This gives

2,425) 1

is

000-0.148)A ^
for 1.000

taken as l.OOOA, and

or 0.1 48 A,

16,400 tons

2,425 tons as

Pb

rela-

0.852A

0.8911

0.8911 (11,902)

10,606 horses.

The reduction in effective power is only 10.9

per cent while the reduction in displacement is
14.8 per cent. This appears disappointing. It must
be remembered, however, that if the displacement
of the given vessel is increased by 14.8 per cent, a
similar calculation indicates that the effective
TESTS OF US. MAR. COMM.

357

HYDRODYNAMICS

358

be considered typical for

screw vessels as a class.

medium and

Thei-e are in the archives of

many

large single-

ship-model

numerous sets of graphs

similar to those of Figs. 60.B and 60. C. In these
the effective powers, and sometimes the friction
powers and other factors, are given for selected
testing establishments

when run at widely different displacements and trims. For cases similar to these,
where the light displacements vary by some 30
and 45 per cent, respectively, from the heavy or
normal-load displacements, the range is rather

IN SHIP DESIGN

making estimates of effective-power

changes by the graphs of Fig. 60.A.
60.4 Methods and Factors Involved in Prefor

dicting Shaft

Power.

The

possible,

however, to analyze this kind of experi-

ence and to set

attempt to do

it

it is

down as a design rule. An

down in Sec. 60.11.

set

procedure for the preliminary estimate of the

power of merchant ships recently described

by V. Minorsky [Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol.
2, No. 9, pp. 226-229] is in reality a dimensional

shaft

version of the Telfer merit factor described in

Sec. 34.10. It takes the

form

Powering factor

preliminary design of

a ship can not proceed very far until the shajt

power Ps needed to drive it at the designed speed
is determined in some manner. It is customary to
estimate or to predict this power by one or more
of a series of methods, involving successive

However,

approximations.

is

difficult,

ship models

large

Sec. 60.4

with experience, to estimate the

propulsive coefficient rjp directly, as is done for
the first approximation to the shaft power of the
ABC ship in Sec. 66.9 of Part 4. It is extremely
It

to

better

afford

as

compared

V
V'Ps

to the 0-diml

Telfer merit factor

WV

(34.xxiv)

gLPs

The latter is assumed in Fig. 34.1 on page 518 of

Volume I to vary in some manner as Fl with
,

understanding of the procedures underlying some

of the early approximations, the later approximations are described first. The discussion here is

further variations for better-than-average or less-

Umited primarily to screw propulsion.

The shaft power Ps is obtained directly from
the effective power P^ by dividing the propulsive

varies

This is simple
but estimating the proper value of tip is not.
coefficient T?i.(eta) into the latter.

From

Eqs. (34.xv) and (34.xvi) of Sec. 34.7,

Vp

The value

Voiv hJvr

Vo^
I

of

770

is

known

for the

working range

a considerable number of screw propellers

suitable for driving a wide variety of ships.
Published data can be supplemented by informa-

of

obtained from model basins which have

tested many propeller models. However, the
tion

working range of the advance coefficient J is

also rather large, and tjo may vary rather rapidly
with J in that range. A J-value may be chosen,
for a propeller not too heavily loaded, just under
(less

than) the J-value for

maximum

170

Estimating the hull efficiency rja involves

estimates of both the thrust-deduction fraction t
and the wake fraction w. Methods of accomplish-

than-average performance. The expression of V.

Minorsky uses only a single average factor, which

somewhat with block coefficient Cb and

"F/vL.
G. Deparis, in his paper "Etude Comparative
des Cargos; Puissance des Moteurs (Comparative
Study of Cargo Vessels; Propelling-Plant Power)"

speed-length quotient

[ATMA,

1955, Vol. 54, pp. 499-549], describes

methods whereby "guestimates" may be made of

propelling-plant power and speed on a basis of
useful load, in an early stage of the preliminary
design. The factors given are based upon a study
of the characteristics of

undoubtedly the

many

ships,

including

inefficient as well as the efficient

ones.
J.

E. Burkhardt discusses several methods of

estimating ship power [ME,

22-28] but

all

of

them

1942, Vol. I, pp.

are covered in the present

book, in one form or another. Descriptions of

other methods of predicting shaft power are
embodied in Sees. 60.13, 60.14, and 60.15.
60.5 Axial-Component Wake-Fraction Diagrams at Propulsion-Device Positions. Characteristics of the

wake

at propulsion-device positions

are discussed in Chap. 11.

Methods

for indicating

ing this, in advance of or without self-propulsion

the situation graphically with respect to

tests of the ship model, are described presently in

velocity

Sees. 60.8

and

60.9.

Estimating the probable value

of the relative rotative efficiency

in Sec. 60.10.

jjk is

described

wake

and direction over the whole thrust-

producing area are described there, specifically

as applying to a screw propeller.

There

is

a great

amount

of published data

on

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.^

wake, some of it listed subsequently in this section,

in which only the fore-and-aft or direction-ofmotion components of the actual wake velocities

der

E.xperiences

and Developments

preponderance of these data might lead a marine

(d) Weitbreclit,

described in Sec.

as

adequate.

is

actual-velocity components do indeed serve as the

(e)

the

propeller

Fig. ll.F

The
is concerned.
down in Chap. 11 and in
The 3-diml representation of

positions

and

of Figs.

60.D through

60. J in Sec.

more

60.6 of the present chapter gives a far

adequate, more accurate, and more useful indica-

(f)

which the propeller

tion of the flow situation in

both magnitude
brought out in Sec. 60.7.
in

true water veloc-

and

direction,

(g)

irregularity

(h)

(a)

is

(i)

(k)

22 of the

was constructed.
A brief of sources embodying wake-survey
diagrams with contour and other plots of local
fore-and-aft velocity components or wake fractions

it

(1)

G.

"On

A.,

the

Currents," INA, 1893, Vol.

Pis. I, II,

early

and

Measurement

of

III. Figs. 3, 4,

pp. 61-67 and

and 5 on PL II are

results of

Kempf,

G.,

model

tests.

"Neue Betriebserfahrungen und Ent-

ship

wake
15 Jun

in

WRH,

TMB

Tannenberg.

Contours of
by G.

fraction are given

1939, pp. 167-174, especiEnglish version of this paper

Transl. 91, Jul 1941, where the

An

found in
wake-survey and analysis diagrams appear on pages
10 and 11.

(m) Twin-skeg Manhattan, contours of equal longitudinal

components of wake velocity abaft one skeg and
for a considerable distance

beyond

SNAME,

1947,

Fig. 32, p. 121

"The Effect of Shape of Entrance on Ship

Propulsion," INA, 1949, pp. 169-170. Contours are
given of equal wake fraction (axial component only)

(n) Troost, L.,

observed wake velocities by combining the wave

wake with the viscous wake but a rather large discrepancy remained because he did not take into

account the wake due to potential flow.

(b) Kempf, G., "The Wake of a Ship in Relation to that
of its Model," SBSR, 14 Feb 1924, pp. 194-196.
Describes wake wheels or vane wheels and gives

German twin-screw

is

wake-survey diagrams showing true wake

ship speed. Calvert endeavored to account for the

Yamagata, M., "Wake Measurement by a Working

Propeller," 3rd ICSTS, Berlin, 1934, p. 67
Yamagata, M., INA, 1934, pp. 286-396, esp. pp.
387-388 and PI. XXXIX.
"Stromungserregte ResonanzschwingMichel, F.,
ungen (Resonant Vibration Caused by Flow),"
WRH, 1 Feb 1939, pp. 29-31

ally pp. 170-171.

Wake

XXXIV,

ponents of velocity and wake fractions, and other

features. Fig. 25 on p. 793 of SNAME, 1955, is
adapted from one of these diagrams.
Baker, G. S., "Wake," NECI, 1934-1935, Vol. LI,
pp. 303-320 and D137-D146. Shows wake-survey

Kempf

speeds, in the lines of flow, as percentages of the

(c)

SNAME,

Kempf, G., Mitstrom und Mitstromschrauben (Wake

and Wake-Adapted Propellers)," STG, 1931, pp.

equal fore-and-aft

given here for the benefit of the reader:

Calvert,

p. 350,

diagrams for a number of models.

(i)

more vividly than

the 3-diml survey diagram of Fig.

from which

and 23(c) on

134-152. This paper contains a considerable number

contour diagrams, showing longitudinal com-

TMB

twin-skeg model 3898, published in SNAME,

1947, Fig. 32 on page 121, reveals the general

wake

117-133; also

1931, Vol. 32, pp.

of

TMB

reference,

STG,

1950

are

It is true that the plotting of wake-survey

diagrams in terms of contours of longitudinalvelocity components F(l w) or of wake fraction
w reveals certain features not well illustrated by
3-diml wake-vector diagrams of Figs.
the
ll.F and 60.D through 60.K of Sec. 60.6. For
example, the wake-contour diagram for

pattern of

reference quoted.
Weitbrecht, H. M., "Uber Mitstrom und Mitstromschrauben (On Wake and Wake-Adapted Pro-

Figs. 23(a), 23(b),

Additional reasons for making use of a 3-diml

ities,

TMB

1930.

Wake-fraction diagrams, indicating the variation in

pellers),"

must work.

wake diagram which shows the

Technique

fraction around a propeller tip circle, for

and U-sections, are shown on page
254 of a paper by Dr.-Ing. E. Foerster entitled
"Speed and Power of Ships" [MESA, May 1930].
These indicate a minimum wake fraction of about
0.42 for the U-shaped run and of about 0.18 for
the V-shaped run. Similar diagrams, showing the
variations in wake fractions around a screwpropeller disc behind different forms of bossing, are
given at the bottom of pages 256 and 257 of the

reasons for this are set

Sec. 60.7 following.

in the

1930, pp. 437-442,

English version in

sterns with V-

work. Nevertheless, it is important to realize

that they tell only part of the story so far as flow
at

Dec

Nov

9.

this

wake fraction in everyday

powering estimates and for some analytic

basis for the orthodox

use for

and

(New

H. M., "Mitstrom und Mitstromschrauben (Wake and Wake-Adapted Propellers)," WRH,

15 Dec 1930, pp. 505-507, esp. Figs. 6, 7, and 8

method of wake
The fore-and-aft

architect to believe that this

representation

11.4.

WRH,

esp. Figs. 5, 5a, 8,

Transl. 3,

indicated,

Schiffbau-Versuchstechnik

of Ship Trials),"

The

are

359

wicklungen

over the propeller disc of a small coaster, together

with graphs showing the circumferential variation
of the wake fraction for various radii.
(o)

Harvald,

S. A.,

"Wake

of

Merchant Ships," Danish

Technical Press Copenhagen, 1950, esp. p. 80

liner. Two dia(p) Normandie, transatlantic passenger
grams of the wake magnitudes abaft the outboard

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

360
bossings,

made

before and after alterations,

are

SNAME, 1949, Figs. 26 and

These and other wake diagrams for the
Normandie are published by F. Coqueret and P.
Romano in SNAME, 1936, Figs. 1-4 on p. 135 and

given by F. H. Todd,
27, p. 234.

9-10 on p. 139.
Henschke, W., "Schiffbautechnisehes Handbuch (Shipbuilding and Ship Design Handbook)," 1952, p. 132.
Shows wake diagram for twin screws abaft bossings.
Figs.

(q)

(r)

Van Manen,

(s)

Kinoshita, M., and Ikada,

No.

8,

J.

D., Int. Shpbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2,

pp. 162-163

1955, Vol. 2, No. 9, Fig.

S.,

Int.

7, p.

237.

Shpbldg. Prog.,

diagram 2 of Fig.

grams.

Three-Dimensional Wake-Survey Diathe wake-velocity vectors are not

If ail

Here, in the 12 o'clock

blade position, the actual inflow-velocity magnitude is U A sec ^(theta) while the effective velocity

with respect to a blade element

latter

which

is

increase

considered,
in

incident

there
or

moving

TABLE
All tests were

Model

60.b

made

tested

corresponding to that in

is

the

actually a large

is

and
downward moving
both for the upward

Taking account

blade.

of the induced

velocities increases these differences.

the

lift

The

fact that

varies as the square of the relative velocity

at which the blade elements

move

still

further

increases the difference.

Typical 3-diml wake-survey diagrams on ship

models,

made with

Data Accompanying Wake-Survey Diagrams of

at the

It

effective angle of attack for the

blade and a large decrease in

in the vertical plane,

resultant velocity

parallel to each other

nearly constant rate. Non-axial flow then occurs

Ua

motion velocity components. For the special case

considered, and for the 12 and 6 o'clock blade
positions, the instrument indications are valid.
For other blade positions, however, such as
those at or near 3 and 9 o'clock in the special

parallel to the direction of

motion but are generally

and to one plane which
contains the plane of the shaft, there exists what
might be called simple non-axial flow. Such a
flow might occur at a single-screw position under
a wide, flat stern, sloping upward and aft at a

is

measured by a device that records

or indicates only the fore-and-aft or direction-of-

situation

60.6

Sec. 60.6
17. C.

the

TMB

Figs. 60.D

David Taylor Model Basin. The Taylor quotients

13-orifice spherical-

Through 60.H

are based on the ship lengths listed.

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.6

361

ELEVATION OF PORT SIDE

LOOKING FORWARD

R' 8.2
Propeller Tip

Circle^-.^^

ft

A-J^i^lZ?--^

IT^S

Values for
Circles

Shown

with Broken Lines

ore Extrapolated
Fig. 60.D

Wake-Survey Diagram for a Twin-Screw Naval Vessel,

head pitot tube, are reproduced in Fig. ll.F of

Part 1 and Figs. 60. D througli 60. J of the present
section. The diagram of Fig. 60. D is for a wing
propeller position on a twin-screw stern of noi'mal
form, while those of Figs. 60. E through 60. H are
for

single-screw

sterns

with

centerline

skegs,

Diagrams such as those listed in the foregoing,

which carry a multitude of survey points, may
become cluttered up and confusing if they include
the section lines for the portion of .the afterbody
or run just forward of the propeller position.

These

section

however,

lines,

wake

features in the

cal data pertaining to these five are listed in

Table 60.b. The diagrams of Figs. 60.1 and 60.J,
adapted from Figs. 32 and 33 of a paper by H. R.
Neifert and J. H. Robinson [SNAME, 1955, pp.

position.

525-526], are for the light and intermediate load

wake-survey diagrams

conditions, respectively, of a

ship Lt.
Fig.

model

S.

of the Victory

for comparison,

depicts the

wake

form of a
but with two vertical and two
horizontal fins ahead of the propeller positions.
Fig. 60.
of Sec. 60.7 is a wake-survey diagram
for the propeller position on the transom-stern
ABC ship which is designed and described in
Part 4.
of revolution

show

For a comprehensive analysis they

should be available on or with the wake-survey
diagram, drawn preferably to the same scale.
Appended is a partial list of additional 3-diml
of

the

TMB

type,

as

published in the technical literature:

(a)

Twin-skeg Manhattan design; wake over propeller

disc abaft skeg and for considerable distance beyond;

situation at the tail of a torpedo, in the

body

important

the shape of the ship just ahead of the propeller

James E. Robinson.
60. K,

are

analysis because they

Maritime
Administration C4-S-la or Mariner class. Numerirepresenting variations of the U.

U.S.S. Terror

SNAME,
(b)

(c)

S.

p.

(d)

1947, Fig. 22, p. 115

Maritime Commission, C-3 cargo vessel, TMB

model 3534; SNAME, 1947, Fig. 45, p. 146
U. S. Maritime Commission design for a transatlantic
liner, TMB model 3917; SNAME, 1947, Fig. 58,
U.

U.

151
S.

Maritime

"closed stern,"

Administration

TMB

Mariner

Model 4358W-1;

design,

SNAME,

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

362

Sec. 60.7

diagram of Fig. ll.E. Since it is most

important to an interpretation and analysis of
the 3-diml wake-survey diagram that the geodefinition

metric relationships be clearly understood, the

definition drawing is repeated here as Fig. 60.L.

The survey diagram is drawn on a sheet representing a transverse plane on the ship or model,
passing through the longitudinal center of the
propulsion device. For a model running at other
than zero trim, and for a screw propeller mounted

on a shaft having both declivity and convergence

(or divergence), this plane is very nearly normal
to the direction of motion. It is close enough to
the plane of the disc, in both position and direction, to serve all engineering purposes.

drawn on
projection upon it
vectors

The various

this sheet represent

simply the

of the incident velocity vectors

Wake-Survey Diagram for TMB Model

4358W-1, Representing a Variation of the Mariner
Class Hull

Fig. 60. E

1953, Fig. 17, p. 176. This diagram

is

the same as in

Fig. 60.E.
(e)

(f)

Maritime Administration, Mariner design,

"open water" or "clear water" stern, TMB model
4358W-3; SNAME, 1953, Fig. 16, p. 126. This
diagram is the same as in Fig. 60. G.
Wake-survey data for a model of the T-2 class tankers
were published by N. H. Jasper and L. A. Rupp,
SNAME, 1952, Fig. 25a, p. 347. Four afterbody
sections at and adjacent to the stern are shown on
U.

S.

TMB

Model

4358W-2

this diagram.

60.7 Interpretation and Analysis of the TMB

Three-Dimensional Wake Diagram. The method
of plotting the projections of 3-diml incident-

velocity vectors at propulsion-device positions,

and

of indicating the

of the

wake

and the transverse velocity components,

described in Sec. 11.6 and illustrated in the

fractions
is

magnitude

Baseline

Fig. 60.F

210 deq

Wake-Survey Diagram for

TMB

Model

4358W-2, Representing a Variation of the Mariner

Class Hull

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.7

363

of the water flowing through the disc position.

Using the techniques available as of the date of

writing (1955), the propulsion device is not working when the wake measurements are made, so
there are no inflow and outflow jets and there is
no race contraction.
The presence of what might be termed "intersecting" vector projections, of which there are
both horizontal and vertical rows in the torpedo
wake diagram of Fig. 60. K, means that the
flowlines are converging at the base points of the

vectors.
fins

The stream tubes meeting abaft

vectors, although there

to

the

obviously can not cross each other, as do the

flow

may

irregularities.

be some mixing due

Rows

of

"intersecting"

vectors of this kind are found abaft skeg

and

bossing terminations on ship models, and some-

times abaft shaft struts,

sufficiently

if

the measurements are

numerous.

Visual inspection of the wake-fraction numerals,

Fig. 60.H Wake-Survey Diagram for a Model

Representing a Variation of the Mariner Class

Hull
or

the

sketching

of

contours

of

equal

wake

whether or not these values

change in a reasonably uniform manner in all
directions across the disc. It is to be expected that
the numerical values of the wake fractions will
increase progressively toward the adjacent hull,
because of the retarded flow due to viscous wake
within the boundary layer. Large or sudden
changes in a transverse direction across the wakesurvey plane are indications of longitudinal
fraction, indicates

discontinuities in the flow; possibly also of partial

separation or incipient eddies.

On

rare

occasions

there

are

indications

of

longitudinal vortexes in a pattern of so-called

"pinwheel" vector projections, appearing to have

components about a common center.
This center may lie within or without the wakesurvey field. A wake survey for the wall-sided
ship of Fig. 25.F of Volume I would show such a
rotational

Fig. 60.G

Wakb-Survet Diagram for TMB Model

4358W-3, Representing a Variation op the Mariner

Class Hull

HYDRODYNAMICS

364
1.0

OWL

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 60.7

DWL= 28.00

= 28.00 ft

ft

Lenqlh on Woterline,

Desianed

444.0

fl

Droft.for'd.

20.67 ft

Droft.Qft

24.50 ft

Displacement

11,606 1

Speed

"^'"^
240

17.55 kt

for test

Taylor Quotient To

on Lpy^L

bosed
0.833

Plane of Surve\j

6.323 ft ford, of

IS

AP

Third numeral Represents

of

Tanqentiol

Wahe

06,ll,08~

Moqnitude

Component

of

the

Velocitv

Fig. 60.1

210
1

195

Wake-Survey Diagram for Victory

Ship,

pinwheel provided an adequate number of

measurements were made. It would also show a
characteristic feature of the presence of a longi-

through the disc

position of a screw-propeller. This vortex reveals
itself by producing what may be called "opposite"
transverse-velocity components, along any one
radial line within the disc or at any one blade
position. One or more of these components may
indicate flow meeting the blade in its normal rotation while others on the same blade may indicate
flow which follows the blade.
The magnitude of the tangential or rotational
incident-velocity components around a circle of
radius 72 in a screw-propeller disc, reckoned
tudinal-axis

vortex

passing

normal to the blade axis at any blade position, is a

rough indication of the amount by which the

[/

ifflo

i65

\l

TMB

Model

at 11,606 Tons Displacement

3801,

meeting or following the flow at that

For example, in the diagram of Fig.
model 3594, the maximum meeting
60.D, for
and following effects for an outward-turning
blade

is

position.

TMB

10:30 and at 4:30 o'clock,

For the former, at the intermediate

occur at

propeller

respectively.
circle

on the diagram, the wake fraction

is

7.2

per cent and the transverse component 15.5 per

cent, so that 6

9.5 deg.

The

7.2) = about
meeting the blade. For the

tan"^ 15.5/(100

flow

is

4:30 o'clock position, 6

tan"' 13.3/(100

about 7.7 deg. The flow

At the
circle,

is

2.1)

following the blade.

and 7:30 o'clock positions on that

meeting and following effects are
However, because of the radial com-

1:30

the

negligible.

ponents,

the

element at

effective

:30 o'clock

velocity

on that

over

circle,

blade

with wake

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.7

DWL=

!.0

28.00

^.

2Z.40

O^^S

\345\

15

on Woterlme,

Lentjth

444.0

J)esigned
Draft,

ft

DWL

0.8

365
DWL-28.00ft

ft

13.0

for'd,

ft

ft

20.50

Draft.oft

ft

8,268 t

Displacement

Speed for test

17.92 kt

To^lor Quotient

bosed
0.852

Tt^,

Plane of Survey
is

6.3i3 ft

for'd,

of

AP

Third Numerol Represents Moqnitude

of the Tonqentiol Component of the

Woke

Velocity

Fig. 60.J

Wake-Survey Diagram for Victory

Ship,

and 14.3 per cent in the vicinity,

only about [100 - 0.5(18.2
14.3)] = 83.7
per cent of the ship speed. Here the pitot head
automatically takes account of the cosine of the
fractions of 18.2

is

angularity of flow.

The

effect of the

boundary layer

noticeably on the tip circle at the

where the wake fraction

is felt

rather

o'clock posi-

TMB

Model

3801, at 8,268

to take account of them.

forces are exerted

Tons Displacement

The

result

is

that periodic

on the blades, which when

transmitted through the propulsion-device bearing

usually produce vibration in the ship structure.

The foregoing is what may be termed a qualitaand interpretation of wake-survey

tive inspection

data.

It

lacks a set of specific rules,

not yet

34 per cent.

formulated, to be used by the naval architect or

no model-basin

(1955)

marine engineer to discover flow features which

need correction, such as those mentioned previously in this section. In the case of the finer
Normandie, these features were revealed only by
excessive vibration of the structure, which required withdrawing the vessel from service to

observation methods average them out. Unfor-

rebuild the four bossings. In the case of certain

tunately, the propulsion-device blades do not

large

tion,

Sec.

11.10

points

out

is

that

techniques in current routine use, and no graphic

or tabular representations which have so far been

developed, take account of variations in wakevelocity magnitudes

If

such

variations

and direction with

exist,

the

current

time.

fail

combatant

vessels

of

the

U.

S.

Navy,

HYDRODYNAMICS

366

Vectors

Shown

IN SHIP DESIGN
v-20.5 kt

are

Projections of
Actual Velocit\(

Sec. 60.7
T-

Sh ip Side
Designed Woterline

0.

5hlp Centerline

Section at Sta.

Rectors on
Jronsverse

19.18,

opposite

Propeller

Disc

.330

meter/r\\pione

55.9,18,2^

,,_^
79.3,6.4|
10.255
'

35.5J8.7

ft

tot

74.6,4-.6y

7452 ft

Numerals
Indicate

Wake

Froctions

Wake-Survey Diagram for a Torpedo

WITH Vertical and Horizontal Tail Fins

Fig. 60.K

these features were discovered during the construction period

and corrected by

hull changes

before the vessels were launched.

There are a number of methods of quantitative

by which magnitudes and variations of

analysis,

wake
form.

down

velocity are set

Several

these are

of

wake-velocity

components.

illustrated

in

the

in

Sec.

11.8,

the

analyses take account of either radial or circumferential variations when:

Diagram

of

Aciual
\"

Velocitvy

"i

9.4

45.3,

on

(1)

series of radii is selected

and the circum-

each radius are averaged, or

series of angular positions is selected and

ferential values for

(2)

Vector on Wake.

Diagror

Slope

of Vector

,Vector and

of Liquid

Numerals on

Woke Diogram

Fore- and- Aft

Componenls

,
|

-__f

\t
2nJ Numeral

of Actuol

Velocity

is

Length of

Tronsverse

Component on Percentage

Vectors
Fig. GO.L

Poge

^--Transverse

Veclor

4.4,10.1

60.M Wake-Survht Diagram for TransomStern ABC Ship, TMB Model 4505

L^ertical

Transverse ^**=s==^
Ship Plane

4.1

incident-velocity

or

As described

-Plane

-pio.

60.5 for the plots of

references given in Sec.

longitudinal

't

in graphic or tabular

DEriNiTioN Diagram for

TMB 3-Diml Wake-Subvev

Diagrams

Scale

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.7

Plot of Averaoe

',67

Wake

Fraction

on Radius

ABC Ship
Transom -Stern Desiqn

TMB

4505
EMB Model Propeller 2294
Data Token from Wake
Model

JDiQ<^rQm at Propeller

'0

10

30 40 50 60

20

70

80 90

Anc^ular Position, deo, Measured

60.N

Fig.

0.1

Position

100

0.2

03

0.4

0.7

0.8

03

110

120

130 140 150 160

170

180

as 0.6
R/RMqx

O.SO

I?

0.15

0.10

1.0

Clockwise From Top Center; see Diaqrom

Wake-Analysis Diagram for Transom-Stern

Applying to Fig. 60.

ABC

Ship,

the radial variations for each position are aver-

development of the future,

Brazell

Fig.

60.M

is

a plot of the 3-diml

for the transom-stern

ABC

ship of

at the designed speed. Fig. 60.

wake survey
Part 4, made
is

a graphic

analysis of these data, prepared as a preliminary

step to the design of a wake-adapted propeller for

this vessel, described in

fraction

Chap.

Values of wake

70.

are plotted in Fig.

60.N

0-diml radii, corresponding to x'

1.00,

0.727,

and

0.453,

for three

= R/Run^

of

on a basis of angular

position around the shaft axis. Averages for the

complete revolution give

of 1.00

[SNAME,

1947, pp.

is

given by N.

J.

146-149], but the

present author does not intend that these remarks

shall

be construed as an endorsement of

detail steps

all

the

and the calculation methods employed

in that reference.

Finally, the model or ship propeller acts as an

averaging or integrating instrument by taking
account, degree by degree around a revolution,
of the multitudinous variations in

magnitude and

direction of the incident-velocity vectors for the

complete range of radius from hub to

tip.

How-

ever, because of the variations in direction as

well as magnitude, involving changes in effective

w =

0.1923

Rt.

angle of attack, thrust, torque, blade loading, and

the

0.727

0.1693

0.453

0.1568

like,

no direct analytic procedure has been

wake velocities at a

devised for averaging actual

screw-propeller position.

By

finding the speed of advance Vo at

which

A plot of radial variation for wake fractions, when

the

averaged around the entire circumference at each

0-diml radius, is given in the upper right-hand

produces the same torque (or thrust) as when run

behind the model or ship, one assumes that the

corner of the figure.

average speed of advance V^ "behind" is the

same as the speed Vo in the "open." Then knowing

somewhat more comprehensive method of

analysis, probably representing more nearly the

same

the speed

propeller,

when

of the

tested in open water,

model or

ship,

the

wake

HYDRODYNAMICS

368
fraction

is

(F

Va)/V. This

quarters as the "analysis"

wake

is

known

fraction.

some
That it

in

can be considerably different from the arithmetic

mean of the several wake fractions derived from
a 3-diml wake-survey diagram, when averaged
over a complete revolution of the propeller, is
indicated

by the short-dash horizontal

line in the

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 60.S

model self-propulsion tests. Taylor's values are

plotted in graphic form in diagram 1 of Fig. 60. 0,
together with more recent data from TMB model
tests. They suffice for a rough estimate of w for
the designed speed at an early stage of a preliminary design, despite the inconsistency of some

both single-screw
from S and P,
1943, Table XXV, page 121. Data from selfpropelled tests of the 10 tanker models are from
SNAME, 1948, pages 360-379; those for
Series 60, the tanker Pennsylvania, and the
Schuyler Otis Bland are from SNAME, 1954.
J. Lefol in his paper entitled "Les Interactions
entre la Carene et le Propulseur (Interactions
Between the Hull and the Propeller)" [ATMA,
of the values. Taylor's data, for

upper right-hand corner of Fig. 60. N. Here the

mean nominal wjake fraction, representing the
arithmetic mean of the values of the average
wake fraction for the nine 0-diml radii from 0.2
through 1.0, is 0.1735. For comparison, the wake
fraction Wt (for thrust identity with the openwater test), for the transom-stern ABC model,
when self-propelled at a speed corresponding to
20.5 kt, is 0.190, indicated on Figs. 78. Nb and

and twin-screw

78.Nc.

1947, Vol. 46, pp. 221-251], gives in Part VIII,

on pages 235-236, nine formulas for wake fraction,
taken from the published literature. Recently, in
his discussion of the 1956 SNAME paper by
F. H. Todd and P. C. Pien on the TMB Series
60 model tests, A. Q. Aquino proposes for singlescrew vessels a formulation

This single value of the wake fraction, either

estimated analytically or derived experimentally,
is the value required for the shaft-power predictions of Sees. 60.4

60.8

The

and

Estimating

discussion in

prediction of

wake

60.14.

Ship-Wake

the
this

Fraction.

concerning the

section

fractions for ship propulsion,

as well as that in Sec. 60.9 for predicting thrust-

deduction fractions,

is

limited strictly to proce-

dures used in the early stages of a ship design,

before any self-propelled model tests are run.

W.
the
for

J.

first

M. Rankine was among

the

first if

estimating

the

wake

fraction

for

not
ship

propelled by a single screw. His method, published

book "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and

was based on the expanded
length of a curved line drawn on the body plan
of the ship in question. This curved line began at
the center of the propeller and crossed the lines

in his 1866

Practical," page 249,

of successive sections

forward of the propeller at

it reached the

right angles to those lines until

maximum-section

line.

The

ratio of the

expanded

length of this curved line to the length of the run

was the approximate wake

Many

fraction desired.

other procedures for predicting the

fraction in advance of

model

tests

wake

have been

devised and used since then, as listed in the partial

bibliography of Sec. 52.20.

dures

is

one of D.

W.

Among

TMB

Wr = (A

constant)

+
-

naval architect to establish a procedure

these proce-

Taylor, published in tabular

form [S and P, 1933, Table XXV, p. 118; 1943,

Table XXV, p. 121; PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Table 10
on p. 149]. The data in these tables, as well as
the data mentioned subsequently in this section,
were taken from special wake measurements on
models or from wake-fraction values derived by

ships, are taken

Lxi)'L(6.5

5.5CpyA)iS

2Cp^)J

k[f(LCB)]

where D is the propeller diameter.

A comprehensive summary of existing published data on wake at screw-propeller positions,
as well as some not published, has been made by
S. A. Harvald ["Wake of Merchant Ships,"
Danish Tech. Press, Copenhagen, 1950]. This is
accompanied by a careful, studied analysis. The
paper is replete with graphs and plots but unfortunately it lacks the flow and other diagrams
that would have assisted the reader, and that
might also have changed some of the author's
ideas and conclusions. It is based solely on the

component of the relative

and the true-wake velocities, in the form of the
customary speed of advance and Taylor wake
fraction, and almost exclusively upon wake as
affecting one or more stern screw propellers.
It is considered most significant that Harvald
achieves his only major correlations with practice,
and his only really consistent ones, when he uses
predictions based on theoretical analyses. In the
comparisons with empirical data, employing
orthodox form coefficients and parameters, it
becomes almost necessary at times to force
longitudinal or axial

Sec. 60.8

SHlP-POWERlNG DATA

369

this analysis

somewhat further ["Three-DimenFlow and Potential Wake,"

Potential

sional

Dan. Acad. Tech. Sci., 1954]. Applied

Mechanics Reviews, May 1955, page 206, has
Trans.

this to say of

it:

"The Rankine bodies generated by various combinations of sources and sinks, situated at isolated points or
distributed over lines and surfaces, are computed. The
purpose of the work is to compute by this means the
velocity field due to the ship's hull in the neighborhood of

the propeller. Since the effect of the ship's boundary layer

on the potential flow is neglected, the results should be
only roughly applicable for this purpose."

There

is

as yet nothing approaching a formula or

step-by-step

routine

procedure which a naval

architect can use while his ship design

is

progress-

ing.

Despite these intense analytical studies, S. A.

in the 1950

Harvald comes to the conclusion,

reference cited earlier in this section, that the

[PNA,

E. Schoenherr

empirical formula of K.

1939, Vol. II, Eq. (110), p. 149]

is,

with slight

known

modifications, the naval architect's best

method

0.05
0.15
QIC
OZO
Thrust-Oeduction Fraction t

given design,

Graphs fob D. W. Taylor's Predictions

OF Wake Fraction and W. J. Luke's Prediction
OF Thrust-Deduction Fraction

Fig. 60.O

agreement. At their best, the relationships so

established are complicated, confused,

known

hull

fraction for a

shape has been

and the screw-propeller position (s)

delineated

The Schoenherr formula, without

determined.

but with standard symbols, as

employed for single-screw vessels of normal or
nearly normal design, is
modifications

w =
of the

when the

wake

and often

conflicting.

The use

of predicting the

boundary
most of the

0.10

features of the

layer abaft a flat plate accounts for

and tangential (peripheral) wake variations

observed abaft normal forms of single-screw

\j

pyiu plJ

4.51

(7

6Cpv)(2.8

l.SCp)

radial

sterns.

The

derivation of the potential-flow

wake

r^

2\_H

fc'

{Rake)

(60. ii)

abaft bodies formed by various combinations of

the height of the propeller axis above

sources and sinks in an ideal liquid gives a reason-

where

ably

the baseplane at the disc position,

is the propeller diameter,

consistent

picture

of

the

potential-wake

Variations abaft ship forms of varying fullness,

proportions, and size. B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky

Uses this approach in his paper

Calculation

of

Wake

"On

Fraction

the Numerical

and

Thrust

Deduction in a Propeller and Hull Interaction"

[Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 1954, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.
170-178]. However, an understanding of this
paper requires a thorough knowledge of sourceand-sink phenomena and stream functions, La-

is

{Rake)

is

measured
k' is

the rake angle of the propeller blade,

in radians,

and

a coefficient that has values

of:

(1) 0.3 for a normal stern

aftfoot cut
(2) 0.5 to 0.6 for a stern with

away.
This formula,

despite

An example

its

intricacy,

is

non-

of its application, to the

gally's

dimensional.

and ship-shaped forms.

transom-stern single-screw ship designed in Part

4, is worked out presently.
K. E. Schoenherr gives a second set of formulas

theorem, friction resistance, and the

various kinds of flow around bodies of revolution
In a

still

later

paper

S.

A. Harvald carries on

HYDRODYNAMICS

370

[PNA,

1939, Vol. II, Eq. (112), p. 149], for twin-

screw vessels with:

0.190; see Fig. 78.Nb. This

Wo

value of
that test,

w =

2iC^Yil

Ce)
(eO.iii)

-1-0.2cosMy) -

0.02

where jS(beta) is the slope of the bossing termination, measured in degrees

(b) Bossings and inward-turning propellers

w =

2{Cb)\1

0.2 cos' [1(90

/?)]

Propeller shafts supported

(c)

2(Cb)'(1

0.2

For the single-screw

struts

ship of Part

0.04

Cs)

ABC

(60.V)

data re-

ship, the

(60.ii)

are,

E
D

=
=
=

=
=

73.08

510
26.163

ft

k'

down

the

Rake
Setting

4.51

factors

it is

(based)

loading

we

The comments

at

of interest to note,

from

on thrust identity depend on

coefficient). The more

(thrust-load

the smaller

ICSTS, 1951 (SNAME,

is

the

wake

1953), p. 143].'

in parentheses are those of the

Prediction of the Thrust-Deduction Fracbeen customary since the 1860's,

60.9
tion.

It has

M. Rankine and W. Froude both

J.

problem [INA, 1865, pp. 13-39],

to base predictions of the thrust-deduction frac-

TMB model 4505

tion of screw-propelled vessels

wake

of the

0.6
0.

SchoenheiT equation and

this

fraction

upon the estimate

[PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp.

149-150]. So far as known this procedure has

been limited generally to single-screw vessels.
In any case, it gave little or no credit to efforts,
put forward by D. W. Taylor and others, to
decrease the thrust deduction by thinning the

ship sections or "straightening" the surfaces of

1

6Cpy){2.8

l.SCp)

the hull and

its

appendages ahead of the propeller

area is acted upon by

Ap's ahead of the disc. These efforts were
based upon the hope that the thrust-deduction
disc, so that less transverse

the

the

4.5[2:^??(|f)^3^]

6(0.822)] [2.8

W.

fraction, so as to hold the hull efficiency

J.

Luke was among the

earliest to give

1.8(0.621)]

empirical values of the thrust-deduction fraction

"1

that were of practical use to the ship designer.

r 10.5

_ 20^ _

2 [26.163

73.08

would be reduced at a greater rate than

wake

to as high a value as possible.

[7

fraction

present author.

fraction

0.10

find [6th

worked on

+
=

the self-propulsion

wake

propeller used on

=
=

7(7

factor

when W.

CpvCpB\

The

the statements of L. Troost, that:

10.5 ft

0.10

derived from

the designed speed of only about 0.072.

20.51 ft for the stock

substituting:

w =

4,

curves of Fig. 78.1 indicate a

propeller

from the SNAME RD sheet of Figs. 78.Ja and

78.Jb and the drawings of Chaps. 66 and 67:

Bx

0.200.

is

ABC

of the

"Wake

by

quired for the Schoenherr formula

Cpv = 0.822
Cp = 0.621

Wt

For vessels with tunnel sterns, there are little

or no published data on the wake fractions to be
expected [Harvald, S. A., "Wake of Merchant
Ships," 1950, p. 117]. For the arch-stern design

heavily loaded the propeller,

w =

is

derived from torque identity with

In this connection
Cs)
(60. iv)

Sec. 60.9

thrust identity with the open-water test.

Bossings and outward-turning propellers

(a)

IN SHIP DESIGN

^'^^^^j

0.255

This value of 0.255 for the 20.51-ft stock propeller compares with the value of about 0.24

from Fig. 60.O, where Cb is taken, from the

fifth approximation in Table 66. e, as 0.593. As
a matter of interest, the wake fraction determined
from the model self-propulsion test with this
propeller, at a speed corresponding to 20.5 kt, is

D. W. Taylor and others quoted these values

[S and P, 1933, p. 117; S and P, 1943, p. 120;
PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Table 9, p. 148; RPSS, 1948,
pp. 177-178]; they are plotted in diagram 2 of
Fig. 60.O, together with more recent data from
TMB model tests. They, hke the wake-fraction
graphs in diagram 1 of that figui'e, suffice for
rough estimates in the preliminary-design stage
of a ship of normal form.
C. H. Peabody, in his 1910 tests of the large.

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.9

powered

independently

model

Froude,

S71

ABC

For the transom-stern, single-screw

wisely

ship

wake and
posed somewhat of a

included runs in which the single propeller was

designed in Part

placed farther and farther abaft the sternpost,

thrust-deduction fractions

normal position to about 1.15D

astern. Because of missing information it is not
possible to analyze Peabody's test data in the

problem, because of the unorthodox stern shape

and the lack of empirical data upon which to base

varying from

its

manner presently
his

Table

to be described. Nevertheless,

[SNAME,

1911, p. 95] indicates that at

reached

the highest speed

thrust- deduction fraction

by

this

craft,

the

diminished from 0.35

to 0.077 for the range of propeller positions given.

In a paper "Vom Sog (Thrust Deduction),"

H. M. Weitbrecht discussed the physical aspects
of thrust deduction but pointed out that it was
not then possible to predict the numerical value
of the thrust deduction for a given ship form and
loading

propeller

[Schiffbau,

Schiffahrt,

Hafenbau, Jun 1938; English version in

und

TMB

Transl. 62 of Sep 1940].

K. E. Schoenherr and A. Q. Aquino, in the

period 1930-1940,

made a

careful review of the

existing literature on the ship-propeller interaction

undertook their own analysis, and

supplemented it with plotted observations from
the results of self-propelled tests on a great many
models. Their work is described fully in
Report 470, published in March 1940. The
problem,

TMB

efficiency r] of 1.143

[PNA,

in 1939

Vol. II, pp. 149-150], were developed from

this project:
(1)

For the thrust-deduction fraction

of single-

a stock propeller was selected to selfpropel the model, by the procedure described in
Sec. 70.6, the wake fraction derived by Eq.
(60.ii)

The thrust-deduction
Eq. (60. vi). The value

= kw

=
(2)

posed for the supporting horn and the underhung

balance portion of the rudder. It seemed reasonable, further, to reduce the calculated value

by

15 per cent, because of the very thin skeg to be

placed ahead of the propeller.

The

predicted

thrust-deduction fraction then worked out as

kiw)il

It

was

0.15)

0.5(0.261)(0.85)

0.111

realized at the time that a thin skeg

ahead of a single propeller was Hable also to

reduce the wake fraction. For a conservative
estimate, without the 15 per cent reduction in i,

(60 .vi)

0.5 to 0.7 for vessels with streamlined

It is

brought out in

rjn

0.131

was

1.176

0.261
(2)

and (3) of Sec. 78.17

and wake fractions

0.7 to 0.9 for vessels with double-plate

that the

rudders with internal arms, attached

derived from the model self-propulsion tests are

to square rudder posts

appreciably different from those derived in these

0.9 to 1.05 for vessels with single-plate

two

rudders and external arms

B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky gives the following

equation from H. E. Dickmann for the estimated

For the thrust-deduction fraction of twin-

Ships with propellers and shafts carried

sections.

by bossings
t

(b) Ships

by
t

(w.)
I

0.25W

0.14

(60.vii)

with propellers and exposed shafts

carried

thrust-deduction

value of the thrust-deduction fraction:

screw ships, specifically:

(a)

was derived from

was taken

fraction

of k for the latter

as 0.5, because of the contra-rudder shape pro-

or contra-rudders

was 0.261, using dimensions and parameters

corresponding to an early stage of the design.

the predicted hull efficiency

screw ships:

where k

seemed reasonable.

When

by K. E. Schoenherr

the estimate of the

predictions. With little information for guidance,

with a screw propeller of diameter larger than
normal, and with a tip clearance smaller than
normal, it was guessed in Sec. 66.27 that the wake
fraction w would be as high as 0.30 and the thrust
deduction as low as 0.20. The corresponding hull

following rules for estimating the thrust-deduction

fraction, published

4,

+ Vi +

(60.viii)

{w,)7,i

c,

where w^ is the nominal potential-wake fraction

and rji is the ideal efficiency of the propeller. The
problem here is to find the value of Wp for which
there is no simple solution.
,

struts

O.lOw

0.06.

An

entirely

different

prediction

procedure,

HYDRODYNAMICS

372

devised to take direct account of the factors which

develop the thrust-deduction force, is based upon

IN SHIP DESIGN
The

circles.

jet

Sec. 60.9

area

rather

increases

slowly

are so small at

immediately ahead of the propeller, even for the

large thrust-load factors expected in the freerunning operation of a normal ship with a not-tolarge propeller, as indicated in diagram 1 of
Fig. 59. G. The values of Ap are relatively so
small, farther forward of the propeller, that the
refinement of increasing the disc areas seems not
justified by the approximate nature of the overall
method. Moreover, the presence of the ship and
its appendages, either ahead of or abaft the

2 diameters ahead of the disc position that they

screw-propeller position, distorts the jets out of

can be neglected.

their

the rate of variation of Ap with fore-and-aft

distance ahead of the propeller, and that of
-|-Ap abaft it. The assumption is made that these
pressures vary with distance in very nearly the
for a screw propeller working in
open water or an airscrew working in open air,
indicated by diagram 3 in Fig. 59.G. It is further
assumed that, following D. W. Taylor's patent

same manner as

Ap's

previously referenced, the

The method

based upon a summation of

is

longitudinal forces exerted

upon

certain selected

transverse sections of the ship, lying within an

imaginary cylinder concentric with the propeller

normal axisymmetric shape. Little is known

what happens when they are so distorted, of
the amount of hull surface covered by the water
in them, and the differential pressures in that
of

water.

The

"cylinder" procedure assumes

This cyhnder has the propeller diameter D,

and extends both forward and aft from the disc

that the rudder always develops a thrust-deduc-

position.

tion force in the

axis.

similar imaginary cylinder in this position

foregoing

form

of a drag, acting opposite

to the direction of motion,

and that

it

always

was shown by G. Kempf many years ago [STG,

1927, Vol. 28, p. 180]; also by E. F. Hewins as a
method of determining the wake fraction w
[Osbourne, A., "Modern Marine Engineer's Man-

contributes to the thrust deduction. However, in

ual," 1943, Vol. II, p. 2311],

on the rudder produces a forward component of

lift which exceeds the drag. The rudder then
exerts a thrust force on the ship, and helps to
push it along. Theoretically, the net thrust force
Tr exerted by the helping rudder, mentioned in
Sec. 34.8 of Volume I, should be subtracted from
the thrust-deduction force exerted on the hull
or appendage ahead. This can only be done when
the amount of this thrust force is better known.
In practice, the "cylinder" procedure involves

For the analysis described here, the transverse

and 0.5Z) ahead of the
disc position. A fourth section is taken through
the maximum-area section of whatever rudder,
rudder post, or horn combination lies abaft it.
Any other transverse-section positions could be
used if desired, and they could extend for more
sections are at 2.0Z), l.OD,

than

2D ahead

of the disc position.

assumed that the Ap values at the three

positions ahead have the relative multipliers
or weights of 5, 2, and 1, respectively, indicated
by the tabulation at the bottom of Fig. 67.V.
It

is

The rudder

of 7 because it is

disc

given a multiplier or weight

usually closer than 0.5Z) to the

section

is

and the 4-Ap's

in the outflow jet are greater

Ap's

in the inflow jet for

a screw propeller producing thrust. These multipliers are based upon the relative ordinate

Ap

transverse

sections

somewhat

arbitrary,

and -|-Ap curves at the

selected.

They

are

and could be varied

still

outflow

I.

On

same applies

is

to

known

that the hydrofoil action

the afterbody lines plan of the ship lay

of the propeller-disc position.

and

off

2.0Z) forward

fourth station

is

through the maximum-thickness position

of the rudder. Using the coordinates of these
special stations, draw the corresponding sections

on the body plan, as

Volume

disc

circles

by amounts

cor-

considered not justified.

contraction

of

The

the after disc

in Fig. 33.

Part

of Part 2 in

a rudder
horn is thicker than the rudder, or if any other
appendage lies anywhere in the propeller outflow
I or in Fig. 67.

draw a

maximum

responding to the enlargement of area of the

propeller inflow jet at the three selected forward
positions

jet, it is

special stations at O.SZ), l.OZ),

jet,

disc

of

the following steps:

for a

re-analysis.

Expanding the

some forms

streamlined rudder, each lying in a propeller

laid off

numerically than the

magnitudes of the

the case of a contra-rudder, and

of

4. If

section (or sections) representing the

transverse thickness of the horn or

appendage.
II.

Draw on

the

body

plan, over the section lines

of the special stations, three circles, each repre-

senting the propeller-disc outline

if

moved

sue-

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.9

cessively 0.5,

1.0,

sum

and 2.0 propeller diameters

along the shaft, forward of the propeller position.

Draw

ship, to obtain a weighted-average area reading.

Divide the weighted area reading by the propeller-

other circles for stations abaft the shaft,

necessary. If the shaft center

if

only one

circle is

disc area reading to obtain the 0-diml area ratio.

nearly or exactly

and the baseplane,

to the centerplane

parallel

is

VI. With this area ratio enter Fig. 60. P and pick
off the estimated thrust-deduction fraction for

needed on a body plan showing

the hull.

The two graphs

the ship.
III.

Mark

carefully the outlines of the special

These outlines

may

may

be indicated by

The procedure

IV. With a planimeter, or by any other suitable

means, determine the area of the propeller disc

covered by the section of the hull and of the rudder
(or horn or other appendage) at each of the
special stations. In the same manner, determine
the area of the propeller disc.
this

As only the

ratios

analysis the planimeter

of the thrust-deduction fraction in

into absolute area units.

case

V. Multiply the area readings by suitable multiples, as indicated in the tabular portion of
Fig. 67.V. Total the products

0.30

is

still

uncertain.

empirical,

largely

The problem

attacked along analytic

and divide by the

been years ago. It

is

is

any given ship

and as highly

now

lines, as it

hoped that

(1955)

being

should have

this attack will

Line for Area \"~

Factor ExcludincjV

Line for Area

Factor Includino

0.28

Rudder Area \

^ Iwilfred

0.26

0.24

Sijkes^>#

RudderX'

T-5
Victorvj

^0.22

All the foregoing indicates that determination

readings can be used directly, without converting

f0.20

and

keep the augment of

resistance small, is essentially the same as for a
screw propeller. Instead of the imaginary cylinder
of circular section an imaginary rectangular tube
is projected forward of
or abaft
the basket
assembly of blades, for a distance equal to twice
the blade length or to the diameter of the bladeaxis circle, whichever is the greater.
for designing the hull to

ing, as in Fig. 33. A.

them

for estimating the thrust-deduc-

tion fraction for a rotating-blade propeller,

be marked by different types of hatch-

of areas enter in

still

on the analysis of
data from a rather limited number of model tests.

colored lines on the working plan, or the respective

areas

for this figure are

tentative, based as they are

stations lying within their respective projected

disc circles.

373

ABC

of the multiples, 15 in the case of the

Ship

Tanker

:v

ABC Ship, Arch Stern

Baker's 56C,

0.18

EMB

Victorjj.^^

Ship

Fsef^

AF58^

T-5
Tanker

Mod&]J2Z>

Moriner-

:o.i6
;0.I4

TMB

iralamancQ Class
J
Model 3917, TwjjV Skpqs

UJ

.^

j^950 Export Ships,

0.12

0.10

+iTwin-Ske(^

I'O.Oe

DE 1006
1-0.06

0.04

Manhattan,

^ABC Ship
^ronsom Stern
I

TMB

Model 3898

o Area Foctor Includes Rudder

Area Foctor Excludes Rudder
Plotted Values of tare from
Seif-Propelled Model Tests

0.02

^ 0.02 0.04 Q06 006 0.10 QI2 014 QI6 018 Q20 0.22 024 026 028 0.50 Q52 034 056 058 040 042 044 Q46 0.48
Area Factor -(Averocje Weighted Hull Area Within Disc Cvjlinder)-^ (Propeller Disc Areo)
Fig. 60.P

Graphs for Predicting Thrust-Deduction Fraction for Single-Screw Ships by the "Cylinder"

Method

HYDRODYNAMICS

374

continue unceasingly until a logical and reliable

prediction procedure

Sec. 60.10

1953, Vol. 95, pp. 446, par. 8(4)].

available.

Finding the Relative Rotative Efficiency.

However, the calculations involved are laborious,

physical and analytical basis for relative

at least with desk-type computers, and the values

60.10

The

is

IN SHIP DESIGN

agree reasonably well with the experimental data" [INA,

rotative or thrust-torque efficiency, as applied to

derived are generally in line with the empirical

a screw propeller working behind a model or ship,

is described in Sec. 34.7 of Volume I. Further

values previously used.

comments on

this factor are

embodied

in Sec.

34.16.
It

necessary to estimate or predict the prob-

is

able value of the relative rotative efficiency

when

the expression [rio{vH)vR]

the propulsive coefficient r/p

is
.

riji

used to estimate
This prediction,

is much more easily mentioned than

made.
K. E. Schoenherr gives a few comments concerning this factor. In the absence of any more
authoritative information these
reliable and
comments have acquired the nature of a pre-

however,

diction rule.

He

states that:

Vol. II, p. 150].

recentb^ L. C. Burrill and C. S.

Yang

have calculated the overall thrust and torque,

including the K^ and Kq values, for a group of
screw propellers operating in certain assumed wake
distributions over the propeller disc, corresponding

conditions behind several

the

to

ships

[INA,

Vol.

1953,

the

calculating

95,

pp.

same quantities

hypothetical
437-460].
for

By

the same

propellers working in a uniform flow, simulating

open-water

tests,

they are able to predict the

thrust-torque factors ToD/Qo and TD/Q for the

"open-water" and the "behind-ship" conditions,
respectively.

Volume

I,

From

TD

is

then

Ten tanker models;

SNAME,

1948, Fig. 32,

(b)

TIMB

Series 60 parent

models and related

models; SNAME, 1954, Figs. 12(a) and 12(b) on

pp. 141-142. The values of rjR range from 1.04

an average

to 1.01, with

of about 1.02.

Todd, F. H., and Pien, P. C, "Series 60

The Effect upon Resistance and Power of Varia(c)

tion in

LCB

through 22
(as
all

SNAME,

Position,"
list

1956. Tables 18

the relative rotative efficiency

e in that text) for a wide range of speeds on

the models tested.

For the reader who wishes to undertake some

own, the value of the relative
rotative efficiency tjb is derived from the selfpropelled test of a ship model by the following
procedure. The case used as an example is that
from the self-propelled test of TMB model 4505-1,
of this analysis on his

representing the arch-stern design of the

ABC

ship undertaken in Chap. 67:

and Yang

The

basic data are:

The

propeller diameter D, in this case

ft

The wake

fraction

w,

indicated

manner described

in the

paper

The numerical

[pp.

440-441

values obtained

on

Fig. 78.1 as 0.072 for 20.5 kt

The thrust-deduction

fraction

/,

taken

from the same figure as 0.175

The rate of propeller rotation n, of

rpm or 1.502 rps
(e) The propulsive coefficient vp of 0.686
(f) The hull efficiency j;is (1 - /)/(l - if)

(d)

the quantity designated relative-rotative-efiiciency

has a real meaning, in terms of the method of analysis
usually adopted, and its value can be estimated by calcu.

of the reference cited].

(1)

(c)

result of their analysis Burrill

lation, in the

the pro-

416

(b)

conclude that:
.

(a)

24.22

the ship as in open water.

".

make

efficient in

in the following reports of self-propelled models:

(a)

D is the propeller diameter, the same behind

As a

more

pushing the ship than

when it is just pulling itself along in open water.
Additional information concerning the values
of 7?B to be expected on single-screw ships is found
peller

the discussion of Sec. 34.7 in

the relative rotative efficiency

TD
where

ditions are such, therefore, as to

p.

"The average values of the relative rotative efficiencies

determined in the tests worked out to be 1.02 for the singlescrew models and 0.985 for the twin-screw models.
"It should be emphasized that the foregoing formulas
are valid only for merchant ships of normal form operating
at speed-length (T,) values below unity" [PNA, 1939,

More

If a condition is assumed in which the torque

behind the ship is the same as Qo then a value
of 77fi greater than unity indicates that the thrust
T exerted by the propeller behind the ship is
greater than To in open water. The service con-

90.1

or (1

0.175)7(1

0.072)

0.889.

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.11

The

illustrative calculation is

signed speed only; this

The speed

(2)

times

(1

cited, this is

(0.928)

for the de-

20.5 kt or 34.62 ft per sec.

advance V a is the ship speed

w). In numbers, for the example

V^ =
ft

34.62(1

per sec.

32.127

nD

0.072)

34.62

Then

1.502(24.22)

TMB

model propeller 1986 used on the test in question,

as shown in Fig. 78. H, the value of the real or
working efficiency rjo for a J-value of 0.883 is
0.750; this value is indicated by a note and an
arrow on Fig. 78.H. From the general expression
Vp

Voivif)'nR

the relative rotative efficiency

the data

all

available to him.

The

was

situation

Bamaby

by K. C.
["The Coefficient of

well described

in the early 1940's

Propulsive Efficiency," INA, 1943, pp. 118-141]

and it has not improved materially up to the

time of writing (1955), despite publication of the

data to be mentioned presently.
In tables published with his 1943 paper,

0.883

Consulting the characteristic curves for

(3)

375

did not trouble to analyze fully

of

32.127

J =

is

made

is

Barnaby gave many values

of

for a

t/p

number

of

types of ships, based primarily on a

variation of ?jp with VI
or Taylor quotient
different

VL

However,

in his later

book "Basic Naval

Architecture" [1948, Art. 187, pp. 242-244], he

presents these values on a basis of absolute ship

but subdivided for single-screw, twin-

length,

and quadruple-screw propulsion.

W. P. A. van Lammeren, L. Troost, and J. G.
Koning present values of propulsive coefficient

screw,

0.686
Voivn)

1.029.

0.75(0.889)

For the single-screw transom-stern

ABC

ship

the self-propulsion model tests with a stock propeller,

reported in Figs. 78.Na, 78.Nb, and 78.Nc,

gave a propulsive coefficient rjp of 0.761 at the

designed speed. For the advance ratio J at which
the propeller operated in this test, the value of
7o

from the characteristic curves

was

0.685.

The

hull efficiency rin

thrust

delivered

1.148.

By

by the model

of Fig.
,

78.Mc

based on the

propeller,

was

the relationship between these four

latter presumably all

based upon the rate of
propeller rotation n [RPSS, 1948, pp. 284-288].
D. W. Taylor gives only general information on

0.761

This value is well below the one that would

have been predicted by Schoenherr. Since it is
less than 1.00, it works to the ship's disadvantage.
There is no present explanation for it.
60.11' Determination of the Propulsive Coefficient.
A great deal of guessing was involved

and that of little help to the designer

ship [S and P, 1943, p. 178].
Since the efficiency of propulsion depends upon

this subject

modern

of a

a combination of the open-water or working

propeller efficiency 770
the hull efficiency t//,
,

made

relative rotative efficiency

?;

it

should

(a)

Type

rip

in

of

propulsion

whether open

device,

screw propeller, shrouded screw propeller, paddlewheel, rotating-blade propeller, or their equivalents
(b)

Relative

device,

the days before model basins

(the

vessels),

respond to variations in those efficiencies with

the factors which control them. Among these
may be mentioned:

0.968

(0.685)(1.148)

in the estimates of propulsive coefficient

coasters

for

single-screw

and the

sets of 77-values,

()

for single-screw ships, for twin-screw ships,

r\p

and

position

ship

of

and propulsion

involving tip and aperture clearances,

shape of hull near the propulsion devices, and

tests of self-

propelled models. Since that time, naval archi-

and marine engineers have rehed heavily

upon the results of individual model tests to
supply them with needed information as to the
shaft power to be installed in the ship built from

other similar factors

(c)

tects

a particular design. The result is a dearth of

systematic data by which to predict the correct

any given case. One

might say that in the days when one had to make
this estimate in order to power a ship there was
insufficient background information to do it.
When the designer no longer had to make it he

Thrust-load factor Ctl

which limits the
efficiency 57/ and the 0.8-value of that
,

ideal

efficiency, illustrated in Fig. 34.

(d)

Wake and

thrust-deduction fractions,

and

the combination of the two

(e)

Characteristics of the flow at the propulsion-

device

position (s),

determining

the

relative

propulsive coefficient for

rotative efficiency.

Consideration of

(a)

leads to the conclusion

that entirely separate sets of prediction data are

required

for

each

type

of

propulsion

device.

376

34.M and

Figs.

values of

34.

give

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

some not-too-recent
59.A and 59.

vessel because of the characteristically different

for several types; Figs.

tjo

(3)

variation

present more recent data on a few different types,

hull shape,

In both series of diagrams the propeller efficiencies

are based upon the thrust-load factor Ctl
For a given ship resistance to be overcome, or

position,

a given propeller thrust to be produced, with

constant wake and thrust-deduction fractions,
the

Ctl increases and the

factor

thrust-load

device.

Sec. 60.11

to be expected with type of

is

and propulsion-device

relative hull

and nature

of flow at the propulsion

free-running, single-screw tug with a

chubby

hull and a propeller abaft it would

be expected to have a different rjp than a long,
short,

slender,

with

its

high-speed,
propeller

single-screw

more or

less

patrol

under the

vessel
hull,

actual propeller efficiency ijReM diminishes with

(4)

decreasing diameter, while the rate of rotation n

propulsion devices and within a single type of

increases. This is because the thrust-load factor

device,

T/{Q.5pA^Vl) increases as Ao diminishes,

the real or working efficiency tjo decreases as
Since
Ctl increases, and t/p decreases with tjo
the advance coefficient J usually decreases as
78. H, and since
r/o decreases, indicated by Fig.

Ctl

n = y^/(Ji)), a reduction in the thrust-producing

area causes both J and D to diminish, and
an appreciable increase

results in

in the rate of

Within a single category as to number of

The reasons

of a screw propeller.

^o

For a good hydrodynamic design of both

and screw propeller, based upon data such

(5)

ship

as set forth in this book, the following values of

propulsive coefficient

rip

ate falling

off of

propulsive efficiency with increase

the basis of a clean,

new

much

complex, so

is

exceedingly

no general or

so that

detail

rules have been formulated to predict their effect

upon propulsive efficiency. Characteristics of the

propulsion-device

the

at

flow

positions

related to the relative positions of the device

Not enough

the hull.

both

physically

reliable

and

and

is

known

and

of these effects,

analytically,

values of

precise

are

-qp

to

predict

the pre-

in

for this are

explained in a preceding paragraph,

foregoing accounts for the moder-

fractions, singly or in combination,

should be achieved, on
hull, at the

Single-screw

(i)

vessels

of

the

merchant and

generally similar types, with speed-length quotients or fatness ratios in or near the design lane

66.A
0.82 to 0.72
Twin-screw vessels of modern (1955) merchant and similar types, having fatness ratios as
of Fig.
(ii)

in

(i)

preceding

0.73 to 0.65

Triple-screw vessels; no adequate systematic

(iii)

data for vessels having three propellers nearly

having larger center wheels

alike, or for vessels

absorbing more power than each of the wing

wheels
(iv)

upon the reasoning in the

foregoing, upon data derived from the trials of
many ships, and upon experience, a few prediction
guides are set down:

type

uJu
11
ii
(1) For ships driven by screw propellers, the
number and consequently the position(s) of the
wheels carried by each puts them in different

stern vessels for operation in shallow

r-,\

-r^

ic
i
categories so far as propulsive coefficients
are
,

concerned,

indicated

Lammeren and by K.
latest

publication.

both by
C.

This

W.

Barnaby
is

P.

A.

van

in the latter's

elaborated upon in

(5) following.

For equally good hydrodynamic designs there

no reason why the propulsive coefficient rip
should vary with absolute ship or propeller sizes,
(2)

provided the

sizes are

Quadruple-screw

adequate to avoid scale

effect

vessels

of

the

liner

0.65 to 0.60

(v) Single-screw

tunnel

arch-stern

or

vessels

0.68 to 0.55

Double,

(vi)

.
,

triple,

f'}^''^^'^'^
^''
i^"^
nshmg
*

^^*;

and quadruple-screw tunneland re^

^^^. ^ ..

\\i

'^"^^^

..-

propelled

^-^^ to 0.45

'^'^. ^' ^^^^ ^"^

by single screws

iff ^f^^

craft,

n79t
.',
about

averaging

nrc
'

0.65.

For speeds other than the designed value, the

may vary rather widely
[Barnaby, K. C, INA, 1943, pp. 118-141].
Below the designed speed, the value of rip is
usually greater than at the designed speed; at
higher speeds, it is usually less. For the transompropulsive coefficient

is

designed

speed:

liminary- or contract-design stage.

Nevertheless, based

a
dimin-

area of the device, corresponding to the disc area

The

rpm, revealed by W. P. A. van Lammeren,

L. Troost, and J. G. Koning [RPSS, 1948, Figs,
193 and 194, pp. 285-286].
The effect of the wake and thrust-deduction

j?^

with a decrease in the thrust-producing

ishes

rotation n.

of

T and

assuming a constant thrust

constant wake fraction w, the value of

model

stern

POWERING DATA

SHIP

Sec. 60.12

ABC

of the

Fig. 78. Nc indicates a

ship, as self-propelled,

maximum

r}p

of

about 0.78

at 15 kt for the ship, a value of 0.76 at the de-

377

peller position(s) with respect to the hull and

appendages, a model propeller drawing, a set of
characteristic open-water test curves of the

signed speed of 20.5 kt, and a diminished value

propeller (s),

of only 0.70 at about 22.4 kt, assuming that there

as well for each propeller position. This

is

enough reserve

of

power to drive the ship that

The

designer

is

pulsive coefficient

means
mated

again reminded that the prois

to be regarded solely as a

of predicting a shaft

power from an

esti-

or known effective power. It is not to be

taken as a measure of merit in itself. A high
value of yjp may be associated not only with a

high value of effective power

high shaft power

A may

Ps

Pe

Thus a model

the past, there are available in the technical

of graphs

which

give model test data in the form used for

many

years by the Experimental Model Basin and the

David Taylor Model Basin [Bu C and

Bull. 7,

1933, Fig. 8, p. 31]. Several of these graphs are

reproduced as Figs. 60.Q through 60.T, of which

Fig. 60. Q gives data for a U. S. Maritime Commission C-2 design, and Fig. 60.R for a Great
Lakes bulk ore carrier, the Philip R. Clarke.
Others are listed hereunder, with the type or

name

of ship, or both, and with enough source

information to locate them in the Uterature.
In many cases, including the figures hsted, the

graphs are not accompanied by the necessary

information to understand, to analyze, or to
use of them

fully.

tion should include a

the adjacent part of

I.
(a)

Pro-

sheets,

Single-Screw Vessels
High-speed cruisers of the U.

Ammonoosuc

S. S.

Wampanoag and

classes of 1867. Self-propulsion data

EMB model 2569, with EMB

model propeller 685, were published by James Swan

of

number

SNAME

Data and Self-Propulsion Data

derived from tests of

test

one of

samples of which are reproduced in Figs. 78. Ma

through 78. Nc.

predict for speed

literature a considerable

peller

but also with a

an effective
power Pe of 7,200 horses, a shaft power Pg of
9,000 horses, and an vp = Pe/Ps of 0.80. For
the same speed V, a test of design B, to meet
exactly the same performance specifications,
may predict an effective power Pe of 8,100
horses, a shaft power Ps of 10,000 horses, but
an 7]p of 0.81. Thus, a ship built to design B,
having a greater tj^
would actually require a
heavier and more expensive propelling plant,
and more fuel to drive it, than a ship built to
design A, with a lower r)p This is the reason for
stressing the use of a merit factor
and an estimating or predicting factor as well which takes
account of shaft power directly.
60.12 Data from Self -Propulsion Tests of
Model Ships and Propellers. For the designer
who is laying out a vessel not unlike many which
have been run self-propelled in model scale in
design

is

the reasons for the rather comprehensive and

elaborate form adopted for the

fast.

make

and perhaps a wake-survey diagram

This pertinent informa-

body plan and enough of

the ship to show the pro-

[SNAME, 1927, PL .36]. This plate gives the principal

dimensions only. The text of the paper is on pp.
43-54.
(b)

ship, U. S. Mar. Comm. Cl-S-Dl design, with

a reinforced-concrete hull of straight-element form.
350 ft by 54 ft by 26.25-ft draft; displacement
10,590 tons. Body plan shown in Fig. 76.C. Represented by
model 3754M. Prediction data

Cargo

TMB

from self-propulsion

test 2, in ballast condition, at

displacement of 6,200 tons and a trim of 6

the stern, are given in Fig. 60.S.

ft

by

378

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 60.12

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.12

TMB

Model 5594
Model Propellers 1975,1976

SNAME RD

5heet 98
SPTest:
W= 6,700t
5=28,510 ft^

(j)

TMB

Conditions for This

H- 17,5 ft
Trim, Zero

of

6Jun

Test 3,

U.

(k)

The

1947.

general characteristics of the

on

p.

109 of

Maritime Administration 622-ft 23-kt design,

model 4424, ETT model 1448-1, for which

S.

TMB

Outward

1940, ot

SNAME,

prototype vessel are found in Table

the reference.

Rudder Horn, Shafts, Struts

D= IZ.67 ft; P- 13.92 ft;Z = 3
Cm/D = 0.252-, to/D = 0.043
Propellers Turnino

379

with normal form of stern. Self-propulsion curves

are given by Fig. 15 on p. 110 of SNAME, 1947;
general characteristics are in Table 1 on p. 109.
Twin-skeg tanker of extreme beam, adapted from (i)
preceding.
model 3821, for which complete
self-propulsion curves are given in Fig. 16 on p. 110

Twin-Screw Mine-Lavjer

complete self-propulsion data arc given in SNAME,

1955, Fig. 4, p. 730. The body plan and characteristics of this vessel are given on pp. 728-729 of the

EMB

reference.

Quadruple-Screw Vessels

III.
(a)

Large Atlantic
Lafayette);

SPD

liner S. S.

Normandie

SNAME RD

sheets, not yet

(later

sheet 39; also

numbered

U.

S. S.

PD

and

(1955).

The technique
results

of predicting, from the test

on model ships and propellers, the shaft

power,

the rate of rotation of the propulsive

device (s), and other factors in the full-scale ship

performance has not yet (1955) been perfected

that

so

12

II

13

14

15

16

18

17

Ship Speed,

21

22 23

and

S. S. Terror (CM5); EMB model 3594

EMB model propellers 1975 and 1976. SNAME

RD

sheet 98. Fig. 60.T reproduces the self-propul-

Minelayer U.

Medium-size Atlantic

liner

Jun 1940.

America;

SNAME,

1940,

pp. 278-286; the self-propulsion data curves were

published on p. 286. The tests were run on

EMB

Medium-size Atlantic

SNAME RD

SPD

sheets not yet

and

(g) Atlantic liner

and

are given for ten different ships [6th

(1)

The model-ship comparisons

and measured shaft power Ps

of

Table

60.

The model

pro-

pulsion tests were run at the ship point of self-

propulsion with

appendages

all

fitted; in

other

model propellers 1803 and

was compensated for by helping the model along.

The ship-trial data were corrected to zero relative
wind. Where thrustmeters were fitted the comparisons show close agreement on thrust in some

Constitution

sheet 158;

numbered

and Inde-

SNAME PD

(1955).

Manhattan, with normal V-type stern

model 3041.
by

EMB

bossings, as represented

instances. Uncorrected open-water propeller data

complete set of self-propulsion curves is given in

on p. 114 of SNAME, 1947. Table 3 on p.
113 gives complete general characteristics of this

were used throughout.

(2)

Fig. 20

is

detailed analysis of the values tabulated

not available. It

is

hoped that such an analysis

shed further light on the scale-effect problem.

However, certain trends may readily be noted:
will

vessel,

TMB

Twin-skeg Manhattan design,

model 3898. A
complete set of self-propulsion curves is given in
Fig. 21 on p. 114 of SNAME, 1947. Table 3 on p.
113 gives complete general characteristics for the
hypothetical vessel represented

(i)

ICSTS, 1951,

Table IV, pp. 146-147]. The comments which

follow are adapted from those of Couch, as
published on page 145 of the reference cited:

(h)

eliminated.

words, the theoretical added friction on the model

liners

pendence.

reliably

EMB

1804.
(f)

are

are in general based on the identity of predicted

pp. 9-49, esp. Fig. 2 on p. 11. The first portion of

this paper was abstracted in SBMEB, Aug 1940,

model 3525 with

effects

the ratios of model prediction to ship performance

Self-Peopelled Model Test Curves

FOB A Twin-Screw Naval Vessel

sion data of Test 3, dated 6

(e)

20

\\t

D.T

Fia.

(d)

19

scale

R. B. Couch has published a model-ship comparison, reproduced here in Table 60. c, in which

by

this model,

Twin-screw tanker of extreme beam, Sun Shipbuilding

and Dry Dock Company design, TMB model 3817,

(i)

In

for the
(ii)

all

cases the rate of propeller rotation

model

is

In nearly

higher than for the ship

all

cases the ship

wake

fractions

are higher than those of the models

(iii)

On

the assumption

of

thrust-deduction

HYDRODYNAMICS

380

TABLE

60.C

Ship identification

Type

of vessel

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 60.13

Propulsion Factor-s for Ship and Model for Various Types of Naval and Commercial Vessels

Sec. 60.13

SHIP-POWERING DATA
TABLE

Ship identification

Type

of vessel

60.C (Continued)

381

HVnRODYNAMICS

382

TABLE
Ship identification

Type

of vessel

IN .SHIP DESIGN

60.C (Continued)

Sec. 60.13

SHIP

Sec. 60.14

III
0:3

05

0.6

POWERING DATA

0.6

3.7

0.9

\J0

TB"

I.I

T-r.^

250
1)

200:

Weiqht-Speed- Power Foctorwhere

is

lonq tons, V

in

6.88

kt, fg in

horses

60
30

'

:e:
Loke
reiqhters

"0

Corqo Ships,

Tankers

0.02

Corners

Liners,

0.04

0.08

0.06

Destrouers and Destrouer Escorts

O.ia

0.10

0.16

0.14

0.22

0.20

0.18

0.24

026

Froude Number squared - {y/'^aL.)

Fig. 60.U

M = 0.61
This
line

is

Tentative Mbanline for Selecting the Weight-Speed-Poweb Factor for an Average Vessel
(16,573)(20.5)'

12.895

LPs

(510)(13,243)

nearly 36 per cent greater than the mean-

value given by Fig. 34.1, indicating that the

merit-factor

method

of estimation

requires

still

considerable development.

An

alternative merit factor

somewhat simpler O-diml

form of

Weight-Speed-Power Factor
This

is,

makes use

relationship

of a

in

the

thrust-load condition

34.11 of Part

WV

(60.x)

Ps

in fact, the Telfer merit factor

F^

as in Fig. 60.U,

indicates a dispersion for

normal design as great as

it

that evidenced in Fig. 34.1 for the Telfer merit

factor.

Indeed, with a plot having a uniform

instead of a log scale of ordinates, the dispersion

in

both would be

much

greater. It

true that the propulsive merit of

vastly superior to that of others.

is

2,

is

Volume

described fully in Sec.

I.

An ampUfied

version

of that description is given here for the con-

From the effective power

and the propulsive coefficient the shaft power is
found. This method also enables the designer
venience of the reader.

M divided

by the Froude number squared, indicated as one

of the terms in Eq. (34.xxiv) on page 517 of
Volume I. When WV/Pg is plotted on a basis of
vessels of supposedly

Using the tentative meanline of Fig. 60. U as

an indicator for estimating the probable shaft
power of an ABC ship design of average merit,
the estimated power is worked out in Sec. 66.9.
60.14 Shaft-Power Estimates by the IdealEfficiency Method.
A method of deriving the
propulsive coefficient jjp from the ideal and real
efficiencies of a screw propeller under a given

apparently

some

vessels is

to select a suitable

P/D

ratio for the propeller,

and to approximate its rate of rotation n.

Assuming that this procedure is to be used
the early stages of a ship design,

it is

in

necessary

to estimate or determine the total ship resistance

Rt and
,

wake and thrustand of the relative

to select values of the

deduction fractions
rotative efficiency

w and

tjr

t,

which appear reasonable

for the design in question.

The

ship speed

is

assumed to be known, as are the number of

HYDRODYNAMICS

384

the propeller diameter

If

propellers.

may

tentatively fixed, several solutions

not

is

be worked

out, each for a different diameter.

The necessary formulas

for this calculation are

taken from Sec. 34.11:

F.,

V{\

Ttq

T =

w)

Pe = RtV =
1

IN SHIP DESIGN

using the basic values from the self-propulsion

Rt =

160,120

D =

20.51

ft,

from

Fig.

Va =

Ctl

in 0-diml form
^2t^3
pD
VaVii

(34.xxvii)

When

by

appropriate.

The

= Dl

effective

D^ is
Dl + Dl + Dl as
power P^ is always

Ctl

calculated 0-diml value of Ctl

160,120(34.62)

position of the

Ctl point along the

is

found.

2.546Pb

2.546(5,543,350)
(1.9905)(20.51)'(28.042)'(1.148)

0.666

may

It

be simpler and quicker for the user to

calculate the thrust-load factor

C TL

AoVl

by

previously used, the rate of rotation

172,170
(0.99525)(20.51)'(0.7854)(28.042)'

(34.xxviii)

ETT,

=
This

is

diagram 3
culated
20.0

0.666

somewhat smaller than the 0.700

of Fig. 59.1 because the latter

for

From Table

r],

portion of this problem

design of the

ABC

is

worked out

ship

in

sufficient only to derive a value of

what more complete example

is

for

Sec.

Ps

worked out

0.873 and the 0.8-ideal

r/Rei

is

0.698. This

is

Consulting the open-water curves for the stock

for

7,0

0.698

is

Mc

the advance coefficient

0.769.

Then J = VA/inD),

28.042

JD

(0.769)(20.51)

somehere,

of

the working efficiency of the propeller at 20.5 kt.

an

66.27,

is

efficiency or real efficiency

whence

early

diameter

34.a, or Fig. 34. B, the correspond-

ing ideal efficiency

tions.

this facilitates

wheel

final-design

of

is cal-

ft.

propeller in Fig. 78.

in

by

propellers,

A nomogram for solving Eq.

embodied

145;

5,543,350 ft-lb

pD VaVh

Stevens, Technical Note

working out a number of
solutions for a different combination of assumpis

^
~

0.8-

indicates,

an approximate value of
the pitch ratio P/D which may be expected to
produce the most efficient propeller under the
circumstances. Consulting the open-water characteristic curves of some "stock" propeller which
has this pitch-diameter ratio, and entering the
open-water efficiency curves with the rjo value
from the 0.8-ideal-efficiency curve, give at once
the advance ratio / = F^/(nZ>). With the values

Va and

(34.xxvii),

reference to the efficiency curves of the three

of

0.070)

is

ideal-efficiency curve of Fig. 34.

Wageningen

160,120/(1

the

found for the 0.8-ideal efficiency.

This is taken to be the actual operating efficiency
of the propeller, as yet not designed, and is
equal to the open-water efficiency r] of some
propeller at some advance ratio / = VA/inD).

The

t)

Then, from Eq.

curves of Figs. 34.B, 34.C, or 34.E are entered

and a value

per sec

per sec

the total ship figure.

With the

ft

per sec.

(34.xxviii)

dimensional form.

2Z)'

34.62

from Fig. 78.Nb

0.070, from Fig. 78.Nb; vht = 1.148
F(l - w) = 34.62(1 - 0.190) = 28.042
0.190,

several propellers are to be used,

replaced

78.Ma

p^ = R^V =

p[Z>=(ft)][Fj(kt)]
in

78.Nb

172,170 lb

PcChorses)

290.68

Fig.

self-

trial

for stock propeller actually used,

= Rt/{1 -

from

lb,

20.5 kt

ft

Ctl

transom-stern model, to deter-

mine the agreement (or otherwise) with the

propelled model predictions for the 20.5-kt
speed. The basic conditions assumed are:

ABC

test of the

V =
Wt =

'(l^)

Sec. 60.14

1.778 rps or 106.7 rpm.

SHIP

Sec. 60.15

POWERING DATA

This compares with the value of 109.7 (or 1.82G

rps) derived

from the self-propelled model

test;

indicates that the real or working efficiency of

it

385

a self-leveling (commercial) type of anti-fouling

months out

paint, to be 10

an increase in

and to have
due to fouling of

of dock,

specific resistance

Af.CF(10^)

ideal efficiency.

predicted

ABC

Taking a Jj-value of 0.748, as determined by

thrust identity from Fig. 78. Nb, the real efficiency
J/Reai or the open-water efficiency tjo from Fig.
78. Me is only 0.686. Assuming a value 1.02

assumed that for half of the open-sea portion of

a voyage under these circumstances, heavy
weather has slowed the ship to an average of
17.7 kt. For the remaining half, therefore, in
order to meet the sustained speed of 18.7 kt, the
ship is called upon to average 19.7 kt. Can the
ship do it, when fouled, with 95 per cent of its
maximum designed power?

the propeller was

somewhat

than 0.8 of

less

its

for the relative rotative efficiency,

riP

from

ria{vH)riB

Since this

is

0.686(1. 148)(1.02)

in excess of the

Fig. 78. Nc,

-qp

indicates that the

it

0.803

0.761 derived

relative rotative efficiency is too large.

This

is

less

From Table

last

^pCf

5,543,350

AsCf

12,551 horses.
(550) (0.803)

than the predicted shaft power of

W.

Taylor,

made

is

tlian

obscured by the deterio-

is

ration

anti-fouling

the

of

it.

coating

assumed as

is

Underestimation

results

slightly larger propeller tiian overestimation"

in

[SNAME,

roughness

coating

covering

assumed

is

deterioration

as

the

of

paint

AfCf

overestimate

paint

of the fouling itself

roughness

structural

for

0.1(10"'),

is

from the long-dash

taken as 1.25(10^')

is

(0.0

for fouling,

45.L,

better to underestimate relative rotative efficiency

to

taken as 0.0 since any

is

roughness here

AcCi? for

several decades

ago, that:
"It

is

0.1(10"')

13,243 horses from Fig. 78. Nb. It emphasizes the

statement of D.

It

45.f of Sec. 45.18:

for the plating

and the presence

^=
T)P

ship curve of Fig. 45. L.

assumed

The

example of Sec. 60.10 shows that actually tjr

was only 0.968. Using an T/p-value of 0.803 would
have given a shaft power of
P.,

corresponding to the long-dash

1.25,

Then SAC^

-|-

0.1

-|-

0.1

line of Fig.

1.25) (10"')

1.45(10"').

1923, pp. 69-70].

For the "make-up time" speed j)f^ 19.7 kt or

60.1S

Estimating Shaft Power for a Fouled-

A recommended

or Rough-Hull Condition.

de-

33.27 ft per sec,

0.26.

sign procedure for building into a ship a sufficient

resistance

speed margin to enable

0.94(10^').

it

to maintain an estab-

At

T,

this

=
T,

19.7/
,

V510 =

0.872,

the specific residuary

coefficient Cs is, from

The Reynolds number R

Fig.

78. Jc,

for this ship

lished schedule despite the handicaps of winds,

speed, in standard salt water, from Table 45. b of

waves, fouling, and other factors

Sec. 45.4, is 1,324 million, for

and

and

is

described in

Table 64.d, all

in Part 4 of this volume. It should be possible
eventually to predict the effect of each of these
handicaps in quantitative terms, provided the
conditions to be met are specified in some detail.
Considering the problem of fouling, or of
serious deterioration of the paint coating on the
underwater hull, the situation is presumably
worst just before the end of a dry docking interval.
As a check on the speed and power margins
incorporated in the design, which are intended
to be adequate all through this interval, it should
be possible to estimate the propulsion performance in the foul-bottom as well as the cleanSees. 64.3, 65.3,

69.9,

in

bottom condition.

One acceptable method

is

the transom-stern hull of the

in Part 4.

The

ship

is

worked out here

ABC

for

friction resistance coefficient

is

1.48(10"').

1.48

Then Ct

The wetted
(69.85) (650.25)

Cp

XACp =

specific

45.

(0.94

3.87(10"').

surface of the ship

78.Ja, 69.85 times

X^(lambda)
45,420

ft'.

for

Then

is,

from Fig.

the ship or
for the fouled

ship.

Rr = Cr[~)SV'

(3.87)(10~')f |^V45,420)(33.27)'

193,640

lb,

whence

=
p = KtV
Re

(193,640)(33.27)

ship, designed

assumed to be painted with

1.45)(10"')

which the

Cp from Table

For the fouled

^/^
550

n-,,,
= 11,
/13 horses.

ship, at 19.7 kt, it is

estimated

HYDRODYNAMICS

386
that the

wake

fraction

has increased from the

The thickening

0.190 of Fig. 78.Nb to 0.210.

IN SHIP DESIGN
the same

of

when the bottom

{<\^\

assumed to have
a greater effect on increasing w than the augmented
Ctl has on reducing it, as described by L. Troost
in Sec. 60.8. It is assumed further that the thrustdeduction fraction t has increased from 0.070 to

is

both clean and

foul,

('?o)Foul('?/r)Foul

the boundary layer, and the increase of viscous-

wake

Sec. 60.15

VoViT

velocity due to fouling are

(0.677)(1.120)

0.921

(0.717)(1.148)

W.

R.

L.

Gawn

states,

on page 247 of

his

paper

"Roughened Hull Surface" [NECI, 1941-1942,

0.115, because of the greater thrust-load coefficient

Vol. LVIII, pp. 245-272], that "Relative rotative

Ctl at which the propeller must operate. At this

increased Ctl the inflow jet will have a somewhat

efficiency

larger diameter in

Ap's

way

of the skeg, so that the

on more of the stern area;

will act

another reason for increasing

this is

t.

For the clean ship, at 19.7 kt, tj^ from

78.Nb is 1.148 but for the fouled ship it is
,

U^JFoui

_
-

^^

The speed
7[(1

By
from

(1

of

advance

w)f,]

_
-

Ofou.

(1

(^

^^^^^^

Va

_
-

0.115)

Q 210)

Fig.

26.28

interpolation from the values of 10~^

is

152,600

lb.

0.190)

11,713

Ps =

16,540 horses.

0.708

This is about 3,290 horses more, or about 25

per cent in excess of the 13,250 horses required to
propel the clean ship at 20.5 kt, as predicted by
the self-propelled model test. It

Then

for a ship carrying

than

Va =

the stock model propeller,

VO-

26.95 ft per sec,

w)

is

much

not

less

power

margin
required to provide the speed differential from
the

whole

clean-bottom

18.7 kt (predicted

(predicted

and

rough,

is

Hence

at 19.7 kt, for the

a propeller of 20.51-ft diameter, corresponding to

33.27(1

surface

,"

Fig. 78.Nb, the thrust

clean ship,

,
,
^-^^^

per sec.

ft

0.708.

for 19.7 kt, fouled, is

33.27(0.79)

when the

less

is

but he gives no numerical values.

= EHP/SHP
Interpolating from the r)p
values in Fig. 78. Nb, the value of rip for the clean
ship at 19.7 kt is 0.769. For the fouled ship at the
same speed it is estimated to be 0.769(0.921) =
.

Ps

Ps

of 9,320 horses) to 20.5 kt

of about 13,250 horses),

namely

3,930 horses. It corresponds to an average increase

power Ps of only about 2.5 per cent per

month, or about 0.08 per cent per day, yet when
considered as an additional power expenditure it
seems large.
For the designer who is to recommend a
in shaft

A,Vl
152,600

0.639

(0.99525)(20.51)'(0.7854)(26.95)'

For the fouled ship at 19.7

193,640/(1

0.115)

kt,

T = Rr/(l -

218,800

lb.

t)

definite

amount

of shaft-power reserve

owner, the situation definitely

Then

calls for

to the

an investi-

gation of the use of hot plastic anti-fouhng paint

Tfou,

instead of the older type of self-leveUng paint.

\S^TLJ-i

From Table

A[(F^)P,]^

ApCp
218,800

From a

larger-scale version
for a

PjD

of the real efficiency

ijReai

0.717.

For a Ctl

P/D ratio

'/Real is

is

0.0, since

any

obscured by the hot-

plastic paint coating

of 0.963

of Fig.

34.

and the fouling

is assumed to be

0.1(10"'), as before

or

ratio of 1.0, the value

for a Ctl of 0.639 is

on the fouled ship, and

of 1.00, the value of the real efficiency

0.677. It is not possible to pick the latter

value from the open-water characteristic curve

of Tjo because the J-value and the rate of rotation

taking as

A.sCf for structural roughness

0.963

from Fig. 70.B,

is

plating roughness

(0.99525)(20.51)'(0.7854)(26.28)'

45.f of Sec. 45.18:

for the plating

in the fouled condition are

not known.

If the relative rotative efficiency t\R is

assumed

AcCp

to cover the initial roughness of the hot-

from the
margin of Fig. 45. L
ApCp for fouhng only, from the dot-dash fine of
plastic paint is taken as 0.5(10"'),
left

Fig. 45.L, is 0.11(10"').

Then 2ACf

is (0.0

0.1

0.5

-1-

0.11)(10"')

0.71(10"').

The values

of

Cr and Cp

19.7 kt are 0.94(10"')

and

for the clean ship at

1.48(10"'), respectively.

SHIP-POWERING DATA

Sec. 60.16

Then

as before.

C,.

SAC;.

(0.94

1.48

With a wetted

3.13(10"').

in Fig. 78.Nb, the value of nr for the clean ship

0.71)(10-')

at 19.7 kt

surface of 45,420 ft^

from the preceding example, the

of the fouled ship

total resistance

at the
0.739.

is

0.769 as before. For the fouled ship

same speed it is taken to be 0.769(0.961) =

Hence for the fouled ship with hot-plastic

paint, at 19.7 kt,

is

p
JTs

Ct\ -sf

i2i

387

C^ = Ck

for the fouled ship

9,474

Ea

This

3.13(10-')(i^^)(45,420)(33.27)'

is

12,820 horses.

0.739

r,p

than the 13,250 horses required to

less

drive the clean ship at 20.5 kt.

With a

156,610 lb,

shaft

power Ps

of

about 11,200 horses

to drive the clean ship at 19.7 kt, from Fig. 78. Nb,

whence

^^^^53:^ =

P. =Ze.F =

9,474 horses.

Since the ship with the hot-plastic coating is

expected not to be as heavily fouled as with the
self-leveling paint in the preceding example,
it is estimated that the wake-fraction w is in-

an increase of 16,540 - 11,200 = 5,320 horses is

required to overcome 10 months' fouling on the
self-leveling paint, whereas an increase of only

12,820

11,200

1,620 horses suffices to over-

creased only from 0.190 to 0.200, and that the

come both the initial roughness of the hot-plastic

paint and 10 months' fouling on that paint.
Against this advantage must be placed the additional shaft power that would be required to

thrust-deduction fraction has gone up from 0.070

drive

For the clean ship, at 19.7 kt,

1.148 as before but for the fouled ship it is

to only 0.100.
is

ii]h

(1

(wFoul

(1

The speed
F[(l

Ofo

(1

M')f

(1

1.125

advance V a for 19.7 kt, with the

on the hot-plastic paint, is

i)fi]

33.27(0.80)

For the fouled ship at 19.7

156,610/(1

(C

0.100)
0.200)

fouling

lighter

sec.

of

0.10)

174,010

^F"'

kt,

= 26.62 ft per
T = Rt/{1 lb.

Then

^o[(FJp,]^

174,010
(0 .99525) (20 .5 1)'(0 .7854) (26.62)'

=
The

is

0.639, the

example. Similarly,

For a Cri

Ctl for the clean-bottom

same as for the preceding

TjReai

for this factor is 0.717.

on the fouled ship and a P/D

the value of T/u,ai is, from Fig.

of 0.747

ratio of

1.00,

34.G or

Fig.

70.B, 0.703.

Assuming as before

that the relative rotative efficiency

same

for both clean

(^?p)i

ship

when

with hot-plastic paint,

and

jjb

is

the

foul bottom,

and

at

all

few
months thereafter. This and other powers can
be calculated by the method described.
60.16 Increasing the Power and Speed of an
Existing Ship. Marine architects are often called

upon

just out of dock

to increase the speed of a

for a

ship

already

by improving its form and retaining

its power plant, by changing its power plant and
not its form, or by both.
In the matter of the power which can be delivered to and absorbed by a single screw propeller or other propulsion device, embodying a
question which invariably arises whenever the
matter of increased power is considered, it is to
be remembered that shaft power is a function of
both torque delivered to the propeller and the
built, either

rate of rotation of the shaft.

0.747

thrust-load factor

condition

the

speeds,

given shaft can

often be run at a higher rate of rotation at the

same torque but only

rarely can the

same screw

propeller be expected to absorb the increased

power and to drive the ship

rpm and ship speed.

efficiently at the

increased

It is conceivable that lengthening, fiiiing, or

otherwise altering an existing ship, designed for
slow speed, may enable the altered ship to be

driven at an increased speed with the same total

resistance Rt or effective thrust T{1 i). The

(^7ci)Foiil('?g)l

may be more than compensated for by the reduced pressure drag due to

increased friction drag

(0.703)(1.125)

wavemaking and

0.961

(0.717)(1.148)

Interpolating from the

t/p

= EHP/SHP

separation. However, the fact

that the ship speed

values

raises

is

increased, automatically

the power by a corresponding amount,

HYDRODYNAMICS
even though no additional thrust

is

necessary to

Skeg and stern endings that are too bkint,

ahead of a screw propeller, and insufficient
clearances, may always be expected to generate
vibratory forces and moments. At low speeds
these may be of small magnitude and hence not
objectionable. At higher speeds, however, a
propeller developing increased thrust and absorbing greater power may generate vibratory forces
and moments that are by no means acceptable.
Air leakage from the surface may be initiated or
augmented because of the greater Ap's in the
blade

fields.

Cavitation

may become

of

the

greater

a factor, at

upper blades, because

blade-section

speeds,

possible

and diminished depth

the blade sections in the upper

greater propeller diameter,

of

submergence of

clutched from
ally

it,

Backing

60.18

Model

Tests.

Exerting the

towing speeds,

maximum

combined with

from

discussion

of

Self-Propelled
reversing

EMB

embodies the results of such a test on

model 3594, representing the minelayer U. S. S.
Terror. Fig. 60. T contains data for the ahead
self-propulsion tests of this model at the same
displacement and trim. It is to be noted that the
thrust-deduction fraction in the backing condition is very large, as might be expected, and

wake

fraction

is still

is less

positive.

when set for

by angling the
pitch [SSPA Rep. 2, 1943;

rotation of the 2-bladed propellers

normal ahead running and

is a design problem for any

Both economical and efficient pro-

on the surface as well as submerged, is

a "must" for every type of submersible, as well as some types of pure submarine.
Each of the foregoing is perhaps more of a
design than a calculation problem, or perhaps
more a problem of operation than of design. The
operator and owner usually must decide how much
one condition is to be favored over the other.
Sec. 67.15 mentions the proposals and actual
installations of the past in which designers have
attempted to meet the problem of driving a ship
with one or two propellers under one operating
condition and with two or more under another
condition. This still involves running one set of
wheels in both ranges, usually at different ship
speeds and rates of rotation. It may be done by
pulsion,

practically

varying the pitch mechanically or accepting a

reduction of efficiency in one or both conditions.
Permitting one or more propulsion devices to
free-wheel while the others are driving

some added
action

of

means

resistance due to the windmilling

the free wheels.

Furthermore, each

pro-

H. F. Nordstrom presents the test results and

an analysis of the self-propelled experiments on
models of fishing boats, in which astern thrust
was achieved (1) by reversing the direction of

speed for shifting quickly from one operating

area to the next, is mandatory for any tug
worthy of the name. Economical propulsion at
cruising speed, combined with efficient propulsion
patrol vessel.

The

than 0.40.

developing the greatest practicable free-running

at high or top speed,

and

model-basin establishments equipped to conduct

self-propulsion tests can carry out steady-state
tests of this kind in the astern direction. Fig. 60.

pulsive coefficient

low

Power

is

that the

at

have to be lubricated continu-

included under maneuvering in Part 5

of Volume III. However, it is stated here that

backing

an old aperture, actually diminishes

the clearances, when they should be increased.
60.17 Powering for Two or More Distinct
blades, in

thrust

those

all

during such an operation.

blade positions. Fitting a propeller with wider

Operating Conditions.

Sec. 60.17

parts of the machinery which can not be un-

propel the ship at the increased speed.

least in the region of the

IN SHIP DESIGN
shaft of a windmilling propeller, plus

blades to give reverse

summary and some

Twin

(2)

figure legends in English].

CHAPTER

The

61

Prediction of Ship Behavior in

Confined Waters
61.1
61 2
.

61 3
.

General
Typical Shallow-Water Resistance Data
The Quantitative Effect of Shallow Water on
.

Ship Resistance and Speed

61.4
61.5

critical Range
The Square-Draft

to

in the

Sub-

Water-Depth Ratio

394

Procedure

Depth

Practical Cases Involving a Given

61.7

Case la: To Find the Shallow- Water Speed

from the Deep-Water Resistance-Speed

61.8

Case lb To Find the Shallow- Water Resistance from the Deep-Water ResistanceSpeed Data
Case Ic To Find the Deep-Water Speed and
Resistance When the Shallow- Water Speed
and Resistance are Measured
Limiting Case of 2 Per Cent Speed Reduction
in Water of a Given Depth
Cases 2a and 2b To Find the Limiting Depth

of

396

Water

Data

61 10
.

61.11

390
393

Features Associated with the O. Schlichting

61.6

61 9

389
389

397
:

400

400
403

61.

HYDRODYNAMICS

390

14

13

15

Fig. 61. a

There

16

17

19
20
Ship Speed, kt

18

are, in the literature, a considerable

number

24

25

26

Water of Varied Depth

water, are only slightly less than the

maximum

running in shallow

give the lines or even the principal dimensions of

for ships

in part

bow and

reproduced in Fig. 35.D.

Another set, derived from the trial results of a
ship, is adapted from a set of graphs given by the
German naval constructor Paulus in Fig. 2 on
level at

23

are derived in part from tests on

from ship trials. One set of

curves, derived from a model test and illustrating
the principal features, including the change of

models and

22

Sec. 61.3

trims by the stern at the lesser (critical or nearcritical) speeds. Unfortunately, Paulus does not

and power with speed

They

21

Resistance and Trim Data fob a Torpedoboat in

of typical graphs giving the variation of resistance

water.

IN SHIP DESIGN

stern, is

page 1872 of reference (4) in Sec. 61.22. The latter

data are presented in Fig. 61. A. Others are to be
found in the references cited in the list at the
end of this section.
Paulus' data for the German torpedoboat
SI 19 reveal that the maximum trim by the stern
occurs at a speed shghtly less than that for which
the increase in indicated power Pi (over the deep-

water P,) is a maximum. Also that the trim

becomes less than the deep-water trim at a speed
very slightly higher than that for which the
shallow-water Pi drops below the deep-water P,
The trims at the higher speeds, in all depths of
.

torpedoboat SI 19 forming the subject of his

investigation.

Most

of the model-test data referred to in the

paragraph of this section are suspected of
giving resistances and powers that are too high,
because of the restricting effect of the model-

first

basin walls, added to the effect of the false bottom

or other device used to simulate the shallow water.

For example, in reference (34) of Sec. 61.22,

where the shallow-water drag tests were intended
to simulate behavior in open water of 13 meters
depth, the hydraulic radius R,i works out as
only about 9.5 m. For unhmited water of 13 m
depth, Rh is also 13 m. A more classic example is
W. Froude's full-scale towing tests on the Greyhound in the early 1870's, unquestionably made
water that was too shallow for the size of the
vessel [Robb, A. M., TNA, 1952, p. 449].
61 .3 The Quantitative Effect of Shallow Water

in

on Ship Resistance and Speed

in the Subcritical

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

613

Sec.

The

Range.

quantitative eiTect of shallow water

of unlimited extent on the resistance

of ships

is

and speed

expressed in at least three different

ways, when the basis of comparison is a combination of resistance and speed in unlimited deep
water:
(1)

The

effect of limited

depth on ship speed at

W.

method has a
and partly experimental basis.
Some of its assumptions are open to question
but it has the merit that it works, as an engineering solution to the shallow- and confined-water
problems. It will undoubtedly give way in time
to a more rigorous treatment but in the meantime

depth upon resistance

for a speed equal to a given deep-water speed
(3) Depths of water of unlimited extent beyond
which there is no shallow-water effect on either
(2)

The

effect of limited

resistance or speed.

The

discussion in this section

is

limited to ship

Table 72.a of Sec. 72.3 lists values

from 2 through 40 ft.
The problem of the wavemaking resistance
only in shallow water, and in confined waters as
well, has been tackled on a purely analytical or
theoretical basis by Sir Thomas H. Havelock,
J. K. Lunde, and others. One of Lunde's contri{9h)-\

of Cc for a range of depths h

butions
of

is

Wave

his paper

"On

the Linearized Theory

Resistance for Displacement Ships in

Steady and Accelerated Motion" [SNAME, 1951],

in which Part 2, on pages 50 through 60, applies
directly to resistance due to wavemaking in
shallow water of imlimited extent as well as in a
canal. A more recent contribution is that of A. A.
Kostyukov entitled "Resistance of Bodies in a
Fluid to Motion near a Vertical Wall" (in Russian)
[Dokladi Akad. Nauk, SSSR (N.S.) 99, 1954,

pp. 349-352]. This paper

is

abstracted briefly in

Mechanics Reviews,
page 534, number 3846.

Applied

None

of the existing

produces results in

The

by

Fig.

reference

The point Ai

cited).

(1955)

December

1955,

is

Rt^

in

V achieved with a given power. This

be assumed as the customary design point
for a normal deep-water ship. Unless otherwise
ship speed

may

< (infinity)
in this
the subscript
chapter applies to the value of a designated

indicated,

quantity in water of infinite depth and width.

The total resistance Rt, is composed of the usual

R^^ and a pressure resistance

assumed by Schlichting to be
to wavemaking. These components

friction resistance

Rwo,

which

due entirely

is

are indicated at the right of the diagram.

The wavemaking

resistance

Rwo

is

associated

with a train of deep-water waves, belonging to

the Velox system, whose speed is the same as the
ship speed, so that the crests and the troughs

occupy certain fixed positions relative to the ship.

The fixed relationship between the wave length
L,ra. and the speed c of these waves, assuming
they are of trochoidal character and form, is
given under (2) of Sec. 48.4. Squaring the equality
given there,

cl=Vl^

analyses in the

2-K

In shallow water the speed of a trochoidal

If
of the same length Lwa, is less than V
.

speed for a water depth h, the ratio

between c^ in shallow water and Ca, or F in
Ca is this

is,

from

Sec.

of Sec. 48.15, expressed

18.10

Seeschiffen auf flachem

Wasser (Resistance

EMB

1940;

also

van

Lammeren,

Fig.

48.N

(61. i)

of

Seagoing Vessels in Shallow Water)," STG, 1934,

Vol. 35, pp. 127-148; EngUsh version in

and

by

matters was developed some years ago in Germany by Otto Schhchting ["Schiffswiderstand
auf beschrankter Wassertiefe; Widerstand von

Jan

represents the

in a

appears to be the most satisfactory

of deahng quantitatively with these

56,

is illus-

and the corresponding

unrestricted deep water

deep water

Transl.

method

61.B, adapted from

one of Schlichting's illustrations (Fig. 6 in the

scientific.

method

agreement with observed

basis of 0. Schlichting's

trated graphically

wave

What

fair

model and ship data.

form to be readily
useful to the marine architect. There have been
a number of much more practical solutions proposed for this problem but many of them do not
embody parameters which appear logical or
foregoing category

1948, p. 56]. This

relationship between the total resistance

speeds less than the critical speed Cc of a wave of

translation in water of the given depth h, where
Cc

P. A.,

partly theoretical

it

constant (or at a given) resistance

RPSS,

391

When

<;tanh

(^1^2

the ship passes from deep water into

h, it can not make the

shallow water of depth

HYDRODYNAMICS

392
Speed
Celerity

Celerity

c^,

Voo of

c
or

of

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 61.3

Ship in Deep Water of Unlimited Extent

Deep-Woter Wave of Speed V^ and Lenqth Lwq

Speed

Vj of

Wove

of

Lenqth L'^qq

Resistance

Rwco Due

to

Wovemokinq in
Deep Wotsr ot
Speed Voo

Resistance

Rpoo -Due to
Friction

in

Deep Water
at SpeedVjj,

Definition Diagram for the Shallow- Water Speed-Resistance Determination of 0. Schlichting

Fig. 61. B

waves alongside it, of the Velox system, travel

any faster than it does. The wave of translation
or solitary wave which may go on ahead in a

especially in the limited space between the ship

restricted channel does not enter into this dis-

water which closely surrounds it.

In other words, it must overcome a total resistance greater than Rn to maintain the speed c*

cussion. Experience reveals that the crests

and

troughs of the Velox waves remain in essentially

the same positions along the length of the ship

down

as in deep water. However, the ship slows

by the

ratio of the wave speeds in shallow and in

deep water, given by the ratio c,JV of Eq. (61.i).
It may be assumed that, despite a change in
profile due to increased wave height hw in the

shallow water, and other second-order changes,

the pressure resistance jB,^ at the slower speed

was at the speed V in deep

water. Here, and in what follows, the subscript
the same as

C/,

is

applies

Ch

it

values at an intermediate speed

to

Again

it is

assumed that wavemaking

responsible for

all

The

regarding resistance and ship

is

speed

situation
is

now

the pressure resistance.

represented graphically in Fig. 61.B

by the point Bi
The pressure resistance Rw^
remains the same as at A,
but the friction
resistance is diminished from Rf^ to Rfi
that
is, from its value at the point Ei to its value at
.

the point Fi

Vi

is

The

total resistance at the speed

diminished from Rt^ to Rn,

amount

of

this

The

reduction.

solely

ship

by the

speed

is

bottom and the water bed, explained

in Sec. 18.2,

the ship in shallow water has to

move

faster

relative to the

or

Vi

The

resistance represented

by the point

Bi in the figure is increased to that represented

by the point Dj Unfortunately, it is not possible
.

to derive a simple expression for predicting or

calculating

this

increase.

Schlichting

therefore

assumes that the resistance Rtu remains the same

as at the speed V , but that the ship slows down
until its total resistance again drops to Rjh
This involves a ship speed over the ground slower
than Vi
The new reduced speed is V^ represented by the point C, on the shallow-water
resistance curve of the diagram of Fig. 61. B.
The amount of the first speed reduction Ac or,
better, the ratio between the speed c^ and the
unlimited deep-water speed V
is determined
solely from theoretical considerations, indicated
by Eq. (61. i). The speed C/. or V i is for convenience
.

called here the Schlichting intermediate speed or

the shallow-water wave speed.

The

ratio

between

speed and the shallow-water

ship speed V^ being sought, or the further speed
this intermediate

reduction

AVp due

to potential flow,

is

most

F to V i
A second effect now enters the picture. Because
of the greater augment -\-A.U of stern ward

determine theoretically. It is therefore

derived from experiment data on models tested
in shallow water. The sum of the constant

velocity due to potential flow in the shallow water.

wavemaking

diminished from

difficult to

resistance

R^y^

plus

the

friction

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.4

resistance Rfi at the intermediate speed F/ is

applied as the resistance Rrk to the model shallow-

water resistance-speed curve at the point Cj

giving the desired shallow-water speed Vh
One feature of the diagram of Fig. 61.B

Notched Retjions ore

Moximum

Fig. 61. C

Definition Skktch for Term

"Square Draft"

by Rfi

described briefly in Sec. 18.11, and dis-

cussed further in Sec. 61.14.

Fig.

vessels

61.

function

space

the

of

Although a ship

of given

for broad,

indicates that,

under which the bed clearance

The Center Scale Gives

the Value

of

= 20

15

shallow

may

often

the Ratio

vhere

Ax is the Mox^
mum-Section
Area
h IS the Woter

appears logical because the increased potentialflow velocity under the ship, where most of the
is

Area Axj

Broken-Line Squares Have Areos Equal to Ax in Each Cose

and Sides Equal to (Ax)
Known as "Square Droft"

square root of the maximum section area Ax of

the ship, divided by the water depth h. This

passage around the hull,

of

is

between the several velocities and speeds are the

items of primary interest, the horizontal scale
may be laid off in values of what is known as the
critical-speed ratio {V/\/gh), _V/\/'gL, the
ship speed V, or even (VJ-VgL), as may be
found most convenient, or in all of them together.
The only requirement is that the water depth h
and the ship length L remain constant in the
problem, and that all the ratios be a function of V.
61.4 The Square-Draft to Water-Depth Ratio.
0. SchUchting found that the ratio V^/Vi is a
function of a 0-diml parameter, namely the

its

iSections

important. Since the abscissas represent wave

velocities and ship speeds, and since the ratios

water flows in

393

Depth,

Same

in

the

10,000

8.000
6,000
5,000

4,000

Units

occupied by the ship.

maximum

section area,

corresponding generally to a ship of given overall

size, may have a draft deeper than normal, with

compensated for by the

less than normal. In
this case more of the water flows around the
sides, and less under the bottom. If the beam is
very large in proportion to the draft, more water
flows under the bottom but with the greater bed

bed clearance,

less

fact that the

this is

beam

clearance there

is

then

then more room for

is

it.

In any case the relationship developed by

Schhchting appears to remain reasonably valid

form as well as for all speeds

speed of translation of a natural

for ships of varied

below the
solitary

what

critical

wave

in shallow water. It

may

be some-

optimistic in predicting slightly too small

a speed reduction for the general case, and it

be oversimplified, but it is acceptable until

may

something better

is

of the area of the

dimension,
draft. It is

a square

is

worked

The square
section,

root

a linear

called for convenience the square

the draft of the equivalent ship having

maximum

section of the given area

with a beam-draft ratio of

of

out.

maximum

unlimited

lateral

1.0.

extent

Ax

For shallow water

the

square

the water depth

draft

For
dimension known as the hydraulic radius, symbolized
(Ax)"'^

is

related

to

restricted channels it is related to a linear

h.

Nomogram for Determining SquareDraft TO Water-Depth Ratio

Fig. 61.D

HYDRODYNAMICS

394

the value of the

be measured only in inches,

square draft may actually exceed the water

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 61.5

the shallow water of depth

h, it will

run at the

depth. Fortunately, the relationships previously

described continue to be reasonably valid under

speed F This does not mean that it overruns

the shallow-water Velox-system waves traveling
at the speed V, in the depth h but that it runs

these conditions.

in

a nomogram, designed and kindly

furnished by Professor H. L. Seward, by which the
Fig. 61.

is

value of the ratio -\/A^/h is determined by inspection when the values of Ax and h are known. This

nomogram

is

applicable to any system of units

provided h

is

expressed in a length unit and

in the

Ax

same unit squared.

In shallow water of unlimited extent the hydraulic

Rjf

radius
h.

equals

The nomogram

of 's/'A^/Rh

61.5

Rh

the

depth,

so

that

therefore gives values

under these conditions.

Features Associated with the O. Schlich-

ting Procedure.

Several features of the Schlich-

ting procedure require explanation

If sufficient

power

is

and emphasis.

available, corresponding to

the shallow-water resistance at the point Gi in

Fig. 61. B, and is applied to drive the vessel in

D.3

waves which are the shallow- water counter-

parts of a deep-water Velox-wave system traveling

AV
faster speed V
important to remember that the Schlichting procedure involves resistances rather than
powers. To be sure, the effective power Pe is
derived directly from Rr when V is known for
any given condition but there is no simple method

at

some

It

of

is

the

estimating

shallow-water

shaft

Psh when the deep-water shaft power Ps

The
Vi/Va,
speed,

is

power
known.

relationship Va,/^/~gh controls the

,

ratio

of intermediate speed to deep-water ship

independent of

values of Fo.

all

reasonable

absolute

provided the intermediate speeds

remain well below the

critical

Similarly, the relationship

speed Cc

y/Axlh

'Vgh.

controls the

of shallow-water speed to interratio Vhiyi

mediate speed, independent of the deep-water
,

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.5

The Center Scale Gives the Value of the Rotio

Speed of Ship in Unlimited Deep Water
Va,

speed F again provided that the intermediate

speed remains well below the critical.
Referring back to Fig. 61. B, the solution in the
,

presented

cases

various

in

Wove

of

By the Intersection

involves

practice

Speed

-y^

of Translation
of

Stroicjht

Ship Speed V^o

the

Deep Water and a

h of the Shallow

Scole at the Depth

Water Under Considerotion

The Value of Q

Token as

Point on the

Ai is known, or in finding the depths of water

which G, and H, lie at certain positions
relative to Aj
This is not as easy as it looks or sounds because,
of

for

in

Depth h

in

Line Drov^n

Rioht-Hond Scole at

Between q Point on the

and Hi when the position

finding points such as Gi

395

Left-hand

is

32.174

per sec^

ft

first,

is not available, for a typical ship, a

curves giving the resistances for a

there

family
series

of
of

speeds,

waters of

in

many

Vqh-

different

90

4
3

10

-5p

depths. Second, the pairs of points such as Ai

and Ci

in Fig. 61.

are not directly related to

-2D

each other. Both the speed and the resistance are

different for the two spots of a pair. When making
calculations of the kind represented graphically

by

this figure it is generally necessary to plot

resistance-speed curves,

JC

?.

two

critical-speed ratio

speeds

F<),

because

made

025
Example:

V-

Va./'vgh (using a range of

it is then easier to determine
c^

Vj

or

-p^ot

-300

^"

close together, is

problem.
ratio of the intermediate speed

speed ratio,
theoretical

F/

to the

ratio

V/\'gh.

Fig.

61.E shows

of such a curve; the shorter

is

a large-

scale edition of a portion of the longer one, for

easier reading in the lower critical-speed range.

The nomogram

and

of Fig. 61.F, also designed

generously furnished by Professor Seward, gives by

inspection the value of the ratio V^/y/gh when
the deep-water speed

400

V^ and

the water depth h

are known. There is a double scale for F

by
which the right-hand line may be entered either
,

in ft per sec or in kt.

25-

O.0Z5

O.Oi

-500 %
- 600 'S

-^"'

-700 t
-800 ^

g.

"

L 1000
Fig. 61. F

Nomogram for Determining

Critical-

Speed Ratio

which the ratio V JV i is plotted

on a basis of the square-draft to water-depth
ratio \/~Axlh,. The curve determined by Schlichof Fig. 61.G, in

ting [STG, 1934,

Jan 1940, Fig. 2,

(1)

EMB Transl. 56,

EMB Rep. 460, May 1939,

Fig. 9, p. 135;
p. 3;

Fig. 9, p. 11] has

been modified by:

Decreasing slightly the potential-flow ratios

YulV I

for small values of the square-draft

to

This was done to bring the

potential-flow ratios in agreement with those

water-depth

ratio.

determined

by

channels

The ratio of the shallow-water speed V^ in a

depth h to the intermediate speed F/
called
hereafter the -potential-flow ratio, is determined by
inspection from experiment curves such as those

-4

0.05

0.03

called hereafter the wave-

is determined by inspection from a

curve giving Vj/V:^ on a basis of

critical-speed

two parts

R 0.563

embracing from three to five points, rather

adequate if the problem is of
limited application. If the water depth h is not
known it may be convenient to plot the resistance
curves on a basis of ship speed V or of Froude
number F depending upon the nature of the
ratio,

The

Point

0.08
0.07
0.06

for the
250

deep-water speed

0.15

10 kt.or 16.89 ft per sec

Depth of Water h-28ft

small range of the critical-speed

O.E

at values of the

the intermediate-speed position

point Bi

0.5

-2

depth h and one for deep water,

marking the companion spots Ai and Ci on each.
Assuming that the water depth h is known, the
conveniently

one for shallow water

of the given

plots are

M_

(2)

[EMB

L.

Landweber

Rep. 400,

May

for

restricted

1939, p. 11].

Increasing the potential-flow ratios

YJYi

rather markedly for the larger values of the squaredraft to water-depth ratio because tests

other

made

in

model basins indicate conclusively that

396
!J~

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 61.6

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.7

When

(2)

the depth of shallow water

is

to be

determined:

Case

On

2a.

Resistance Data sheets are available.

Cases 2a. and 2b. are discussed in Sec. 61.11.

A Umiting case in the first class involves a
determination of the reduction in speed for a
specified depth when this reduction does not
exceed 1 or 2 per cent at the most. A similar case
in the second class involves a determination of the
minimum depth at which the effects on speed and
resistance shah be minor, say plus

and 2 per

and minus

cent, respectively.
in practice start

with the deep-water ship performance as a basis.

Others require that the deep-water performance
be predicted from the shallow-water behavior.

In either case, the relationship between total and

with speed in deep water must

friction resistance

be known. These

may

61.7 Case la: To Find the Shallow-Water

Speed from the Deep-Water Resistance-Speed
Data. The first example, numbered 61.1 for
convenience, covers Case la of the preceding
section. There, working from predicted deepwater data as to the speed and resistance of a
ship, it is desired to

speed, in a depth

be found:

the same total resistance

deep water. The region for which shallowwater data are desired is at and just below the

designed speed of the vessel.

Example 61.1. The ship selected is the ore carrier
covered by SNAME RD sheet 9, represented by TMB
model 3818. The ship is 370 ft long by 64 ft beam by
with a displacement of 8,850 long tons.

The designed speed is 12.5 kt, for which T, = 0.65,

Fn = 0.194. The ship runs from deep water into a shallow
estuary 24

deep. If the actual deep-water speed

is 13
than the designed speed, what is the
speed in the estuary with the same total resistance?
Briefly stated, the procedure is to construct a resistancespeed curve for the given depth of shallow water, and then

ft

kt, slightly greater

to determine,

Rth

the usual effective- and friction-power

determine the shallow-water

h, for

i^r as in

17.5 ft draft,

Some problems encountered

From

from

this curvej the ship speed at

By

calculation from

Cf and Ct values on the

,

i^

and

full-scale

Cg

in Sec. 61.3, this requires:

SNAME RD Summary

Sheets for vessels that are identical or nearly so

(c)

By

calculation from tests on standard series

models or models of similar

To draw
resistance

ships.

curves of full-scale deep-water friction

and

Ai

on ship
and through

of total resistance, based

speed, such as those through Ei

Ji of Fig. 61. B, respectively, requires at

on each, and preferably five. To

necessary to work from the
F and Cr values on the SNAME Expanded
Resistance Data sheets rather than from the
SNAME Summary Sheets. The tables which
least three spots

obtain these,

follow

it is

illustrate

the

principal

steps

in

The

(a)
,

these

calculations, as well as the derived values for each

ATTC 1947 or Schoenherr

meanline has been used for calculating the friction
resistance Rp
at a, standard temperature of 59
deg F, 15 deg C, for standard salt water. The
value of ACf is taken as 0.4(10"') in all cases.
There follow four practical examples illustratstep. In all tables the

ing a suitable procedure for problems falling

which

the same as for deep water. Referring to Fig. 61.B

is

curves derived from tests of ship models

(b)

results

having

nearly identical resistance-speed curves.

for a given resistance.

(a)

The

tion of the deep-water resistance, say

tion of the deep-water speed, say 0.99,

SNAME

for other vessels

would be about the same

a given speed
Case 2b. On the condition that the shallow-water
speed shall not fall below a given frac-

The

class.

resistance shall not exceed a given frac-

1.02, for

still

first

those for which

are

selected

vessels

the condition that the shallow-water

397

under the several cases of the

construction of (Rto,

V) and (Rpa,

curves for deep water, such as those through Ai

El -

Ji

V)

and

The determination

(b)

of the positions of the points Bi

and Ci for a series of selected points Ai

(c) Drawing an (Rti, Vh) curve through the Ci spots
(d) Picking off the ship speed at Hi for which Rn equals
Rt^ In detail, the Vi and V^ values are to be found for a
series of Va, values. At each point Ai a line AiBi is to be
drawn parallel to EiFi giving the ordinates of Bi and Ci
.

The

and the water are

first set up, and the numerical values derived from which
the desired data are obtained. From the RD sheet mentioned, the maximum-section coefficient Cx of the ship is
0.9922 and the wetted surface S of the model is 87.82 ft'.
The scale ratio X(lambda) of the model is 370/20.274 =
basic conditions for the ship

The

ship wetted surface is thus

This latter value may also
be taken directly from the SNAME RD Summary Sheet
listing this vessel. It is assumed that the deep-water and
estuary surfaces are at sea level, where g = 32.174 ft per
sec', and that both bodies are salt water at 59 deg F,
where the mass density p(rho) = 1.9905 lb-sec' per ft*,
and the kinematic viscosity v{n\i) = 1.2817(10"') ft' per
18.25, so that X'

is

333.06.

(87.82) (333.06) or 29,249

ft^.

sec.

The
1,111.3

times

area of the
ft'.

X',

This

is

maximum

section

is

very close to the

or 3.342(333.06)

1,113.0

ft'.

64(17.5)0.9922

Ax

of the

The value

model
of the

HYDRODYNAMICS

398

STEPS

Deep Woter

Calculate V;j//SR Values Cornespondinc^

and Plot Groph af Rjm " Mao/i^

Calculate CRfo-V) Values ond Plot
on F?T and Veo /y^h" Scales
Fix

4.

5.

6.

0.5a

Sec. 61.7

Colculote or Deten
for

2.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Ag

ot Selected

V/y^

Determine Vi/v,^ from

ond Draw Ordinate for

Prow AgB;^

0.54

QSa

0.56

Fiq.

61-E

Vj/y^fi

Porollel to

0.60

Ratio

EgF^

0.6E

0,64

066

Cnticol

Fig. 61 .H

0.70

0.7Z

Ratio

0.74

0.76

0.78

Q84

03Z

0.86

088

Q90

-^-

Diagram Illustrating Construction op a Shallow- Water Resistance-Speed Curve From a

Deep-Water Curve

square draft '\/Ax

is

33.34

ft,

whence \/Ax/h

calculation or from Fig. 61. D, 1.389.

clearance of 24

0.68

Wave-Speed

17.5

6.5

ft,

by-

is,

Even with a bed

the square draft

is

much

The

larger than the actual water depth.

The value of the critical-speed ratio Va,-\/gh for a

speed of 13 kt, or 21.96 ft per sec, and a depth of 24 ft, is
found from Fig. 61. F, or by calculation, to be 0.790. In
this case a range of Vco'\/gk of 0.60 to 0.90 appears to be
ample for the abscissas of the points corresponding to
Ai and Ei in Fig. 61. B. Instead of using a horizontal scale
of ship speed V, as in Fig. 61.B, the abscissas of the

provided the horizontal scales are consistent. The horizontal scale to be used is therefore strictly a matter of
convenience, provided it is based on a velocity.

new

diagram for this case, reproduced as Fig 61.H, are plotted

on a base of VatyTgh, to facilitate entry into the VjlYa>
curves of Fig. 61. E.
It is again pointed out that when the water depth h
and the ship length L are fixed, as in this case, the Kpco
and Rrm curves, whether plotted on a base of Ya,
of
Vm/y/gh, or of Va>/\/gL, have e.xactly the same shape,
,

first

step in the solution

is

to find the full-scale

Rrm and Rpa, for the range of values of

Va>/\/gh from 0.60 through 0.90, so that the deep-water
curves may be plotted. This is possible by using the
ship values of

values of {IOsjCr for a series of values of F for the speed

sheet 9
range in question, available on

SNAME ERD

These particular values apply to a geometrically similar ship of any length.

The Cfl values for a range of F from 0.1637 to 0.2233
are set down as the first line of entries in Table 61.a. A
short calculation, as listed in the upper part of that table,
indicates that this range of f gives a range of criticalspeed ratio Vo,/Vyk of from 0.6425 to 0.8765 for the
given estuary depth of 24 ft. The method of working out
the friction and the total deep-water resistances Rf^o and
for a 400-ft ship.

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.7

Rtoi for these spots is indicated by the successive lines of

Table 61. a. Plotting these values gives the curves through

A2-K2 and through E2-F2

The next

step

is

of Fig. 61. H.

to derive the values of Yhlyfgh for

more) selected values of Vm/\/gh. These latter

correspond to the five Fn's of the first line of Table

Rth

Rtcd

Rfoi

quicker to draw the line

corresponding segment of the friction-resistance curve

(that is, for the same range of Vco/\/gh), and to mark
intersection with the vertical line for

five (or

the point B2 at

may

the corresponding Vi/\/gh ratio.

the ordinate of C2 and value of

61. a or,

what

is

slightly easier for plotting,

to certain

399

However, it is easier and

A2B2 on the graph, parallel to the

Rft

its

The

Rn

ordinate of B2 gives

for the corresponding

principal abscissas on the diagram of Fig. 61.H. In this

point on the shallow-water curve. Through the six points

example the value of Vo:,/\/gh for the 13-kt speed happens

to lie at one of these points, namely 0.790.
The method of determining the values of Vh\/gh for
the selected values of V^l\fg]\ is set down in Table 61. b.
The Fz/Fco and Vhiyj ratios give the values of the ab-

such as C21 through C26 the shallow-water Rn-V curve

drawn, remembering that the abscissas are really
is

scissas Vail\/ gh for the horizontal locations of the points

B2 and C2 on Fig. 61. H, corresponding to the points Bi
and Ci on Fig. 61.B. Determining the ordinates of a series
of points such as B2 and C2 for a series of points such as
A2 enables the shallow-water total-resistance curve
C21-C25 to be laid down.
The value of the total resistance at the point B2 on
Fig. 61. H may be derived from that at a selected point Ao

Since s/gh

by picking

off

the value

TABLE

TJ^a,

at A2 and using the formula

values of Vai/^/gh.

where Vai/\/gh

Vk

is

is,

(13

Ho

is

13-kt

Vh/\/gh

A2,

ship

of 0.643.

61. a, equal to 27.79 ft per sec,

or 17.87 ft per sec, equivalent to

the answer desired.

10.58) /13

drawn from

representing the

gives the value

from Table

(27.79) (0.643)

10.58 kt. This

is

horizontal line

0.790,

is

speed, to the point

The speed reduction

2.42/13 or about 18.6 per cent.

Using the contours published by O. Schliohting [STG,

TMB Transl. 56, Fig. 9, p. 11 van Lammeren,
W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, Fig. 30, p. 57]_to determine the
speed loss, V^/Vgh is 0.790, (V^/VghY is 0.624, and
1934, Fig. 9;

y/ Axlh

is

1.389.

Entering with these arguments, the

Calculation op Dbep-Watbr Resistance-Speed Data for Example 61.1, Plotted on P^g. 61.H
61. a
Data marked with an asterisk (*) are taken from SNAME RD sheet 9. The value of aCj? is 0.4(10"').

F.

= F./VffL*

HYDRODYNAMICS

400

TABLE

61.b

Selected values of

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 61.8

Derivation op Values op Vnly/gh From Selected Values op Critical-Speed Ratio V/y/gh

F/v^

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.9

the

of

friction-resistance

curve in

the

region

between Vi/'\/gh and V^/wgh it is necessary

to calculate Rp for a speed somewhat higher than
Vi so that the point E3 may be plotted. It is

Rp

well, in fact, to calculate

for a series of ship

401

wave-speed ratio Vi/V applied to the tentative

deep-water speed F
gives a ship speed V
equal numerically to the intermediate speed
previously determined from the potential-flow
ratio, then the tentative speed F
and the
,

V^/y/gh, are the correct

say the ones corresponding to the F

values in the speed range under consideration on

ones. Otherwise, the process is repeated until the

SNAME ERD

intermediate speeds and the speed

speeds,

sheet

2.

This

is

done

in

Table 61.c

example set up subsequently in this secand the results are plotted in the long-dash

ratio

critical-speed

ratios

are

for the

numerically the same.

tion,

Having found the proper value of V^/'s/gh

and the speed F
erect this ordinate on Fig.
61.1; it is the one on which A3 is located. Then
through B3 draw a line parallel to F3E3 meeting
This is one point
the V/\/gh ordinate at A3
on the desired {Rt=, F) curve. The remaining
points are located in the same way.
With the (i^Too F) curve as derived in this
manner there may be plotted for comparison and

hues of Fig. 61.1.

The problem is now to find the speed V for
which the intermediate speed V i is the correct
one for the specified depth. It is known, first,
that Foo is definitely greater but probably not
also that the value
too much larger than Vj
;

V^/'Vgh
same

the

is

greater than

of Fig. 61. E with the

value of

Vi/y/gh by

F and a

known

ratio of

ratio

V i/V

at a value of 'V/'\/~gh

trial

exactly

Entering the theoretical curve

ratio.

numerically than the given

0.55

Vj/'Vgh, a

are selected for

somewhat

F^/V^.
0.56

0.57

larger
If

reference the deep-water resistance-speed curve

model

as predicted from

from standard

the

of this case follows.

0.58

0.59

060

tests or as calculated

series or other data.

0.61

0.62

0.63

0.64

An example
0.65

0.6 6

STEPS
1.

From Observed Data

Plot (Rjh-Vh) Curve

2.

For Q Selected Value

ofVh, Calculate Vh/V^

3.

With

Vf^/Vj Ratio

ed from

picl<-

Fig. 61. G, Det-

ermine Vj/-yQh
4.

From Point C3 Draw

Horizontol Line to B3

5. For

Voo/y^ Value

Slightly Greoter thon

at Bj, Determine

^l/X Ratio and Tentative Vooyfj^ from Fio

).

Frorn Tentative
""f

M/v^

'^i"'^

esponding Volue

Volue
Corrof

Vj/Vjo ond Check for

Aoreement with
Vi/Ygh Ratio at B3
:

When

Correct Vo<,/VqTi

Known, Draw B3A3

Parallel to F3E3. Determine Aji.etc. in Some
Manner and Draw (Rtoq-Voo)'
is

Scale for Ship Speed Vh

FiG.'^ei.I

in

Depth h Mo'y Be Added Here

CoNSTBUCTioN OF A Deep-Wateb Resistance-Speed Cubve Fbom a

Known Shallow-Watbb Cubve

HYDRODYNAMICS

402

TABLE
The data marked with

V/VgZ

or Froude

61.C

asterisks (*) are

number F*

IN SHIP DESIGN

Calculation of Ship Friction Resistance For Case

from

SNAME RD

sheet 2.

Sec. 61.9
l.c

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.10

TABLE

61.d

Calculation of

Selected Vh for ship

Two

Spots on Deep-Water Speed-Resistance Curve from

Water Speed-Resistance Curve

403

Known Shallow-

HYDRODYNAMICS

404

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 61.11

0.55
oafl-

0.50

040

0.99

-n

0.35

0.995 ^

5
025
998

Speed Reduction

for

ABC 5hip

175 feet of

in

^
e 0.20

0999 "
0.15

^
0.10

To Find ApproKimate Speed

Reduction

Enter Dioqrom with Values

of

and Voo/V^h^

Qfid

Interpolate

^/^/h
Between Contours

0.05

Ami
0.4

0.1

Wave-Speed

CrilicQl

Ratio

Intermediote- Speed

Ratio

rj^

0995

0,999

0.99

QS

^00

Fig. 61.J

Geaphs for Determining the Limiting Water Depths for Various Small Speed Reductions

reductions of

1.0,

0.5,

and

0.2,

per cent,

0.1

respectively.

While the statement of this example, and of

others in this chapter, gives the impression of
the principal
straining at small quantities,
purpose of the example is to illustrate the method.
A secondary purpose is to carry the calculations
to a limit beyond which they would probably
never go in practice.
From the 2 per cent curve of Fig. 61. J

At

the

liigher

critical-speed

region

DE, only

both

ratios,

Example 61.11 1.

To show how

ABC

this family of

graphs

ship designed in Part

VH-

is

ft

this

F = O.iVgh =

speed
ft

limiting

42.6/0.393

depth the critical-speed ratio can not

represented by the point N. The limiting ship

For

exceed 0.4,

The

0.393.

= \/I^/0.393 =

[32.174(108.4)]''-'^

0.4

23.62

equivalent to 13.98 kt. Water deeper than 108.4

must therefore be found in order to run a valid sea

per

trial

sec,

at 20.5 kt.

Assume that a
tentatively
is

region having a depth h of 175 ft

selected.

then 42.6/175

The

square-draft

to

is

water-depth

0.243 and the critical-speed ratio

[(20.5)(1.6889)l/\/32.174(175) = 0.461. Entering Fig.

61. J with these values a point is found (marked by the
distinctive circle) at which the predicted speed reduction

is

is

only about 0.3 per cent. This

cent limit.

The

175-ft depth

is

is

well within the 1 per

therefore adequate.

Sec. 61.6, involving a determination of the limiting

The

is

4,

which Ax is 1,815 ft^

depth at which the ship can run slowly, with a reduction
of only 1 per cent in speed, is found from the value of
for

and

ft.

namely

61. J,

of

effect in diminishing the speed.

used, take the case of the

108.4

on Fig.

both have an

F/ 'vgh

At greater values

BCD,

therefore h

ratios,

0.1, in the

the critical-speed ratio

in the region

is

Cases 2a and 2b: To Find the Limiting

61.11
Depth for a 2 Per Cent Increase in Resistance.
Turning to Cases 2a and 2b of the second class of

but at values of \/^A^/h below about

affects the speed reduction.

at

depth h

ratio
it

appears that at critical-speed ratios V^/'Vgh

below 0.4, in the region AB, only the square-draft
to water-depth ratio -VAx/h influences the speed
reduction.

VAi/h

42.6

ft.

limiting

depth of unrestricted shallow water in which the

resistance for a given speed is increased by say
2 per cent, or at which the speed for a given
resistance is diminished by say 1 per cent, a
simplified and approximate procedure is again
justified. Water depths in navigable waters are

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Snc. 61.11

almost never uniform, so that when a limiting

depth is determined, someone must decide
whether it is to be looked upon as a mean or as a

minimum

depth.

For slow and intermediate-speed ships of

normal or full form, having a relatively large
maximum-section area, the limiting depth h is
almost certain to be large enough to make the
limiting critical-speed ratio V^/'vgh, as well as
the ratio \/ Ax/h, rather small, as they are in

HK

the region

of Fig.

61. J.

Indeed, the

first

be so small as to make the wave-speed

may

F;/F

ratio

practically

unity;

the

see

example following. On the other hand,

first

for a fine,

fast ship running at higher critical-speed ratios,

the depth h

is

so great in proportion to the square

draft '\/~Ax that the value of the potential-flow

Vh/Vi may be

ratio

region

FG

following.

practically 1.00, as in the

of Fig. 61. J; see the second

The

example

V,/V then becomes

ratio

the

sole factor in determining the depth.

The approximate method

described here gives

quickly the limiting depth of unrestricted shallow

water in which a ship must run to insure that its

shallow-water

resistance

total

Rth

does

not

deep-water total resistance

The basis of this method is that the resisti^T-oo
ance varies as a certain but undetermined
power of the speed in any narrow speed range or
exceed 1.02 times

its

at any selected speed.

Critical-Speed f?Qtio

0.538

0.400
0.515

As a rough average

Voo/Vqh, where Voq

Is

it

may

be assumed that

405

kV^, in which case

dR

2kV{dV). For any small range in which k and

V may be assumed constant, a 2 per cent increase
in resistance is therefore reflected by a 1 per cent
increase in speed. This

ment that

is

the basis for the state-

at the limiting depth the shallow-water

speed Fa shall be not less than 0.99 times the

deep-water speed F for the given deep-water
resistance Rto,

Since the speed reduction

may

be due to a

decreased Velox-wave speed or to augmented

potential flow around the ship both factors

be considered. As the

must

depends upon the

critical-speed ratio V/-vgh and the second
upon the square-draft to water-depth ratio
'VAx/h, they can not easily be put upon a
conunon basis except to say that for any given
conditions the value of h to be determined must
first

be the same for both.

The speed reduction due to either factor manifestly can not exceed 0.01. From Fig. 61.E the
value of the critical-speed ratio V^c/vgh can
not exceed 0.658, for which F//F = 0.99. From
Fig. 61.G the square-draft to water-depth ratio
a/aI/Zi can not exceed 0.393, where VJVi =
0.99. Below a critical-speed ratio of 0.40 the intermediate speed Vi is practically equal to the deepwater speed F so that this part of the theoretical
curve need not be considered. Below a squaredraft to water-depth ratio of 0.1 the shallow-water

Wave Speed m Deep Woter and

CQ_='^fqii

is Critical

5peed

0.642
0.652
0.658
0.586
0.602
0.614
0&Z4
0.634
0577
0.595
0.608
0.619
0.629
0.638
0.647
0655

0.567

0555

0.993 Vj

0.386
0.393

Fig. 61.

0378

0.353
0334
Q3I3
0291
0265
0235
0199
0.138
0.323
0.278
0.251
Q2I8
QI75
0.000
0.36Z
0344
0302
Square- Draft to Depth Ratio ''{K^/h, where h is Shallow-Water Depth

0370

Diaqrajh for Determining the Limiting

Water Depth for a Speed Reduction op

Per Cent

HYDRODYNAMICS

406

speed

practically equal to the intermediate

is

T',,

In the ranges of critical-speed ratio

and square-draft to water-depth ratio between
those mentioned the sum of the speed reductions
due to both causes can not exceed 0.01 for the
depth to be determined. This is on the basis that
for small values of these differences, not exceeding
0.01, they may be determined accurately either
by addition of the differences or by multiphcation
of the corresponding speed ratios. For example,
speed

extreme

0.9801 while {1.0

0.99)11

Fig. 61.

[(1.00

0.99)

At the
61.K, where Vh/Vt = 0.990, the
water-depth ratio s/Ax/h is 0.393,

square-draft

to

whence the Hmiting depth h is 40.00/0.393 = 101.8 ft.

Assuming on the other hand that all the speed reduction is
due to wave effect, for an intermediate-speed ratio Vi/Va,
of 0.990 the critical-speed ratio

further developed,

The values

of

left

each are taken

from the theoretical and experimental curves of

Figs. 61.E and 61. G for a critical-speed ratio of
0.602 (top scale) and a square-draft to waterdepth ratio of 0.323 (bottom scale).
The method of using the diagram is explained
in the examples which follow. The nomograms
of Figs. 61. D and 61. F may be entered for ready
determination of the values y/Ax/h and V^/ 'vgh,
or these values may be calculated, as in Examples
61. IV, 61.V, and 61.VI.
To take care of the situation on low-speed and
high-speed ships, where the total resistance may
vary at less or more than the square of the speed,
additional diagrams of this type may be constructed from the data on Figs. 61. E and 61. G,

Fig. 61. K, the limiting depth

whereas the

common

that value and 20.5

is

or less than 0.99.

Va,/Vgh =

ft.

It

is

it

may

be smaller

end of the diagram. For a value

VI

285.27
(0.16)(32.174)

of

55.4

ft.

fact that it is not possible, within the limits of the

diagram, to achieve a common value for h indicates that

the potential-flow effect

wave-speed
101.8

effect

is

the determining one while the

is

zero.

The

required depth

For the 20-kt speed assume, as a

is

therefore

ft.

starter, that the point

represents the operating condition. Here the square-

draft to water-depth ratio

mined from that

ratio

is

is

responding critical-speed ratio

derived from

123.8

ft.

The

cor-

0.602 and the depth

is

(33.78)'

{0.&02yg
It is

it is

and the depth deter-

0.323,

40/0.323

98.4

ft.

(0.36)(32.174)

obvious that the

first

depth

is

slightly too large

and

that the square-draft to water-depth ratio should therefore

be larger than 0.323. Assume a value of 0.362, at the point

B. This gives a depth h of 40/0.362 = 110.5 ft. The corresponding critical-speed ratio of 0.567 gives a depth of
(33.78)'

110.3

ft.

(0.567)V
of the position of

B was

so that no further computation

is

excellent in this case,

necessary.

For the 30-kt speed, assume the point C where the

square-draft to water-depth ratio is 0.199 and the criticalspeed ratio is 0.647. Then h = 40/0.199 = 201.0 ft, and

^^

= ?7r?^ =
(0.647) g

Making another

of 10 kt

assume

first

that the

190-6

ft.

calculation for the point D, where the

square-draft to water-depth ratio

limiting depth h of 40/0.209

5.672.

For the lowest speed

critical-speed ratio Va:,/\/gh

(O.-ifg

left

ft,

somewhere between

is

desired to find the limiting

depth of water, at sea level, in which the resistance does

not exceed 1.02 times the deep-water resistance at speeds
of 10, 20, and 30 let. These speeds are equivalent to 16.89,
33.78, and 50.67 ft per sec, respectively; g = 32.174 ft

^/g

The

the diagram of

0.4,

The estimate

For the sake of simplicity, since only

the deep-water speed and the square-draft enter into the
problem, it is assumed that the vessel selected for this
example has a maximum-section area of 1,600 ft', with a
Exainple 61. IV.

value for h

ft.

than the

ratio less

left of

greater than 101.8

is

therefore smaller than 0.658. In fact,

for overall speed ratios correspondingly greater

square draft of 40.00

ft.

lowest value 0.393 at the extreme

The

left-hand scale.

20.5

For any square-draft to water-depth

responding to the right-hand scale, while AH is

that due to potential flow, corresponding to the

sec2,

(0.433)(32.174)

than 0.400, at the

At and beyond the

Then

until

end of the
diagram the speed reduction of 0.01 is assumed
to be due entirely to augmented potential flow
while at and beyond the right end it is due entirely
to reduced wave speed in the shallow water.
Between the ends both effects occur, and they
are additive, as for EA + AH = EH. Here EA
is the speed reduction due to wave speed, corprocedure.

0.658.

(16.889)'

involves a trial-and-error

it

is

0.658 Vfif

(O.QdSyg
Unfortunately,

/r
\//i
.

whence

0.658,

0.9800.

depth.

limiting

Vo,/Vgh

K is a diagram for use in calculating the

required

per

Sec. 61.11

of Fig.

left

0.99(0.99)
(1.00

IN SHIP DESIGN

potential-flow effect limits the depth of water.

speed ratio of 0.645, the depth

is

191.4
is

about 0.209, gives a

Using the critical-

ft.

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.12

/.

^^^=

191.8

ft.

The
192

limiting depth required

is

2,921.4

=
(0.567)'^

(0.645) g

therefore approximately

407

282.4

ft.

(0.3215)(32.174)

These two values of h are close enough so that the

two may be assumed as the limiting one.
it might be well to set the minimum depth as
290 ft.
larger of the

ft.

In this case

To determine

the limiting depth at which the

shallow-water effects become negligible, for

practical purposes,

it

may

all

be assumed that this

depth corresponds to a condition where the shallow-water resistance does not exceed 1.005 of
the deep-water resistance. As the resistance may
again be assumed, for a first approximation, to
vary between the square and the cube of the

an increase in resistance of 0.005

corresponds to an increase in speed of the order
of about 0.002. Similarly, limiting the resistance
in shallow water to that encountered in deep
ship's speed,

Example 6 l.V I. At the opposite extreme, assume a

motorboat having a maximum section area Ax of 6.25 ft",
running at 9.5 kt, or 16.05 ft per sec. What is the limiting
depth of unrestricted shallow water in which the speed
with a given deep-water resistance does not drop below
0.998Fco ? The value of g is taken as 32.174 ft per sec".
As a starter, consider that the overall velocity ratio
Fft/Fco

arbitrary but with a

rather closely.

VJVi

and the 7//7

ratios is to exceed 0.998, the values of

both ratios

of the

61.

less

Ax/h must be
shows that the value of
than about 0.218, regardless of the size of

the ship. Furthermore, the percentage of critical

velocity

must be

speed. This

is

less

than 0.567, regardless of the

equivalent to shrinking the diagram

K to the point where the vertical limits

on both end scales are 0.998 and 1.000. Two
values of the limiting depth h are first derived
from the two relationships given. If they are
not nearly the same the depth h is determined
by trial and error as before.

Vh/Vr ratio
\/ Axlh

of
is

V6.25 =

21.7

ft.

0.115

0.115

For a Vi/Vcc, ratio of 0.9982, the critical-speed ratio

Vaily/ gh from Fig. 61. K is 0.563. Again transposing.

hn

Fig. 61. K, at a

VAx

close to 1.000.

VJV

experience they can be estimated

0.115. Hence, transposing.

Assuming that the value

speed ratio must exceed 0.998,
examination of the corresponding curves of Fig.

must be

little

Then from

0.9997, the square-draft to water-depth ratio

water involves a speed reduction to the order of

0.998 y in the shallow water whose depth is to
be determined.
If the product of the

is made up of the two ratios Vh/Vi =

Vj/V^ = 0.9982. These values are admittedly

0.998

0.9997 and

Yl

(16.05)'

fir(0.563)'

(32.174)(0.563)'

The

potential-flow effect

is

draft to water-depth ratio

25.3

ft.

so small here that the squareis

somewhat indeterminate.

apparent that, because of the greater

depth required to produce the assumed wave-speed ratio,
the latter factor is also the determining one in this case.
The minimum depth is therefore of the order of 25 or 26 ft.
Nevertheless,

of Fig. 61.

61.12

D.

it is

W. Taylor's Criterion for

the Limiting

Depth of Water for Ship Trials. A simple formula

is given by D. W. Taylor for the minimum depth
involving "no increase of resistance"
of water
[S and P, 1943, p. 79]. This is the dimensional
In,

Minimum depth = 10 (draft //)

(F/a/L), where the depth h, the draft U, and
the length L are in ft, and the speed V is in

expression:

Example 61.V.
from

SNAME RD

The data
sheet 39;

example are taken

model 3796. A liner of

for this

TMB

62,660 tons displacement, 962 ft long

by

117.8 ft

beam

having a Cx of 0.981, is expected to

by
run at a speed of 32 kt. What is the limiting depth of
unrestricted shallow water in which the speed with a
given deep-water resistance does not drop below 0.998 Fa> ?
No account is taken of other ship-performance factors
34.39

ft draft,

kt.

Taylor gives the following limitations for this

formula:
"1.

abnormal form or proportions up

Cg of 0.65
For speeds for which V /\/l is not greater than 0.9
The formula may be of use beyond the limits indicated

To

vessels not of

to a block coefficient
2.

such as possible vibration.

3.

The maximum-section area Ax of the ship is 117.8

(34.39)0.981 = 3,974 ft^. The square draft VaI is 63.03
ft. The speed of 32 kt is equivalent to 54.05 ft per sec.
The value of g is taken as 32.174 ft per sec^.

above, but in such cases

the potential-flow criterion alone (point F on Fig.

61. K), the ratio y/Ax/h is 0.218 and the limiting depth
is 63.03/0.218 = 289.1 ft.

By

By

the critical-speed criterion alone (point B on Fig.

V^iy/gh is 0.567 and the limiting

61. K), the value of

depth

is

(it)

needs to be applied with

caution and discretion."

Despite these limits, expressly stated, this

formula has been used rather widely for estimating
minimum depths of water in which to conduct ship
trials.

Taylor's formula as

it

stands

is

not consistent

dimensionally, for the reasons given in Appendix

HYDRODYNAMICS

408
2 of

Volume I. It can be made

by substituting 3.367F

so,

for

there,

quotient

F/VX,

whereupon

/iMin

Applying

the Taylor

becomes
(61. ii)

33.67(/0Fn

is

34.39

ft

and the Froude

at the designed speed of 32 kt

is

54.05/ V32. 174(962) = 0.307, the predicted

value of /iMin = 33.67(34.39) (0.307) = 355.5 ft.

This

is

for a

61.11,

compared to a limiting depth

of

290

ft

ARr of 0.4 per cent, as derived in Sec.

Example 61.V. Taylor's formula is there-

fore conservative or perhaps on the safe side.

Sec. 61.13

the effect of shallow water on ship speed and

somewhat
making the

resistance in the subcritical range are

tedious,

formula to the liner of Example

this

61.V, where the draft

number F

it

as explained

IN SHIP DESIGN

and are not well suited

to

on-the-spot estimates often required. Furthermore, they give no indication, not even approximate, as to what may be expected in the supercritical range,

which

may

easily be reached

under

certain conditions in practice.

means

of

making predictions

as to relative

speeds and resistances in shallow and deep water

by inspection serves a certain purpose in design
procedure, although it is admittedly neither
adequate, accurate, or reliable. The simplified
procedure of Sec. 61.10 and Fig. 61. J could be

Inspection.

extended to cover speed reductions from 2 per

cent up to 5 per cent, and possibly up to 10 per

61.5 through 61.11 for determining quantitatively

cent, provided the differences

61.13

Predicted Shallow-Water Resistance by

The procedures described in Sees.

between the shallow-

Contours Are Ratios of

Indicated Power
Indicated Fbwer

Pi in

Shallow Water

F] in

Deep Water

Region of
Greatly

Augmented

Power

^.
0.294-

=(=

/LOO
^'t.O
1

.1.5^

^'1.25

^^z&^

III
Reqion of IReduced Power,
Less ,than in Deep

i.oa '..^695

IZS,-

^^0.110

Water

"
Pi(5hallow)

Line for Equal

and Equal

^ p^^p^
Ji2

Ship Speed

|SolitaryWave Speed Vqh"

03
4.0

0.4

0.5

0.6

PREDICIED BEH/WIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.14

water and deep-water total resistances at points

such as C, and A, on Fig. 61. B could be neglected.
For estimates of the change in total resistance

Duct

Closed
b

--

same speed, when moving from deep to

is considerably more
difficult, since the answer depends upon the slopes

'^

shallow water, the problem

Rr

on

Hydraulic Rodius
bh
R

"-,

at the

of the graphs of

409

1.

in the region being

Open

Channel

investigated.

Because of the lack of

reliable

methods

for

transforming increased total resistance in shallow

water to terms of increased power, discussed in

Sec. 61.16 following, there is some merit in a
prediction method by inspection which endeavors

power directly. Even

though a ship is rarely pushed in shallow water
to speeds which would be considered normal if the
water were deep, it is helpful to know approximately how much power would be required under

Shollow Water of Unlimited

Extent

="^

Rh'H

to predict the increased

^\^^^^\W\^^\"^\\^\\\"
Sh|p

bh-Ax

A graph suitable for such a purpose is the partial

diagram at the top of Fig. 61.L, having contours
of the ratio (shallow-water power) /(deep-water
power) plotted on appropriate arguments. Follow-

Channel with 5emi -Circular Cross 5ection

y^

by 0. Schlichting,
these are y/Ax/h and V/y/gh, where F is a
given speed, in either deep or shallow water, and
"Vgh is the solitary-wave speed in water of

<^^?x.

"

Rh =

^=0.5Rr

0.5rrR(?

h.

The contours

in Fig.

61.L are indicated as

tentative, since they are derived

from isolated

data observed on one series of ship

trials,

the

4-

n\\\\\\\1o:\\\\\\\V

ing the procedure developed

depth

b+2h+G

these circumstances.

German torpedoboat

of Sec. 61.22.

in Fig.

61. A.

They

Definition Sketches for Hydraulic

Radius

that of

S119', see reference (4)

These data are recorded graphically

diagram of Fig.

Fig. 61.

are reduced, in the lower

Ax has to be estimated,
SI 19. Available data from

of these cases the value oi

was done
model tests

as

for the

by the method

of

analysis

described, out of line with the ship data

and with

are,

graphs indicating the

ratios of indicated power Pj in shallow water to
Pj in deep water, for four depths of shallow water,

each other. It seems clear at this stage (1956)

that all the pertinent variables in the confined-

on a basis of the ratio V/'S/gh, the same as for

the upper diagram in that figure. It is assumed
for this reduction that a depth of water h equal

water situation have not been taken into account.

61.14 Calculating and Using the Hydraulic
Radius of Channels. As is explained presently,

to

0.951L,

61. L, to

indicated

in

Fig.

61. A,

represents

deep water. It is further assumed that the prismatic coefficient Cp of this vessel is 0.64, from
which Ax is calculated to be 45.5 ft^ and
is 6.75 ft. The four graphs of the lower diagram

predictions of the effect of the sides

of channels

characteristic

and the bed

make use of
channel dimension known as

upon ship

resistance

the
the

vAx

hydraulic radius, rather than the water depth h

of Fig. 61. L therefore represent indicated-power

used for shallow-water predictions. For a closed

duct with no solid body inside it this is the ratio,

ratios at

and

Va^/K

values of 0.110, 0.137, 0.206,

0.294.

Reduction of full-scale ship data in similar

fashion, from the references of Sec. 61.22, gives
contours which are extremely difficult, if not
impossible to reconcile with those of Fig. 61. L, so
much so that they are not included here. In most

described in Sec. 18.11, of the transverse duct

or flow area to the wetted perimeter of the duct.

where
and
Rh has the dimensions of a length. An open
channel with no ship in it, as in diagram 2, has
wetted perimeter on only the bottom and the
This situation
h, h,

is

depicted at

and Rn are aU drawn

in Fig. 61. M,

to the

same

scale,

HYDRODYNAMICS

410

two sides. With the same water area as the duct,

its Rh'is, larger. For an open channel with a ship,
as at

4,

Rh is the ratio

of (1) the cross-section area

of the water in the channel to (2) the wetted

perimeter of the solid boundaries of both channel

ship. In shallow water of infinite width,

and

when 6
and the

CO,

the depth

h,

the ship girth G,

become

ship section area ^4^

negligible

with respect to the water-area and width factors.

The hydraulic radius Rh then becomes equal to
the depth

is

bed

large

under

clearance

other effects to take account of

b is large

bh
b

+G

2h

compared to

bh
-r-

other factors

largest

(and

is

them quantita-

tively at the present time.

61.15

Estimating the Effect of Lateral Restric-

Water

Since the speed of a

Rh =

the

towed in it.
Since more of the water goes under the bottom
of a model with a large B/H ratio than with a
small one, the effect of small bed clearance
becomes greater as the B/H ratio increases.
Unfortunately, not enough is known of these and

tions in Shallow

expressed in symbols as:

Sec. 61.15

widest) flat-bottomed model that

as at 3 in the figure. For a rectangular

h,

canal this

IN SHIP DESIGN

serves as such, apparently because of the very

in the Subcritical

wave

Range.

of translation in a

depends only on the depth of

appears plausible to assume that

restricted channel

,,

the channel,
...,

(61.111)

it

O. Schlichting's theoretical assumption concern-

ing the equality of pressure resistance due to

Assuming a waterway with horizontal bottom

and vertical sides, not occupied by a ship, the
hydraulic radius
in the following

Width

Rh

in

6 in

is

related to the water depth h

manner:

wavemaking

at the speed

assumption of SchUchting concerning the speed

correction due to the potential flow around the

50

terms of h

0.60

0.33

terms of h

For open

F and V, remains
The second

valid for these restricted channels.

channels

of

non-rectangular

and

0.909

0.833

0.962

0.990

ship hull requires modification to take account of

irregular sections, with ships in them, the hy-

the width of the channel.

The

by exactly the same

procedure, governed by the same rule. Example

oped by L. Landweber

[TMB

draulic radii are determined

61. VII, in the next section, illustrates the

Studies

made

method.

in connection with the prepara-

tion of Fig. 61. L,

combined with analyses under-

taken (in 1956) subsequent to those reported in

the remaining sections of this chapter, indicate
rather definitely that shallow-water effects cannot
be correlated on the basi s of the single "transverse" parameter 'VAx/h, nor can confinedwater effects be correlated solely on a basis of

V Ax/Rh-

This applies particularly to effects

associated with the potential-flow ratio of Sec.

61.5,

between the shallow-water speed Vh and

the Schlichting intermediate speed Vi Analyses

of the blocking effect of model basins upon the
.

ship models towed in

interference

effects

are

them

indicate that the

negligible

even when,

because of the limited width of the basin, the

hydraulic radius of its section is not much more

than half of

its

actual depth.

By

this criterion, the

is by no means the equivalent of unlimited

deep water of the same depth. Nevertheless, it

basin

200

100

1939,

p.

relationship devel-

Rep. 460,

May

involves, instead of the depth of

10]

water h as before, the hydraulic radius. The

necessity for taking full account of the lateral
restrictions is emphasized by the following

comments, quoted from a discussion by F.

Rayner on page 114 of a paper by A. F. Yarrow
fINA, 1903]:
one of the greatest difficulties in towing on inland
is the friction between the boats and the sides and
bottom of the water way. I have myself seen, on some of
the narrow canals, steam barges almost stationary when
going through what are called, in canal language, "bridge
holes," where you get the minimum width, and consequently enormous friction; as soon as the boat gets away
from the bridge, she shoots ahead."
".

waters

The

ratio

-vAx/h,

relating the square draft

water depth, then becomes \/Ax/Rh

relating the square draft to the hydrauUc radius.
to the

The

fact that

cited,

Landweber used,

in the reference

a value twice as large as that defined here

was compensated

for

by

his use of a factor 2 in

the ratio of square draft to hydraulic radius.

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.16

When

the substitution of

channels.

for h is

made, the

Vh /Vi for confined waters

potential-flow ratio

becomes a function

Ru

of

y/ Ax/Rh

for the restricted

procedure corresponding exactly to

method described in Sec. 61.5 can

then be employed. This means that Fig. 61.
serves for making the numerical calculations as
the Schlichting

provided the user remembers that the

upper scale is a square-draft to hydraulic-radius
before,

come into the picture, nor is it necessary to construct any

deep-water and restricted-channel resistance curves.
Entering the extrapolated broken-line portion of the
curve of Fig. 61. G for a square-draft to hydraulic-radius
ratio of 1.67, the value of the potential-flow ratio
is

0.783. Since

From

the theoretical curves of Fig. 61.E and

F/

0.783(13.51)

Vh

Va> in this case,

Vk/Vi

0.783Fco

10.6 ft per sec or 6.28 kt. This

=
the

is

required speed.

It

ratio.

411

potential flow. Since the points corresponding to Ai and

Bi of Fig. 61. B coincide, the friction resistance does not

that

is

pointed out in Eq.

(61.iii)

when the channel width

of Sec. 61.14

becomes large

in

when a

the experimental curves of Fig. 61. G the speed

proportion to the channel depth

and the

resistance of a ship in a restricted channel

can then be computed when its deep-water speed

shallow river Avidens into a shallow estuary, the

known. The procedure to be

followed is the same as for computing shallowwater resistance; several examples follow.

radius drops out, leaving simply the quotient

and

resistance are

Take the case of the 370-ft shallowwater ship of Example 61.1 preceding, moving in the
channel depicted at 1 in Fig. 61.N. The essential model
and ship data are given on SNAME RD sheet 9, covering
Exam-pie 61.VII.

TMB

model 3818. What would be the actual ship speed

at a resistance equal to that for 8 kt in deep water?

ship has a

maximum

section area

Ax

The

and the

of 1,111.3 ft^

water is at sea level, with a temperature of 80 deg F. The

value of the square draft y/Ax is 33.34 ft. The value of
g

is

32.174

The

per

ft

sec^.

section area of the water around the ship, using

the values in diagram

of the figure,

[(250)(35)]

is

term 2h
hh/b,

in

the

expression

h,

as

hydrauhc

the

for

whereupon the hydraulic radius Ru becomes

equal to the depth

h.

The question now

what

arises,

unrestricted shallow water? This

is

constitutes
difficult

to

answer explicitly because it depends upon the

maximum-section area of the ship being considered with the water and upon the square-draft
to hydraulic-radius ratio. Put i n a nother way,
'\/

the effect of using the ratio

Ax/Rh

instead

vA^/Zi, where
is the restrictedwater depth, depends to some extent upon the
of the ratio

In,

position of the ratio point along the graph of

At small values

Fig. 61. G.

toward the

of the ratio

vAxA,

end of the diagram, the potentialflow speed ratio F^/F/ changes very little with
change in water depth. In any case, one or two

(35)^

2
35^
1,111.3

[(.o.e)(f)]

left

calculations involving the hydraulic radius, along

Example 61. VII, should clear up the

matter readily. When the channel width becomes
from 100 to 200 times the depth, the table in
Sec. 61.14 indicates that the restricted channel
the lines of

=
The wetted

P =

250

9,311.7

perimeter, including that of the ship,

467.5

is

has become the practical equivalent of open,

35 cosec (45 deg)

+
=

ft'

35 cosec (30 deg)

then 9,311.7/467.5 = 19.92 ft,

only a little more than half the channel depth. The
ratio
is
33.34/19.92
or 1.67.
Va^/Rh
The equivalent "rectangular" depth Aeq of the channel
is

radius

is

the section area without the ship, divided by the surface

l,111.3)/(250
35 -|- 60.6) =

width, or (9,311.7

61.16

10,423/345.6 = 30.16 ft.

The value of Vao is 8 kt or 13.51

ft

per

sec.

Then

0.43.
v/32. 174(30. 16)
theoretical curve of Fig. 61.E, the correspond-

ing value of the intermediate speed ratio Vj/Va, is 1.00

and Vi = Va, Hence all the speed reduction is due to
.

of Reliable

Data on Power and

method has yet been developed

No satisfactory
for estimating

the increase in shaft or propeller power,

the

change in rate of propulsion-device rotation, or

the variations in other propulsion factors due to
shallow and restricted waters. E. A. Wright
touches briefly on these matters [SNAME, 1946,
Fig.

10,

p.

381].

The present

unsatisfactory

due partly to the limitations imposed

by various kinds of propelling machinery on the
combinations of rotational speeds, torques, and
powers developed by them. The usual shipperformance data are rarely of much help because,
situation

13.51

From the

Lack

Propulsion-Device Performance.

ft.

The hydraulic

unlimited shallow water.

is

for example,

the throttle setting

may

be held

HYDRODYNAMICS

412
Width

345.6

Wate

of

Sorfoce

A^-

IHI 3 ft^

^ /%- 33,34

ft

Wetted Girth 98

ft

fl (opprox.)

U-eo.eftU

Shown

Wetted Perimeter

is

Hvdrovilic Radius

Ku"

'

in

Net Area

of

Water Seotion (less Ax)

TTT
of Ship

Sec. 61.17

Heavy Lines

:
o
^,
f
TT Trzi
Perimeter, Includino
that
Watted
.,,

IN SHIP DESIGN

whatever improved performance he can from the

ship ui deeper and more open water.
When the ship speed is reduced because of the
diminished velocity of the Velox-wave system in
shallow water, the speed of the ship through the
surrounding water in other words, its relative
speed is correspondingly reduced because the
water stands still, generally speaking, while the
wave moves by. This is the reason why the friction
resistance is reduced when the ship slows from
its deep-water speed to its intermediate speed.
The ship resistance Rt is reduced by this
decrement in Rp
represented by the ordinate
MBi in Fig. 61. B, but not by as much as it would
be for a corresponding speed reduction in deep
water. Thus point Bj in the figure is higher than
point L. For the mtermediate speed F/ therefore,
the shallow- water power, RrhiVi), is greater
than it would be for the same speed in deep
water. The rate of rotation drops by a ratio
somewhat greater than Vj/V^
assuming the
wake fraction w constant, because of the greater
resistance that must be overcome and the greater
thrust to be developed. Furthermore, as the
thrust loading at point Bj is greater than it
would be at point L, the propeller efficiency
drops slightly, still further increasing the power
,

ForDeterminincj

^^^^
Vj/y^
Vo/y^,

of Non-Uniform Depth,
E<iuqI

Use the

ond

V^/y^

Etjuivolent

Depth hgg

to (Water-Section Area)/(WQter Surface Width)'

Offset from Centerlii

l^pical

Suez Lonol

Profile of
j

R.

About 1950 as Given

Brand, "Moneuverinfj of Ships." 3NAME,

with Larqe Ship in Offset Position

1951.

b>y

Fici.lO, p. 241,

at the point L.

As the ship speed diminishes from the intermediate value Vr to the shallow-water value V^
with no change in total resistance, the effective
power P E diminishes, as do the thrust T and the
unless the augmented
speed of advance V a
backflow occurs in a region occupied by the
propulsion device(s). From here on, the data are
,

the Sho

Water Basin at the

David Ta-^lor Model Basin, for which the H-ydraulic. Radius
Appreciably Less Thon the Water Depth h
T^picol Test Condition

in

low-

is

Explanatory and Illustrative Sketches

FOR Equivalent Depths and Hydraulic Radii op
Restricted Channels

Fig. 61.N

constant and

all other

variables allowed to change.

The water depths may

fluctuate

widely with

scanty and the analysis

At a

is

nearly nonexistent.

low value of V^/'s/gJi; the

ship speed is reduced solely because of the ratio
\/ Ax/h. The speed drops from F to V^ but the
resistance remains the same. All the water ahead
of the ship has to get around astern, it must flow
backward in this process, and the backward
sufficiently

much

ship location in the shallow area or along the

flow

channel; the resistances and perhaps the speeds

thus has to

is

faster close to the ship.

move

against

The

what amounts

ship
to a

fluctuate with them.

contrary current in the channel, so that the lost

Unless a ship is designed for special service in

confined waters, only rarely does it have any

of speed

great reserve of power to match the increase in

resistance in the shallower channel depths and
narrower widths, assuming that it is advisable
or permissible to maintain the deep-water speed.
If it is so designed, the limiting conditions

become

the basis of the design, and the operator gets

is

equal to the effective velocity of this

counter current. Assuming that the ship moves

through the water close around it with the same
relative speed, the shaft

power and rate

of rota-

tion of the propulsion device (s) should remain

same as at the speed V

in

Data on Confined-Water Operation

at

substantially the

deep water.
61.17

PRF.niCTEn BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED

Sec. 61.19

413

some

of

the references of Sec. 61.22.

Dimensions on this
Diatjram Are in Meters

All

WATERS

Similar data are to be found in

p. 396].

Data on Offset Running Positions and

61.18

Steering in a Channel.

Few

tive data are available

on the

published quantitaoffset

running of a

ship between canal walls, or alongside a single

wall, as depicted in Figs.

18.

and

18.

and

described in the accompanying text of Sees. 18.5

and 18.6 of Volume I; see also Fig. 61.0. The

two outstanding sources appear to be:

Yowinq Moment N
Acting to 5wi no

Bow Away From

Near Bonk

(1)

Garthune, R. S., Rosenberg, B., Cafiero, D., and

Olson, C. R., "The Performance of Model Ships in
Restricted Channels in Relation to the Design of a
Ship Canal,"
Report 601, August 1948.

TMB

\ Loterol

Force

Section 4 of this report covers the behavior of models

in central and offset positions, in varied depths of

NActinq Away From'

Near Bonk

channel, both towed and self-propelled,

and with

During many of these tests

the ship model was stationary in a current of moving
water. Yawing moments, lateral forces, and rudder
angles to maintain equilibrium conditions are
given in terms of the other variables.
different rudder angles.

Offset From

Centerline of

Conal

(2)

Brard, R., "Maneuvering of Ships," SNAME, 1951,

pp. 229-257. This paper reports the results of tests

on three ship models in a model channel representing the Suez Canal [SNAME, 1951, pp. 232-242].
Graphs of lift, drag, and yawing moment coefficient,
Cy Ci and
respectively, are supplemented in
Figs. 10 and 11 of the reference by graphs of lateral
forces and turning moments for a rather wide range

Centerlina of Conol

Width

Prism at
Bottpml
it BottomI

of

^
rv
^1 oee Dioqram 3

^'

1^

p^

**

of

of Fiq.ei.N

yaw

angles in three different lateral positions,

on the canal centerline and then offset by 0.15

and 0.30 of the 42-meter bottom width of the fullscale canal section. The ship beam was 25.9 meters
or 25.9/42 = 0.617 of that width, and its draft was
first

of WQter| Surface.

Diagram op R. Brard's Full-Scale

Prototype of Model 111 in Full-Scale Suez-

Fig. 61.0

10.4/13 or 0.8 of the canal depth.

Canal Section
Supercritical Speeds.

If supercritical

reached, as they can be on

many

speeds are

fine, fast vessels

where there are no limitations on squat, on the eroding action of waves

along the banks, and on interferences with other
craft, the shaft power at certain speed-length
quotients may fall below the value required in
deep, unUmited water. In Sec. 29.7 of Volume I
it is explained that a following vessel riding on
the front of a transverse wave created by a
leading vessel is able to keep station at reduced
shaft power and with a reduced rate of rotation

in shallow-water areas

of

its

propulsion

device(s).

In

actual

cases,

have been able to hold

position with a 20 per cent reduction in rpm.

following

Data

destroyers

relating

to

the resistance,

speed,

and

change of trim of a heavy cruiser model running

at a supercritical speed in a model channel are
given by E. A. Wright [SNAME, 1946, Fig. 29,

From Brard's Fig. 10 on page 241 of the reference the lateral force on the ship represented by
Paris model 111 was, at the maximum offset,
found to be zero at about 1.2 deg yaw angle away
from the near bank. From Brard's Fig. 11 on
page 242 the value of the turning-moment
coefBcient C at this yaw angle was about 0.075,
acting to swing the bow away from the near
bank. A rudder angle apphed toward the bank,
to counteract this yawing moment away from it,
would set up a lateral force to push the ship
away from the bank. Equilibrium would therefore
be achieved at a yaw angle less than 1.2 deg.
This is the reason why, to get the ship away
from the near bank and back into the center of
the channel, rudder angle is appUed toward the
near bank!
61.19

Locks.

Prediction of Ship Resistance in Canal

The

force required to push

close-fitting ship into or

or pull a
out of a lock, discussed

HYDRODYNAMICS

414

in Sec. 35.12, is estimated by methods derived

from model tests [EMB Rep. 189, Mar 1928].
It is shown in the references cited that the
augmented lock resistance 72i may be related to
the open-water resistance Ra by the equation

where n

Ax

is

ma.ximum
coefficient

section
fc

is

some

and the lock boundaries.

foimd by experiment to vary from 6.2 to 20 and

over but whose average value may be taken as
about 11. Eq. (61.iv), shown graphically in
Fig. 6 LP, should predict Rl/Ro within plus and

indication,

ratio of the ship. It

is

recommended that a systematic

investigation with models in shallow water be made, the

only variable being the beam-draft ratio, to obtain further

information on sinkage."
slight

imevenness in a solid basin

TMB

such as in the

a number which has been

Sec. 61.20

from a study of the sinkage

curves, that the sinkage may vary with the beam-draft
is

(61. iv)

the ratio of the maximum-section area

The

"There

Very

kn

to the transverse clearance area between the

ship

IN SHIP DESIGN

floor,

shallow-water basin, com-

with bed clearances approaching zero,

almost impossible to obtain accurate
shallow-water resistance data with models. Bed
bined

make

it

irregularities in ship operating areas

similar effects

Unknown

on

full-scale resistance

may have
and power.

current magnitudes and directions at

the several depths over an irregular bed

influence ship behavior in

may

also

an unpredictable man-

ner.

Until

it

is

known what

experimenters will record

all

to observe,

careful

the data which can

conceivably have any bearing whatever on the

result,

when they conduct

ship trials in shallow

and restricted waters.

As an indication of some of the unexplained
anomalies which now exist, there are fisted hereunder some data given to the author in January
1949 by the then Captain Arleigh A. Burke,
USN, based upon his experience as commanding
Officer of the light cruiser U. S. S. Huntington

(CL107):

Resistance

Fig. 61. P

Graph for Determining Added ResistWhen Transiting Canal Locks

ance OF Ships

(1) When operating in the shallow waters of the

River Plate, with depths varying from 26 to 35
ft, draft of the ship about 25 ft, it was possible
to achieve a ship speed of about 15 kt by making

revolutions for about 19 kt in deep water.

minus 25 per cent

for entrance

and

exit speeds

not exceeding 3 kt, as apphed to ships having

lengths of 600 ft or more. The model tests covered
ranges of n from about 0.2 or less to 2.82. It is
perfectly feasible, however, to transit ships with
clearances so small that

is

approximately 8

to 10.

ever,

tion

when
above

How-

increasing the rate of propeller rotathis value, it

was stated that the ship

actually ran more slowly than 15 kt.

It

(2)

was found

difficult

to

move

the

ship

sideways in shallow water. This included attempts

to

bow and the stern separately as

move the ship bodily in crab fashion,
motion known as sidling.

move

the

well as to

6L20

Unexplained Anomalies in Shallow and

Water Performance. It has been the
experience of most analysts and experimenters on
ship behavior in confined waters that no sooner
have they found a rule which appears to predict
performance reasonably well than a case crops
up which upsets all their calculations. This
indicates definitely one thing: There are certain
actions and effects not yet known and taken into
account, involving phenomena not now observed.
The following extract is from page 6 of
Report 640, lebruary 1948, by W. H. Norley:
Restricted

TMB

by the
(3)

ship

When

passing through the Suez Canal the

would keep

herself

more

or less in the center

without any appreciable steering.

If she sheered slowly toward one bank a positive
differential pressure would build up on the bank
side of the bow and push the bow back toward
of the channel

midchannel. Having swung so that the

bow was

headed away from the shore the ship would

work herself out from the near bank.
61.21
Summary of Shallow- and Restricted-

Water

Effects.

Summarizino;

the

effects

of

PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 61.22

shallow and

Depth on the Speed

upon ship perform-

restricted waters

ance, as described and explained in Chaps. 18

and 35 of Volume I and in the preceding sections

the following items appear in

of this chapter,

qualitative terms:
(a)

The

(5)

draft below the

surface

still-water

is

increased because of the deeper sinkage of the

ship in the intensified Bernoulli contour system
(b)

The changes

of trim are

(0)

The

overall sinkage

and trim

INA, 1900, pp. 239-248,

giving the results of tests on Italian torpedoboat

and slope

of the ship

of the position

wave

of a solitary

of translation

a function

(7)

on the surface
which may be

(8)

is

traveling near the ship

(d)

The pressure drag

or resistance

increased

is

because of the constrictions imposed on the ship

velocity and pressure fields by the rigid boundaries
(e)

The

a function of the slope and the position of the

ship with respect to the solitary

wave

of trans-

lation

The

(f)

slope drag

may

be

sufficient,

when

it

changes sign and becomes a slope thrust, to

cause a decrease in total drag with an increase

above the

in speed, at a point just

critical

ary layer, with consequent increase in velocity

gradient in the laminar sublayer, when the clearances between the ship and the rigid boundaries

become small
(h) The ship vibration is generally
and magnified in shallow water.

intensified

and 1900, respectively.

"Neuere Versuche fiber Schiffswiderstand in freiem Wasser (New Experiments on Ship
Resistance in Open Water)," Proc. Ninth Int.

Schiitte,

J.,

Shipping Congr., Diisseldorf, 1902

F., RPS, 1903, pp. 110-119. Covers the
"Increase of Resistance Due to Shallow Water or

(10)

Durand, W.

(11)

Popper, S., INA, 1905, Part

L-LIII

(12)

Yarrow, H.; report on the

to the Influence of

speed

(g) The friction drag is increased, partly by the

augmented rearward motion of the water past
the ship and partly by the thinning of the bound-

models
White, Sir William H., MNA, 1900, pp. 469-470
Haack, M., "Nouvelles Recherches sur la Resistance
des Carenes et le jFonctionnement des Bateaux
(New Investigations on the Resistance of Hulls
and the Functioning of Ships)," ATMA, 1900,
Vol. 11, pp. 41-48. This is a discussion of shallowwater performance, based upon the published data
of Captain Rasmussen and General Rota, in INA
for 1899

slope drag or slope thrust encountered

(9)

is

Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 10 Dec 1904, pp. 1870-1878.

This paper contains records of trials of the German
torpcdoboat SI 19, including wave-prolile and
change-of-trim diagrams for a series of speeds.
Rasmussen, A., "Some Steam Trials of Danish
Ships," INA, 1899, pp. 12-26 and PI. V, describing
tests on the Danish torpedoboats Makrelen and
Sobjornen
Rota, G., "On the Influence of Depth of Water on

the Resistance of Ships,"

augmented because

of the intensified Velox-wave system

(c)

415

of Torpedoboats)," Zeit. der

Banks and Shoals."

I,

pp. 199-201 and Pis.

a Yarrow-built

trials of

INA, 1905, Part II, pp. 339-343,

349-358, and Pis. LXXIX-LXXXI
Marriner, W. W., INA, 1905, Part II, pp. 344-358
and Pis. LXXXII, LXXXIII
Watts, Sir Philip, INA, 1908, pp. 69-70
Watts, Sir PhiUp, INA, 1909, pp. 176-178 and Pis.
XV and XVI, reporting on trials of the British
destroyer Cossack. The pertinent data for the two
measured-mile courses on which this vessel was
destroyer,

(13)

(14)
(15)

run are:

on the Effects of
Confined Waters on Models and Ships. A
partial list of references follows on shallow- and
restricted-water effects and on the behavior of
61.22

Partial Bibliography

(1)

White, Sir William H., "Notes on Recent Experience

with Some of H. M. Ships," INA, 1892, pp. 160-186

(2)

Rasmussen,

"The

Influence

Water upon the Speed

of

London, 7 Sep 1894. This

of

the

Ships,"

Depth

of

Engineering,

article is reprinted in

Laubeuf, M., "Influence de la Profondeur de I'Eau

sur la Vitesse des Navires (Influence of the Depth
of

Water on the Speed

Vol.

8,

pp. 207-213.

able at the
(4)

Skelmorlie mile, depth h

ft

Maplins mile, depth h

240

ft,

critical

per sec or about 52 kt

45

ft, critical

of Ships),"

ATMA,

partial translation

is

1897,
avail-

DTMB.

wave

38.05 ft per sec or about 22.5 kt.

H. C, "The Resistance of Some Merchant

Ship Types in Shallow Water,"

pp. 83-86

SNAME,

1911,

and Kent, J. L., "Effect of Form and

on the Resistance of Ships," INA, 1913,
Part II, pp. 37-60 and Pis. Ill, IV. Fig. 5 on PI.
IV shows a 2-diml ship-shaped forebody in a

(17) Baker, G. S.,

Size

uniform stream parallel to the longitudinal

(5) following, pp. 18-20.

(3)

(b)

speed
(16) Sadler,

ships in confined waters:

A.,

(a)

wave speed = 87.8

axis,

and gives streamlines for the flow of the water

around this forebody and between two parallel
boundaries. The forebody was "shaped" by combining 2-diml line sources and sinks with a uniform
stream parallel to the ship

axis.

Einflusses der Wassertiefe auf die Geschwindigkeit

D. W., "Relative Resistances of Some

Models with Block Coefficient Constant and Other

der Torpedoboote (Tests of the Effect of Water

Coefficients

Paulus, Naval Constr., "Versuche zur Ermittlung des

(18) Taylor,

Varied,"

SNAME,

1913,

pp.

1-8,

HYDRODYNAMICS

416
2-6 and
shallow water
esp. pp.

(19)

Pis. 8-11, covering tests

made

Havelock, T. H., "Effect of Shallow Water on

Resistance," Proc. Roy. See, London, 1922

(20) Hecksoher, E.,

IN SHIP DESIGN

Wave

(29)

Size

N. H., and Johansen, F. C, "Wind Tunnel

ARC, R and

Interference on Streamlined Bodies,"

M 1451,
(22) Baker,

G.

1933
S.,

SD,

1933, Vol.

I,

pp. 193-209

den Schiffswiderstand auf

Beschranktem Wasser (Concerning Ship Resist-

(23) Kreitner,

J.,

"tjber

ance in Restricted Waters)," WRH, 1934, Vol. XV,

pp. 77-82. English transl. in BuShips (U. S. Navy
Dept.) Transl. 389, Sep 1950.

H. M., "The Effect of Shallow Water upon

the Resistance of Ships," USNI, Vol. 64, May 1938,
709-713.
This is a restatement of the data
pp.

(24) Heiser,

mentioned by D. W. Taylor in S and P, 1943, pp.

74-81 from W. H. White, INA, 1892, Rasmussen
(1899), Rota (1900), and Watts (1908 and 1909).
The author gives Taylor's dimensional formula
A^in = lOH(y/-\/L); see the comments on this
formula in Sec. 61.12.
(25) Schmidt, W., and Blank, H., "Geschwindigkeitsanderung von Schiffen auf Flachem Wasser (Speed
Changes for Ships in Shallow Water)," Schiffbau,
15 Mar 1938, Vol. 39, pp. 100-103. Part of this
paper is an analysis of the shallow-water data
given by Rasmussen, Paulus, and Watts, in
references (4), (5), and (15), for the S119, Makrelen,
Sohjomen, and Cossack.

SNAME,

F.,

Van Lammeren, W.

conditions

"Maneuvering of Ships in Deep Water, in

Shallow Water, and in Canals," SNAME, 1951,
pp. 229-257, esp. Figs. 4, 5, and 6 on pp. 237-238
(35) Robb, A. M., TNA, 1952, pp. 444-449
(34) Brard, R.,

S., "Investigations of Flow and Drag

Conditions of Ships in Motion in Water of Limited

(36) Schuster,

Depth and Width," STG, 1952, Vol. 46, pp. 244288 (in German). The following review of this
paper by T. P. Torda is quoted from Appl. Mech.
Rev., Apr 1955, Rev. 1239, p. 180:

"An

Oldenbourg, Berlin, 1940, pp. 144-171. A list of 7

references appears on the last page. There is an

of limited
of limited

width, are discussed in the light of various theories

and experiments. In particular, the results of

model experiments are discussed. The theories of
wave form and wave propagation are extended and
hydraulic considerations are discussed. In concluding the paper, author notes that the problems of

depth and limited width of water are

and cannot be treated by a uniform
theory. Author recommends the use of the nomogram developed in the paper for the treatment of
actual problems of ship motion in limited waters.
Discussions of the paper by F. Horn, G. Weinblum,
W. Graff, R. O. Schlichting, H. Dickmann, and
Klindwort are given, together with the reply of
limited

different

Model Tests,"

509-512
Helm, K., "Tiefen- und Breiteneinfliisse von Kanalen
auf den Schiffswiderstand (Influence of Depth and
Breadth of Channels on Ship Resistance)," WRH,
1 Sep 1939, pp. 277-278; also HSPA, Part II,

extensive discussion of existing literature

and theories is given. The problems

depth, and ship motion is channels

Proc. Fifth Int. Congr. Appl. Mech., 1939, pp.

(28)

1946, Fig. 29 on p. 396.

both subcritical and supercritical speeds.

P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
J. G., RPSS, 1948, pp. 17-19, 56-60, 74-76
(33) Lunde, J. K., "On the Linearized Theory of Wave
Resistance for Displacement Ships in Steady and
Accelerated Motion," SNAME, 1951, pp. 25-85,
esp. pp. 50-60 for a discussion of shallow-water
(32)

"Contribution to the Question of the

Effect of the Basin Walls on Ship

SNAME,

Describes model tests conducted in a restricted

channel at Newport News, with models towed at

W., and Blank, H., "Schiffsgeschwindigkeit

in Kanalen (Ship's Speed in Canals))" Zeit. des
Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 2 Jul 1938, Vol. 82, pp. 794-796

Tupper, K.

1942, pp. 149-197

D. W., S and P, 1943, pp. 74-81

(31) Wright, E. A.,

(26) Schmidt,

(27)

J. P.,

of

(30) Taylor,

pp. 368-370
(21) Lock, C.

and Hancock, C. H., "The Effect of

Towing Tank on Model Resistance,"

Comstock,

"Beziehungen zwischen Antriebskraft

und Geschwindigkeit bei verschiedenen Fahrwassertiefen (Relation Between Propulsion and Speed
at Different Water Depths)," WRH, 22 Sep 1929,

Sec. 61.22

English abstract of this paper on pages 224-226

of the referenced HSPA volume.

in

author."
(37)

list

of

27 references, some of them quoted in the

is given by G. S. Baker on pages 124-125
paper "The Effect of Shallow Water on the

foregoing,
of his

Movement of a

Ship,"

INA, Apr

1952, pp. 110-125.

CHAPTER
Estimating the

62

Added Mass of Water Around

Ship in Unsteady Motion

General
Added-Liquid Masses for Some Geometric
Shapes and for Selected Modes of Motion
Comparison of a Vibrating Ship with a Vibrating Geometric Shape
The Change of Added Mass Near a Large

62.1
62.2

62.4

62,5

419

62.6

Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients of

Vibrating Ships in Confined Waters
Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients for
Vibrating Propulsion Devices
Added-Mass Data for Water Surrounding Ship
Skegs and Appendages
Partial Bibliography on Added-Mass and

....

62.3

417

Boundary

423

62

432

62.8

Damping

In Sec. 3.4 of Volume

General.

62.1
is

there

explained the concept of the added mass of

the entrained liquid surrounding a body or ship

in

unsteady motion. In a recent paper, K. Wendel

gives a superb exposition of this concept in both

physical and mathematical terms [STG,

Vol. 44, pp. 207-255.

EngHsh version

1950,

TMB

in

Transl. 260 of Jul 1956]. Moreover, his discussion

is

extended to cover the accelerative-force and

pressure features not treated in Sec. 3.4 or in

433

436
438

439

Effects

For the treatment in Parts 5 and 6 of Volume

maneuvering and wavegoing,
both of which involve unsteady motions, the
added mass of the entrained water almost
always enters as a sizable factor. In general, the
added masses are of the same order of magnitude
as the ships themselves. For the design of a
new ship, or for estimating the performance of an
existing one, numerical values must be known or
III of ship motions in

estimated.

Knowledge

of the quantitative effects

of motion. It should be possible for the reader

water in adding to the mass is

also necessary in a study of body and ship

who

vibration in liquids, discussed at

the present

chapter,

with

familiar

is

as

and 3

well

the

as

other

preceding

modes

portions

book to follow Wendel's

development intelligently, and to derive great
benefit from it, even though some of the details
are passed over. His description of the derivation
of added liquid masses for ships which are heaving
and rolling, with and without bilge keels, apphes
to the discussion of wavegoing in Part 6 of
of Parts

1, 2,

Volume III.
The effect
liquid

of this

the added mass of entrained

aroimd a body in unsteady motion,

(2)

Sec. 20.11 of

Volume

and

the resulting body accelerations,

called the inertia effect.

in

magnitude
added mass is determined normally from a
knowledge of the kinetic energy in the velocity
field around the body for a given mode of motion.
This energy, in turn, is calculated from an exIt is indicated in Sec. 3.4 that the

of the

in a

The added mass

is

often

itself is

field around the body.

For practically every case cited throughout the
present chapter, where the added-mass coefficient
is derived by analytic instead of by empirical
methods, the value is calculated on the basis of

the

the following assumptions:

mass moment

in all directions, in

of inertia) coefficients, are often

the inertia

efficients.

some length

subsequent sections

of this chapter.

sometimes called the accession of inertia for the

body. In other quarters it is called the hydrodynamic mass. Similarly, the 0-diml coefficients
relating the added mass of liquid to the mass of
the body, called here the added-mass (or added
called

in

pression defining the velocity potential throughout

of

relationship of (1) the forces applied to the body,

and

of the entrained

moment

inertia)

co-

These important definitions are

dis-

(or

cussed further in Sec. 62.2.

of

(1) The potential theory is valid for the case in

hand. This means that the body is completely
surroimded by an ideal liquid of great extent

which only potential flow

is without viscosity,
therefore no boundary layer exists.
takes place.

(2)

417

The

This liquid

flow pattern

and the added mass

of

HYDRODYNAMICS

418

IN SHIP DESIGN

where Ap's exist because

normal ship motions. Further, as R. Brahmig

entrained liquid are constant, independent of the

especially in regions

frequency or

of

tlie

amplitude of unsteady motion

There are no discontinuities

(3)

in

the liquid

surrounding the body or ship, which means that

no separation or cavitation exists

(4) There are no damping forces or moments
acting on the body or ship, because of the lack
For those modes of unsteady motion which

do not involve directly the speed of the body or

ship along its major axis, the added mass of the
entrained Uquid is independent of this speed
(6) For a body floating on water, in a state of
equilibrium, the kinetic energy and the addedliquid mass are assumed to be half of the respective values for a fully and deeply submerged
"double body" composed of 'the underwater form
plus its mirror image above the free surface of
the liquid
(7)

For some

to determine

of the analytic procedures

developed

the kinetic energy in the Uquid

surrounding the underwater hull of a surface

method

ship, such as the 1929

of F.

M.

Lewis,

described in Sec. 62.3, it is assumed that the

ship has vertical or wall sides all around at the

means that there is no

the "double body" at the surface-

surface waterline. This

discontinuity in

points out

[TMB

Transl. 118,

Nov

1943, pp. 2-3]:

"Whereas the calculated hydrodynamic (added) mass

depends only on shape (of the body), its value may vary
with flow conditions in a real, eddying medium. A satisfactory agreement of the calculated result with the mass
is therefore possible only when
the flow patterns of the two differing phenomena are

increase in the actual flow

of viscosity in the liquid

(5)

Sec. 62.1

identical."

There is damping of some sort in practically

unsteady motion; certainly in all ship vibration. Assumption (6) requires that the flow
pattern around the actual underwater ship form
be half of that around the "double body." It
neglects the free-surface and gravity effects,
whatever they may be, and the dissipation of
energy by waves generated around the sides of
the ship and moving away from it.
Despite all these drawbacks and disadvantages
the data derived from potential theory have been
most useful. In many cases the simplifying
assumptions have only minor influences, and in
most cases one can be reasonably certain that the
all

not allowed for are definitely

effect of factors

additive or subtractive.
It is again

emphasized here,

and

in Sec. 3.4

assumed to be half of
those on an elliptic ellipsoid having the same
proportions of length, beam, and draft.

That mode must be known

hull of a surface ship are

added mass of the

liquid set in

acceleration or deceleration
tion of the

as' is

pointed out

illustrated in Fig. 3.F, that the

water line level.

(8) So far as the 3-diml effects of finite length
and tapering ends on the added mass of entrained
liquid are concerned, the effects on the underwater

mode

of

motion

is

motion during

primarily a func-

of the

body

or ship.

or assumed before

one sets out to estimate or to calculate the addedeffect. For example, in the case of an ellip-

mass

soid of revolution, the field kinetic enei'gies

No

great study

is

practice, with ships

required to reahze that in

and

their parts, practically

assumptions are truly valid. When

the ships and appendages are moving through a
real liquid Uke water, they are surrounded by
boundary layers, but the viscous effects appear
to be minor except for very small bodies. There

none

is

of these

increasing

evidence

that

the

added-liquid

masses around a vibrating or oscillating body

change with frequency and amphtude of vibration,

especially at the higher frequencies. This

means that the motion

not that of a body in an

ideal liquid, surrounded only by potential flow.
E. Schadlofsky, in reference (14) of Sec. 62.8,
is

went so far as to say that for these reasons it was

hopeless to attempt an added-mass determination
by analytic methods. At high frequencies and
large amplitudes there

may

easily be cavitation.

and

added-liquid masses are by no means the same

for

(1)

translational motion in a given

plane

major axis and (2) bending or

flexural vibration, with two nodes and three
loops, in the same plane. For a 2-diml body of
rectangular section they are not the same for
translational motion in a plane parallel to the
long sides as for that type of motion in a plane
parallel to the

parallel to the short sides.

The

latter

difference

is

illustrated

quantita-

tively for the floating box of unit length

rectangular section of Fig.

62.

of Sec.

and
62.2,

having a beam 2a and a draft a. The addedliquid mass for up-and-down unsteady motion
is 0.76pTra^, while for right-and-left sidling motion
the added-liquid mass is 0.25p7ra".

The mass
is

of the floating box, for unit length,

2pa'. Therefore the virtual

mass of both box

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

Sec. 62.2

and entrained liquid, for unit length and

up-and-down unsteady motion, is thb + vii,
2pa'

mass

coefficient,

(^

VM

0.76pTa

(2

from Sec.

(2 -V 0.767r)pa"

The

0.767r)pal

virtual-

+ mi)lmB or

3.4, is (wib

^
~

for

It

is

419

equally important that he

know what

is

meant by inertia coefficients, mentioned in Sec.

62.1. In most technical books and papers the
inertia coefficients, linear and angular, correspond
to the added-mass coefficients described in the

2.388

-\-

and rotational motion,

Sometimes other names, or addinames, are applied to them to indicate the

foregoing, for translational

2.19

2pa'

respectively.

The

corresponding

added-mass

coefficient

is

simply mL/niB or
i^AM

tional

exact
.76p7ra '

2.388

mode

of motion.

It is customary,

1.19

means always

2pa^

although writers are by no

specific in this matter, to base the

on the mass (or mass moment

buoyant body which has the same
mass as the identical volume of liquid would have.
This is always the case for the added-mass

inertia coefficients

This coefficient is always, by the definitions of

this book, equal to {Cvm 1-0).
62.2

Added-Liquid Masses for Some GeoModes of Motion.

metric Shapes and for Selected

It is stated in Sees. 3.4

and

3.5 of

Volume

that

of inertia) of a

coefficient

defined here. A.

F.

Zahm,

for

one,

puts the matter this way:

the added mass of the entrained liquid around a

in unsteady motion, symbolized by m^
determined by the combination of size, volume,
shape, and mode of motion of the body and the
mass density p of the surrounding liquid. The
mass density of the body, symbolized by mg

body

is

own mass

mass of the
volume of liquid that it displaces. In the, general
case the added liquid mass m^ has no relation to
the body mass me
If the body is a 1-ft cube of cork its mass is
small; if it is a 1-ft cube of lead, its mass is large.
However, for a given mode of motion in each
case, in a given liquid, the added mass of entrained liquid for each cube would be exactly
the same. There is not much point, therefore, in
relating these cork and lead body masses to a
given added mass of some liquid surrounding
them, for example water, while they execute this
is

the ratio of

its

to the

unsteady motion.
If, however, the submerged 1-ft cube is of
heavy wood, so that its weight is exactly equal
to that of a 1-ft cube of the adjacent water
in
other words, if the cube is buoyant then the

ratio mi^lniB

It

is

becomes most useful

in ship design.

called the added-mass coefficient, symbolized

by Cam The ratio (mt -\- mBiImB for a buoyant

body is called in this book the virtual-mass
In some quarters
coefficient, symbolized by Cvm
the latter name is applied to the former ratio,
and added-liquid mass is called virtual mass. In
other quarters the added mass is called the
hydrodynamic mass. It
therefore, in any discussion

is

most

important,

of this kind, that the

marine architect know exactly what

every case.

is

meant

in

"Each

coefficient therefore is

inertia

body's apparent inertia, due to the

inertia of the displaced fluid

Rep. 323, 1929, Part V,

a ratio of the

field fluid, to

moving

as a solid"

the like

[NACA

p. 437].

In this case the last four words are the important

ones, because the mass density for the sohd body
is then the same as for the liquid displaced by it.
This method breaks down for the infinitely thin
flat plate which has finite added liquid mass for
unsteady motion normal to its plane but zero
buoyant or displaced volume. However, it serves
very well for

The

all

foregoing

practical purposes.
is

a necessary preliminary to a

discussion of the added masses of a variety of

geometric shapes and of ship hulls because of the

presence,

on this
and proportion
involving added mass. These can

in

the

technical

literature

subject, of certain form, shape,

coefficients

be confused with the added-mass coefficients

and the inertia coefficients for buoyant bodies,
in which the displaced-Uquid mass equals the
body mass. The text endeavors to make the
distinction clear as each of these form coefficients
easily

is

encountered.

As a means toward
Wendel is followed in

this end, the lead of

K.

stressing the added-hquid

masses themselves instead of the added-mass or

coefficients. These added-liquid masses
and added-liquid weights are the numerical values
required by the marine architect; the coefficients
are convenient tools with which to make early
estimates, and the necessary tools with which to
inertia

conduct analytic investigations.

There are a considerable number of geometric
shapes or bodies for which velocity potentials

HYDRODYNAMICS

420

Moment

Added

Form

Added Moss

of

Two-Dimensionol

Entrained

Bod\(

of

of Inertia of

Li({uid

Entrained Liquid

Mode

Mode of Motion

of

Motion

Rod of
Circular Section

*-

Mode

Mode

of

of

Motion

Motion

Lonq,

K-2a

amount

_JjjJ<2/oira
a/b

2.23
1.7

Rod with

power of the mass density p of

what the shape of the body
or the direction in which it is moving with respect

Fins on

the Corners

i_

first

own

axis.

From

mode

of

motion

is

readily deter-

0.147

JL=k4/)ira^

lated for the motion of

any body for which a

and a stream function can be
which the kinetic energy in the

velocity potential

005

set

up and

for

Dl

Vza^^

flow can be derived.

0.25
'

Mode

of

Motion

tTH_"076/)ira

JL=QII7/3ira'*

mi_-Q25/)Tra

62.A contains diagrams of a number of

geometric shapes, it indicates one or
more modes of motion for each, and it gives the
added-mass values in terms of the mass density
p of the surrounding liquid and the physical
dimensions of the bodies. Most of the data in this
figure were derived from those given by K. Wendel
Fig.

2-diml

[STG, 1950, Vol.

mL"kg/jTra

Floating

Rectonqulor

the kinetic-energy function

mined, as indicated in Sec. 3.4. In general, the

added mass of the entrained liquid can be calcu-

0.15

ni_-k3/)1Ta

the

corresponding

015

2L

pos-

the added mass of the entrained liquid for the

0.234

Section

Square-Sectionr

it

the Uquid, no matter

to its

94
24

1.98

r~2a~

make

ideal liquid, the total

of kinetic energy involved in the intricate

Ub and

m|_"k|/)ira

Rod of Square
or Rectonqulor

an

sible to calculate, for

function involving the square of the body velocity

^l'qp^'^

>\

2b

a well-known example.

motion around such a body, out to

when it moves in one of the
given modes of unsteady motion. The result is a

HL'/Jira

Flat Plate

is

velocity-potential expressions

infinity distance,

a^ein^a,)

A]<is

the top of Fig. 62. A,

particle

/oir(b^cos^a*-

Major

Sec. 62.2

the 2-diml elliptic-section cylinder, depicted near

The

mL"/Otra

IN SHIP DESIGN

and stream functions can be set up, applying to

simple modes of body motion. Of these bodies

\zz

TMB

in

44, pp. 207-255; English version

1956]; those for the

Transl. 260, Jul

general case of the 2-diml elliptic-section cylinder

are from L.

M. Milne-Thomson [TH,

Except as indicated

1950, p. 239].

in the diagrams, all the values

submerged at a considerable
expanse of liquid, so that at
infinite distances from the moving bodies the
particle motions are all zero. In a practical sense,
therefore, the diagrams apply only to certain
listed are for bodies

V///////////////A

depth in an

n|_=

a76/)Tra^

JL-0.059/)Tra*

h-2a^-1
0.61

0.67

m|_- kg/jtra

085

infinite

appendages on a surface ship having a roughly

geometric shape, lying well below the surface,
and to fully submerged submarine vessels.
Fig. 62. B gives corresponding added-Iiquid-mass

data for a series of 3-dinil geometric bodies, and

for circular and elliptic discs, derived from data

on standard reference works on hydrodynamics

JL=0,055jO-rTa^

Fig. 62. a Added-Liquid-Mass Values for Some Twodlmensional geometric shapes in unsteady motion
All values given are for unit lengths normal to the page.

The

respective

modes

double-headed arrows.

of

motion are indicated by the

by

Sir

Horace

Lamb and

considerable

L.

number

M. Milne-Thomson.

of references dealing

with the added mass of entrained liquid around

bodies of various types is listed on pages 100 and
101 of the book "Hydrodynamics," prepared and
published

by the National Research Council,

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

Sec. 62.2

Form

Added Moss

of

Three-Dimenaional

of

Added Moment

G. P. Weinblum and

M.

Denis present,

St.

in

of

of Inertia

Body

421

Entrained Liquid

Entrained Liquid

Sphere

graphic form, values of the three linear and the

three angular inertia coefficients for the elliptic
ellipsoid,

'^/OTrSL^

again for translational motion along, or

motion about the three principal

These data cover a range of ratios between
the semiaxes a, b, and c corresponding to the
proportions of normal ships [SNAME, 1950,
Figs. 6-11, pp. 189-190]. For use with added-mass
values for the general ellipsoid, the body mass
Wb of a buoyant ellipsoid in a liquid of mass
for rotational

axes.
iL=-3-/)Tra

m\_--j-jova.

cIS Mode

Circular Disc

Movinq Normal

of

Motion

Mode

to Its Plane

of Motion

density p

or Rototinq

About Q Diametei

^L=z|/'a=

As
list

Movi nq

m l" ^z^^'"^^")

Broadside

set

is

(4/3)irpa6c.

down

in the

SNAME

paper and in the

to follow, each of these linear (and angular)

inertia coefficients represents the ratio

(1)

the added-liquid mass (or mass

between

moment

of

about the complete elliptic ellipsoid to

(2) the mass (or the mass moment of inertia) of
the complete ellipsoid along or about the axis
specified, when it has the same mass density
as the displaced liquid. For a half-ellipsoid
representing the underwater body of a surface
ship, these added-mass (or added mass moment
of inertia) values are all halved but the ratios
and the coefficients remain the same.
inertia)

It

some

interesting to note that, in

is

the mass of half of an elliptic ellipsoid

cases,

re-

is

markably close to the mass of the water displaced

by the underwater hull of a ship of the same
principal dimensions. For example, in the case
of the

ABC

ship designed in Part

4,

a half-

having the same proportions and

as the ship has the following dimensions:
ellipsoid

Semimajor (longitudinal)
= 255 ft, from Table

510/2

Seraiminor
Fig. 62.B Added-Liquid-Mass Valtjes for Some
Thrbe-Dimensional Geometric Shapes in Unsteady

73/2 = 36.5
Semiminor
26 ft.

(transverse)

axis

size

= L/2 =

66.e.

axis

= Bx/2 =

{not

ft

(vertical) axis c

H/2)

Motion
The

modes

motion are indicated by the

double-headed arrows.

The half-volume of this ellipsoid is (0.5) (4/3)

The weight of the buoyant half-ellipsoid is,
in lb, the half-volume times p times g. Hence the

Washington, 1932. Formulas giving the inertia

weight displacement of the half-ellipsoid in

respective

coefficients

of

of

Tabc.

a variety of 2-diml and 3-diml

shapes developed from the general or

water at sea level

salt

is

elliptic

having semiaxes a, b, and c, and enabling

the added masses (and added mass moments of
inertia) of entrained liquid to be calculated for
translational motion along, and for rotational
motion about the three major axes, are given by
A. F. Zahm [NACA Rep. 323, 1929, Part V,
Table VIII, p. 445].

l^(long tons)

ellipsoid

4\

3/

-rrpgiabc)

2,240
3.1416(1.9905)32.174(2.55)36.5(26)

2,240

14,490 1.

HYDRODYNAMICS

422

The weight displacement of the

The block coefficient Cb of an
(or of half

7r./6

such an elUpsoid)
0.5236.

The block

ship

is

16,400

t.

elUptic ellipsoid

is [(4/3)7ra6c]/(8a?)c)

coefficient

Cb

of the

approximation to the preliminary design

of the ABC ship is, from Table 66.e, 0.593.
fifth

The mass moment

of inertia

of

the liquid

displaced by the buoyant elliptic ellipsoid

For rotation about the x-x or

^pahcib'^
For rotation about the y-y or

c')

c^)

b').

z-z or c-axis,

rsT'pabcia

The

6-axis,

-x%Trpabc{a'

For rotation about the

is:

a-axis,

British Shipbuilding Research Association

has collected, and

S. L. Smith has published

added-mass data for prolate spheroids, for bodies
of other shapes, and for surface ships having a
rather wide range of
or L/V^^^ values [INA,
1955, pp. 525-561, esp. Fig. 12 on p. 542]. The

Yo-8

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 62.2

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

Sec. 62.3

TABLE

62.a

Body Characteristics and Added Liquid-Mass Coefficients fob a Series of 31 Forms

423

HYDRODYNAMICS

424

general nature of the flow pattern for vertical and

lateral unsteady motions, corresponding to

2-noded

vibration in vertical and horizontal planes.

problem

how

is

added mass moment

actual surface-ship hull in

any or

around an
unsteady motion in

of inertia,

of its degrees of freedom.

all

The problem

most frequent application, and

of

at least of major interest,

is

that of finding the

added- or virtual-mass coefficients for a ship in

vibration. This involves a separate and additional
group of degrees of freedom. Many years
ago H. W. NichoUs found that, for a rectangularsection model vibrating vertically, the addedmass coefficient was approximated by

draft of the

model. For the model which he used.

Cam worked

where

0.37

was the beam

(62.i)

^AM

623

the corresponding

0.2

1.037

-f-

0.2

1.237

However, the data from Table 1 of TMB

Report 1022, of May 1956, based on the 1929
method of F. M. Lewis and the reduction factor
of J. L. Taylor for 2-noded bending of an ellipsoid

[SNAME,

1955,

471],

p.

give a

Cam

of

only

0.978 for 2-noded vertical vibration.

an excellent
knowledge concerning the added mass of the entrained water to
ship-vibration problems was given by F. H.
Supplementing

summary

Todd

I + 0.20
and H the

Cj^M

Sec.

mean draft of 24.42 ft,

value by this method is

The

to estimate or to derive numerical

values for the added mass of entrained liquid, or

for the

IN SHIP DESIGN
473], at a

in

the

foregoing,

of the adaptation of

1947

[SBMEB, May,

Jun, Jul, 1947,

Vol. 54, pp. 307-312, 358-362, 400-403, respectively;

ASNE, Feb

1948, pp. 86-110, esp. pp.

101-104].

out as 0.78. For a triangular-section model he

found it to be 0.70 [TMB Rep. 395, Feb 1935,

The use
the

B/H

of a straight-line function
ratio as a

means

embodying

of determining the

added-liquid mass for vertical vibration,

de.'jpite

unexpected applicability to many types of

ship, can at best be considered only a first approximation, to be used in an early stage of the design
when the hull form is not yet known. Moreover,
it takes no account of the fore-and-aft distribuits

p. 9].

Much later it was stated by F. H. Todd

[SNAME, 1947, Vol. 55, p. 160] that, for vertical
vibration only:
"In calculations on the natural frequency of ship hulls
2-noded vibration), the total virtual mass of the hull
and water together varies from 2 to 4 times the ship
displacement. The variation is linear with beam-draft ratio,
and is given approximately by the line
(in

Virtual inertia factor

tion of the

is perhaps more applicable

appendages than to hulls proper. It
involves a comparison of the resonant frequency
of the appendage structure in air with the resonant frequency of the same structure in water.
The structure can be set in motion by a vibration
generator, first when the ship is on the building
ways or in the building dock, with the appendage
surrounded by air. It is again vibrated when the
vessel is in the water, with the vibration generator

placed in commission,

1.2

to

The

virtual inertia factor

placement

is

defined as the ratio of (dis-

entrained water) to displacement."

Here the virtual

inertia factor corresponds to the

Cvm
Cvm 1.0

The added-mass

virtual-mass coefficient
coefficient

Cam

is

where 0.2

is

or

-1-0.2

Ca

(62. ii)

the viscous-resistance or

damping

factor.

For the
coefficient

added mass of entrained hquid, other

than to assume that it is the same as on all other

ships for which reliable data are available.
A somewhat different method, for use after
the ship is structurally complete but before it is

ABC ship of Part 4, the added-mass

approximated by this method would be

ship

(above the water) imparting its periodic forces

through some kind of flexible connection with
the appendage.

Then
(.An A,

Cam = !()

0-2

0.936

0.2

1.136

J'

Uin WateJ
(62.iii)

For the Gopher Mariner at the heavy displace-

ment [SNAME,

1955, pp. 436-494, esp. pp. 451,

(.A.A,>)^

Sec.

ESTIMATE OP ADDED LIQUID MASS

623

425

Because of the second powers involved, this

requires a very careful measurement of

section or hull of the ship

method

calculated

both frequencies.
A second method,

geometric form far below the surface. For example,

application,

is

to

much more

of

general

develop procedures whereby

if

2a

is

its

geometric shapes, as outlined in Sec. 62.2 and

draft of a

many

of the

one-half of the value

or

taken equal to 26 in the case of the sub-

merged rod

the added-liquid masses (and mass moments of

inertia) can be derived from the known values for
as listed on Figs. 62.A and 62.B. For

is

the whole geometric section

for

of rectangular section, in Fig. 62. A,

lower half

is

identical to that of the floating

rectangular box in the same figure, which has a

first

and a beam

For 2a
mass m/,

of 2a.

case the added liquid

26 of the

for the up-

geometric shapes for which the velocity potentials,

kinetic energies of the surrounding flow, and

and-down motion

added-liquid masses are known, the lower halves

transverse sections of the surface ships under

It is rare that any surface ship, except possibly

an old canal boat or a special barge, has a constant transverse section, or one that could be
termed average for the entire length. Manifestly,
the shape of the actual transverse sections, and the

investigation; for 3-diml bodies

applies to the

distribution of this shape along the ship length,

whole underwater hull, as described for the halfellipsoid and the ABC ship of Part 4 in the preceding section. It is then assumed that the added
mass of the liquid surrounding the immersed

determine the flow pattern at different stations,

the kinetic energy in the surrounding unsteady

resemble roughly the underwater forms of ships

having the same size and proportions. For 2-diml
bodies, this resemblance applies to the

Unit Lenqth Between

^ ^

Planes Normal to Axis

it

Mode

immersed

Motion

Vertical

Mode

of

Motion

of

flow,

in

for the second case

and the added mass

of the liquid. Further,

the boat, barge, or ship has a finite length, with

of TrbnslQtionol

Periodic

is 1.51p7ra^;

it is 0.767rpa^.

Surroundinq

Sinalc Amplitude

the

Ends

Liouid

to be Ideal and

Plane

is

All

Seqments Are of
of Radius

Entirely

is

Assumed

Liquid

Motion

Two-DimensionQl

Circular Section

a^

In Both Cases, Two-Dimensionol

Flow

Assumed to Take Place About Each

Seament Independently, Between the
is

Ellipsoid of Revolution in

Midposition

-Lenqth of One Seqment

tporollel

Planes

the Midposition

Normal to

Indicated,

Axes

--Midposition

In

Ends Down. Hoc^aina

Dioqratns

Deformation

Fig. 62.E

First Stage in Transformation of Oscillating Cylindrical

Vertical Vibration

Bar to

is

Axis

Z and 3

by Pure Shear

Ship Structure in 2-Nodbd

HYDRODYNAMICS

126
ends; almost invariabl}'

it

ends, so that 3-dinil flow

is

At the time

tapers toward those

number

involved.

of writing (1956), the general pro-

cedure whereby the underwater hull of a surface

more geometric forms

added mass of entrained liquid
has imdergone about a quarter-centurj^ of development, applying to one particular degree of
freedom. This mode of motion, as mentioned
ship

is

compared

to one or

to determine the

previously,

is in

addition to the usual six degrees

embodies periodic bending

two
nodes and three loops or antinodes, such as that
encountered in the fundamental resonant vibration of a ship hull in the vertical plane. The
processes in this development, which should be
understood clearly by the marine architect who
undertakes to calculate and to use intelligently
the added-mass values for his ship design, are
outlined here in a combination of diagrams and
of

freedom

in that it

or flexure in a vertical plane, usually with

words.

Diagram

in Fig.

section bar of radius

The bar

is oscillating

G2.E illustrates a circulara,

with

its

axis horizontal.

vertically (actually in the

plane of the page) in a pure translational mode,

embodying

rising

and dropping

tances above and below

its

assimied that the rod

is

IN SHIP DESIGN

for equal

ments

made up

623
of a

but adjacent length seg-

separate

of

is

form of thick circular discs, indicated in diagram 2 of Fig. 62.E. The unsteady
flow around each of these circular discs is assumed
to take place in vertical planes normal to the
in the

straight or midposition axis of the rod, so that

each segment the added-liquid mass is irpa'

s of the segment. Although the
discs near the ends move up and down with a
greater amplitude, and a greater velocity, than
for

times the length

the discs at the center, the added-liquid mass for

each segment is not changed because of this situa-

not for the low frequencies involved

However, since there are no imaginary
planes beyond the end segments to insure pure
tion, at least

here.

2-diml flow there,

it is

obviously not acceptable

mass for each disc

by the number of discs and to say that this is the
added-liquid mass for the whole flexing or bending
bar. One reason is that the bar in diagram 2 is
to multiply the added-liquid

deformed

pure shear rather than in pure

in

bending, or in a combination of the two. Another

reason

is

that the flow near the exposed ends

is

certainly 3-diml in character.

F.

dis-

normal position. It is
buoyant, having the

Sec.

characteristics are concerned,

M.

Lewis,

who developed

this

method

in

1929, utihzed as a solution for the second portion

of this

problem a longitudinal reduction

factor.

same mass density as the surrounding liquid,

and that at this stage it is deeply submerged in

This repi-esented the ratio between (1) the addedhquid mass around an ellipsoid of revolution in

an ideal, non-viscous liquid. For such a 2-diml

body, a section of which is pictured at the top of
Fig. 62.A and in diagram 1 of Fig. 62.E, the
added-liquid mass -per unit length is irpa^, where
p is the mass density of the buoyant rod and of
the surroimding hquid. All the unsteady flow

and (2) the added-liquid mass

around a circular bar undergoing pure shear
deflection, having the same length L as the bar
in diagram 2 of the figure but in effect forming
part of an infinitely long circular rod. For his
solution, embodied in SNAME, 1929, pages 6-11,
Lewis assumed that the 3-diml circular-section
ellipsoid also deformed in pure shear. This meant
that the flow around any section took place
between vertical planes normal to the horizontal,

in

this

liquid

takes

place

in

vertical

planes

bounding unit lengths, normal to the horizontal

midposition axis of the rod.

The rod

is

next cut

off to

with free or exposed ends. It

a given length L,
is then made to

vertical vibration

straight midposition of the ellipsoid, represented

diagram 3

of Fig. 62. E.

He

thus obtained a

vibrate in the vertical plane (that of the page)

in

with two nodes, at its fundamental frequency

in the surrounding hquid, taking both the rod
mass and the added-hquid mass into account.
The problem of predicting the fundamental
frequency in advance then resolves itself into one

reduction factor J2-Nodc which he applied to the

added-hquid mass around each of the circular

of finding

the numerical value of the added-

mass for this mode of motion. This may be

tackled in two ways; they are described separately
in the paragraphs which follow.
For the first method it is assumed that the rod,
liquid

although a single solid entity so far as

its elastic

segments, from one end of the bar to the other.

The reason

for doing this, instead of applying

</2-Nod6 to

the whole added Uquid mass, appears

presently.

The reason

for not

summing up the

varied added-hquid masses for the segments of

radius

is

a, a,

Oa

fla

of the ellipsoid of

diagram

also explained presently.

To make this elongated and pointed ellipsoid

resemble the imderwater hull of a surface ship

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

Sec. 62.3

more

closely,

its

numerous length segments,

separated by adjacent vertical planes, could each

be

made

semielliptic in transverse shape.

They

could be given proportions corresponding to the

ratio

[(beam)/(section

of

draft)]

the

several

sections along the length of the ship in question.

The

sections forward, for example, could have

major axes vertical; those amidships could

have them horizontal. This modification, however, would not assist in the solution being sought
since the added-liquid mass around any 2-diml
elliptic shape having a unit length and a major
axis of length 2a, for unsteady motion normal to
their

that axis,

is

irpa",

same as

the

radius a or diameter 2a.

for a circle of

This relationship

is

indicated in the several elliptic sections of Fig.

62.F.

The added mass

of the liquid surrounding

KBeam B-2a-1

Neqleclino Surface Effects,

the Added-Liquid Mass

in

is,

Each Case, m|_- (0.5)Trpa^

'

- (QI25)tt/3E

Fig. 62.F Series op Elliptic Body Sections, All

Having the Same Added Liquid Mass Per Unit Length

an

elliptic section in

of one variable only,

an ideal fluid is a function

namely the square of the

beam, reckoned at right angles to the directtion of motion. For a section of unit length and

beam Bx

either semicircular or semielliptic in

shape, the added mass

0.125p7rB|

mi

is

(0.5)p(7r/4)B| or

would be an advantage, if it could be done,

to modify the shape of the horizontal plane
through the major axis of the geometric body so
that it would have the same beam, at given
0-diml proportions of its length from the nose,
It

as

does

However,

the

waterline

designed

waterline

this again is not

of

the

ship.

a satisfactory procedure

beam

at

its

appropriate station, at

midlength of the segment. However, instead of

using elliptic section shapes, Lewis found that by
employing conformal transformation, described
briefly in Sec. 41.11,

he could obtain the added-

liquid-mass values for transverse section shapes

which resembled closely those found on ships,

including rectangles with square corners and
V-shapes with sharp keels. Diagrams showing
these shapes were published by Lewis in Plates
2 and 3 of his SNAME, 1929 paper and were
reproduced by K. Wendel in Fig. 10 of his STG,
1950 paper; they also appear on pages 21 and 23
of TMB Translation 260, July 1956, and in
Figs. 186(a) through 186(g) and Fig. 187, on
page 320 of the book "The Design of Merchant
Ships," by J. C. A. Schokker, E. M. Neuerburg,
and E. J. Vossnack [H. Stam, Haarlem, 1953].

To make

more adaptable

these section shapes

on ships,
Lewis employed eight separate proportions for
the circumscribing rectangles bounding them.

for comparison with transverse sections

These proportions, symboHzed by H in his paper

and represented actually by the ratio [(halfbeam) /(section draft)], for one side only of a
symmetrical ship, varied from 0.2 to 2.0. In the
referenced paper by Wendel and in TMB Translation

427

method, the representative body is composed of

a series of constant-section, vertical segments,
say about 20 in number, separated by vertical
planes representing the equally spaced stations
set up when making the lines drawing of the ship
for which the added-mass data are desired. Each
constant-section segment has the correct designed-

260 the eight circumscribing rectangles

have a half-beam of a and a section draft of 6.

It is most important to remember, in this
connection, that the section draft corresponds to

the ship draft (vertical distance between

and

baseline)

extends
it is

all

the

only

way

if

the section in

to the baseplane; otherwise

the vertical distance from the

because to determine the longitudinal reduction

factor for such a body, non-ellipsoidal in shape,

bottom

and usually with fore-and-aft asymmetry, would

require a determination of the added mass by a
lengthy and laborious procedure corresponding
to that employed by L. Landweber and A. Winzer,
and described in the latter part of Sec. 62.2.
F. M. Lewis worked out a clever alternative
scheme whereby the added mass of an underwater
ship hull can be approximated by a much simpler
and more straightforward procedure. For this

the ship draft.

of the section in question.

DWL

to the

For a transom-

may

stern section, this section draft

The

DWL

question

be only 0.1

referenced pubUcations are

unfortunately not specific on this point but the

principal features are

shown

in

diagram 4

of

Fig.'62.G.

Instead of tabulating the added-liquid masses

segments of unit length,

Lewis set up a relationship in which they were
referred to halj of the added-liquid mass for a
segment having a circular section of radius a
for these 2-diml section

HYDRODYNAMICS

428

WL

IN SHIP DESIGN

Pure Bendinq Deformation, with

Sec. 62.3

WL

StQiO

All Transverse

Sta

Sections

15

Remommq

in

Diaqram 6

Plane

and Normal to Neotrol Axis

Fig. 62.G

Second Stage in Transformation of Oscillating Cylindrical Bar to Ship Structure in 2-Noded

Vertical Vibration

and unit length. He used

this

quantity as a

up

reference because, in the process of setting

the relationship, the deeply submerged 2-diml

circular-section

segment of

brought
with a waterHne corFig. 62.

is

to the surface so as to float

responding to its horizontal diameter. If the top
half of the circular-section segment

the

is

removed,

lower half of semicircular section

buoyant, because

its

mass

is

0.5irpa^

is

still

per unit

length and the mass of the displaced water

is

exactly the same.

Lewis' relationship

is

in the

form of a "co-

Added-liquid mass for a ship-shaped

of unit length, beam B, and

bottom

of section

Cl,u =
segment

length, radius a or
incidentally,

Because C. W. Prohaska also has a relationship

supported by different analytical
and experimental data, and also designated as C,
it appears wise to substitute for the symbols
CLewiB and Cprohaska & fc-symbol corresponding to
of this kind,

those listed in various places in Figs. 62. A and

62. B.

suitable

symbol appears to be

fcgeot

which, for 2-diml flow in a translational mode,

is

same as Cl^wis above. For a rectangu-

lar ship section

beam

having a [(beam) /(section draft)]

by Lewis,

1.512

(given as 1.51 in the referenced

The value

is

of

for rectangles of other

fcgect

proportions are given in a graph by F.

M. Lewis

and K. Wendel [SNAME, 1929,

4 at top;

B/H

2a

although called "the inertia

coefficient for that (ship) section"

is

figures).

PI.

Transl. 260, Jul 1956, Fig. 21 on p.

For a ship section

of unit

B =

/csect

TMB

Half of the added-liquid mass for a

circular-section

transformed from

ratio of 2.0, with square corners at the bilges,

segment

section draft to

is

circle.

exactly the

efficient" C, defined as follows:

This,

ship-shaped section of Lewis

a

of semicircular shape

ratio of 2.0, ksect

is

3-4].

having a

1.00, since in this case

the added mass of the ship section corresponds

to the added mass of the semicircular section

used as the reference.

now

to determine

the added-

not a true inertia coefficient in accordance with

modern general usage. It might be distantly

liquid

related to such a coefficient but only because the

responding to one of the shapes depicted by

It

is

possible

mass per unit length

of a ship section cor-

ESTIMA IE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

Sec. 62.3

Lewis,

429

and having approximately the correct

ratio [(beam) /(section draft)] of the ship section

under consideration. Lrtroducing the shape factor

KSoot

Added mass

ship-shaped

of

section

of

unit

length

and

Added weight

of

added mass

of liquid surround-

ing ship-shaped section of unit length

=
where the beam

(62. iv)

h..m->^p{g)B'

is

that at midlength of the

constant-section segment in question; in other

words, the local beam.

F. H.

Todd made

it

unnecessary to compare

the shape of the given ship sections with the

transformations of F.
in

reference

(24)

M. Lewis by

of Sec.

publishing,

a graph which

62.8,

gave the shape factor direct from known values

of

and the
body plan.
C. W. Prohaska modified the diagram somewhat
the

ratio

[(beam)/(section draft)]

section coefficient estimated from the

so that the abscissas were values of the ratio

i.

Fig. 62.

of the

196;

[ATMA,

TMB

defining the section coefficient

is

fcgect is

constant for

ratio [(beam) /(section draft)].

all

ships

intricate sections, resembling those

with

the transverse sections of a ship vibrating vertically, calculated

is still

by the methods

just described,

valid only for the flow around each 2-diml

segment, where the segment motion and the sur-

drawn

the latter

ratio is 1.0, the ship section is a semicircle

When

more

bossings and other projecting

appendages [ATMA, 1947, Figs. 16, 17, 18, pp.
191-192]. These section shapes and shape factors
are also derived by conformal transformation.
The added mass of the entrained liquid around
of

coefficient

values of the

When

for other

semicircle,

in

the value of

Prohaska has supplemented the fcsjt-values for

M. Lewis by values

the ship-shaped sections of F.

rounding flow are confined between two vertical

planes at the ends of the segment. This situation
is represented by diagrams 1 and 2 in Fig. 62. E,

clearly illustrated

diagram 4 of Fig. 62. G.

It is to be noted that for a section
of 0.7854, corresponding to that of a

B/H

W. Prohaska's Graphs for Deter-

C.

section

1947, Vol. 46, Fig. 24 on p.

Rep. 739, Oct 1953, Fig. 1 on p. 14;
SNAME, 1955, Fig. 34 on p. 471]. In all three
references cited the ordinates were labeled
iS(beta), which is the alternative ITTC symbol for
midship-section coefficient. This is misleading
because the section coefficient has a value of /3
only at the midship or maximum section. The
present author has further modified the Prohaska
graphs by substituting the shape factor fcsect for
the "coefficient" C. In their new form the graphs
are reproduced here as Fig. 62. H; the method of
coefficient

mining Section-Shape Factors by Inspection

[(beam) /(section draft)] for the section in question

and the ordinates were values

Beam- Draft Ratio

and the

for a cylindrical bar

and

an

for

now

of revolution, respectively. It is

ellipsoid

necessary to

apply to the added mass around this segment a

longitudinal reduction factor to

compensate for

the [(beam)/

the 3-diml nature of the actual flow, equal or cor-

(section draft)] ratio has values other than 1.0,

responding to Lewis' factor Ja-wode mentioned

earher in this section. Because of the use of the
standard sysbol J for mass or polar moment of

shape factor

fcseot

is

1.00.

the ship sections having shape factors

fcgect

of

1.00 are all ellipses, because their added-liquid

masses

are,

from

Fig. 62. F, the

same as

for a

inertia, the

3-diml reduction factor

semicircular segment of unit length having the

by R. However, concerning

same beam.

for

an

is

a factor

ellipsoid of revolution

symbolized

derived

and applied

to a

HYDRODYNAMICS

430
ship form,

Wendel has

this to

say

[TMB

IN SHIP DESIGN
sumably about a transverse
and middepth

Transl.

260, pp. 13-14]:

"It is true that this kind of approximation must be
considered as somewhat rough since it takes into account

body nor the

width-depth ratio; nevertheless a better approximation
which, no doubt, would also be more complicated, seems
to be unnecessary so long as we confine ourselves to

R^ for 2-noded

by shear

neither the specific shape of the displacement

slender bodies."

Plate 4 of Lewis' 1929

SNAME

paper gives

values of the following reduction factors for an

elUpsoid

L/Bx

or

of

L/D

revolution,
ratio of

covering

from 3 to

range

of

724

1947, Fig. 25, p.

where the small diagram indicates

this

type of motion.
i?2 for

rotational motion in a vertical plane, pre-

Fig. 62.1

Graphs of Reduction Factors

with deformation occurring

deflection only; this latter feature is

important to remember
for 3-noded flexure, with deformation occurring
by shear deflection only; this again is important
to remember.

Fig. 62.1 is a graph giving numerical values of

these four factors.

For the 2-noded flexure by pure shear, reprediagram 6

197],

flexure,

axis at midlength

sented by diagrams 2 and 3 in Fig. 62.E and by

18:

Ri for heaving motion or pure translation in a

vertical plane. This is the same set of values
as given by C. W. Prohaska, in his graph

marked "Lamb" [ATMA,

Sec. 62.3

in

Fig.

62. G,

the added weight of

entrained liquid for each transverse segment

is

multipHed by the Lewis reduction factor R^

The weights for all the segments are then superposed upon the weights of the masses composing
the structure, machinery, cargo, and other parts
of the ship, applying the weight ordinates at the
proper points or stations along the diagram which

of F. M. Lewis and

J.

L.

Taylor for Thkee-Dimensional Flow

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LTOITID MASS

Sec. 62.3

represents the length of the ship; see Fig. 37 on

page 472 of SNAME, 1955.

It now becomes necessary to return to a consideration of the second method for determining
the added mass of the entrained liquid aroimd the
circular rod of diagram 2 in Fig. 62.E, when
flexing in 2-noded vertical vibration. F. M. Lewis
adopted the schematic method shown in that
diagram because he felt that the possible error
involved in assuming pure shear deflection, rather
than bending deflection, was less than the error
involved in shifting from the ellipsoid of revolution
(or its lower half) to the actual underwater hull

431

whether he had in mind what has later come to be

the difference between Lewis' reduction factor
for pure shear and J. L. Taylor's reduction
factor for pure bending, or some other effect. In
any case, a recent re-analysis of model and ship
vibration data indicates that the method of
F. M. Lewis, combined with the reduction factor
of J. L. Taylor for 3-diml flow, give values of the
added weight of the entrained water around a
vibrating ship which are still too high, at least
for 2- and 3-noded vertical vibration [McGoldrick,
R. T., and Russo, V.

L.,

SNAME,

1955, p. 490].

Further study and analysis are required before

of a ship, at least for the proportions correspond-

additional refinements in these prediction methods

ing to those of a ship. However, in 1930 J. Lock-

can be attempted.
A comparison of the procedures followed by
F. M. Lewis, C. W. Prohaska, K. Wendel, and
others in predicting the added mass of the
entrained liquid about the underwater hull of a
ship, vibrating vertically in its fundamental
2-noded or 3-noded frequency, indicates a number
of discrepancies with the assumptions of Sec.

wood Taylor published the values

of a reduction

an elHpsoid of revolution, vibrating

an ideal liquid with 2 nodes and 3
by considering pure bending deflection

factor for

vertically in
loops,

rather than pure shear deflection. This

that, as indicated in

diagram 5 of Fig.

means

62. G, the

transverse planes separating the several segments

remain normal to
The segments are
and thick on the
simple bent beam.

the bent axis of the ellipsoid.

convex side, as they are in a

Taylor found reduction-factor
values as much as 8 per cent below those of Lewis.
A graph of J. L. Taylor's factor for 2-noded
pure bending is published by C. W. Prohaska
[ATMA, 1947, Fig. 25, p. 197]; also by R. T.
McGoldrick and V. L. Russo [SNAME, 1955,
Fig. 35, p. 471]; it appears in
Report 739,
October 1953, Fig. 2 on page 14. It is presented
here, along with those of Lewis, in Fig. 62.1,
supplemented by Taylor's values for 3-noded
bending vibration of an ellipsoid, given on page
170 of his 1930 INA paper, reference (9) of Sec.
62.8. Prohaska's diagram indicates graphically
that the reduction factors are for an ellipsoid
flexing in 2-noded vibration; those of
Report 739 and of the 1955 SNAME reference
do not.

TMB

TMB

Since the ship

may

nearly hke a simple

be assumed to bend more

beam when

vibrating ver-

modes of vibration,
and possibly 4 nodes, and since the
data of J. L. Taylor for an ellipsoid vibrating in
this manner are available, it is present practice
tically,

with

62.1

which are not discussed there:

thus thin on the concave side

at least in the lower

2, 3,

Although the limiting conditions set up for

conformal transformation appear to take
account of the free-surface effects, as do the
electric analogies set up by J. J. Koch, it is by no
(1)

the

means

clear

that

these

cover

adequately the

even in an
For
example, most of the ship sections developed by
Lewis and mentioned in the reference have
vertical sides at the waterline although most of
those developed by Prohaska do not. There is a
question whether full compensation has been
situation for ship-shaped sections,

ideal liquid having

made

mass but no

viscosity.

in the analytic process for

the flare or

tumble home to be found on actual ships in this

region. K. Wendel comments that in Koch's
experiment " it is possible to satisfy the
boundary condition only approximately; "

[TMB
(2)

Transl. 260, p. 34].

The

analytic

method described takes

it

for

granted that the ship, built to the shape shown

by the lines, has boundaries that remain rigid
locally, even though the ship flexes as a whole.
It is perfectly possible,

that some

flat

and .indeed quite probable,

or nearly flat areas of hull plating,

(1956) to use Taylor's (smaller) reduction factor

lying generally normal to the direction of vibra-

2-noded vibration rather than that of Lewis.

Many years ago E. B. Moullin pointed out that
Lewis' added-mass values had to be reduced by
10 per cent [INA, 1930, p. 179]. It is not clear

and forces by
magnitude as the
hull deformations. Carried to the limit, one would

for

tory motion, "give" or yield or deflect under the

external

accelerative

amounts

of the

pressures

same order

of

HYDRODYNAMICS

432

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 62.4

expect a ship with a soft-rubber hull boundary

B)/(section draft)] and selecting by inspection a

amounts of kinetic flow in

the surrounding water. The added mass of entrained liquid would then be extremely small.
(3) It has been assumed by many analysts and
experimenters that the added-liquid mass in
vertical vibration for typical ship sections was
independent of both frequency and amplitude
for the lower modes of vibration, with two and
three nodes. Nevertheless, the model experiments

section shape approximating that for the ship.

up only

to set

of H.
Sec.

trifling

described in reference

Holstein,

factor

(25)

indicate a large variation in

62.8,
^Tsect

when

of

shape

the frequency and amplitude

The shape

[ATMA,

Rather than to work out the problem of premass of entrained water around
the hull of the ABC ship of Part 4 in 2-noded
vertical vibration as an example of the method
described in this section, there is given hereunder
a summary of the steps, with brief comments for
each step:
dicting the added

The

ship

is

divided into 21 length segments,

19 of them having a
25.5

full station

length of 510/20

and the two end segments having a

ft,

length of 25.5/2

12.75

ft.

The

half-

fore-and-aft

but the two end segments fall on

the station locations, 1 through 19. For all the
21 sections,
through 20, it is assumed that the
section shape on the body plan is representative
of the entire segment length pertaining to that
centers of

all

station.

the whole waterline beams

and the

section drafts (not necessarily the ship draft) for

the 21 stations.

Compute

the 21 ratios [(beam B)/

Estimate the value of the fullness or section

each section, by inspection or by
some simple method. If there are any concave
portions in the section outlines, fill them out
by straight tangents before determining the
III.

coefficient for

section coefficient.

IV. Using the graphs of Fig. 62. H, determine the

shape factor fcseot for each section. These factors
may be checked by entering the half-body diagrams of F. M. Lewis fSNAME, 1929, Pis. 2, 3;
1950, Fig. 10;

Fig. 10

on

p. 23]

W.
way

1947, Figs. 16, 17, 18 on pp. 191-193;

593].

Prohaska's

as kg^^t

of J. L.

Taylor from the indicated graph of Fig.

62.1, for

the

L/Bx

ratio of the ship.

VI. Determine the added-liquid weight per unit

of ship length for each station by

mM
The shape

factor

(62.v)

(fcsect)(i2)(0.125)7rp(fir)B^
fcsect is

usually different for each

station but the reduction factor

is

the

same

for

all stations.

Apply the weights thus found to the weight

curve for the ship, at the proper stations.
J. C. A. Schokker, E. M. Neuerburg, and E. J.
Vossnack give a somewhat-too-brief summary
of the available methods for estimating or calculating the added mass of the entrained water for
the vertical mode of ship vibration on pages
319-321 of their book "The Design of Merchant
Ships" [H. Stam, Haarlem, 1953]. On page 340,

in Fig. 222,

they give a nomogram, apparently

published

first

Fig.

1947,

29,

by C.
p.

W. Prohaska [ATMA,
for

201],

approximating,

vertical vibration, the ratio of (1) the

entrained water to

(2)

mass

in

of the

the mass of the ship,

taking account of the midship-section coefficient

Cm

the beam-draft ratio

L/Bx

draft h/H,
ratio

is

B/H, the length-beam

the ratio of the water depth to

and the block coefficient Cb

This
found by a rather complicated
.

also

formula in Section 131 on page 326. Neither the

the equation suffice, however, for
determining the longitudinal distribution of the
added mass of the entrained water. These authors
fist 32 references on pages 341-342 of their book.

nomogram nor

(section draft)].

STG,

of C.

be used in the same

also

V. Select the proper reduction factor

ratio

II. List

then the "coefficient"

VII. Multiply the added-liquid weight per unit

length by the length of each of the 21 segments.

Transl. 260, p. 44].

I.

is

SBMEB, Nov 1947, Fig. 11, p.

"coefficient" C is also the same

tered on ships. Graphs indicating these variations,

TMB

fcgect

The half-body diagrams

may

Prohaska

are varied, even in a range of frequency encoun-

and the discrepancy with theory for a ship section

approximately rectangular, are included in Fig.
32 of the Wendel reference [STG, 1950;

factor

of Lewis.

TMB

Transl. 260, Jul 1956,

with the proper ratio of [(beam

62.4

The Change

of

Added Mass Near a

Large Boundary. All the comments in the foregoing are based upon the motion of a body or
ship at a great distance from any rigid or unyielding boundary which would interfere with
the flow pattern of an ideal liquid. The air-liquid
interface or free surface of a body of water
represents a boundary which is, in a practical
sense, both flexible and yielding.

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

Sec. 62.5
If

a rigid boundary

decelerating ship, as

is

when

introduced under a
it

runs suddenly into

shallow water, the kinetic energy in the unsteady

flow

around

ship

the

is

increased,

probably

because the particles are no longer free to follow

a minimum-energy pattern. Hence, the added
of the entrained water begins to increase
appreciably by the time the bed clearance under

mass

the ship has diminished to less than its mean

draft. This is in accordance with the results

derived analytically by H. Lamb, L.

M. Milne-

Thomson, and others, which indicate that the

added mass of entrained liquid increases as a
solid boundary of infinite extent is approached.
If the decelerating body suddenly approaches
a limiting vertical boundary of limited extent
but of large proportions compared to itself, such
as a small tug which surges up to a large ship at

433

Despite verification of the foregoing

by the ex-

J. J. Koch and C. W. Prohaska, to

be mentioned presently, and the full-scale tests
by R. T. McGoldrick on the Great Lakes ore

periments of

Kulas [TMB Rep. 762, Jun 1951,

on p. 4 and p. 11], F. H. Todd and
W. J. Marwood report that, for one ship case
at least, the opposite result was found [NECI,
carrier E. J.

Table

esp.

1947-1948, Vol. 64,

D127].

p.

Assuming an increase

in added-liquid

mass

in

shallow water, the direct result of the increase in

total mass is to decrease the natural frequency
of

the ship,

so

that resonant vibration in a

frequency range below that of the exciting forces

at the operating speed in deep water might occur
within that lowered range in shallow water. For
example, the blade frequency for the single-screw
drive of the ABC transom-stern ship of Part 4

too high a speed, or an exercise torpedo which

runs into the side of a hull, the analytic study

at the designed speed in deep water,

that the added mass of the water

around the smaller decelerating body should also
increase. However, it is reported that in one of
the few known cases where this theorem has
been applied in practice, the observed data
indicated that the added mass of the smaller
body was reduced, so that it became easier to

per min.

per min. At the sustained speed of 18.7 kt, this

stop within a given distance or time interval.

propeller

body had the general form of an

ellipsoid of revolution and it was approaching
the larger body by a sidling motion. It is entirely

blade frequency to 324 cpm.

indicates

The

smaller

possible that other factors were present in the

latter case

and were not taken into account.

Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients

The
of Vibrating Ships in Confined Waters.
effect of shallow water upon a vibrating ship is
62.5

Volume

discussed in Sec. 35.13 of

illustrates

schematically

sections of a ship

form

the

flow

I;

Fig. 35.

around the

in vertical vibration. Sec.

35.14 explains that ship vibration, particularly

in the vertical direction,

shallow water. This

is

is

greatly magnified in

also discussed

by

F.

M.

Lewis in a paper "Ship Vibration" [Proc. World

Eng'g. Cong., Tokyo, 1929, Vol. XXIX, Part 1,
publ. in 1931, pp. 203-204]. T.

W. Bunyan

states

Fig. 78.Nb,

The sixth-moded

from physical reasoning and analytic study the

added mass of entrained water
is greater in shallow water than in deep water.

from

vertical vibration of

still well below the blade frequency at that

reduced speed, likewise in deep water. However,
when running in the river below Port Correo the

rpm might be reduced to say 81, and the

The shallow-water

on the added-liquid mass might be great

enough to lower the sixth-moded resonant frequency from 380 to 324 cpm. Not only would
this be exactly in the running range but there
would be an enormous magnification effect with
the nominal bed clearance of only 4 ft under the
ship. K. Wendel mentions a case similar to this
on page 71 of TMB Translation 260, July 1956.
The problem of the naval architect is to determine, and if possible to predict in advance, the
magnitude and effect of the changes such as
this in added mass, frequency, and ampUtude.
effect

The specific information known to be available

concerning the effect of shallow water on the
added mass
vibrating

(1)

Koch,

of the water

vertically,

zur

inertial effect of the

is,

438.8 cycles

is

mental data

Lewis, in the reference cited, states that

which for certain reasons might be

objectionable, is assumed to occur at 380 cycles

that the various critical vibration frequencies

M.

4(109.7)

the hull,

and amplitudes, in a transverse direction, are

also affected by restricted waters such as the
Suez Canal [IME, Apr 1955, Vol. LXVII, p. 100].
F.

Z(rpm)

J.

is

around a

limited

to

ship,

when

the experi-

of:

J.,

"Eine experimentelle Method

Bestimmung der reduzierten

Masse

des

mitschwingenden Wassers bei Schiffsschwingungen (Experimental Method for Determining

the

Virtual

Mass

for

Oscillations

Ing.-Arch., 1933, Vol. IV, Part

2,

of

Ships),"

pp. 103-109;

HYDRODYNAMICS

434
English version in

TMB

Transl. 225,

May

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 62.5

1949

Prohaska, C. W., "Vibration Verticales du

Navire (Vertical Vibrations of the Ship),"
(2)

ATMA,

1947, Vol. 46, pp. 171-219; abstracted in

EngUsh

in

Nov

SBMEB,

Oct 1947, pp. 542-546 and

1947, pp. 593-599; complete English trans-

lation

(unpubUshed

library.

list

in 1956) available in

TMB

of 21 references appears on pp.

214-215 of the original paper.

(3) Prohaska, C. W., discussion of paper entitled
"Ship Vibration," by F. H. Todd and W. J.

Marwood, NECI, 1947-1948, Vol. 64, pp.

D119-D123, plus authors' reply on p. D127
(4) Marwood, W. J., and Johnson, A. J., "Vibration Tests on an

Up

River Colher with Special

3

Reference to the Influence of Depth of Water,"

NECI, 1953-1954, Vol. 70, pp. 193-216, D103-

DUO.
2-diinl

"

S(Bed Clearance)

Added-Liquid-Mass Data of Koch for a

Rectangular-Section Surface Ship, Vibrating
Vertically in Shallow Water

Fig. 62.J

Koch's data
a

4
Beam B

in (1)

electrolytic

were obtained by tests

in

tank, using the methods

described in Sec. 42.13.

The tank

represented a

of the ship

and the bed

of the channel. Fig. 62.

horizontal half of a rectangular-section channel,

gives these data for vertical vibration; Fig. 62.

with half of the underwater body of a rectangular-

for horizontal vibration.

section ship in the center of the channel.

The

half-breadth of the channel was about 7 times

the half-beam of the ship. This was considered by

Koch to be the equivalent of a channel of infinite

width.
Figs. 62.J
1 1

of the

For one who studies the papers of either Koch

it is important to remember that
the "added mass factor"
(phi bar) of Koch's
paper (TMB Transl. 225) and the "coefficient"
or Prohaska,

and 62.K, adapted from

Koch

Figs. 8

and

reference, give data for determin-

ing the added mass of the entrained liquid around

a floating 2-diml body of rectangular section, for
a combination of variables involving the beam
B, the draft H, and the bed clearance h-H (in the
notation of the present book) between the bottom

Fig. 62.K

of Prohaska's paper, although non-dimensional

based upon the masses of two

underwater body.
This factor and this coefficient are therefore only
shape factors for the bodies in question, to be
in

both

cases, are

different transverse shapes of

defined presently.

They

are not true added-mass

or inertia coefficients.

The

reference

body

of

Koch

is

a buoyant one

Added-Liquid-Mass Data of Koch for a Rectangular-Section Surface Ship, Vibrating

Horizontally in Shallow Water

Sec.

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

62

of constant rectangular section having a

(26 in his paper)

a unit length.
p(5)(B/2)(1.0)

Koch's notation

H of half the beam,

a draft

Its

beam

body mass ma

= pBV2
it is 2pb^.

per

and

therefore

is

unit

length;

in

Therefore, to obtain

the added mass mi, of entrained liquid for a

buoyant rectangular-section body of beam B,

applying to any given combination of the variables

listed in the second paragraph preceding, it is
necessary to multiply Koch's "added mass factor"

by pB' 12. Then for the given rectangularbody of beam B, the added-liquid mass

section
JWi,

The

<^pB'/2 per unit length.

reference

body

of

Prohaska

is

a buoyant

one of semicircular section having a flat, horizontal top and a curved under side, with a

beam B {2b
beam (6 in

in the paper),

body mass m^
length;

in

a draft

of half the

the paper), and a unit length. Its

is

therefore p(7r/8)-B^ per unit

Prohaska's

notation

it

is

0.5xpt>^.

Hence, to obtain the added mass wii for a floating

body having a beam B and any type of constant
section within the limits of Prohaska's tests,
depicted in his Fig. 19, and for any combination
listed by Prohaska (section
and depth-draft ratio T/d), it is
necessary to multiply his "coefiBcient" C by
0.125xpB^. Thus for the given body of beam B,

of

the

variables

coefficient

/3

435

C(0.125)7rpB" per

unit length.

The

body of Prohaska has a semiwhich can be inscribed within the

rectangular section of Koch. Therefore, it has a
mass vib which is x/4 times that of Koch, from
which it follows that Prohaska's C = 4<t>/Tr or
Koch's ^ = xC/4.
The data of C. W. Prohaska, set down in (2)
preceding, were obtained with 2-diml (constantsection) models of limited length and of varied
section shape and fullness, moved bodily up and
down in a tank of water, with their longitudinal
axes parallel to the water surface. The water
depth h was varied by altering the position of an
adjustable bottom. It was found that V-type
transverse sections always gave greater addedmass coefficients than U-type sections, and that
the wii-values for hollow sections were approximately the same as for sections which had the
hollows filled out by drawing tangents between'
reference

circular section

tlie

projecting points.

Fig.

62. L,

adapted from one of the several

shallow-water graphs given by Prohaska, namely

Fig. 32 on page 204 of the 1947 ATMA paper,
summarizes in diagram 1 the shape-factor or
Prohaska "coefficient" C data in terms of (1)
the section coefficient, based on the local beam

3
F?atio

Via. 62. L

the added liquid mass m/,

of

5
Water Depth h to Draft H

Added-Liquid-Mass Data op C. W. Prohaska for a Surface Ship With Normal Sections, Vibrating
Vertically in Shallow Water

HYDRODYNAMICS

436

and the

section draft,

and

(2)

the ratio h/H,

relating the depth of water to the ship draft.

Koch's shallow-water shape factors

apply to

them

rectangular sections only, so to use

ship one would have to

<^

for a

assume a constant section

IN SHIP DESIGN

section,

made for a ship with somewhat tapering ends by

using segments of diminishing section coefficient
toward the ends.
Applying the data of Koch and Prohaska to the
vertical-vibration problem of the ABC ship of
Part 4, transiting the 30-ft river between Port
Correo and the sea, the basic data are:

Draft, i?

26

ft

Depth of water, /i = 30 ft
Bed clearance, h H = A

it

Ratio of draft to half-beam,

2HfBx = 52/73 =

0.71

Maximum-section

coefficient,

Cx = 0.956

Ratio of depth of water to draft,

h/H = 30/26

1.15

Ratio of half-beam to bed clearance,

Bx/[2{h

H)\

73/[2(4)]

9.1

Applying these data to Koch's graph with

ITTC notation. Fig. 62.J, they fall far beyond the
limits of the graph. Applying the equivalent
ratios to Koch's original graph. Fig. 8 of reference
(1) at the beginning of this section, and extrapolating roughly, ^ appears to have a value of
about 5.0 for a ship having a constant rectangular
section throughout. Since Koch's^ = mi/(p5.Y/2),
the added-liquid mass is of the order of
rriL

(0.5)^p5x

2.5pBx per tmit length.

From Prohaska's
diagram

(0.5)(5.0)pBl-

original data, reproduced in

of Fig. 62. L, his "coefficient"

is

about

2.9 for a ship having a constant section coefficient

of 0.956.

The

added-liquid mass

is

therefore of

the order of

= C

Bl-

(2.9)(0.125)7rpB^

1.14pB.v per unit length.

The weight of the added-liquid mass is g{mL) in

each case.
This is a rather large discrepancy but the
comparison is hardly fair to the data of Koch

62.. I

of the present

on page 203 of
1947 paper, Koch's experi-

as well as in Fig. 31

ATMA,

Prohaska's

ments do not cover such a small depth-of-water

to draft ratio.

for the entire length. Prohaska's shallow-water

shape factors apply to sections of varying fullness,

from 0.99 to 0.37, so that a calculation could be

Sec. 62.6

because, as indicated in Fig.

62.6

Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients

for Vibrating Propulsion Devices.

added mass

Data on the

of entrained water surrounding the

thrust-producing blades of any type of mechanically driven propulsion device are required

for

predicting

the

the vibration

component parts or

characteristics

of the

entire

of

mechanical

propelling system.

For a propulsion device like a paddlewheel,

with blades generally normal to their direction of
motion relative to the surrounding water, the
added mass of entrained liquid may be approximated by the known tkl for a submerged fiat
plate of rectangular outline, in unsteady motion
in a direction normal to its surface. For this case,
the added mass is given in Fig. 62.A for the
rectangular flat plate having dimensions of 2a
and 2b. However, the paddlewheel case is by no
means simple because all the submerged blades
create surface waves, and one or two or more
blades are always partly in and partly out of the
water. So far as known, no engineering rule has
been developed for estimating the added mass
niL of paddlewheels or sternwheels.

The

rotating-blade propeller presents a

much

different case because the several blades usually

(except in maneuvering)

lie

at only a small angle

(the attack angle) relative to their direction of

motion through the surrounding water. However,

what is wanted in this case is the added mass for
a mode of motion which is tangential to the
spindle circle at each spindle position. This
quantity depends upon the pitch ratio and the
exact type of blade motion. Moreover, it changes
with the position of a blade on the blade orbit
or spindle circle. It can be assumed roughly as
one-half the added liquid mass for the blade,
reckoned for a mode of motion normal to the
projected area of the blade [Mueller, H. F., unpubl. Itr. to HES, 6 Jul 1956]. This Hquid mass,
added to the mass of the blade and summed up
for all the blades, plus the mass of the supporting
and actuating machinery, gives the polar moment
of inertia of the whole assembly about the axis
of propeller (not blade) rotation.

For the screw propeller the marine architect

interested in the added-liquid masses and the
corresponding added mass moments of inertia

is

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

Sec. 62.6

437

sional-vibration experiments on a group of brass

model propellers, 16 inches in diameter, conducted

in both air and water at the U. S. Experimental
Model Basin. The P/D values ranged from 0.60
to 2.00. However, these tests produced only the
general conclusions that:
(a)

For a

amplitude and frequency the

fixed

effect (on the polar

moment

of inertia

directly with the blade-width ratio,

pitch ratio. In other words,

Cm/D and P/D

(b)

varies

increases as both

increase.

For a given propeller the

moment

./)

and with the

effect (on the polar

of inertia J) increases with frequency

and amplitude
In order to determine the per cent increase in
moment of inertia in any given case, the
amplitude and frequency of the propeller (vibra(c)

(polar)

Remainino
Essentially

tion)

Parallel to

must be approximately known.

Mid-

its

Some

Position

Fig.

62.M

Modes op Motion of a Vibrating Screw

for four

modes

of

years later R. Brahmig

of

the

made an

torsional-vibration

analytic

problem

of

screw propellers, listed as reference (29) of Sec.

62.8. He considered variations in frequency and

Propeller on a Ship

in Fig.

study

motion illustrated schematically

62.M:

amplitude as affecting the added mass of the

entrained liquid, and gave a full statement of the
conditions and scale effect involved
model experiment technique. Results are

similitude
(1)

Torsional or rotational, about the propeller-

shaft axis, as in diagram

1,

assuming that the

latter remains essentially straight

(2) Axial, parallel to or

along that axis, indicated

in diagram 2
(3)

Lateral, corresponding to the sidewise

motion

of a propeller shaft in a loose bearing next to the

diagram 3. This also includes a

motion due to sidewise bending of the propeller
shaft at the propeller, in which the propeller
moves only in a direction parallel to the normal
disc plane, without diametral rotation.
(4) Diametral rotation, as in diagram 4, corresponding to angular motion of the propeller
out of the normal plane of its own disc, due to
bending or whirling of the propeller shaft about
propeller, as in

some

selected diametral axis in the propeller.

There are indications that the depth

sion of a screw propeller

is

of

a factor in

modes, because of the "relieving"

immerall

effect of

four

a free

surface close to the vibrating blades.

To determine the value of the added mass

moment of inertia for the torsional mode of (1)
preceding, a number of tests have been made with
model propellers, among them those of R. T.

TMB

McGoldrick, described in
Report 307 of
July 193L These tests comprised a set of tor-

in the

quoted in his paper for torsional-vibration tests

on flat circular discs but none for model screw
propellers in the same mode. However, Table 2
of this reference lists rotational-amplitude

and

frequency data for the propellers of three ships.

As a rule, the amount of rotation amplitude

and the frequency in water are almost never

known with any reasonable certainty for a ship,
and the effect of the surrounding water oq the
polar

moment

of inertia varies widely as indicated

TMB

Report 307. It was therefore decided,

by those working in this field, that the only
practical interim answer was to accept a perin

centage increase in the polar

moment

of inertia

mass in air, regardless of the

pitch ratio, the mean-width ratio, the ratio of
hub diameter to overall diameter, and all other
factors. For this mode of vibration, the effect of
an abnormally large or small hub is possibly less
pronoimced because of the small radii involved.
However, the sine of the geometric blade angle
of the propeller

is

large at the radii near the hub.

tests, an overall mean of 25 to

30 per cent increase in J, due to the added mass
of the entrained water, was used for many years;

Based on these

this is the value given

by

J.

R.

Kane and R. T.

HYDRODYNAMICS

438

McGoldrick on pages 199 and 200

SNAME,

of

1949. Subsequent experience has indicated a single

average value of 25 per cent increase in / due to

added-liquid mass for the pure torsional mode of

motion [Garibaldi, R. J., "Procedure for Torsional

Analysis

Vibration

Multimass

of

For the

axial

mode

complicated,

usually

lie

and

a major factor.

and

aft,

and the blade width

Kane and McGoldrick

explain

in

be taken as 40 to 60 per cent of the propeller

Further experience on their part
mass mprop
indicates a single value of 60 per cent. In other
quarters, a value of 50 per cent "is normally used"
[E. F. Noonan, BuShips, Navy Dept., unpubl.

memo

to

HES

of 15

Jun

Kane and McGoldrick

equation

1956].

also give a dimensional

having a semianalytic

basis,

of

the

following form:
wii for the axial

0.229.

Then

mode

ft,

of motion, in lb,

ratio

Z =

4,

Cm/D =

for salt water having a weight density

ft^, the added mass m^ for the
by substitution in Eq. (62.vii),

of 64.0 lb per

axial

mode

is,

mr.

0.245(64.0)

'

[0.23(1.199)'

1]

(4)(20.0)'(0.229)'

19,790 lb.

The estimated weight

of this propeller in

which

man-

an
mi/mprop ratio of only 48.6 per cent.
For the lateral mode of vibration, depicted in
diagram 3 of Fig. 62.M, no analytic solution or
test data appear to be available in published form.
A percentage increase of 10 in the propeller mass
is recommended by R. T. McGoldrick (Conf. of
7 Jun 1956).
For the diametral mode of motion, diagrammed
at 4 in Fig. 62. M, McGoldrick recommends a
percentage increase of 50 in the mass moment
of inertia, in air, of the propeller for the same
mode of motion about the same axis, due to the
moment of the added mass of the entrained water.
62.7 Added-Mass Data for Water Surrounding Ship Skegs and Appendages. Fins, deep
keels, fixed stabilizers, and thin skegs of moderate

ganese

bronze

is

40,750

lb,

gives

to large area are subject to lateral vibration

when

by mechanical or hydrodynamic forces.

The frequency of resonant vibration must be
clear of any exciting-force frequency, especially
excited

0.23(^

at 0.6772Ma)

(Z)(0.010D

in inches)'!

^1

(62.vi)

for a periodic force of large

The graphs

for the axial

mode

of

magnitude,

cation of the resonant vibration

where k has an empirical value of about 9,100.

This formula is converted to 0-diml form by
inserting the weight density w of the water in
which the propeller is working. Incorporating the
constant k = 9,100, and eliminating the units of
measurement for the diameter D, the 0-diml
equation then becomes
rrij,

ratio at 0.67/2 m.x is 1.199,

and the mean-width

is

sections

most readable terms on pages 199 and 200

of their paper "Longitudinal Vibration of Marine
Propulsion Shafting Systems" [SNAME, 1949].
For axial vibration they recommend that, as an
approximate estimate, the added Uquid mass m^
it

20

6].

blade

the

P/D

D =

at rather large angles to each direction

of motion, forward
is

Res.

of vibration the situation

since

70.O, the

Sec. 62.7

Systems,"

BuShips, Navy Dept., Unclassified

Dev. Rep. 371-V-19, 15 Dec 1953, p.
rather

IN SHIP DESIGN

motion

in

EMB

is

if

magnifi-

to be avoided.

Report R-22 of April 1940,

describing full-scale vibration tests of one of the

twin skegs of the battleship Washington (BB55),

illustrate the mode of vibration and the resonance
variations with frequency for a ship structure of
this kind.

When a large, thin, vibrating appendage with

moderately sharp edges is surrounded by water,
the kinetic energy in the velocity field is high.
This means a large added mass of entrained liquid.

0.245;

Indeed, the added-mass coefficient

F^
0.231^^ at

0.67/?^.,J

Ij

reach
(62.vii)

iZ){D)f-^

2, 3,

sailing-yacht centerboard, it

may

exceed 6 or

8.

Not only must the magnitude of this mass be

known to predict the resonant frequency when
but the frequency is often drastically
it lies in an undesirable position,
within the range of exciting-force frequencies.
in water,

For the ABC transom-stern ship of Part 4,

having a final design of propdler shown in Fig,

Cam may easily

or 4. For a thin-plate structure like a

lowered, so that

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

Sec. 62.S

43'J

but it may be assumed from Fig. 66.Q to

have an average depth, normal to the centerline
buttock in the vicinity, of about 16.5 ft. This is
the semimajor axis of an equivalent semielliptic
section. The semiminor axis is estimated from
Fig. 66. P as 2.5 ft. Then, for standard salt water
hull,

Schematic Flexure f^ttern

in Vertical

of

hr

Vibration

at 59 deg F, 15 deg C,

the

section,

liquid mass,

moment

For Outer
JL,qu,d

Portion

for half of the elliptic

about the point of attachment of

the skeg to the hull,

Jl

and

of inertia of the added-

is

- hy

(0.0625)7rp(a'

0.0625(3. 1416)I.9905[(16.5)'

27,654 slug-ft' per

ft

(2.5)']'

length,

= (0625)TT^(a^-b^)^
per Unit Lenqth

the

latter

reckoned generally parallel

to" the

centerline buttock in the vicinity.

Method of Estimatino the Added

Liquid Mass fob a Large, Thin, Cantilever

Fig. 62.N

Structure in Lateral Vibration

on Added-Mass and
There are hsted here a number

Partial Bibliography

62.8

Damping

Effects.

of references in the technical literature relating to

the added or entrained masses around bodies,

Cantilever structures, comprising a category

which embodies most of the appendages listed,

sway with a motion somewhat resembling that of
a tree in a gusty wind, illustrated schematically
in Fig. 62.N.

The

root of the cantilever

is rela-

most of the motion occurs

with the Washington skeg mentioned previously. In the absence of a specific
tively rigid, so that

near the

tip, as

analytic solution covering this case, a reasonable

approximation is achieved by assuming that the

cantilever has a semielliptic section and that it is
hinged to the hull at its midlength, at a point
corresponding to the root attachment of the
cantilever. This produces a motion, approximately
normal to the plane of the thin appendage, which
is

greater than that of the cantilever structure

near the root but

indicates that

less

at the tip.

Experience

the kinetic energies and added

masses in the two cases are of the same order of

magnitude.
From the second diagram at the top of Fig.
62.A a 2-diml elUptic-section cylinder in unsteady
oscillatory motion about an axis at its center has
an added mass moment of inertia J l of
(0.125)7rp(a^ h^Y per unit length, where a is
half the semimajor axis and h is half the semiminor

ships,

As an example

of this

method, take the case of

stern of the

ABC ship of Part 4, for which sections

are indicated in Fig. 66.P

66.Q. This skeg

is

and a

profile in Fig.

of variable depth,

below the

of interest to the

marine

men-

tioned throughout the present chapter.

An
ment

excellent historical

summary

of the develop-

means for evaluating and taking account

of the added mass of entrained water around a
vibrating ship is given by R. T. McGoldrick in
the introduction and text of TMB Report 395,
issued in February 1935. The bibliography on
page 30 lists most of the early papers of importance,

INA,

of

beginning with that of Otto Schlick in

1884.

bibhography on vibration, containing 73

was collected by the SNAME Hull
Structure Committee and pubhshed as part of the
work on Project S-7 in SNAME Bulletin, January 1952, pages 14-15. A supplementary list of
30 references was published in SNAME Bulletin,
October 1952, page 27.
References pertaiiiing to added-hquid mass
effects, published subsequent to 1924, include:
references,

(1)

NichoUs, H. W., "Vibration of Ships," INA, 1924

pp. 141-163

(2)

Taylor, J.

(3)

1927-1928, Vol. 44, pp. 143-176

Cole, A. P., "The Natural Periods of Vibration of
Ships," lESS, 1928-1929, Vol. LXXII, pp. 43-86

(4)

Kempf,

one.

the thin, vertical centerline skeg mider the transom

and typical forms

architect. This list includes the references

L.,

"Ship Vibration Periods,"

NECI,

G., and Helm, K., "Auslaufmeeaungen am

und am Modell Dampfer Hamburg (Retardation Measurements on the Ship and on the Model
of the Steamer Hamburg)," WRH, 7 Sep 1928,
Sehiff

pp. 336-340. These authors found a virtual-mass

and straight-ahead
for retardation

coefficient

HYDRODYNAMICS

440
motion

from 1.00

of

for small vessels to 1.04 for

IN SHIP DESIGN

"The

Inertia of the

Water Surrounding

Lewis, F. M.,

(6)

a Vibrating Ship," SNAME, 1929, Vol. 37, pp.

1-20 and Pis. 1-5
Lewis, F. M., "Ship Vibration," Proc. World Eng'g.

(20)

Taylor,

Phil.

(11)

pp. 303-309
"Vibration of Ships,"

J. L.,

LXXII,
(10)

Inertia Co-

Mag., Jan-Jun 1930, Vol. IX,

Series 7, pp. 161-183
Abell, T. B., "A Note on the Direct Measurement of
the Virtual Mass of Ship Models," INA, 1930,

LXXII,
(9)

"Some Hydrodynamical

Taylor, J. L.,
efficients,"

(8)

INA,

1930, Vol.

pp. 162-196, esp. pp. 163-164 and Appx.

A, pp. 169-170
Browne, A. D., MouUin, E. B., and Perkins, A. J.,
"The Added Mass of Prisms Floating in Water,"
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, 1930, Vol. XXVI, pp.
258-272. A brief quotation from p. 263 of this
reference is given on p. 299, Sec. 20.11 of Volume I.
MouUin, E. B., "Some Vibration Problems in Naval
Architecture," Proc. Third Int. Cong. Appl. Mech.,
Stockholm, 1930, Vol. Ill, pp. 28-30

(12) "Effect of

Entrained Water in the Mass Moment of

Rep. 307, Jul

Inertia of Ship Propellers,"

EMB

NECI, 1931-1932,

(14) Schadlofsky, E.,

McGoldrick, R. T., "A Study of Ship Hull Vibration,"

Rep. 395, Feb 1935. Describes and analyzes
staff on the U. S. destroyer
tests made by the
Hamilton (DD141) and on two structural models.
Pages 9-11 discuss the "Correction for Effect of
the Surrounding Water." Pages 30-32 of this report
carry a list of 29 references.
(22) Guntzberger, H., "Effet Amortisseur de l'H61ice sur
les Oscillations de Torsion des Lignes d'Arbres
(Buffer Effect of the Propeller on the Torsional
Vibrations of Line Shafting)," ATMA, 1935, Vol.
39, pp. 251-259. The author finds an augmentation
of polar moment of inertia of 60 per cent of the

(21)

EMB

corresponding polar moment of mass of a steel

screw propeller. He mentions the fact that an
augmentation percentage of 25 is generally used,
as listed in Sec. 62.6 of the present book.
(23) Lewis, F.

(24)

of Ship Vibra-

(25)

"Uber Rechnung und Messung der

EMB
382 of Jun 1934, also bearing the number EMB
Transl. 7. To this report belongs EMB Supplement

"Eine

experimentelle

2,

pp. 103-109; English version in

May

TMB

A.,

tions of Ship Oscillations),"

pp. 295-299

WRH,

Oct 1936,

SNAME,

1936,

H.,

"Tragheitsmoment und Dampfung

(Damping and Moment
Loaded Ship Propellers)," WRH, 15

Aug

1939, Vol. 20, pp. 260-261

"Die Experimentelle Bestimmung des

Hydrodynamischen Massenzuwachses bei Schwing-

(29) Briihmig, R.,

korpern

Determination

(Experimental

the

of

Hydrodynamic Increase in Mass in Oscillating

Bodies)," Schiffbau, 1 Jun 1940 and 15 Jun 1940;
English version in

TMB

This paper carries a

(30)

Meas-

urement)," Tekniska Samfundets Handlinger,

Goteborg, 1934, No. 4; also "Einige Untersuchungen iiber schiffsschwingungen (Some Investiga-

M., "Propeller Vibration,"

of Inertia of

"Uber Schwingende Korper an der

Vol. 15, pp. 15-19

(18) Lundberg, S., "Vibrationsforeteelser (Vibration

H., "Untersuchungen an einem Tauchschwingungen ausfiihrenden Quader (Investigation

of the Heaving Oscillations of a Parallelepiped),"
WRH, 1 Dec 1936, pp. 385-389

Holstein,

belasteter Schiffsschrauben

Oberflache des Wassers (On Vibrating Bodies on

the Surface of the Water)," WRH, 15 Jan 1934,

pp.

liquid surrounding hinged plates.

1932-1933, Vol. 49, p. 259f

Dimpker,

5,

English)

Baumann,

1949
A Comparison of
(16) Todd, F. H., "Ship Vibration
Measured with Calculated Frequencies," NECI,
Transl. 225,

(in

(28)

for Oscillations of Ships)," Ing.-Arch., 1933, Vol.

IV, Part

Tekniska Sam-

Sezawa, K., and Watanabe, W., "The Vibration

Damping of a Ship in her Moving State," Zosen
Kiokai (The Society of Naval Architects of Japan),
Dec 1938, Vol. LXIII. This reference describes
experiments made to determine the added mass of

Method zur

Bestimmung der reduzierten Masse des mitschwingenden Wassers bei Schiffsschwingungen (Experimental Method for Determining the Virtual Mass

in Ships,"

(27)

of the original reference.

J.,

1935,

Vol. 44, pp. 501-519

Report 382, containing a translation of the

discussion on the Schadlofsky paper, pp. 326-335

(17)

Todd, F. H., "Vibration

(26) Lewis, F.

to

J.

SNAME,

fundets Handlinger, Goteborg, 1935, No.

Vol. 48, p. 65ff

(The Calculation and Measurement of Elastic

Natural Frequencies of Ship Hulls)," STG, 1932,
Rep.
Vol. 33, pp. 280-325. English version in

Koch,

M., "Propeller Vibration,"

Vol. 43, pp. 252-285

Elastichen Eigenschwingungen von Schiffskorpern

(15)

C, "Backing

experiments a virtual-mass coefficient, for straightahead motion, of from 1.16 at the light displacement
to 1.20 at the heavy displacement.

125-151

Todd, F. H., "Some Measurements

tion,"

of Propellers," lESS, 1934The author states, on

found from the Greyhound
Froude
that W.

J. F.

p. 57,

1931
(13)

of

NECI, 1934-

EMB

209-210.
(7)

Conn,

Methods

1935, Vol. 78, pp. 27-83.

Cong., Tokyo, 1929, Vol. XXIX, Shipbldg. and

Mar. Eng'g., Part 1 (published in 1931), pp. 193212, esp. the discussion on Water Effects on pp.
203-204. There are 42 references listed on pp.

Vibration: Simple

Estimating Critical Frequencies,"

1935, Vol. 51, pp. 259-276

large vessels.
(5)

Sec. 62.S

C, "Ship

(19) Burrill, L.

(31)

list

Transl. 118,

Nov

1943.

of 34 references.

Prohaska, C. W., "Lodrette Skibssvingninger med

2 Knuder (Longitudinal Ship Vibration with 2
Nodes)," Thesis, Kobenhavn, 1941

Havelock, T. H., "The Damping of the Heaving and

Pitching Motion of a Ship," London, Edinburgh,
and Dublin Phil. Mag. and Jour. Sci., 1942, Vol. 33

(32) Lewis, F. M.,

"Dynamic

Effects,"

pp. 139-140. Contains a long

ME,

list

1944, Vol. II,

of references

on

ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS

Sec. 62.S

"Vibnition of Ships," some of which apply to the

(43)

present chapter.
(33)

Home,

NECI,

L. R., "Stopping of Ships,"

1944-1945,

Vol. 61, p. 3Uff

"Notes on the Theory of

and Pitching," INA, 1945, Vol. 87, pp.
esp. pp. 109-110 discussing the added
entrained water for ship forms. For
Havelock gives a Cam of 0.8 to 1.0; for

(34) Havelock, T. H.,

he gives 0.4 to
(35)

Lamb,
The

table

of

Heaving

44, pp. 207-255. English version in

109-122,

260, Jul 1956.

mass

on

of

pitching

(44)

circular disc,
elliptic cylinder, 85,

of

137

(46)

symmetry, 172.

(36) Prohaska, C. W., "Vibrations Verticales

(Vertical Vibrations of a Ship),"

du Navire

ATMA,

1947,

(47)

Vol. 46, pp. 171-219. Discussion of the added mass

of the entrained water is found on pp. 189-205.

On pages 214 and

215 there is a list of 21 references.

Abstracted in English in SBMEB, Oct 1947,
pp. 542-546 and Nov 1947, pp. 593-599. Complete
English translation, as yet unpublished (1956), at
the David Taylor Model Basin.

Todd, F. H., "The Fundamentals

SBMEB, May, Jun, Jul,

St. Denis,

SNAME,

M.,

"On

the Motions

1950, pp. 184-248, esp.

McGoldrick, R. T., "Determination of Hull Critical

Frequencies on the Ore Carrier S. S. E. J. Kulas
by Means of a Vibration Generator,"
Rep.
762, Jun 1951. In an appendix to this report, pp.
18-19, E. H. Kennard describes a method for

mass of entrained water

around a ship for any mode of vertical vibration.
Wendel,
K.,
and
Boie,
C, "Experimentelle
Bestimmung der Hydrodynamischen Masse an
ganz und Teilweise getauchten Korpern (Experimental Determination of Hydrodynamic Masses
on Totally and Partly Immersed Bodies)," Hansa,
8 Dec 1951, Vol. 88, pp. 1788-1790
Weinblum, G., "Uber Hydrodynamische Massen (On
Hydrodynamic Masses)," Schiff und Hafen, Dec
1951, pp. 422-427 (in German)
Weinblum, G. P., "On Hydrodynamic Masses," TMB
Rep. 809, Apr 1952
Havelock, Sir Thomas H., "Ship Vibrations: The
Virtual Inertia of a Spheroid in Shallow Water,"
INA, 1953, Vol. 95, pp. 1-9. On page 7 there is a
estimating the added

general, 166

(37)

and

TMB

two spheres, 130

an ellipsoid, 153, 155

in cases of

G.,

Effects
(45)

88

of a sphere, 124
of

Weinblum,

pp. 189-192 on Inertia Forces and Free-Surface

"Hydrodynamics," 1945, 6th ed.

between

contents and the index,

Inertia coefficients, of a circular cylinder, 77

an

TMB

Transl.
bibliography of 27 items appears

252 of the original; pp. 73-74 of the transla-

of Ships at Sea,"

them, list the following pages, among others, for

data on added- and virtual-mass coefficients, as
well as for data on the body masses themselves:

of

p.

tion.

heaving,

0.5.

Sir Horace,

441

Wendel, K., "Hydrodynamische Massen und Hydrodynamische Massentraglieitsmomente (Hydrodynamic Masses and Hydrodynamic Mass Moments
of Inertia of Entrained Water)," STG, 1950, Vol.

(48)

(49)

list

of Ship Vibration,"

1947, Vol. 54, pp. 307-312,

(50)

of 7 references.

Marwood, W.

J.,

and Johnson, A.

J.,

"Vibration

Tests of an Up-River Collier with Special Reference

358-362, 400-403, respectively

to the Influence of Depth

Water," NECI,
1953-1954, Vol. 70, pp. 193-216
McGoldrick, R. T., Gleyzal, A. N., Hess, R. L., and
Hess, G. K., Jr., "Recent Developments in the
Theory of Ship Vibration,"
Rep. 739, Oct
1953, esp. pp. 13-15
of

(38)

Todd, F. H., and Marwood, W.

(39)

NECI, 1947-1948, Vol. 64, pp. 193-210, D113-D128

John, F., "On the Motion of Floating Bodies," Com-

J.,

"Ship Vibration,"
(51)

munications on Pure and Applied Mathematics,

Mar

1949, Vol. II, No.

(40) Ursell, F.,

"On

Cylinder on the Surface of a Fluid;" Quart. Jour.

Mech. and Appl. Math., Jun 1949, Vol. II, Part 2
(41)

Kane,

J. R.,

Vibrations

and McGoldrick, R. T., "Londitudinal

of Marine Propulsion-Shafting Sys-

tems," SNAME,
199-200
(42)

May,

TMB

the Heaving Motion of a Circular

1949,

pp.

193-252,

esp.

pp.

and Woodhull, J. C, "The Virtual Mass of a

Sphere Entering Water Vertically," NOL memo
10636, 3 Mar 1950; ONR project NR-062-024;
copy in BuShips, Navy Dept., library. See also
A.,

Nat'l. Res. Council, U. S., Bull. 84, 1932, p. 97.

Grim, O., "Calculation of Hydrodynamic Forces

Caused by Oscillation of Ship Hulls," STG, 1953,
Vol. 47, pp. 277-299 (in German)
McGoldrick,
R. T., "Comparison Between Theo(53)
retically and Experimentally Determined Natural
Frequencies and Modes of Vibration of Ships,"
Rep. 906, Aug 1954, esp. pp. 9, 14
(54) Havelock, Sir Thomas H., "Waves Due to a Floating
Sphere Making Periodic Heaving Oscillations,"
Proc. Roy. Soc, Series A, Jul 1955, Vol. 231, pp.
1-7; see Appl. Mech. Rev., Feb 1956, No. 504,
(52)

TMB

pp. 74-75.

PART
Hydrodynamics Applied

to the

CHAPTER

Design of a Ship

63

Basic Factors in Ship Design

63.1

Definition of Ship Design

63 2
63

Application and Scope of Part 4

63.4

The Fundamental Requirements

442
442

General Assumptions as to Propelling Machin-

443

ery

63.1

Definition

of

fashions a ship in this

for

Ship Design.

modern age

One who

or cargo over the water from one place to another.

must

meet certain definite requirements;

must almost certainly do some things
better than any other ship which can be built to
meet those requirements. This superiority can be
It

indeed,

it

developed in the evolution

of the design, in the

use of the most suitable materials,

application of the best

or in the

workmanship throughout.

63

Ship
Design as a Compromise
The Essence of Design
The Design Schedule for a Ship
The Field for Future Improvements

in

Design

443
444
444
444
444

may be brought out by a process

uncovering that which is innate in any architect

tion. Intelligence

of specialization

can not be satisfied simply that it floats, moves

through the water, and carries passengers

63.7
63.8

Every

itself

63

of

and engineer. Understanding must be learned,

and often the hard way.
Understanding, in general, means a comprehension of all problems and relationships and
phenomena. Specifically, to the one deahng with
problems of hydrodynamics, it means comprehension in its fullest sense of the elements and
the intricacies of liquid flow, and of the means of
dealing with and predicting the characteristics of
this flow.

It can

be developed by a combination of all three,

but it is in the evolution of the design in general,
and the hydrodynamic design in particular, that

63.2 Application and Scope of Part 4.

It is
hoped that a study as well as a reading of the
first three parts of the book has given the ship

we

designer

are concerned here.

Design, for the naval architect and marine

engineer,

may

a ship by an

be defined as the art of fashioning

intelligent

those features of form,

and
size,

logical selection of

proportions,

and

arrangement which are open to his choice, in

combination with those features which are
imposed upon him by circumstances beyond his
control.

Design
planning.

largely a matter of thinking and

This requires, above all, knowledge,

is

and understanding. One can have

any one or two of these quaUties, but without the

intelligence,

third his ship-designing ability lacks that some-

thing

which

successful.

will

make

his

designs

uniformly

Knowledge can be gained from books

and many other sources

of engineering informa-

a generous share of the knowledge,

and understanding needed to fashion

intelligence,

the form and features of a complicated modern

As

knowledge increases, so will his

and his understanding. He will
realize that he can grasp the meaning of those
manifestations of nature that may long have
remained a mystery to him, and that he can
comprehend the whys and wherefores of so many
kinds of flow and action phenomena that were
formerly bewildering and meaningless.
This fourth part of the book therefore undertakes to outhne the procedure whereby the information set down in Parts 1, 2, and 3 may be
utihzed in the hydrodynamic aspects of ship
design. After taking up various phases of the
procedure, in a manner paralleling those followed
ship.

his

intelligence

442

Sec. 63

RASTC DESIGN FACTORS

the preceding chapters,

in

example

of the design of a

it

gives a practical

modern

ship. It stresses

the specified Umitations and requirements, the

free or

open choices available to the designer, and

443

There arc cases also where the type or form

of the propelling machinery affects the declivity
and the parallelism or divergence of the screwpropeller

shafts,

just

the

as

of

the

determines

the

position

the compromises that are unavoidable in anything

machinery

put together by one man to satisfy the conflicting

wishes of other men.
No ship design can be carried very far without
considering the primary features involving hydrostatics. Among these are displacement and trim,

position of one end of the propeller shaft.

metacentric

and damage

control.

They

are treated extensively

and other references [PNA,

and require no further elaboration

may prevent
shaping or fining the hull where this procedure
would otherwise be

The matter

1939,

really not

here.

that:

propelHng machinery

one for discussion in

this book,

except

are brought in as necessary, without detail

consideration, in the ship-design example which

That phase of ship stability generally known as

dynamic stabihty but defined here as dynamic
is, however, very definitely a
problem involving ship and liquid motion. It is

metacentric stability

location of the machinery aft

may

affect

Volume

accordingly included in Part 6 of

III,

carrying a screw propeller, because of the clear-

ances required inside the vessel

teristics.

The machinery weight

(b)

peller

the most efficient rate of rotation for the selected

type of propulsion device, although too often the

is

true.

For propelling the

pulsion device can be driven

reciprocating

an

engine,

ship, the pro-

by a

electric

or

turbine, a

hydraulic

motor, or a hand crank, as long as the desired

torque is apphed, the requisite rate of rotation is
attained, or the necessary

exception to this rule

power
is

is

delivered.

the case of the ship,

mounting two or more propdevs on opposite

which is called upon to
make frequent turns and maneuvers at relatively
high speeds and powers. Here the port and starboard propdevs operate in liquid streams moving

down under

The matter
and

General Assumptions as to Propelling

63.3
Machinery. With a few exceptions which are
noted at the proper places, there is no need to
consider the type of propelling machinery in any
phase of the hydrodynamic design. It is taken for
granted here that the machinery is adapted to

assists in trimming the

by the stern and pushing the screw pro-

vessel

under the chapters relating to wavegoing charac-

reverse

The

(a)

the shape of the stern and the position of the shaft

follows.

An

desirable.

of locating the

in the stern or in other fore-and-aft positions is

in textbooks

They

On

vessels, the necessary clear-

ances for machinery inside the vessel

Vol.

I],

invariably

some high-powered

subdivision,

floodability,

stability,

almost

water.

of the absolute

speed of the ship,

determined by

of its actual size, is usually

economic, military, or other considerations beyond

the control of the designer. He must, however,
be prepared to predict the results of variations in
these factors, and of each upon the other, so that
when a final design decision must be reached, it
can be based upon sound and accurate premises.
63.4 The Fundamental Requirements
for
Every Ship. Every ship designer, no matter how
logical and realistic he may be, needs to get back
to

first

principles every so often in his search for

the best

way

not think

it

to

make nature

serve him.

He

need

in the least beneath his dignity or

intelUgence to write down, in a few lines, as did

the renowned Rankine

many

years ago [STP,

1866], the following simple requirements for every

ship:

sides of the centerplane,

at different velocities with respect to the ship.

The type of propulsion machinery almost certainly

affects

the

rates

of

and the powers

two sides. Another
the ship which must
which the maneuver-

maneuver
abihty

is

is

the case of

rapidly,

and

in

in direct proportion to the promptness

with which the propelling machinery responds to

its

own

controls.

(b)

in
(c)

To float on or in water
To move itself or to be moved with handiness,

any manner desired

To

transport passengers or cargo, or other

useful load, from one place to another

rotation

delivered and absorbed on the

exception

(a)

(d)
(e)
(f)

To steer and to turn, in all kinds of waters

To be safe, strong, and comfortable in waves
To travel or to be towed swiftly and econom-

ically,
(g)

under control at

To remain

afloat

severely damaged.

all

times

and upright when not too

HYDRODYNAMICS

444

He

needs, furthermore, courage

and confidence
by the

to strike out boldly for the principal goal

shortest

and most direct

route, using first prin-

he has learned and adhering almost religiously to fundamentals. It was this procedure
which produced the remarkably successful group
ciples

of large

httle or

landing craft in World

no experience to

fall

War

II,

with

back upon and the

Design as a Compromise.

designer

must, at least in the early stages, forget about

compromises in a really new and pioneering
first place, he is by no means
compromises must be made. He
may be surprised to find that a certain stern
shape, odd but seemingly necessary, makes him
a gift of improved maneuvering and increased

project.

certain

Sec. 63.5

sarily the largest, strongest, or fastest that

can

be fashioned, regardless of the other features, but

the one in which the best combination of elements

produces

most

the

harmonious,

useful,

and

satisfying whole.

63.7 The Design Schedule for a Ship.

This
book treats only of the hydrodynamic aspects of
ship design, and carries some of these aspects

only through the preliminary-design stage. It

fate of nations at stake.

63.5

IN SHIP DESIGN

In the

that

deck space as well as more efficient propulsion.

If compromises must later be admitted, it is a
comfort to remember that much of ship design
and construction is a compromise. This applies
equally to roughing out a dugout canoe from the

is

immense

the

visualize

to

therefore,

difficult,

amount

of thought and planning that has to be

put into the design of a ship to achieve the best
possible results. According to Ambrose Hunter

can be truthfully said that

it takes every
a successful modern trawler
as to build one ..." ["The Art of Trawler Planning," Ship and Boat Builder and Naval Architect,

".

it

bit as long to design

London, Feb 1953, p.

trawler is true for any
63.8

The

259].

What

is

true for a

vessel, large or small.

Field for Future Improvements in

of a twin-screw ship inside the projected

natural for the naval architect and

marine engineer who is blessed with enterprise
and ingenuity to strive for improvements in his
work. It is human for him to wish to excel and

fine at the stern.

to surpass the

best available tree, or keeping the propeller tips

deck
However, if the effects of all
the possible variables are known, the designer
can choose with wisdom the final size, shape, or
form of each of his elements when he makes his
compromise. In this way he attains the maximum
benefits from the selected combination of all of
them.
Let the compromises be made \vith profesfessional honesty, sound logic, and good judgment.
Let them be known to all and admitted by
all. Let them be based upon sturdy reasoning,
and let them be tempered by a knowledge and
an experienced consideration of all the causes,
effects, and consequences.
British naval
63.6 The Essence of Design.
architects have an old saying, with respect to the
shape and form of a ship, that what looks right is
right.
This invariably brings an immediate
rejoinder about who is doing the looking; manifestly not just anybody, but one with an experienced and practical eye. The eye that has deliberately been trained becomes accustomed to
look not only for efficiency and utility but for
beauty, symmetry, and harmony as really
essential features of design. It looks, above all, for
simphcity and for the feeling of effortless ease
that nature puts into many of her most dynamic
moods and manifestations.
A good ship, like a good person, is not neces-

Design.

It

is

work

of others.

Remembering that

nothing was ever done so well that

it

could not

be done better, he continually entertains the hope

that by his improved understanding of basic

phenomena he can look forward,

take form and

life,

as his creations

to greater efficiency

and higher

performance. As certain machines appear to be

reaching

their

engineers

or

peak

that nothing in the

be hoped

for,

and

efficiencies

scientists

way

are

of radical

certain

proclaiming

loudly

advances can

other engineers and scientists are

opening up new Unes of attack which often extend

the practicable limits by leaps and bounds.
This was the case with the piston-type engine and
the screw propeller for airplanes

when

the jet-

type engine appeared upon the scene. It is often

said that the screw propeller for ship propulsion
is about to reach its limit of performance, wherepropellers of increased capacity and improved efficiency under certain working conditions
appear in successful service.

upon

It is well in ship design as in

any other work

not to be bound by preconceived ideas of what

possible or

by the accomplishments

and others

in the past.

or in fact

is

is

of one's self

A designer who is prepared,

eager to offer novel and improved

new design problems, based

upon comprehensive knowledge of fundamental
physical laws and the confidence bred of successful
solutions to old or

BASIC DESIGN FACTORS

Sec. 63.8

and experience, usually succeeds in

finding some ship owner or ship operator who is
willing to back his engineering judgment.
In this quest for improvement the designer does
well to heed the caution expressed by G. Nowka
in his "New Knowledge on Ship Propulsion" of
1944 [BuShips Transl. 411, Apr 1951] when he
thinking

says

"The

principal guiding rule in shipbuilding

must

read:

Do

not interfere with the laws of hydro-

"
dimnmic^
^

m
.

Put
tell

another

the water

way

what

it

this

means:

Do

the laws of

has got to do or to make

it

its

behavior.

Another excellent guiding rule for future

hydrodynamic ship design, formulated by a ship
operator on a basis of economics and experience,
says that:
"^'' hydrodynamic features incorporated into the
design of a ship cost nothing originally but afford benefits
to the

not try to

445

do something which you desire. It will do what

it wants to do, and that only, in accordance*with

owner and operator which

SNAME
paper].

last forever" [Lowery, R.,

Spring Meeting, 1956, in comments on Vincent

CHAPTER

64

Formulation of the Design Specifications

Involving Hydrodynamics
64.1
04.2
64.3

General

The

First Task of the Designer

Statement of the Principal Design Requirements

64.1

General.

The hydrodynamic design

44G
446

04.4

Absolute Size as a Factor in Maneuvering

64.5

Requirements
Tabulation of the Secondary Requirements

pro-

riding on

the

angles.

cities

of

Port Amalo,

Port

Bacine, and Port Correo, leading to the simple

project name ABC Design.

Any working example of this kind is but one of

a multitude which can be presented to a marine
architect. Chap. 76 in this part therefore discusses
variations from big-ship rules, applying to the

design of special hull forms and special-purpose

craft. It considers

only the problems pecuhar to

the majority of special designs and not treated

adequately or at all in the ABC design.

In an effort to cover the hydrodynamic design
field for small craft as well as for large ships,

Chap. 77 contains a working example

for a motor tender for the ABC ship.
64.2

The

First

Task

is

and aims

quarters that a ship

owner or operator can be relied upon to formulate

his own requirements and that these will suffice
for the design of the ship. He, however,

is taking
only his view of the picture, whereas the designer
must look at it from many angles. Furthermore,
is

own
him to

often so famiUar with his

requirements that it does not occur to

pass them on to the designer as pecuUarities.

The

designer

must think

of the

down

here, supple-

more complicated but

equally necessary rules. It covers the development

Com-

only achieved

Once formulated, these aims are

kept continually in view and constantly in mind.
There is no better way of doing this than to write
them on paper, to look at them frequently, and
to think about them all the time.

the owner

of a ship specification are set

mented by a few

of fairly complete specifications for the general

of the project.

many

enough to come by it naturally but most have to

learn it the hard way, and without any good text
or adequate reference works available for study.
This chapter is by no means a course in writing
specifications but aU the simple rules involved in
preparing the hydrodynamic and related features

and the hydrodynamic features of the ABC ship

design which is to be prepared as the illustrative

after careful formulation of the purposes

It is considered in

Setting down the ends to be achieved is often

not as simple and straightforward a task as
appears at first sight. Some designers are fortunate

of a design

of the Designer.

plete success in a design project

452
452

comments, and perhaps find out for himself by

and watching the operation of a similar
vessel [Simpson, D. S., SNAME, 1951, p. 558].
This is why the designer must in effect prepare
his own picture and plan to survey it from all

through this part of the book involves

a combination passenger and cargo vessel, because
the requirements for such a craft are relatively
severe. This vessel is intended to travel between
ject carried

hypothetical

446

of the right questions to

ask, then ask plenty of them, interpret offhand

446

example.

work up a set of coherent

by neglecting or omitting

It is not possible to

design requirements

any considerations whatever of hydrostatics, metacentric

stabiUty,

strength,

engineering,

cargo

handUng, and accommodations such as passenger

quarters and crew's berthing and messing. However, only enough of the foregoing features are
brought in to make the design specifications hold
together, with major accent on those features
having to do with hydrodynamics and ship
motions.

Statement of the Principal Design ReEven though they may already have
been partially or completely drafted by someone
64.3

quirements.
else,

it

is

^vise for

the designer to restate the

design requirements in his

own

language.

When

properly worded, these emphasize the limitations

SHIP-DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Sec. 64.3

447

Port BacinePort Correo route

Amalo

and conditions imposed by the owner or operator.

The latter may have overlooked certain features,
seemingly unimportant in appearance but vitally

the Port

essential in design, in his version of the specifica-

The mission
a hypothetical vessel of this type, operating in
an imaginary part of the world, is rather easily

The

tions.

ship

designer must,

be

moreover,

prepared to present to the ship owner-operator

adequate engineering data upon which the latter
can make certain design choices within his
province.

The data and

facts are to be collected,

developed, and presented by the designer in the

form of clear, concise digests, setting forth the

advantages and disadvantages, the premiums and
the penalties associated with each choice.

owner-operator can then

The

that he is making
from a reasonable

feel

logical,

intelligent selections

number

of design alternatives.

For instance, can the designer build up a case

wide bilge or roll-resisting keels forward that
project beyond the side at the designed waterline,
on the basis of augmented roll- and pitch-quench-

for

ing

Will

characteristics?

was

of

roughed out. The result is given in Table 64.a.

This mission, as with the requirements to follow,
is intended to emphasize the size, form, power,
speed, and other design features having to do
primarily with hydrodynamics. It would be
amplified considerably

One's views as to what features of the ship are

important and controlling often depend upon his
position in the overall setup. A limitation on
length, for example, may be only an expression of
well-hardened opinion on the part of an operator

who

thinks that

it

may

64.a Partial Design Specifications for a

Combination Passenger and Cargo Vessel

MISSION
The

be,

The guiding

principle in the preparation or

revision of design requirements,

always,

is

forward,

and simple.

plain language

Stress
off

the

by

and

and short words,

but
down, in

specific

setting

just

what the

required to do; just what mission

is

fulfill.

last,

it is

to

ship which ultimately does not carry

is to be reckoned not a
no matter how efficiently it may meet one
or more secondary requirements.
The combination passenger and cargo vessel for

out

its

appointed mission

success,

is

intended

(1)

The

(2)

The

transportation of passengers to and from Port

Amalo, Port Bacine, and Port Correo, making the
outbound trip from Port Amalo in that order and

the

homeward

trip in reverse order

transportation of liquid bulk cargo from Port

Correo to Port Amalo, and of high-class package

cargo back and forth between Port Amalo, Port
Bacine, and Port Correo.*

The
(3)

service to be rendered requires:

The

safe

and comfortable transportation

of

the

passengers on a rigid, year-round schedule, established

well in advance, regardless of local and seasonal

weather conditions
(4)

The

(5)

package cargo safe from damage by the elements or

from violent and jerky ship motion
Performance of the required transportation as

storage

efficiently

and transportation

of the

high-class

and economically as the present

state of

the art permits

and rapid handling and berthing of the vessel

under its own power at Ports Bacine and Correo.

(6) Safe

*The "liquid bulk cargo" mentioned in (2) preceding is not

composed of heavy oil or its products. However,

necessarily

G. A. Veres has recently (1955) proposed the carrying of

passengers on high-speed tankers [SBSR, 23 Jun 1955,
p. 797; 7 Jul 1955, p. 5].

to keep the language direct, straight-

informal treatment. Start

ship

first,

vessel described in these speciiications

to be used for:

size.

on the other hand, a vital restriction

to the designer if he is endeavoring to squeeze
out a small margin of speed or power.
The salient features of a muddled and verbose
specification may need to be brought out so as to
keep them alive and vivid before a designing staff.
These and other reasons may well justify the
extra time spent on highhghting essentials and
generally reworking the specifications furnished
by someone else.
It

considering the ship

TABLE

should be possible to get

everything he wants in a ship of a certain

when

as a whole.

accept a projection of the rudder beyond the

extreme stern overhang for the sake of improved
flow to the propeller and reduction of vibration?

most

consideration in this part of the book.

owner-operator

the

selected as one hkely to present the

varied and numerous ship-design problems for

The next step is

to write out the principal duties

which the ship is to fulfill, and the principal

requirements which must be met. If there are
compulsory or mandatory limitations, include
them by all means. Do not clutter up these major
features of the specifications with details of lesser

importance,

or

with

superlatives

intended

to

emphasize them.

The

first

items to set

down

are those involving

HYDRODYNAMICS

448

size and displacement volume. The ship hull

must have enough bulk volume to contain all
that is to be put inside it, both below and above
water. It must have enough displacement volume

to

float

when

itself

carrying

density cargo which does not

these volumes

fill

high-weight-

its holds.

List

and weights as a preliminary

to

IN SHIP DESIGN

The outcome

of

Sec. 64.3

this

procedure,

for the ship

contained in Table 64. b.
speed requirement is not yet in the picture.

selected as the example,

Indeed,

is

beginning

before

consideration

of

it

prepared a summary of the meteorologic

and oceanographic conditions which the vessel is
there

is

to encounter. Table 64. c contains the

summary

estimating and determining the total weight, bulk

for this design problem. If these conditions

volume, and principal dimensions of the ship,

but do not attempt to fix the latter features at

during the operating season, as is usually the

case, they are carefully analyzed and evaluated.

vary

this stage.

Whatever the custom and procedure may be

TABLE

64. c

Meteorologic and Oceanographic

Conditions

elsewhere for determining the overall size of the

assumed

working
up a well-proportioned design, that there is no
major limitation on size and dimensions except for:
ship, it

(a)

is

here, for the sake of

The general requirement

(16) Full account shall be taken, as

conditions in the regions in which the ship

specific draft limitation for

passage of a

canal and a river during the voyage.

(17) Tidal

TABLE
The

Considerations of Size and

Displacement Volume

ship shall be able to:

Carry a liquid-bulk cargo of 4,000 t (of 2,240 lb) from

Port Correo to Port Amalo on each trip, for which
liquid the weight density will not exceed 42 ft^ per
ton of 2,240 lb [Wormald, J., "The Carriage of
Edible Oil and Similar Cargoes,"
LXVIII, pp. 65-91]

IME, Apr

(9)

(10)

1956,

Carry a total weight of package cargo not exceeding

3,000 t back and forth between all ports, requiring
a net or usable storage space not less than 300,000 ft'
Load and unload package cargo at Port Bacine,
both coming and going, without disturbing any
through package cargo
Carry sufficient fuel to permit bunkering at Port
Correo and making the round trip to Port Amalo and
return, on the basis of the rigid all-year schedule
specified in the foregoing, plus a 15 per cent reserve-

fuel capacity.

exceed 42
(11)

Carry

ft'

The weight

up

density of the fuel will not

per ton.

sufficient fresh

stocking

water and consumable

stores,

Amalo and replenishing upon

making the round trip to and from

at Port

return, to permit

Devote a volume

of 400,000 ft' of enclosed space

exclusively to passenger service

(13)

(14)

Make

a safe and expeditious passage, under its own

power, of the 25-mi ship canal leading to Port Amalo,

which has a minimum depth of 28 ft

Negotiate without assistance the 204-mi passage of
the fresh-water river from Port Correo to the sea, on
the basis of a minimum depth of 30 ft in the navigable
area

(15)

The

size

and weight

of the ship shall be a

consistent with these

requirements.

(19)

may

reach 0.5 kt. In the river between

reach 2.75 kt, flowing downstream.

Water temperatures in the fresh-water river at and

below Port Correo range from 75 to 80 deg F; those
in Ports Amalo and Bacine range from 60 to 75 deg F.
It shall be possible to deliver the maximum designed
or rated power of the propelling machinery with a
sea-water temperature of 75 deg F. Water temperatures in the open sea average about 68 deg F.
Fouling is a factor to be reckoned with at all seasons
of the year while the vessel

is

at sea. Fouling

stop temporarily while the vessel

leading to Port

Amalo and

is

may

in the ship canal

in the fresh-water river

leading to Port Correo but the roughnesses already

accumulated

will

not disappear.

Hurricanes of major proportions

may

be ex-

pected to occur along part of the route during

only some three months of the year. However,

unexpected and troublesome storms, with large

steep waves, often are encountered for a month

and a

half or

two months before and

after the

hurricane season, overlapping the seasons of heavy

Port Correo
(12)

may

the sea and Port Correo the combined tidal and river

current

Vol.
(8)

currents in the long ship canal leading to

Port Amalo

64.b

(18)
(7)

to

is

the greatest performance from the least ship

(b)

is

The average latitude over the whole voyage

20 deg. Surface winds, along the fringes of the
hurricane belt between Port Amalo and Port Bacine,
may be expected to blow from any direction at
velocities up to 90 kt. These are accompanied by
ocean waves corresponding to a fetch of at least 500 mi
operate.

Table 64.a for

(5) of

important factors in

the design, of the meteorologic and oceanographic

minimum

and subsequent performance

passenger travel. Full account of these adverse

conditions therefore

the

design.

plotting

is

taken when laying out

With the rather

modern

careful

and hour-by-hour reporting

of

centers to be expected in the worst areas,

storm
it

may

be possible for the ship, with an ample reserve

of speed, to save time by running around the
storms rather than remaining on course and

down to go through them.

Although heavy marine fouling is the

slowing

rule in

SHIP-DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Sec. 64.3

certain

warm, salt-water portions

the vessel

is

TABLE

of the route,

traversing the open sea and exposed

(20)

averaging probably not more than 0.6 of that time.

Furthermore, the relatively high speed at which

expected to travel prevents this menace from

becoming more than a normal factor in powering.

The dock-to-dock schedule which the owneroperator has laid out

is

divided into a canal-and-

ing the allowable navigational speed of 10 kt in

the ship canal in and out of Port

zero natural wind, and at

(22)

reasonably safe speed through the river in and

out of Port Correo. After docking and maneuverall ports is taken into account, the

buoy-to-buoy schedule comes out of the remaining

time and distance by simple arithmetic. For this
sea schedule the average speed made good in

open water, at either full load or any intermediate

displacement and corresponding trim, in fair
weather or foul, with smooth or rough bottom,
works out as a minimum of 18.7 kt.
This is a week-in, week-out performance speed
and not a design figure. The ship must be capable
of an augmented sea speed to guarantee making
the average sustained speed of 18.7 kt under the
handicaps of wind, weather, waves, currents,

and

fouling.

The manner

of accomplishing this

and Performance
Allowances in Sec. 65.3 and under Powering
Allowances in Sec. 69.9. Suffice it to say here that
the analysis thus made indicates the necessity
explained

is

for

under

Design

the ship to be capable, in smooth water,

full

zero natural wind, of

making at

pooped in a following sea,

and against carrying away gear on deck are not
listed

items

Table

separately because they are implicit in

(3)

and

(4)

of the mission,

set forth in

64.a.

all

service dis-

Whatever the augmented sea speed, it shall be

attained by the use of not more than 95 per cent of
the maximum designed power of the propelling

maximum
(24)

The

ship

and machinery shall operate at

under conditions (21) and (22)
have to slow temporarily in heavy

efficiency

may

weather to 65 per cent of

18.7 kt; this

is

its

average sea speed of

12.16 kt. If so, the schedule must be

met by a corresponding increase in the speed in

good weather. The estimated reduction in speed for
constant thrust equivalent to a smooth-water speed
of 20.5 kt shall not exceed 45 per cent

when running

into a head sea, at an angle of encounter of 180 deg,

through regular waves having lengths Ljp of from

0,8 to 1.5 the ship length L, and heights h^ not
exceeding 0.55^/ Lw- (The speed reduction from 20.5
kt to 12.16 kt is 40.7 per cent). Water ballast,
preferably fresh water, may be admitted to groups of
empty liquid cargo tanks as desired to establish
satisfactory propeller submersion and to provide
added ship mass on the outward voyage from Port
Amalo, when the liquid bulk cargo is not on board.
(25) The ship shall be as free of resonant pitching in the
waves to be encountered as may be compatible with
other requirements
(26) A reasonable expenditure of weight or power, or
both, to secure
to

lurching, against being

any and

machinery

least 20.5 kt.

Other considerations of easy steaming, freedom

from wear and tear, long intervals between
major machinery overhauls, and general dependability of both materiel and personnel, discussed
in Sec. 69.9, require that the 20.5-kt speed be
accomplished by the development of only 95 per
cent of the maximum designed power.
Summarizing this analysis and working in a few
related supplementary features produces the
speed and wavegoing requirements of Table 64. d.
Restrictions against pounding, slamming, and

in

(23) In general, the ship

designed load and in

with clean bottom, at

made good

placement and trim conditions.

Amalo and a

ing time at

or sustained sea speed

with any reasonable amount of bottom roughening

and fouling, shall be at least 18.7 kt
(21) The augmented sea speed, to achieve the sustained
speed, is set tentatively at 20.5 kt. This is to be
made in smooth, deep water, with clean bottom, in

and an open-sea schedule by apply-

river schedule

The average

Speed and Wavegoing

each deep-water, open-sea portion of the voyage,

in any or all service displacements and under corresponding trim conditions, in any weather, and

to fouling for only a fraction of the voyage time,

it is

449

64.d

the

owner.

diminishing the

effective

roll-quenching

Effective
roll

quenching

is

is

acceptable
defined

angle to 0.25 (one-quarter) of

as
its

natural value.

ments are considered because they may bear

some relation to the number and position of
propellers to be installed. An analysis of maneuverstatement of the restrictedwater characteristics of various parts of the
ing, in turn, calls for a

vessel's route,

somewhat

similar to that of the

meteorologic and oceanographic conditions affect-

The principal features are set

down in items (27) through (29) of Table 64.e.
The canal bend at Mile 20 is diagrammed in
ing wavegoing.

Fig.

64. A,

which contains also the estimated

tracks of large vessels proceeding in both directions,

with their limiting offset positions in the

canal.

The

essentials of the

maneuvering situation

Before going further into the speed and pro-

at Port Bacine are copied from the chart in Fig.

pulsion specifications, the maneuvering require-

64.B, with the estimated ship tracks and positions

HYDRODYNAMICS

ir)0

TABLE

upon leaving its berth at Port Amalo the

must make a 180-deg turn in close quarters
but tugs are available and will be used

(27) Directly

vessel

ship canal leading from Port

Amalo

to the sea

has a length of 25 mi and a minimum depth of 28 ft.

For 16 mi of its length the bottom prism width

and 475 ft. Banks and bed of the

hard sand and gravel. At
Mile 20 in this restricted portion there is a circularare bend, with short transition sections at the ends,
having a total change in direction of 50 deg and an
varies between 400

restricted channel are of

inside radius of 3,800 ft; see Fig. 64.A.

when running

at

any practicable

displace-

trim, the ship shall be capable of:

Executing the transient portions of a turn, swinging

first away from and then back into a straight course,
involving changes of heading of from 25 to 30 deg
for each maneuver, and gaining or losing an offset
of 400 ft, perpendicular to the approach path, in a
curved run of 2,100 ft. This shall be accomplished in
a canal prism having a depth of 32 ft and a bottom
width of 400 to 500 ft, at speeds of from 6 to 8 kt,
and with not more than one-third the maximum
rudder angle.
(33) Swinging bow to port and stern to starboard, and

(32)

The bottom

width at midlength of this bend is 500 ft and the

depth is 32 ft.
(29) Port Correo is at the head of ocean navigation on a
long, wide, fresh-water river, 204 mi from the sea,
with a minimum and fairly constant depth of 30 ft
in the dry season and a soft mud bottom. Large trees
and other flood debris are often encountered floating
(30)

Specifically,

ment and

follows:

The

Src. 61.3

measured from the extreme end of the wooden

pier and in line with it, is 1,500 ft.
area,

The restricted waters forming part of the route and

the required ship operation in them are described as

(28)

IN SHIP DESIGN

64.e Maneuvering

vice versa,

when operating

the propulsion device (s)

an astern direction, with negligible wind and in

water having a depth-draft ratio not exceeding 1.5,
or a maximum depth of 40 ft. It shall be possible to
execute this maneuver from a standing start or
from a straight approach path when moving astern
in

at a speed not exceeding 13 kt.

(34)

Executing a 180-deg turn within a tactical diameter

in the river.

of 3,000 ft in deep water, with full rudder angle

Adequate steering and maneuvering characteristics

at an approach speed of 19 kt

shall

be provided for traveling in the ship canal

(35)

leading from the sea to Port Amalo, on the basis of

meeting other large ships in this canal. It is not

necessary to meet these ships in the bend at Mile 20.
Similar requirements are established for the passage
of the river leading from the sea to Port Correo.
(31) It shall be possible to berth the vessel at Port Bacine,
under its own power, in a slip terminated by U-shaped
walls of sohd masonry, 100 ft apart in the clear at
the head of the slip and extending for a distance of
100 ft therefrom. An open-work wooden pier prolongs
one of these walls for a distance of 450 ft, indicated
in Fig. 64.B. The vessel must, under its own power,
make a 50- or 60-deg turn after backing out of the
sKp and prior to proceeding out of the channel to sea.

The

clearance to the opposite side of the navigable

Fio. 64. A

When

and

turning in accordance with (34), the angle of

A maximum angle

heel shall be limited to 10 deg.

riot

(36)

exceeding 8 deg

At an ahead speed
shall

is

preferred.

of 20.5 kt,

on a straight course, it
maneuver

be possible to execute a crash-back

and to stop dead

in the

water with a head reach not

exceeding 6 ship lengths

(37)

The machinery

shall be capable of developing

an

astern torque of 80 per cent of the rated ahead

and an astern rate of rotation of 50 per cent

ahead rate, with the ship stationary in the
water, as at the end of a crash-back maneuver
If left to itself when running ahead in smooth water,
with no perceptible swinging motion and the rudder
stationary at zero angle, the ship shall not deviate
progressively from its original course. In other
torque,
of the

(38)

Scale Diagram of 50-Deo Bend in Canal Leading prom Port Amalo to the Sea

SHIP-DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Sec. 64.3

Fig. 64. B

Proposed Maneuvering Diageam for

words, the ship shall possess dynamic stability of

(39)

(40)

ABC

451

Ship in Port Bacine

rudder angle not exceeding 7.5 deg shall suffice

route.

for steady, straight-course running in straightaway

reaches of the canal at Port

Port Correo, with from 3 to 4

limiting small rudder angle not exceeding 3 deg

shall suffice for

good manual steering In smooth,

deep water and neghgible wind, at all speeds over

one-half of the sustained speed, with right or left
variations in yaw not to exceed 2.0 deg. This shall
include all displacement and trim conditions likely
in open-sea running.

Amalo and the

ft

river at

channel-bed clearance

under the ship

(41)

The

ship shall be controllable when underway in

heavy weather at whatever speeds and courses can

be maintained in that weather.

HYDRODYNAMICS

452

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 64.4

added. These are based upon entering the ship

head-on, directly from the sea entrance, and upon

far cry

from the same procedure for a self-propelled

model

in a miniature channel,

swinging the ship by a considerable amount,

when backing out of the slip, by working on a
spring line attached to the outer end of the pier.

possibly five or six times as fast.

Translating the ship maneuvers of Figs. 64.A

maneuvering requirements
gives the items hsted as (32) and (33) in Table
64.e. Because of lack of authentic information on
the astern maneuvering characteristics of ships,

and

64.

into specific

the requirements in (33) are

left

The requirements

in character.

rather general

in (34)

and

(36)

Consider a modern 25-ft pilot model of a large

planing boat.

33

The

makes 60 kt at the same T^

craft

covers

its

own

time ratio

required of the vessel on each voyage.

Power

The former

linear scale ratio

(3.24)'' or 1.8 times as

is

fast for the pilot model.

Other things being equal,

the 25-ft craft turns in a circle over 3 times as

As the absolute

is

With a

latter requires 0.80 sec.

of 3.24, the

length in 0.45 sec whereas the

tight as the 81-ft one,

restricted-water traveling that

while the 81-ft full-scale

6.6,

maneuvered handily in an emergency.

Rather exceptional controllability as regards
steering is called for, because of the more than
of

model might well run at

pilot

with a T, of

kt,

are intended to insure that the vessel can be

450 miles

with a time rate

and so

on.

on the other

size increases,

hand, the proportion between

(1)

disturbance to manifest

and

itself

the time for a

(2)

human

perception or an automatic-control time increases

rather rapidly.

On

small craft, often with large powers relative

not a factor in these restricted waters

because the speeds are limited by wave wash on
the banks, the presence of other vessels close by,

venience or injure personnel and result in damage

and the excessive sinkage at the stern that would

to materiel.

be encountered at the higher speeds.

64.4 Absolute Size as a Factor in Maneuvering
Requirements. Maneuvering requirements, in-

cost.

is

to their size, too-rapid

On large ships, demands for improved

maneuvering performance can run rapidly at
times into increased weight, complication, and

volving steering, turning, stopping, backing, and

64.5

the equivalent, form a sadly neglected part of the

ments.

and sizes of water craft.

Increasing emphasis has been placed, and will

been set down, and

specifications for all types

continue to be placed, upon the safety of life

of vessels at sea. It has been necessary in

and

past emergencies, and

it will

be more necessary

in future ones, for all types of craft to undertake

turning and other maneuvers which will confuse

those

who

air. It

may be

ing

will

selecting definite
it

is

(43)

times operate the

account

As long

of

craft, it is

than 0.55

Take

in

necessary to take

these factors. Thinking and giving

piloting orders for a ship transiting a canal

is

and discharge water

for heat enchangers at

to anchor with two bower anchors in

the river leading from Port Correo to the sea, in

Be prepared
up

to 2.3 kt

from whatever
such a manner that
not form a nuisance to either crew or

(45) Discharge the products of combustion,

source, at such a point

they will
passengers
(46)

and

in

Be free of spray and high-speed local air currents so

that in "outdoors" weather, passengers shall not be
inconvenienced in their enjoyment of the sun, sky,
and sea

(47) Provide internal heavj'-weather access to all spaces

in

as

beings with more-or-less fixed reaction

the ship

the baseplane
(44)

large ships, entirely

of its linear ratio to the large craft.

known what

points not below the 1-ft waterline, reckoned from

these can not be based, for small craft as well as

such as the length.

a small vessel than on a large one. The rate of
motion on a small craft, for geometrically similar
maneuvers, increases directly as the square root

is

a square moment of area coefficient of the

designed waterline, about the longitudinal axis, not

to be

upon some linear dimension

Things happen much faster on

it

(42) Possess

currents

numbers for maneuverremembered that

the principal requirements have

Insofar as practicable, consistent with the principal

definite, will certainly follow.

ing requirements

all

requirements of the design, the ship shall:

appear with increasing

frequency in ship specifications. The insertion of

specific numbers, making the requirements more

human

When

less

requirements

When

Tabulation of the Secondary Require-

TABLE 64.fDESIRABLE FEATURES

INVOLVING HYDRODYNAMICS AND FORM

are dropping or firing missiles from the

expected, therefore, that maneuver-

maneuvering can incon-

(48)

which personnel are required during cruising at sea

vulnerable projections outside the main hull

first 150 ft of the length, from the keel up
to the 35-ft waterline, which might be damaged by the
old stone pier at Port Bacine; also have no projections

Have no

within the

below the

fair line of the

bottom

of the

main

hull.

SHIP-DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Sec. 64.5

must do, the next step is to put down what the

owner or operator would like to have the ship do.
This involves listing the secondary or desirable
features of the specifications. These afford the
designer an idea of the preferences involved, and
the relative importance of each. As such, they
furnish a valuable guide in working up many
elements of the design. It is wise to list all features
of this kind, even though at first thought they
may seem only remotely related or distinctly
unrelated to the hydrodynamics of the problem.
A statement prepared along these lines may have
the form of that presented in Table 64. f. The

With the

453

desirable features

limitations, restrictions,

it is

of a so-called negative nature.

the

should

specifications

definitely

any and

all

well to include

and other

specifications

In other words,

describe

clearly

and

things that the ship should

do or should not have. The features listed

under (49) and (50) of Table 64. g belong in this
not

category.

The

specifications in this stage are terminated

by a group of items, not conveniently

Three of them appear in Table 64. g.

The problem

classified.

hydrodynamic design becomes apparent as the

working over these requiremutually consistent and are

in numerical, coefficient, or other form, ready to
apply to the detail design, is taken up in the

design proceeds.

chapter following.

relationship of certain of these features to the

ments

The
64.g FEATURES

TABLE

NOT OTHERWISE

CLASSIFIED

liquid capacity called for in these specifi-

cations not only permits the ship to carry liquid

cargo on the particular run or in the particular

service for

(49)

Freedom from vibration and noise, while not a

must, is a most desirable end to be achieved. In any
case,

(50)

the estimated frequencies of periodic hydro-

dynamic forces shall be reported to the buOder at

least two months before the vessel's first sea trials.
It is expected that, by the time the vessel is put into
service,

the

harbor regulations will prohibit the

discharge of sanitary drains into the water areas at

all

(51)

three ports, the canal,

and the fresh-water

The maximum layover times

river

at the three ports

may

be assumed as follows:

of

until they are

which

it is

designed but enables

carry any other liquid cargo which

may

it

to

be in-

volved in some unexpected service of the future.

In the existing state of world industrialization it

appears that for the life of this vessel liquids
of

some kind

or other will always be useful

and

profitable cargo. Furthermore, the provision of

this

tankage in the after part

of the hull

makes

it

possible to utilize water ballast to insure adequate

Port Amalo, 3 days; Port Bacine, 24 hours; Port

and freedom from slamming

and pounding when running in waves at relatively

Correo, 2.83 days (68 hr).

light-load conditions.

propeller submersion

CHAPTER

65

General Problems of the Ship Designer

65

Interpretation

of

Ready-Made Design Re-

quirements

65.2

Departures from the Letter of the Specifications

65 3
.

65 4
65 5
.

....

Design and Performance Allowances

Basis for the Selection of Ship Dimensions
Determination of the General Hull Features

65.1

Interpretation

Requirements.

65.6

Limits for Wavegoing Conditions to be Encountered

65.7
65.8
65 9

The Bracketing Design Technique

454

It

is

of

454
464
457
457

Ready-Made Design

compromises

whom

possible for the hapless ship

458
458
459

Adherence to Design Details in Construction

Guaranteeing the Performance of a New Ship
Design

rests

the ship

459

with the owner or operator for

being designed. A decision

is

designer to be confronted with a set of pre-

concerning a modification or relaxation of the

posterous requirements and specifications, not of

his own formulation. On first reading these may

specifications can only be

the basis of reasonably accurate and

seem to

call for achieving the impossible. After an

anxious time the designer may be relieved, but

information concerning the price which the owner

or operator

must pay

nevertheless bewildered, to find that he

money

in

is

not

or

performance.

He may, on the contrary, find that

they have both claws and teeth, and that he is
expected to accomplish what no one before him

structive suggestions,

their severity.

has done. It

most important,
requirements and

is

therefore, that

when a set of
specifications is
handed to him, the designer assess them carefully
and that he determine in advance how they are
to be interpreted.

However, it is assumed here that the ship

requirements are laid down in all sincerity and
that they are expected to be observed in the same
fashion, both as to their spirit and their letter. If
there

is

in

them any semblance

the moon, the reaching

is

of reaching for

clearly indicated

and

good reason for it. A case in point is the

and open-sea performance
required of the ABC design, which in many
respects is a Umited-draft river vessel. If parts of
there

is

superlative deep-water

the

requirements

are

intended

primarily

for

and

information

guidance rather than strict

compliance, they in turn are clearly so marked.
65.2 Departures from the Letter of the Specifi-

Notwithstanding the most conscientious

effort, it is rarely possible to comply with every
letter of the complete design requirements and
performance specifications for a ship. Some compromises must always be made to produce the
cations.

design and

some

be accepted.

relaxation of the specifications

The burden

of

accepting

these

It is

intelligentl}''

on

reliable

for this change, either in

power,

speed,

expected to meet them, but only to be awed by

made

endurance,

a duty of the ship designer to

and

offer con-

propose compromises, or

put forth alternative solutions in all cases of

conflict between the original requirements and
specifications. This procedure applies as well to
conflicts between these requirements and the
capabilities of construction materials, machinery,
and equipment in the present state of the art.
For example, vertical or wall sides are indicated
for the
in

way

bow

sections of a fast or liigh-speed ship

of the

bow-wave

crest.

To

accomplish this

may

require a rather sharp reentrant curve in the

bow

section lines

above the top of this wave

in a way, the gently flaring
V-sections which may have been drawn in forward
above the water fine for good wavegoing perThis

crest.

formance.

spoils,

The

designer

therefore

prepares

to

estimate the increase in smooth-Avater resistance

and power due to the use

of fair V-sections

to predict the possible adverse effects of

and

somewhat

hollow V-sections when pitching or plowing into

head

seas. Similarly,

he

is

prepared to give figures

and power,

relating to the change in resistance

and the modification in roll-quenching characteristics, for

proposed variations in the bilge-keel

length.

65.3

Whether
the

454

Design

and Performance

Allowances.

or not they are written specifically into

requirements,

ship

designer

must,

by

GENERAL PROBLEMS OF DESTGNER

Sec. r,'i3

interpretation or direct discussion with the owner-

455

It is well at this point to discuss briefly the

operator, arrive at a schedule of allowances or

expression "sustained speed." This term often

performance factors which is to be followed

throughout the course of the design. Granting

used but seldom defined, perhaps because to

sustain a speed in one area or on one run means
something quite different from sustaining it on

that

the

prophet

if

are

estimates

designer's

and

correct

overspeed, and other operating con-

overload,

ditions to be encountered in the

If

invariably

he is truly a
he can predict the combinations of
his calculations precise,

the ship takes these in

for having designed a

of the ship.

life

its stride,

good one.

he

is

praised

If not,

he

is

be blamed because the ship can not take

extra once in a while. Indeed, the mark of

liable to

little

a superlative designer

may

be as

much

and engineering

intelligence,

he inserts here and there as in the

balance which he achieves in the overall design.

intuition,

It is difficult to give rules for these allowances.

The more performance that

is

being squeezed out

the smaller the allowances must

a design,

of

and the greater the knowledge

necessarily be

motorboat,

racing

approach

In an icebreaker they can and

zero.

Emphasis is laid on the primary function of the

vessel, and the allowances favor the continued
and reliable performance of that function. A
ferryboat running on a published timetable, year

and year

schedule,

is

many

out, with

people relying on

its

given a generous power and speed

allowance, provided

ship to
it

economy

is

make a given

not sacrificed.

tug can always use extra power, to meet the

way

in the

inadequacies

of

or

casualties

to

personnel

(e)

or

Loss of capacity, power, or efficiency because

of deterioration, delayed overhaul,

is

less real

and general

wear and tear

(g)

Low quality of fuel

Any combination of

the foregoing and any

other adverse influences.

To

average a given sustained speed on a run,

come what may, means that a

ship has to possess

a reserve capacity or ability of some kind. This

not only

to

is

make up

for lost time

but to keep

going regardless of the circumstances, short of

hurricanes, typhoons,

allowance

The

of:

Wind, waves, and weather

Roughness drag due to deterioration of the
paint or other coating and that due to fouling of
any and all kinds
(c) Improper trim or attitude for the speed range,
due to causes beyond control of the ship personnel
(d) Temporary slowdowns or stoppages due to

ship,

it.

of

(b)

determined the greater allowance a designer

upon

means that

whatever it takes
allowances and margins to average

speed over any run, in spite

this

demands of progress as the vessel

puts in more and more years of service.
The less accurately some quantity can be

increasing

generally forced to place

sustained speed

has, in self-contained fashion,

(f)

should be large.

in

as a whole. For the general case, the ability of a

materiel

they

example,

for

means both

it

of

the forces and other factors involved. In a high-

speed

ship

parts of the one-way run, as well as the voyage

(a)

in the

margins, allowances, and design factors which,

in his knowledge,

ABC

another run. For the

is

and the

like.

No

ship can

be designed to cope with extreme emergencies.

The reserve is designed into and built into the

of all

the form

in

allowances.

of

The

design

based upon 100 per cent functioning

personnel and materiel. The performance
is

proof he has of the validity of some estimate or

allowance takes care of incomplete, functioning,

prediction, or the less confidence he has in

as set forth in (d),

must be

greater

The mission
Table

it,

the

his allowance.

of the

ABC

ship requires, from

adherence to a "rigid, year-round

schedule, estabhshed well in advance, regardless
of local and seasonal weather conditions." The
owner-operator is emphatic in pointing out that
this

64. a,

means what

it

says.

The study forming the

basis of the speed requirements of Table 64.d

indicates a

minimum

average or sustained speed

of 18.7 kt to achieve the mission.

attained
factors?

when

there

are

so

How is

this best

many unknown

(e), and (f) preceding.

There are several ways of making these allowances. The most logical and undoubtedly the
preferred one is for the designer to modify the
owner-operator requirements for his own use and

then to design as closely as practicable to those

is thus possible, when the vessel

modifications. It

completed, to check the actual design from the

observed performance, and to use the information
thus confirmed for future designs. For example,

is

instead of calling for

power,

or

some

15 per cent extra shaft

other

amount picked from

operating data to insure that the sustained speed

HYDRODYNAMICS

456
is

achieved, the designer adds a definite allowance

to that speed. This

may

be, say, one-third of the

power margin, on the basis that the shaft power

varies about as V^. The speed allowance is then

+5

per cent.

closely to this

When

He

proceeds to design the ship

augmented speed.

the trials are run

it is

usually as easy,

extra power as the 5 per cent extra speed.

How-

margin that can be reliably

predicted, and with a ship fashioned and built
for the augmented speed, the designer is in a
better position to promise the given sustained
speed than if he crowds extra power into a ship
built only for that speed. Other reasons for designing-in a speed margin rather than a power
margin are set forth in Part 6 of Volume HI
under wavegoing.
E. V. Lewis points out that with the large
powers and high smooth-water speeds of many
modern (1956) vessels it becomes increasingly
difficult to maintain high average speeds in
certain rough-water areas such as the North
Atlantic [SBSR, 30 Aug 1956, p. 277]. It may be
expected, however, that increased emphasis on
wavegoing characteristics and further progress in
wavegoing design will increase the rough-water
ever, with a speed

when

it is

the

ABC

Sec.

ship, or for

any other design

in

speed rather than a power allowance

653

which a
to be

is

incorporated, the selection or determination of

that allowance requires careful study, combined

with intelligence, judgment, and wisdom. There

are considerations of sea routes to be followed,

or perhaps easier, to measure the 15 per cent

speeds so that,

IN SHIP DESIGN

sufficiently important,

times of arrival and departure during the day,

reliability

in

maintaining the sailing schedule,

economics, and

many

others which need not be

entered into or elaborated upon here.

On

the basis that heavy weather slows the ship

to say 0.7 times

its

sustained speed for a certain

portion of an open-sea run,

simple arithmetic

to

what the augmented sea speed must be

bring the average up to the sustained speed.

similar procedure can be applied to the speed

indicates

bottom roughening and fouling or to an

assumed compulsory slowing of the propelling
plant for any given length of time. The contingency in which the delays occur unexpectedly at
the very end of a run is met by speeding up for
good measure in the early part of the run. This
matter is discussed by R. K. Craig, when describing the service performance of a passenger
effects of

liner

with engines aft

[SBMEB, Dec

The speed allowance

ship,

as

from 18.7 to 20.5

specified

of

1955, p. 693].

1.8 kt for the

kt, or

ABC

roughly 10 per cent,

tentatively in Table 64. d

and as

a high sustained speed can be achieved in any

incorporated in Table 65. a with other design and

service.

performance

For the preliminary hydrodynamic design

TABLE
Performance Item

65. a

ABC

Ship:

of

allowances,

is

intended

to

serve

only as an example of the procedure involved.

Design and Performance Allowances

Src. 65

GENERAL PROBLEMS OF DESIGNER

457

surface.

The volume

of the pressure hull, plus the

volume

of all structure, fittings,

However, design to the 20.5-kt requirement means

made

that this can be

the

trial

speed, under ideal

Both the design and the ship

conditions.

trial

can be proved on trial, leaving the owner-operator

with the assurance that the ship has an adequate
margin of both power and speed. The general
method followed here for the ABC ship has been

lying in the water

and equipment

when the submarine

is submerged, determines the displacement or total

weight of the vessel for water of the specified

volume displacement

density. This

is

substantially

the same for the vessel under any running con-

because

merchant-type naval
for twenty years
or more. It has been found eminently successful,
for services of varied nature, in most of the oceans

dition, in

of the world.

beam, depth, and draft but the volume, displacement, and weight; possibly even the general
shape of the ship. Almost invariably it must be

vary the amount and

percentage of reserve buoyancy in a submarine
design by varying the shape and volume of the
outer hull, since the main-ballast tanks between
the two are empty in surface condition and filled
with water when submerged. For submerged
propulsion all this volume, plus all the water
volume in the free-flooding spaces, has to be
taken into account, just as if it were frozen
into ice and carried along with the ship. This is

decided whether:

the bulk volume of the submarine.

used

the

for

design

auxiliaries for the

At a very

ship, or
is

perhaps before that design

is

really begun,

necessary to determine the basis for the

These

selection of the principal ship dimensions.

not only the customary linear length,

include,

(a)

The ship is to be designed on a weight-carrying

basis
(b)

The design

is

to be on a volumetric basis, to

provide space
(c)

Inflexible

Umits are to be imposed on certain

dimensions, such as for a ship which must

inside certain piers at a terminal or which

fit

must

pass through locks in a canal.

The displacement

by the weight

is

as a

of the cargo or load to

be carried plus the weight of hull and machinery,

fuel, consumable stores, and margin. The underwater hull must possess sufficient volume to
support the total weight in water of the specified
density. When ships are to carry bulky but not
particularly heavy cargoes such as railway cars,
automobiles,

trucks,

and other vehicles

generally possible to carry

much

it

is

of this cargo

Due

volume

above

regard

of course given to metacentric stability

is

the

designed

waterUne.

and other requirements. In designs

a large

of this kind,

not the greater part of the useful enclosed

volume of the ship is above water, leaving only
if

enough volume

in the

specific gravity,

equivalent weight of water, and so on.

however,

It

is

to

Because of available space around and depth

under the ship when docking and maneuvering,
of limited first cost, of adequate metacentric
stability, or of some factor not remotely related to
hydrodynamic design it often becomes necessary
to impose some definite or arbitrary limits upon
the principal hnear dimensions for a given weight
or volumetric capacity. This is where the designer's troubles really begin.

of ships carrying cargoes of

high weight densities or specific gravities

rule fixed

water of a given

the scale weight of the ship remains substantially

the same. If fuel is consumed it is replaced by an
possible,

Basis for the Selection of Ship Dimenearly stage in the design of a

65.4
sions.

it

of

U.S. Navy

underwater hull to carry

65.5

Determination

Features.

The

General

the

of

general hull features of a

ship design can be determined in either of

Hull

new
two

ways. One can start figuratively in the air or

with only the operating
better, in the water
requirements, and fashion the ship out of the blue.

Alternatively, one can expand or contract the

hull "of a

known

good performance"
1892, p. 211] and
approximation to a new vessel
vessel of

[EUis, J. J., Froude, R. E.,

thus obtain a

which

first

INA,

will fulfill those requirements.

It is theoretically possible for

an experienced

ship designer, working to a given set of specifications, to select

a type of

hull, to

determine

its

and to
make a tentative decision to embody in it some
special or unusual feature by working only from
general shape, to define

its

proportions,

the total weight.

available reference libraries, including his own.

In the case of submarines it is necessary to

crowd within the pressure hull everything which

despite the

can not be entirely or partly surrounded by water

when the vessel is submerged or running on the

elements which come into the picture. Indeed, it

is often much better to start with a clean sheet,

It has often

been done, and most successfully,

many

indefinite

and unpredictable

HYDRODYNAMICS

458
as

it

were, because then the design problems are

more clearly and they may be solved

in the most simple and direct manner.
Using an alternative procedure, it is often
possible to work up a new hull design as a variant
visualized

development of a previous design which

has proved itself in the same service and which
may be taken as a sort of parent form. This
or as a

procedure

is

facilitated

by

reference to the rather

comprehensive data now in existence on the

behavior of a multitude of ships and their models,
such as the SNAME Resistance Data sheets 1
through 160. The quantitative information required to set up a design and to carry it through
the successive steps must necessarily be derived
from model and ship performance data which are
known to be accurate and reliable. When in
doubt, the data are to be used with caution or, if
possible, only after a check and double check.
The parent-form-copying or development procedure manifestly forms an unsound or at least
an uncertain basis for the design of a ship to
meet totally new and unexpected requirements.
A certain amount of improvement results from
successive developments of a given parent design
but more real progress is often made by starting

out afresh. Remember that the ship being copied

or modified was designed not yesterday but
several

years ago.

to admit that

first

Its

designer would

much has been

be the

learned since

then. If starting out today, even he

would not

reproduce the design exactly.

65.6 Limits for Wavegoing Conditions to be

Encountered.

To

develop intelligently a good

ship design for wavegoing requires the establish-

ment,

if

practicable, of

some

sort of limits for the

wavegoing conditions to be encountered, more

precise than those of Table 64. d. Will most of
the waves be shorter or longer than the ship, or
about the same length? Will they be long and
regular, or short, steep, and confused? This can
be done on the basis of:

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 65.6

and a deliberate acceptance of whatever

performance is obtained in other types of seas.
sea,

Obviously, the design problem

simplified

the ship

if

is

is

materially

to operate on only one

run and to travel only in certain areas, especially

if the sea conditions in those areas are reasonably
consistent

and predictable.

The Bracketing Design Technique.

65.7

In

a pioneering design, for which the basic physical

phenomena are somewhat uncertain and the
of past

results

experience are Umited or non-

becomes necessary for a

unknown and unHe must commit himself and others

existent, it frequently

designer to reach far into an

trodden

field.

to the acceptance of risks or the expenditure of

funds which under normal circumstances could

not be justified as good engineering. In this

predicament he desperately needs any kind of

assurance, no matter what its source or reliability.
Fortunately, there is one means by which a ship
designer can extricate himself from a situation
such as this a method which has been found

and successful

useful

in

many

other lines

of

endeavor.

The

essence of this

method

is

to determine the

extreme hmits of position in the unknown field,

then to fix a position between these limits by any
simple convenient method which appears suitable.
The region in which the unknown solution is to
be found lies somewhere between the two limits
and is thus bracketed by them. The position of
the region with respect to the limits, in other
words the spotting of the region where the solution probably Ues, involves a process of arithmetic
averaging or of estimating by a sort of mean
proportional of the hmits.

design problem of this kind developed with

the shaping of the alternative arch-type or tunnel

stern for the
It

ABC

ship, described in Sec. 67.16.

was considered most important that the maxi-

mum

fore-and-aft slope of the roof of the tunnel

be as large as possible, yet not so large as to

(a) Existing knowledge of weather and waves

along the specified route in the various seasons of

result in irregular flow or separation along the

the year, based on some sort of statistical analysis

that on large ships with twin skegs, tunnel slopes

of extensive data

of 8 to 9 deg were satisfactory, with the roof

submerged a moderate amount below the at-rest
waterhne. There was evidence on some special
models that a centerplane slope of 30 deg, at the
same degree of submergence but on a convex
body surface and not in a concave tunnel roof,
was free from separation. It seemed reasonable to

from the statistical data of the

characteristics and pattern of the predominant
wave, or the features of the one which is Ukely
to prove the most troublesome
(b) Selection

(c)

An

give

its

arbitrary declaration that the ship shall

best performance in a specified type of

tunnel roof. There was ample full-scale evidence

GENERAL PROBLEMS OF DESIGNER

Sec. 65.9

halve the 30-deg slope of the special models,

giving 15 deg, but at the

same time

it

appeared

risky to double the ship slopes, involving values

as high as 16 to 18 deg. Nevertheless, this pro-

cedure narrowed the choice from somewhere in

the wide range of 21 deg, between 30 and 9 deg,
to the

much

smaller range of 3 deg, between 18

and 15 deg. On the basis that no ship would be

built with an arch stern unless a model was first

459

form indicated on the plans

avail unless the

is

reproduced on the ship. Indeed, a

projecting welding bead, transverse to the flow
in a high-velocity region near the surface, can
and has produced cavitation, noise, and vibration
faithfully

of plate panels.

Not only

that,

plate metal

has produced
and then of the

it

erosion, first of the paint coating

itself.

rather important to point out that, no matter

Guaranteeing the Performance of a New

Ship Design. Finally, the ship designer must,
upon the completion of a design, execute what is
in effect a guarantee of its performance. Where
the apphcation of hydrodynamics is concerned,
as in this book, the guarantee relates to propulsion,
maneuvering, wavegoing, and all other normal
and special operations taken for granted or
specifically mentioned in the original require-

how good

ments.

thoroughly tested, the

maximum

tunnel slope

was set at 18 deg. Subsequent flow tests on the

model showed no separation or harmful flow of
any kind.
65.8 Adherence to Design Details in Construction.

Although

all

features of ship construction

are outside the scope of this book

the ship design,

it

it is

considered

requires a thorough

65.9

who

own

and intensive follow-through, from beginning to

end of the building period. Only in this way

embodied

can a designer insure that the continual pressure

specifications need

to cut corners in production does not affect the

conclusion of his work the ship will

service performance

and

reliability of the vessel.

In the event of failure or casualty the blame

liable to fall as

much on

is

the designer as on the

has, to his

sufficient allowances to

have

little

is

this follow-through

more necessary

and important than in the shaping, assembly,

and finishing of the underwater hull surface and
appendages. The most carefully calculated and
cavitation-free rudder or strut shape is of no

satisfaction,

meet the various

fear that at the

found lacking in any element of

fail

its

or be

behavior.

Only too often, unfortunately, the designer's

hand is forced in that he is required to make
disturbing compromises or to

builder.

Nowhere

designer

embody

features

warned by his better judgment

or his engineering instinct. Under these circumstances he must go to some pains and often to
against which he

is

great lengths to assure himself that his estimates

and predictions are

reliable.

CHAPTER

66

Steps in the Preliminary Design

General Considerations

66.1
66.2
66.3
66.4
66.5

Hydrodynamic Requirements
Probable Variable- Weight Conditions
First Weight Estimate
First Approximation to Principal Dimensions; The Waterline Length and Fatness
Analj'sis of the

Ratio

66.6
66.7

The Longitudinal Prismatic Coefficient

The Maximum-Section Coefficient; The

66.8
66.9
66.10
66.11

First Estimate of Hull

66^12
66.13
66.14

Selection of Hull Shape

66.15
66.16
66.17

First Sketch of Designed Waterline

Draft and
First

Beam

Volume ......
Approximation to Shaft Power ...

Second Estimate of Principal Weights

Second Approximation to Principal Dimen.

sions

Layout
First

and Proportions
of

Maximum-Section Contour

Estimate

Relating

to

Maximum-Area
Parallel

Curve;

Position

Transom-Stern Parameters

464
467

468
471
471
474

486

and

Molding a New Underwater Form

Bow and Stern Profiles
Analysis of the Wetted Surface
Second Approximation to Shaft Power
Sketching of Wave Profile and Probable

Small-Scale

of

Profiles

475
476
476

66.31

66.32

Propeller Submersion and

66.33

Maneuverand Shallow- Water Behavior ....

Preparation of Alternative Preliminary De-

Trim

66.34

498

of Hulls

Effect of Unrelated Factors

Upon

the

Hydro502

dynamic Design

As a means

preliminary-design

and
hydrodynamic

of illustrating the procedures

steps involved in the application of

principles

501
501
602

signs

Laying Out Other Types

66.35
66.36

phenomena, paralleling that followed in

Parts 1 and 2 of the book. Since knowledge of the
hydrodynamic phenomena pertaining to interactions between all portions of the ship is not

496

First Appro.ximation of Steering,

ing,

482
483
485
485

496

in Variable-

Load Conditions

The

491
493
493

497

Balance

478
479

486
488

494

Comparison with a Ship Form of Good Performance

Abovewater Hull Proportions for Strength
and Wavegoing
First Longitudinal Weight and Buoyancy

66.30

485

of

66.24
66.25
66 26
66.27
66.28
66.29

flow

the

Flowlines

suited to the knowledge, experience,

background, and ability of the designer so that
each has its particular merits. An example of such
an alternative method is given by E. E. Bustard
in his paper "Preliminary Calculations in Ship
Design" [NECI, 1940-1941, Vol. LVII, pp.
179-206 and D49-D62]. A presentation such as
that set down here is of necessity limited to a
single method, or at most, to two such methods.
These are based logically upon a consideration of

of

Center

Preparation

of executing the

part

Curve

the

66.23

General Considerations.

complete,

of

Sections

ularly

yet

Section- Area

Position

Buoyancy

There are as
hydrodynamic design
of a ship, at least in its prehminary stages, as
there are ship designers. Each of them is partic66.1

many ways

Longitudinal

481

Middlebody

Bulb-Bow Parameters

Shape

The Preliminary

66.21
66 22

Metacentric

Stability

Estimated Draft Variations

Sketching the Section- Area

66.18
66.19
66.20

460
460
463
463

and knowledge to ship

design,

the

preliminary layout and a portion of the final

design of the

and
is

ABC

specifications

vessel, whose requirements

were formulated in Chap. 64,

and succeeding chapters.

merchant type and is largely

carried through in this

This craft

is

of the

orthodox in character, with elements similar to

those found on many past and current designs
of ships. A number of unusual features are
included, partly to give character to the design
and partly to permit application of much of the

hydrodynamic knowledge and many of the procedures previously set down.

66.2 Analysis of the Hydrodynamic Requirements.
it is

and

Before beguuiing the preliminary design

well to analyze

requirements

some

of the specifications

formulated

in

Sec.

64.3.

work must be accomplished by empirical methods

based upon ship-model tests, ship-trial data, and

Portions of them require conversion into terms

past experience.

resulting in

hydrodynamic design,
which can be used as

directly applicable to the

460

quantities

Sec. 66.2

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

TABLE

Sector of Voyage

66.a

Resteictbd-Channel and Open-Sea Data

461

HYDRODYNAMICS

462

speed is specified in the river leading out from

Port Correo and no safe speed can be predicted
until the size

and shape

of the vessel is

known.

Past experience with smaller vessels, however,

indicates that this may be hmited to 13 or 14 kt,
reckoned as speed through the water rather than
speed over the ground.
The layover, standby, and maneuvering times
are then set down, in hours, as in the upper part

IN SHIP DESIGN
rate at the

Sec. 66.2

maximum designed

power. Multiplying

by the hours during which

burned at the corresponding rate gives the
corresponding hours during which the consumption would be the same if the vessel were steaming
these average fractions

fuel is

at

maximum
The

designed power.

elapsed times for the underway sectors are

of Table 66. c, starting with the beginning of a

voyage at Port Amalo. Opposite these are marked

then calculated, as shown in the lower part of

Table 66. c. In the open sea, it is assumed that
the fuel consumption for each hour is that
corresponding to the designed maximum power,

the estimated average fuel-consumption rates for

despite the fact that the actual speed

the periods given, intended to cover

less,

all

auxiliary

as well as propelling-plant loads. These rates are

slightly more,

expressed as fractions of the fuel-consumption

This extra

TABLE
The

66.0

generally

and that the elapsed time

fuel, calculated as

is

longer.

necessary but not

Fuel Consumption Rates fob Voyage Components

expression rated fuel signifies the rate of fuel consumption at

Name

is

averaging 18.7 kt as compared to 20.5 kt or

of Operation

maximum

designed power,

all

services in operation.

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.4

intended to be burned except in an emergency,

463

by

be noted from Tables 64. b and 66.d

that since the bunkering for the whole voyage is
done at Port Correo and the replenishment of all

item (10) of Table 64. b remains to be seen as

the design progresses. If the ship is slowed by
heavy weather it is nevertheless assumed that
the fuel-consumption rate remains the same as
for maximum designed power and for a speed
slightly in excess of 20.5 kt in good weather.

consumable stores at the other end of the line,

full load for which storage space must be
provided is never on board at any one time. It is
estimated that of the 700 1 of fresh water, supplies,
stores, and other consumables which can be
carried, only 400 t is left on board at Port Correo,

constitutes the reserve fuel supply.

Whether

equals or exceeds the 15 per cent required

The

fuel

it

consumption when traveling in the

shallow and restricted portions of the route

is

estimated only roughly for the present.

66.3 Probable Variable-Weight Conditions.
Although the variable weights are not, strictly
speaking, a part of the hydrodynamic-design
picture, they do affect it in that they govern
the displacement and trim and hence the volume
and shape of the underwater hull in the several

operating conditions.

They

also,

with the respec-

tive specific gravities of the water, vitally affect

the bed clearances that will obtain in the shallow

and

restricted portions of the route. In

there

are

set

down seven

Table

conditions,

range of displacement that might be encountered.

be carried

is still

when the

full

amounts

of fuel, liquid cargo,

represents the

66.4
in

First

maximum

service load.

Weight Estimate.

the preliminary design

step

Liquid bulk cargo

4,000

Package cargo

3,000

a rough

Guesses of other major weight items are based

on the background experience of the ship designer
and such reference data as he may have. These
reference to

down

here without

any handbook or other information, to

make the example as general as possible. They are:

First Statement of Variable- Weight Conditions,

ABC

All weights are in long tons of 2,240 lb or 2.24 kips of 1,000 lb.

Load Condition

first

(b)

items are deliberately set

66.d

The

to determine the

(a)

are far greater than any possible variation in

TABLE

is

approximate weight of the ship with its cargo,

the displacement volume required to support this
weight, and the approximate linear dimensions.
The following items of the weight estimate, all in
tons of 2,240 lb, are known from the requirements
of Table 64.b:

guess, but the variations in total displacement

the fuel capacity.

and

package cargo are assumed to be loaded. As

indicated in the first line of Table 66.d, this

of

course of a routine voyage, as an indication of the

of fuel to

the

66.

out

perhaps a dozen or more to be expected in the

The amount

It is to

Ship

HYDROnYNAMICS

464
(c)

Hull and fittings

6,400 t

(e)

Fuel, including reserve

(f)

Consumable supplies and

stores

types of recent American ships,

are

given in

convenient form by Nevitt [ASNE,

May

1950,

2,200

pp. 303-324]. However, in

common

with

many

400

the reference to indicate the basis on which the

500

eter for a ship represented

other graphic aids of this kind, there

in

heaviest condition
(g)

Src. ^^.'?

800

machinery

(d) Propelling

IN SHIP DESIGN

is

nothing in

paramby a given spot on a

original designer selected a certain ratio or

Tentative margin, about 3 per cent

of the total

Furthermore, one does not know

whether the ship represented by that spot was
easily driven or otherwise. This latter situation is
remedied partly by taking data from the SNAME
Resistance Data sheets. These give in most cases
the predicted effective power for a ship of standard
length with respect to that for a Taylor Standard
diagram.

Estimated weight displacement,

(a)

17,300

througii (g)

In kips of 1,000

The corresponding displacement volume,

round figure
605,500

ft

35

of

ft'

38,752

lb,

at a

per ton of salt water,

is

Series ship of the

Another way

arriving

of

the

at

estimated

weight displacement is to base the hull, machinery,

and other fixed weights on a percentage of the
total. The useful load is, including the fuel:
(1)

Liquid bulk cargo

4,000

(9)

Package cargo

3 000

(3)

Fuel, including reserve'

2^200

(4)

Total amount

700

9 900

'.'.'.'.'.'.
of fresh water, supplies,

and consumable
storage

is

stores for

which

to be provided on board

Total

combination passenger and cargo vessel of

this type should be able to carry 0.55 of its weight
as useful load, leaving 0.45 of the displacement as

Using the

the ship weight.

estimate of 17,300
useful load

the 9,900

and

first

displacement

this ratio of 0.55, the

t,

only slightly smaller than

fisted in

the paragraph preceding,

9,515

is

Actually, of the latter amount, only 9,600 t

is

on

board in the designed maximum service-load

condition, as when loaded at Port Correo. This
is because 300 t of item (4) preceding is consumed
on the way from Port Amalo.
The ship- weight portion of the total, 45 per
cent, is 7,785 t, which is somewhat larger than
the sum of 6,400 t for hull weight and 800 t for
machinery, items (c) and (d) of the previous
tabulation. A small-scale graph of the ratio of
useful load (actually deadweight) to total design
displacement,
Atlantic hners,

[SNAME,

sions

length.

DimenThe Waterline Length and Fatness Ratio,

The next

logical step

to estimate roughly the

is

ABC ship is on the waterline, at

correspondmg to the designed maximum
s^^'^i'^'' ^""^^ ^t which a speed of 20.5 kt is to be
achieved in smooth water. A tentative length
"^a^ be taken from plots of empirical data such
^^ ^^^^^ "^ Levitt [ASNE, May 1950, Figs. 7, 8,
9, pp. 308-309], or it may be read by inspection
^^^^^ the analysis summaries of the SNAME RD
sheets for combination passenger and cargo ships
of about 17,500 tons displacement, and designed
speeds of the order of 18.7 to 20.5 kt. The former
plots give an Lpp of about 480 to 500 ft for normal
ships and 500 to 520 ft for fine ships. This corresponds to an Ldwl range of about 500 to 535 ft.
this length for the

^"^^^^

The

gives a somewhat less

L^wl of the order of 500 ft.
A first guess at the minimum length is 500 ft.
For this length the Taylor quotient T, = V/ V L
is 20.5/ VSOO = 0.917. The Froude number F
latter

tabulation

definite value for

is

T, (0.2978)

0.273,

and the displacement-

length quotient A/(0.010L)'

The 0-diml

138.4.

605,500/(50)'

The
eters

question

fatness

V/(0.10L)^

now

arises,

How

do these param-

the required speed? Is the ship too fat for

speed?

is

plotted

by C. R. Nevitt on a

length

is

4.84.

Is the length too small for the displacement

passenger vessels and

17,300/(5)'

ratio

together to insure a ship easily driven?

fit

large

V/ a/L

same

First Approximation to Principal

length of the ship. As pointed out in Sec. 24.2,

for

Considering
is

and
its

hydrodynamics only, ship

a matter of providing the easy longi-

or Taylor

tudinal curvature necessary to permit an under-

within the range of 0.70 to 1.05

water body of the requisite volume to be driven

easily and efficiently at the specified speed. In

basis of speed-length quotient

quotient T,

66.5

1945,

Fig.

plots for selecting this

1,

p.

316].

More

and many other

recent

ratios

and

parameters, based upon data from certain general

selecting

the

length,

hydrodynamic factors

however,
enter:

several

other

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.5
(a)

The proper

hump

so that a

and length

relationship of speed

in the hull-resistance curve is

avoided
(b)

A suitable balance between

drag on a too-long

the added friction

with its extra wetted

area, and the added pressure drag on a too-short
hull,

one, with its sharper longitudinal curvature.

G. S. Baker gives a dimensional formula for

determining the length Lpp between perpendiculars,

namely

Lipp

where Lpp

is

in

ft,

2+

2i'

is

A'

(66.i)

V.

"the speed

(in kt) for

is in long
average fine weather at sea," and
tons [NECI, 1942-1943, Vol. 59, p. 29]. Taking
first the sustained speed V of 18.7 kt for the ABC

ship,

17,300

and the estimated

t, Eq. (66.i) gives

Lpp

18.7

(17,300)"'

24'

displacement

506.5

of

V
=

Lpp

^20.5

~|

definition

indefinite,

and the

upon the type

34.977

(17,300)'''

515.3

LnrL

for

ratio of

of stern.

somewhat
L^wl depends

remains

Lpp

Using a

to

specific

Lpp

trial

speed of 20.5 kt, Eq.

7.33881

2+

volume

'

p^

of

because the volume of 605,500

specific

volume

is

515.4

ft

ft'

of

expected here

ABC

ship are

ft.

different line of attack

somewhat

on the

empirical and admittedly

still

sources,

among

others:

Bates, J. L., Shipbuilding Encyclopedia, 1920, p. 200

(2) Liddell, E., NECI, 19.34-1935, Vol. 51, pp. D45-D46
(3) Nevitt, C. R., SNAME, 1945, Fig. 2, p. 316
(1)

(4)

Van Lammeren, W.

(5)

Thayer, E.,

(6)

Vincent, S. A., unpubl.

P. A.,

SNAME,

RPSS,

1948, Fig. 39a, p. 89

1948, Fig. 29, p. 409

Itrs.

to

HES, Sep

1947, Oct

1952

SNAME

Resistance Data sheets.

These data, for merchant and combatant vessels

orthodox form which have given good performance, cover a wide range of Taylor quotient,
fatness ratio or displacement-length quotient, and
They have
longitudinal prismatic coeflicient Cp
been checked and supplemented by comparison
with the proportions of models fisted on the
SNAME RD sheets which have bettered Taylor
Standard Series performance at and near the
.

speeds.

The

result

is

two pairs of
bound two

empirical curves on Fig. 66. A which

was calculated

design lanes.

35

The upper pair defines the limits of displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)' and 0-diml
fatness ratio F/(0.10L)' on a base of T, and F

instead of the standard figure of 34.977

If all the

385

of

(66. ii) gives

(605,500)'''

sUght discrepancy in length

by assuming a

by the

For a ship length of 515 ft,

the ratio Lw/L^l is 385/515 or 0.747. This is
rather close for comfort to the low limit of 0.8,
but at least it does not he within the range 0.8
of the order of

designed

L^. to ship length

Also, a study of available

1.0.

the ocean areas traversed

66.i)

(66. ii)

VJ

20.5^
7.33881

wave length

ratio of

from 0.8 to

data such as those in H.O. 602, 1947, reveals that

the maximum wave lengths to be expected in

(7)

For the

is

is

^iYTvf (34.977)'''

when the

taking account of quiet-water performance only,

based upon data collected from the following

ft.

becomes

Lpp

A preliminary study of the wavegoing situation,

elaborated upon in Part 6 of Vol. Ill, indicates
that the greatest speed reduction is to be expected

per long ton for salt water, (Eq.

ft'

in the past [Mar. Eng., 7 Jul 1954, pp. 66-67, 81].

length problem,

Baker's formula is put into nearly dimensionless

form by substituting V for A, and changing the
numerical
coefficient
accordingly.
However,
Baker's

30 or more per cent of their original waterline

length, is an indication that too long a hull is by
no means the handicap that has been anticipated

to 1.0.

the trial speed of 20.5 kt,

24(

hesitant

ft.

20.7

Using for

465

about exceeding that

length, even though they do not know what it is.
However, the excellent performance of many
ships in the past, after a lengthening process
which involved an increase of from 11 or less to
are

designers

ft'

per ton

ft'

per ton.

governing factors could be known,

The

for

would undoubtedly be found a most efficient

length for each such set of conditions. Many

lower pair defines the limits of Cp in the same way.

good

practice

However, the values

and

normal

properly weighed, and taken into account there

for

designs.

good designs may well

Sec. 66.5

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.6

point plots almost in the middle of the upper

lane; the 515-ft length

apparently about right.

is

"natural" values of

PNA,

Sec. 10.14.

sequently in the chapter.

The

At the bottom

66.A there appears a

subdivision worked out by D. W. Taylor [S and P,
1943, p. 48] which indicates the position of humps

and hollows

of Fig.

in the curves of residuary resistance

for a large range of T, values. Reference to this

subdivision indicates that the three

TJs

for the

66.6

The Longitudinal Prismatic

prismatic-coefficient

66. A, especially at the

10

20 30 40 50 60

80

|60

4.0

150

ZOO

250

M.,

Coefficient.

lane

Fig.

of

low-speed end, does not

optimum Cp for a given T, or F^ such

be obtained from the Taylor Standard
Series contours of Rr/^, because in that region
,

the friction resistance

is

generally

the

major

part of the total resistance. For example, the

value of
for

Rr/A. for the Taylor Standard

and P, 1943, pp. 201, 227] for a T,
0.90 and a A/(0.010L)' range of 138.4

the 500-ft length to

2.5

119.6

for

the 525-ft

V/Vu
Z.O

300

Ship Lenqth,
Fig. 66.B

S.

may

as

3,0

3.5

design

give the

Quotient Tq or Speed- Lenqth Quotient

4.5

K.

explained in

in

original contours of

5.0

is

English units by which the

hollow-hump positions for any ship length and
any speed are found by inspection.
values

sional

Series [S

6.0

V [Davidson,

ready reference a set of dimen-

p. 48], gives for

in the

Taylor

on

Fig. 66. B, adapted from Taylor's shaded

length-speed diagram [S and P, 1943, Fig. 55,

tentative lengths of 500, 515, and 525 ft

all he
middle of a hollow, slight but definite, for
vessels of normal form. Here Rr is slightly less
than it would be for a smooth curve of mean or

Rr

1939, Vol. II, p. 70]. This

least it seems so at this stage. A ship longer

than 525 ft on the designed waterline need not
be considered until other features are investigated for these three lengths. Although a still
greater length involves additional wetted surface
there may be other good reasons for using it.
The significance of the special spots found on
this and succeeding diagrams is explained sub-

At

467

ft

Diagram Illustrating Positions of Humps and Hollows in Residuabt-Resistance Curves,

Terms of Ship Length and Speed

in

HYDRODYNAMICS

468

IN SHIP DF.Sir.N

Sec. 66.7

show that the minimum value of Rg/A

occurs at a Cp of about 0.52 for a B/H of 2.25,
and at a Cp of 0.54 for a B/H of 3.75. These
values are considerably less than the average Cp
value of 0.62 given by the lower design lane of
Fig. 66.A. This is because the longer and more
pointed forms, with the lower Cp values of 0.52
to 0.54, have too much wetted area and friction
length,

resistance for the specified displacement volume.

Similarly, the design lane of Fig. 66. A, in the

higher ranges of

7",
,

gives values of

Cp which

are

lower than those indicated by the regions of lowest

residuary resistance per ton ratio, Rr/A, in the
TSS contours. This is because the lane is positioned
to suit high-speed vessels like destroyers which
have to drive easily at cruising speeds that are
much lower than the designed speeds. For a vessel
designed to run always at high speeds, or for a
vessel with sufficient nuclear fuel to elimhiate the

cruising-radius problem, at least so far as fuel

only

is

concerned, the

optimum Cp

for a T, of

Fig. 66.C A Speed-Length Quotient of Nearly

Zero and a Prismatic Coefficient Approaching 1.00

1916. Photograph

and requirements

depending

upon

the

fatness

ratio,

as

by the TSS contours.

and other factors often
a Cp somewhat higher than the best

indicated

Restrictions on length
require

The middle of the lower lane gives values

Cp from about 0.614 for the short 500-ft ship

of

to

about 0.624 for the long 525-ft ship. A good value

of Cp
at least at this stage, appears to be about
,

number

of

formulas,

most

of

them

for

straight lines, have been developed to approximate

the steep part of the "roller coaster"

Fig. 66.

0.50

and

Cp

in the restricted region of T,

0.90.

lane of

between

The

the range of values for a vessel of normal form

The Maximum-Section

66.7

Draft and Beam.

There

is

The
way of

Coefficient;

little in

the

from
a tentative maximum-section
any point in the complete range

reliable information, empirical or otherwise,

which to
coefficient

select

Cx
.

in a range of

for

This

is

equally true, for that matter,

any other parameter

S and P, 1943, Fig.

[Taylor, D. W.,

70, pp. 63-64].

This

may

be,

for the reason stated in Sec. 24.10, that variations

have little effect upon hull

However, the branched design lane
of Fig. 66.D gives an indication of the general
region in which a good Cx is to be found, for
approximately the same ranges of T, and F^

Cx

of

in themselves

Beyond the left end of the lower lane, with T,

and Fn approaching zero and with wavemaking
practically nonexistent, the Cp may approach a
very high value as an asymptote, probably of
the order of 0.90 to 0.95 or more. This means
that craft which are not required to travel fast

can approach a rectangular box shape, as illustrated in Fig. 66. C and as explained under barge
design in Part 5 of Volume III.
is

again emphasized that the fatness ratio

or prismatic coefficient for every ship need

no means

as in Fig. 66. A.

The

These ignore the need for design

information appl3dng to vessels in other speedlength ranges.

It

for special designs.

resistance.

0.62.

author.

that drives easily.

to T^ or F

figures.

call

by the

lanes are simply to give the designer an idea of

2.00 would be in the range of 0.65 to 0.70 or

more,

horse-propelled cargo carrier on the Erie Canal in

by

within the lanes of Fig. 66. A, or

that other parameters need conform to correspondlie

ing graphs to follow in

tliis

chapter. Special cases

T of

limiting

optimum value

0.0, as for

of

Cx

is

1.00 at a

a square- or rectangular-section

which rarely has to move. When it does

move, hull drag is usually no problem. The
ratio Cx may well be made greater than I.O, in
hull

fact

up

to

1.1

or more,

if

there are practical

reasons for doing so, such as adding blisters for

underwater-explosion protection. As

V/'vL

in-

widens until at a T, of
1.05, F of about 0.31, the value of Cx for good
design lies between 1.00 and 0.90. At still higher
T, and F values, two classes of vessels are
creases, the design lane

distinguished:
for high speeds, where beam
keep down the longitudinal waterline curvature and to reduce resistance due to
wavemaking but remains adequate for the service;
(1)

is

Those intended

sacrificed to

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Spc. 66.1

"050

Q60

0.70

080

090

TOO

Taylor Quotient

Fig. 66.D

(lo
130
i40
or Speed-Length Quotient
TiO

Tt{

160

[50

WC

50

ITO

200

II

Gkaph for Normal Values of Maximum-Section Coefficient Cv

they are indicated by the upper branch of the Cx

lane
(2) Those designed to travel fast for their length,
but for which a relatively large beam is a necessity,
to afford stability, internal volume, deck space,

However, these corners have been formed by

what may be termed large-scale chamfering,
using two chines with about 45-deg angles, as in
the straight-element section shape sketched at
in Fig. 21. k.

On

vessels built for

some European

and small

and on towed steel barges built a halfcentury ago for service on the Erie Canal, the
lower hull corners are made by structural angles,

Cx

applied outside the side and bottom plating, with

drop well below the lower limits of

the plot of Fig. 66. D, approaching 0.50 or 0.40
[Simpson, D. S., SNAME, 1951, p. 569]. The
branch lane for these low values contains no
optimum line, because there appears to be little
or nothing systematic about the Cx values in this

a bilge radius of practically zero [Nixon, L.,

SNAME, 1896, p. 20 and PI. 19].

and the

like.

branch of the

They
lane.

are indicated

Examples are

by the lower
fishing vessels,

ferryboats, tugs, minesweepers, yachts,

freight vessels. In fact, for these types the

values

may

rivers,

Since the

ABC ship is to give good performance

in the shallow

Amalo
there

and

restricted waters of the

must be plenty

of

room

for the

pass around the ship, especially under

region.

Port

canal and the river below Port Correo,

water to
it. This

means that the maximum-section coefScient Cx

If

the ship

is

required to have the largest

volume

or the midsection coefficient

Cm

about

0.96,

dimensions, as for cargo vessels which must pass

form.

With a displacement volume

through locks, the midsection is made as full as

operating clearances permit. This may give a Cx
of 0.995 or more, used on Great Lakes freighters.
Since practically all vessels are drydocked or
hauled out periodically, certain clearances may
be required for these operations.
The best structural connection between the
bottom and the side along the middle portion of
a ship huU calls for a curved plate at the corner.

and a waterline length

practicable

for a given set of principal

on the basis

of

should not exceed

a midsection of normal
of 605,500 ft^

515 ft, for the middlelength ship of the three mentioned in Sec. 66.5,
the maximum-section area Ax for a prismatic
coefficient

Cp

Ax =

of

of 0.62 is

605,500

L(Cp)

1,896

ft"

515(0.62)

The minimum depth of channel out

Amalo is 28 ft but between one-third and

of Port

one-half

HYDRODYNAMICS

470

IN SHIP DESIGN

have been consumed by then,

bringing the ship up in the water by the order of a
foot or so. The ship drops to a deeper draft in
the fresh water of the river at Port Correo, and
ample clearance must be left over the river bed,
which has a minimum depth of 30 ft. It appears
of the fuel will

The

at this time,

Working through the procedure

x =
This

is

Ax
Cx{Hx)

^
"

1,896

75.96

ship 525

ft

Br =

ft.

quite large for a seagoing ship only 515 ft

The length-beam ratio is small, namely

515/75.96 = 6.78. The beam-draft ratio is rather
large, equal to 75.96/26 = 2.92. The latter ratio

400

500

described, for a
long on the waterline, with a Cp of 0.62,

Ax =

(0.96)26

long.

will undoubtedly give all the

area required in the designed

the design.

compared to the

which the ship must carry when fully

stocked at Port Amalo.
For the 515-ft ship the beam Bx at the maximum-area section is then
700

consumed

Almost certainly it will involve additional pressure

resistance from wavemaking, due to the correspondingly large waterline slopes and the pressure disturbances set up around the wide ship.
This matter is brought up again, a little later in

Port Correo. From Table 66.d, first hne, and from

the first weight estimate, the consumable-store
only 400

is

waterplane for transverse metacentric stability.

Indeed, it may give too much for easy rolling.

This draft then corresponds to the maximum

designed service load being carried when leaving

is

beam
moment of

large

square

necessary, at least at this stage of the design, to

limit the draft in salt water to a maximum of 26 ft.

weight

Sec. 66.7

not too large but it increases as fuel

during the voyage.
is

L/Bx =

L{Cp)

605,500

1,860

CxiHx)

525

74.52

1,860

ft'

74.52

ft

525(0.62)

(0.96)26

7.05

Bx/Hx =

74.52

26

This 525-ft length gives considerably better pro-

600

800

700

Waterline Length, ft
100

125

150

175

200

225

275

300

Waterline Lenalh, meters

Fig. 66.E

2.866

Plot of Length-Beam Ratio and Beam on Ship Length

325

350

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.9

portions for a ship

the speed and service

of

required, although the

beam

voyage. Using the data from Table 64. b and the

is still large.

Supplementing the discussion in Sec. 24.11,

Fig. 66. E gives a range of absolute beams on a
basis of absolute lengths, based on data from
many successful ships, for which a great number
of the spots are shown. The meanline indicated is
rather an average location for most of the ship
values than one drawn through the center of the
lane marked by the upper and lower ranges of
absolute beam on absolute length. Also indicated
is

a curve of 0-diml

L/B

same subdivision as

Some modern

teristic of

many

at

42
(b)

Package cargo, 3,000

ft'

(c)

per

168,000

ft'

300,000

ft'

144,000

ft'

300,000

ft'

92,400

ft'

70,000

ft'

t at 100

Hull structure, on a basis of 4.5

ft' per t for 6,400 t of hull steel,
fittings,

and other construction

materials, -plus 4 times that volcraft built for speed with

among them

ume

manual
and

L/B

ratios charac-

(d)

dugout and American Indian canoes

an increasing demand through the years for

utility, for inherent stability not always possessed
by the canoe with a man (or men) standing up
in it, for still more utility with top hamper, and
finally for greater all-around safety. This has
broadened the beam of boats and small ships
gradually, without too much regard for the effect
of the small L/B ratio on propulsion. If metacentric stability, maneuvering, and other features
are more important than propulsion, the design
has to favor them.
For the ABC design the beams given in the
preceding paragraphs are slightly greater than
those shown by the meanline but they are well
within the lane.
coefficient for the 525-ft vessel

for the waste space

around

it

canoes, sculls,

centuries past. However, there has been

The block

Liquid bulk cargo, 4,000

ft' per t

(a)

ratios corresponding to

racing shells, retain the high

for

in the first weight estimate

of Sec. 66,4:

the meanline.

propulsion only,

471

other items to be carried during any part of the

Estimate for propelling and

other machinery
(This is very large compared to
the figures given by G. G. Sharp
[SNAME, 1947, p. 462] but in
view of the unorthodox features
being considered for an alternative stern, with the propelling
machinery aft, it is not reduced
at this stage)

(e)
(f)

(g)

t at 42 ft' per t
Fresh water, lubricating oil, sup-

Fuel, 2,200

plies,

and

stores,

700

other

consumable

at 100

ft'

per

Accommodations for officers and

crew, estimated

(h)

Passenger quarters and service

(i)

Non-usable space

works

100,000

ft'

400,000

ft'

100,000

ft'

Total volume 1,674,400

ft'

out as

The
Cs

605,500

L{Bx)Hx

This checks, as

Cb

it

Cp{Cx)

0.595-1-

525(74.52)26

0.62(0.96)

First Estimate of Hull

Volume.

make a rough

can be accommodated within the

is

now

of expansion

hull,

listed is about 2.77 times the

underwater displacement volume of
605,500 ft' but it includes practically all deck
erections. For a combined passenger and freight
vessel, it appears somewhat large but perhaps
not too large at this stage of the design.
66.Q First Approximation to Shaft Power.
Before making a second weight estimate it is
necessary to approximate the propelling power,
so as to determine more accurately the machinery

tentative

It is

volu-

metric check of the vessel to insure that everything

well as below water. It

volume

The volume

0.595-F

66.11.

66.8

clear, to facilitate access

trunks over the liquid-cargo tanks.

For the three waterline lengths of 500, 515,

and 525 ft, and for a constant Cp of 0.62, the
proportions and dimensions already worked out
and some of those remaining to be derived are
indicated for convenience in Table 66. e, in Sec.

advisable at this point to

hatchways

to the cargo, nor for the

should, with

foregoing does not include an allowance

for keeping

weights and the fuel capacity.

The

above as

necessary to include

the full weight and volume of consumables and

is

first

rough estimate of shaft power Ps

derived from the assembled data on merit

factors in Sees. 34.10

and

60.13.

The

first of

these.

HYDRODYNAMICS

472

M,

the Telfer merit factor

represented by

is

Fl

is

ABC

small. Since the effect of the 68-deg kinematic

meanUne

gives a tentative merit factor

Froude

of Fig. 34.1

about

of

9.5.

Using the dimensional Eq. (34.xxv) of Sec. 34.10,

0.61

L{M)

(17,300)(20.5)'

0.61
(5 15) (9. 5)

is

viscosity

to diminish the calculated friction

is

resistance, its use

somewhat questionable

is

Entering the large-scale portion of Fig. 45.H

Since the 20.5-kt speed is to be made at 0.95 of

maximum designed power, by item (22) of Table

power is 18,582/0.95 = 19,560 horses.

Using the alternative weight-speed-power factor
WV/Ps of Fig. 60.U, for an Fl of 0.0727, the
broken meanhne gives a value of about 125.
Then, with the dimensional formula on Fig. 60.U,
64.d, this

17,300(20.5)

19,520 horses.

125

The designed maximum power estimate

19,520/0.95

design.

B/H

with a Cx of 0.96 and a

6.

in

For these reasons, and

because the "standard" values of p and v for 59
deg F are easily remembered, the latter are
employed throughout Part 4 of the book.
preliminary

18,582 horses.

Ps =

latter ratio

or middle

0.0727, the broken

Ps

The

preliminary-design purposes.

all

ship as the example, for which

for a range of

numbers squared. Taking the 515-ft

length of

Sec. 66.9

some II per cent less than 1.000, but its effect

on Cf at the large ship Reynolds numbers is

WV^/igLPg)

values of

IN SHIP DESIGN

is

then

20,550 horses.

of 2.92 for the 515-ft

ship, the wetted-surface coefficient

The

to be 2.618.

area

then

is

is

CsV^

From Table

46,231 ftl

Cs

is

found

approximati on to the wetted

fi rst

2.618 \/605,500(515)

45.b the Reynolds

number

about 1391 million for the 515-ft length, for

the 20.5-kt speed of 34.62

kinematic viscosity

ft

per sec, and for a

"standard" salt water of

1.2817(10"') ft' per sec. From Table 45.d the
value of Cf is 1.470(10"'). Adding a roughness
allowance ACp of 0.4(10"') for a clean, new ship
of as-yet-undetermined shape or surface condition,
gives

Cf

ACf.

v in

1.870(10"').

emphasized that, when making estimates

from the meanlines, one assumes that a ship of
modern design is to perform no better than the
average of a number of older ships. Further, since
the merit-factor ordinates of both Figs. 34.1 and
60. U are logarithmic, a value picked among the
spots for the better ships may easily be from 20
to 40 per cent better than the average. This means
estimated powers of from 20 to 40 per cent below

Entering the appropriate graph of the B/H =

3.00 group of the reworked Taylor Standard

those calculated in the preceding paragraphs.

20.5-kt

It is

The

third estimate

is

made by

the use of the

1947 or Schoenherr friction line, the ATTC

roughness allowance ACp of 0.4(10"^),
and the Taylor Standard Series data as reworked
by M. Gertler [TMB Rep. 806, Govt. Print. Off.,

ATTC
1947

Wash.,

At

Mar

Series contours, reproduced in Fig. 56.

speed,

amount

of

wetted surface

is

total drag

Rt

Rt = (p/2)7'S(C
1.470

0.4)10"',

1.9905 slugs per

ft' for

is

ft"

0.88726 times the value of

j-

1.2817(10"')

per sec for the same standard temperature.

The former

ratio

is

suflSciently close to 1.000 for

and

found to
2.25 group

friction

therefore something

171,830

550

round

-I-

underwater hull

(45.ii) of Sec. 45.7,

Cf.

ACf)

lb,

namely

55(1.246

first

taken as 1.9905 slugs per

RtV
Pe =

the standard con-

dition of temperature 59 deg F, wliile the latter

is

where for the

(10"')

from Table X3.h, is 1.1372(10"')

The former is 0.99884 times the value

viscosity j'(nu),

of Sec.

is

specific

oi the bare

estimated from Eq.

is

per sec.

Cn

0.268,

to be watched carefully in the design.

Then Rt =

of p

the

therefore,

water.

ft^

is

tion p

this temperature, 68

0.903, F

considerably more than half of the

total resistance, namely 1.870(10"') as compared
to (1.870. -I- 1.246)10"' = 3.116(10"'). The

resistance

deg F, the value of

For

4.433, the value of

the mass density p(rho) of salt water, from Table

X3.e, is 1.9882 slugs per ft'. The kinematic

64. c.

0.62,

be 1.25(10"'). Entering the B/H =

with the same values, Cr is 1.21(10"'). Since
B/H is actually 2.92, Cr is found by linear interpolation to be approximately 1.246(10"'). At the

The

account of
the average temperature of the sea water in which
the ship is to run, specified in item (18) of Table

F/(O.IOL)'

1954].

this point it is necessary to take

Cp =

56.5, for

-f-

approximaft'

for salt

0.99525(34.62)^(46,231)3.116

whence

171,830(34.62)

550

10,816 horses.

figure is 10,820 horses.

As a check
method [S and

calculation

by Taylor's

original

P, 1943, pp. 59-60], the friction

resistance per ton of displacement

is

found by

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.9

taking

first

the dimensional wetted-surface coeffi-

Cws from

20 on page 22 of the reference.

With B/Ii = 2.92 and Cx = 0.96, the value of
Cws is, as nearly as can be determined, 15.02.
cient

Fig.

For a 515-ft ship the length-correction factor

Q:(alpha) is 0.997, taken from the diagram at the
right of Fig. 188 on page 188 of the reference.
Then for a A/(0.010L)'' quotient of 126.7 and
a T, of 0.903, the friction resistance per ton of
displacement for a ship having a Cws of 15.4,

from the plot of Fig.

ship with a

R. =

Cws

188, is 6.1 lb.

of 15.02,

and an a

(15.02)
6.1

(0.997)

For the 515-ft

of 0.997,

of 0.62,

the displacement-length

B/H

ratio of 2.25,

and the

r of 0.90, the value of Rr/^. is, from page 201,

3.55 lb. For a B/H ratio of 2.92, it is, by hnear
interpolation between

B/H =

2.25 and

3.75, 3.75 lb. Similarly, for T^

0.95,

B/H =
Rr/L

is

Again interpolating linearly for T, =

0.903, i2/A is 3.872 lb for the parameters given.

The

total

wide by 2(200) ft long, or say 400 ft'. The

added area for rudder and keels is then
536
2,400 - 400 = 2,536 ft', which is 2,536/
1 ft

total

(46,231)
area.

On

0.055, or 5.5 per cent of the bare-hull

the basis of additional wetted area

not more than 6 per cent of the

which in turn is only about
62 per cent of the total. The increase in total
drag is therefore of the order of 4 per cent.

alone, this

is

friction resistance,

it seems wise at this stage to double

and allow about 8 per cent of the total
resistance for the final appendage drag. Since
the requirement of item (26) of Table 64. d states

this effect

quotient of 126.7, the

5.779

and 3 ft wide would have a

wetted area of about 2(200)3(2) = 2,400 ft'.
The hull area covered up by the bases of roll-resisting keels of triangular section would average about

keels 200 ft long

However,

5.932 lb pert.

(15.4)

For the Cp

473

lb.

bare-hull resistance

Rt

is

that

"A

reasonable expenditure

power, or both, to secure

is

effective

acceptable to the owner,

it

of

weight or

roll-quenching"

may

be considered

advisable, at a later stage of the design, to

make

the roll-resisting keels even larger than indicated

here.

In the absence of any better information, an

is included to cover the drag

then

additional 2 per cent

(1^

+ ^)a =
=

(5.932

169,610

3.872)17,300

So far as can be determined at

lb.
is

The agreement with 171,830 lb as found by

the third method is within 1.3 per cent and is
good enough at this stage of the design.
Another quick method for approximating the
total bare-hull resistance

/2j.

of the ship is to use

and the circulating-water

making 10 per cent in all.

of the condenser scoop

discharge,

tliis

time there

sufficient allowance for fouling in the

1.8-kt

between the 18.7-kt scheduled speed for

the whole voyage and the 20.5-kt trial speed
under clean-bottom smooth-water conditions.
The tabulated data at the end of Sec. 60.11
difference

give a range of propulsive coefficient of 0.82 to

the graph of Fig. 56. M, comprising values of

0.72 for clean, new, single-screw ships of

iZr/A plotted on T^ over a wide range of relative

speeds. It applies to any type of vessel from a lake
freighter up to a high-speed patrol craft. Entering
Fig. 56.M with a T^ of 0.903, corresponding to the
designed speed of 20.5 kt of the ABC ship, the
value of flr/A is 10.2 lb per long ton. With an
estimated displacement of 17,300 tons, this gives
a bare-hull resistance 72?. of 176,400 lb. This is
2.66 per cent higher than the resistance estimated
by the third method described, but is at least
on the high side for the present.
If the vessel is to be driven by a single screw,
the ship requirements appear to call for no
appendages except a single rudder and a pair of
roll-resisting keels. A rudder having an area of
0.02{LH) would have a projected blade area of
about 0.02(515)26 = 268 ft^, and a surface area
of something over 536 ft^. A pair of roll-resisting

hydrodynamic design.
assume that a value of

modern

seems reasonable to
iji. as high as 0.74 can be
achieved for a single-screw ABC ship, even
though the design is not yet worked out. Using
an appendage-and-scoop factor of 0.10 for added
resistance, and a propulsive coefficient of 0.74, a
first approximation to the shaft power is (10,820)
(1.10)/0.74

Item

(22) of

It

16,084 horses.

Table

64. d states that the sustained

sea speed of 20.5 kt shall be attained by the use

of not more than 0.95 of the maximum designed
power. The latter is therefore 16,084/0.95 =

16,930 horses. This

is

considerably less than the

and second estimates of 19,560 and 20,550

horses, but aU are within the capabilities of a
modern single-shaft plant and a single propeller.
Again it is emphasized that all these estimates
first

are

for

average

performance,

with

generous

HYDRODYNAMICS

474
such

allowances

appendage

doubling

as

the

IN SHIP DESIGN

estimated

assumed

it is

in all the foregoing that

ABC

the resistance of the final

hull

will

This

on 0.6 lb [Barnaby,

An

estimated allowance

p. J8].

including dehumidification, and for other items

not covered by the hydrodynamic specifications,

0.1 lb per horse per hr, making a total of 0.70

certainly the end to be sought; in fact,

the designer should look forward to bettering the

is

TSS

lb for all purposes.

performance. In this connection the following

quoted from a discussion by S. A. Vincent
[SNAME, 1948, p. 403], where the comments in

0. Praznik

parentheses are those of the present author:

0.575 lb of

As a check on the first item, W. I. H. Budd and

show a fuel rate of slightly under

is

having prismatic coefficients from about

few
9.72 to 0.75 are as good as the (Taylor) Standard Series
models at designed speeds suitable for the prismatic
".

vessels

At higher

coefficient (see Fig. 66.A).

or lower speeds for

range of vessels and also for vessels having

this particular

prismatic coefficients beyond this range, the resistance for

below that of the Standard Series, often

the designer would do well to
considerably below
have the Standard Series form in mind when drawing
the lines of vessels having prismatic coefficients between

good forms

is

about 0.72 and 0.75."

-

^,

,,

i.

XI.

J.

11

i_

1.

J r

In the event that the hull shape developed for

^
,,
,^ ship should
^,
^c
prove more resistful
than
ABC
,

the
^,

o/ J J
Taylor fetandard
,

ci

-ui

-i

J.

Series, it is possible to apply

T
i
i.
XIa contra-guide ending to the single centerline
jj
,
mu
X
ii.
skeg, and to use a contra rudder. Ihese together

the

IX-

should regain a certain amount of power lost in

,1
.X li- Ax xi
X
-x
driving the hull itself. At this stage it appears
.

,,,,,,,bow

,.

iz-irr

might be benehcial. It so, a

,,,
,.,,
still greater amount of power could be regained.
^^, r.
jT^xX
iiT^i-tT7-t.x
66.10 Second Estimate of Principal Weights.
,
.,x-x
The most uncertain weight items in the farst
.

^,
XI11
rough estimate of Sec. 66.4 were those of the hull,
,,.
,,
xi
T
the propelhng machinery, and the fuel. In
that a bulb

.,

^.

-xLx^x

-Ti

xi

design

is

to be

^rv

CI

r,

of Sec. 69.2

xt
worked up on the
1

i-

accordance with the conclusions

ABC

1-

J-

XL

the
r

basis of a

11

,,

The

X xi-

X-

/.

X-

best available information, at the time of

/,r.rr^

writing (1955), for a complete single-screw steam

.',,
^
,rv X
-i-T r,r.r.
power plant in the range of 16,000 to 17,000
..,.,,
;
,
mi
X X
Xx
horses is 165 lb per horse, ihe total estimated
,

J.

1,

propelling-plant weight

at

ji

this

stage

is

atmosphere control,

for the hotel load, for full

same proportions and weight displacement,

is

lb per horse per hr; certainly

K. C, INA, 1950,

not

exceed that of the Taylor Standard Series hull

of the

be

able to produce full power at a fuel rate of 0.58

resistance.

Further,

Sec. 66.10

this size, also at the time of writing, should

per horse per hour for

oil

tSNAME,

1948, Fig.

all purposes
This apparently

p. 472].

1,

does not mclude fuel for the hotel services,

Concerning the second item it is probably more

determine the fuel rate for services on
^ ^^^^^ ^f ^j^^ ^^^^^ personnel on board per day at
tt
^ea or in port. However, as the rates in question
are bemg used solely for a design example rather
than for an actual ship they need not be more
than roughly representative of good practice at
^^e time of writing.
The fuel consumption per voyage is then
logical to
.

^j

^.

o To-,

c^t^r^,^^c^n,^\,r^nn\

estimated as 290(16,930) (0.70) = 3,437 kips or

.
ro^ ^
a
j n
rm ^ mi_^r/^ ^
1,534.4 t. A round figure is 1,550 t. This is 650 t
,,
,,
^i

,,
less than that allowed tor in the nrst weight
__ ^
^.
^
,
^,
^
estimate, and 200 t more than enough to comi

'

j.

^^

-,

j.

r-

'.

..

^,

,,.,.

pensate tor the 450

additional propellmg-

of

machinery weight m the second estimate,

^
,,
,
A further
check on proportions of hull-and-

/.

^^.

,i

,-

-,1

, i

on the basis

load,

xi

-i-,

-i

...
smgle-screw

type
,.
judicious use
special

i-

standard tor floodability, the possible use

.

seams and welded

xu
x
x
a three-compartment

useful

all

of riveted

^/
xi.
i.
n
xbutts in the shell plating,

i,

nttings weights to total weight with

of

oi

,,,
the

and

stern,

^
-i
of hght alloys for topside weights,
... ^
^,,,,
x .i
T n
-,i
ii
indicates that the hull proper with nttings should
x or
x
r xi
i
mi
weigh about 35 per cent of the loaded ship. The
.

,-

original hull weight of 6,400 t

,,

- r,^V^

may

mi

be reduced at

this stage to about 5,960 t. Ihe original margin

.
._ 7
x
i
o
.
i
ot 500 t, lust uudcr 3 per cent, may safely be
^ ^
oor^ x
x
u
x o
x
cut to 330 t, just about 2 per cent,

A second weight estimate looks about as follows:

,

.1

then

say 1,250

(a)

Liquid bulk cargo

4,000

more than the

800 t of the original estimate, an indication of
the surprises that often turn up in operations of

(b)

3,000

(d)

Package cargo
Hull and fittings
Propelling machinery

this kind.

(e)

Fuel, including reserve

(f)

Fresh water, supphes, and the like

(g)

Weight margin

16,930(165)
t.

This

is

450

From Table

2,793.5 kips or 1,247.1

t,

t;

or 56.3 per cent

66. c

in Sec.

66.2 the estimated

burned per voyage corresponds to that

for approximately 290 hours of steady steaming
at maximum designed power. A steam plant of
fuel to be

(c)

5,960 t
1,250 t
1,550

400

330

Estimated total weight displacement 16,490

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.11

The corresponding displacement volume

nominal figure
577,150
It

is

of

35

ft^

at the

per ton of salt water

is

ft'.

again pointed out that the percentages,

unit weights, fuel rates, and other values and

relationships in these weight estimates

may

not

agree with those used by some reader-designers

may

they continue to be reasonable figures

in the light of technical developments in the next
few decades. They are intended only as numbers
nor

in

an example and they in no way

affect the

procedures in the hydrodynamic design of the

vessel carried through here.

TABLE

66.e

Second Approximation to Principal Di66.11

mensions and Proportions. The second estimate
brings the weight displacement down by 810 t
from the 17,300 t of the first estimate. On this

made smaller; for one

beam can be reduced from the order

basis alone the ship can be

thing, the

of 75 ft to a more reasonable figure. It is to be

remembered, however, that the volumes to be
accommodated within the hull and deck erections
remain substantially the same, and that in the
first estimate of volume the hull appeared to be

none too

large.

Further, since

it

is

customary to reckon the

Tentative Hydbodynamic Features of Sbvebal Vessels op Different Lengths

For the fourth and fifth approximations, 90

the molded displacement.

Approximation

475

has been deducted from the hull weights for the shell plating, to give

HYnROnVNAMICS

476

and to calculate the form

molded form, as explained in
possible to consider about 90 t

IN SHIP DESTCN

Ser. 66.12

For convenient reference the data derived

principal dimensions

in

coefRcients to the

the foregoing for the tentative lengths of 500,515,

Sec. 66.21, it

525,

is

displacement as helping to support the

of the

weight of the shell plating and appendages. The

volume

of the

frames,

is

3,150

ft'.

molded

or 574,000

by about 90(35)

therefore smaller

Specifically,

the outside of the

hull, to

it is

120.1.

90

moment
with

ft,

16,400 t

The 0-diml

T of 0.903, the

its

fatness ratio

of

16,400/136.591 or

is

is

574,000/136,591

just below the middle of the upper

is

The maximum

section area

still

appears

Ax for a Cp of 0.62 is

574,000
515(0.62)
ft

1,798

Ax

1,798
74(26)

of 73 ft,

is

developed through the years, shapes which no

if they serve his

designer need hesitate to copy

Ax

1,798
73(26)

side.

Using

L{Cp)

it is

considered far preferable

meet the dethan to make up a new shape by

adding a good stern to a good but unrelated bow,
or by any process of averaging. These matters

0.947

are discussed in greater detail in Sec. 66.24.

and retaining Cp

ft,

1,815

0.62,

ft'

510(0.62)

Layout of Maximum-Section Contour.

Cx as selected from Fig.
66. D determines whether the maximum-section
contour is to be rectangular, follomng closely the
lines for hmiting beam and draft, whether it is to
be well cut away, as in a keel type of saifing yacht,
or whether it is to take some intermediate form.
66.13

The

tentative value of

If it is desired, in

Cx =

1,815

displacement-length

ratio is 574,000/132,651

fashioning the form, to place

displacement as possible amidships, the

section need not interfere materially with the

which is satisfactory at tliis stage.

These new dimensions give an L/B ratio of
510/73 or 6.986 and a B/H ratio of 73/26 or 2.808.
The block coefficient Cb is (0.62)0.956 or about
0.593. The Taylor quotient T, is 20.5/22.583 =
123.63,

much

use of a hard bilge and a relatively "square"

0.9563,
73(26)

the present state of

to modify a given good shape to

as

the

definitely

to predict the effect of shape changes in a parent

longer than need be. Taking a

574,000

16,400/132.651

and

signer's needs

BxiHx)

little

difficult in

form. Nevertheless,

whence

0.908,

now

the art, especially without benefit of model tests,

0.9345

reduced length of 510

Ax =

It is

necessarily adaptable to any vessel designed in

subsequent years, especially one with a single
screw, it is without question a good shape from
the standpoint of easy driving.
Other good shapes, excellent ones, have been

found wanting.
It is extremely

This is still somewhat low. It is possible that,

with some 800 t off the original displacement, the
length

and proportions.

existing lines; this has been tried

somewhat on the low

Fig. 66. D, to be

Cx =

principal dimensions

He is cautioned, however, not to attempt

"breeding" better ship fines by averaging good

ft'

gives

Bx{Hx)

This maximum-section coefficient appears, from

beam

to this

purpose.

L{Cp)

Reducing the beam to 74

Up

is to take. While it is admitted that the

Taylor Standard Series shape, derived from a
twin-screw cruiser of the early 1900's, is not

appropriate.

Cx

Selection of Hull Shape.

the middle tenta-

lane of Fig. 66. A, so the 515-ft length

A^ =

66.12

point the preliminary design has involved only

hull

tive length of 515

or 4.202. This

plus a few additional items to be

necessary to think of the shape which the vessel's

3,150

ft' less

displacement-length quotient for a weight

ft,

ft',

577,150

ft'.

Considering for the

16,490

and 510

derived, are Usted in Table 66. e.

quotient

is

and the 0-diml fatness

4.327. As a convenient

check at this point the graphs of Fig. 66.

indicate a mean L/B ratio of about 7.4 for a
vessel 510 ft long.

flow except to increase the transverse velocity

gradient and the local friction resistance around

the sharp bilge.

In a vessel which

is

to run at not

more than

medium or fast speed in deep water, there is no

reason why the bottom can not be perfectly flat
over a considerable area. The floor fines at the
midsection need

not be raised unless this

is

required for drainage of the tanks and spaces

lying just above this bottom, or for
practical purpose.

some other

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.1?

Assuming

Excessive transverse metacentric stability developing ill the course of the design is reheved by
narrowing the surface waterline and working
tumble home into the midsection or into the

maximum

section of

tance below the

area for a considerable dis-

DWL,

possibly half

way down

volume
achieved by working an

to the baseplane. Increased displacement

and carrying capacity is

underwater bulge into

this

section

below the

designed waterplane. If the vessel already has

477

for a starter that the floor line

and

the ship's side are both straight, and that the

bilge contour is a circular arc, the appropriate

formula

of Fig. 66. F enables the bilge radius

to be readily calculated. For the

comes out as 10.76

ABC

BR

ship this

equal to 0.14745^ for an

and a Cx of 0.9563. Taking
a half-siding of 1.5 ft, a molded half-beam of
36.5 ft, and a molded draft of 26 ft, one-half of

Ax

value of 1,815

the

maximum

ft,

ft'

section

is

laid out as in Fig. 66. G.

adecjuate metacentric stability, this bulge need

not increase the waterline beam.

As a check on the tentative value of Cx for the
ABC design at this stage a maximum-section
contour is drawn. This requires that the rise of
floor, if

any, be established. It gives an idea of

the roll-resisting characteristics of the section,

leading in turn to an estimate of the bilge-keel

width which

is

required and that which can be

allowed.

To meet
it is

There

(a)

the requirements of the

ABC

design

decided tentatively that:

to be

is

some

provide

rise of floor, to

and to give more room

under the ship in the shallow

for internal tank drainage

for

water moving aft

waters to be traversed
(b)

The

side of the ship in

waterline

is

Fig. 66.G

way

to be given a shght tumble

home

any case is not to have an outward flare in that region

(c) There should be room to fit roll-resisting keels
which are at least 3 ft wide amidships, to help
counteract the effect of the shallow draft and
the wide beam.

rise of floor of 1.0 ft is tentatively selected.

and a
a floor slope of
0.0286, corresponding to slightly over

half-siding of say 1.5

1.0/35.0
1.6 deg.

1.0/73

of 36.5 ft

this gives

ft,

The rise-of-floor to beam

ratio

isKF/fi^

FOB

heavy bed hue is drawn in at h = 29 ft. The

and the slack bilge appear to provide
ample room for backflow under and around the
ship in the shallow and restricted areas of the
river and the canal but of course the large corner
radius detracts from the inherent roll-resisting
characteristics of the hull. However, there is room
enough for roll-resisting keels at least 4 ft wide
rise of floor

amidships,

if

desired,

having

without

them

project below the floor line extended or beyond

the extreme beam.

The first conflict between requirements now

appears in grapliic form. With the fairly large

0.0137.

6R with

Design

B/H
To calculate

ABC

if

possible but in

With a half-beam amidships

Half of Maximum-Section Contour

of the designed

no Rise of Floor

ratio of 2.8, the large ratio of

To colculoti

0.1474,
5R-V?.5299(I-C,)Bx-H

R-l/(l-Cx)BH-0.5Bx-RF

Half-Siding

H5

neglected

y^ ^^^

and a value

of

BM

large, there are indications of

that

is

BR/Bx =

certain to be

heavy rolhng ahead,

hence the need for deep roll-resisting keels. The

compromise thus indicated between restrictedwater and wavegoing needs may not be the best
one but it will be allowed to stand for the time
being.

At

least

the restricted waters

must be

traversed twice every voyage while waves that

Fig. 66. P

Formulas for Computing Bilge

Radius BR

produce deep rolling may or

countered on every trip.

may

not be en-

HYDRODYNAMICS

478

First Estimate Relating to Metacentric

66.14

Before the preliminary design proceeds

Stability.

too far

it is

know

well to

the general situation

relating to transverse metacentric stability.

this

While

can not be determined accurately until the

waterline shape

Cw and

the waterplane coefficient

is fixed,

other characteristics of the waterline

generally are determined, in turn,

by the meta-

centric-stability requirements.

mated by the use

Cw

coefHcient

Cp and

known

Cw was

a ratio between

of

(2)

approxi(1)

the

the waterplane

as the relation coefficient,

symbolized by Cy
This ratio was found to be
more nearly constant than other ratios among
the various form coefficients and was used for

estimating

Cw

[Barnaby, K.

the

before

C, BNA,

were

lines

drawn

1948, p. 24].

Based upon the satisfactory service performance

number of merchant vessels, from small

of a large

cargo ships to large

Sec. 66.14

coefficient just described,

and between

(2)

Cw and

the transverse inertia coefficient Cit

To use the diagram, start with the value of

say 0.62 for the

ABC

ship,

to the lower diagonal line.

The

abscissa of this

intersection gives a good average value of

first

Cw

Cp

then cross horizontally

in this case 0.713.

Then go up

to the upper diagonal line,

this ordinate

whereupon the ordinate

of the second intersection gives the value of C,

approximately 0.561 for the ABC design. Because
j-

In years gone by the value of

prismatic coefficient

IN SHIP DESIGN

normal-form ships with

there is one
diagram for single-screw vessels and another for
twin- and multiple-screw vessels. Using the
of certain differences in

different

numbers

of

propellers

values picked for the single-screw

the square

moment

ABC

of area of the

design,

waterplane

works out as/ = [BUL)C,t]/12 = [73' (510)0.561]

/12 = 9,275,150 it\ The metacentric radius BM,
equal to I/V, is 9,275,150/574,000 or 16.16 ft.

Long experience demonstrates that a reasonable

with data kindly

value of transverse metacentric height to satisfy

furnished by the U. S. Maritime Administration,

both comfort and safety requirements is about

O.OGBx [Niedermair, J. C, SNAME, 1936, pp.
419-420; INA, 1951, p. 144]. For the 73-ft beam

liners,

the diagrams of Fig. 66.

have been prepared.

They give acceptable relationships between (1) the
prismatic coefficient Cp and the waterplane

Cw

coefficient

0,60

0.65

corresponding to the relation

0.70

0.75

Fig. 66.H

085

080

Woterplone Coefficient

0.90

of the

4.38

ABC

ship this gives

GM

(0.06)73 or

ft.

060

065

Cw

070
Woterplone

080
0.75
Coefficient C-^v

005

0.90

Data for Selecting Waterplane Coefficient and Transverse Moment-of-Arba Coefficient

FOR Given Prismatic Coefficients

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.15

The height

KB

CB

buoyancy

of the center of

determined at this stage by

often known as the Morrish
formula [Normand, J. -A., "Formules ApproximaConstruction Navale (Approximate
tives de

above the basehne

the

is

Normand formula,

479

directly a part of the

hydrodynamic design they

are omitted here.

The range of stability and the heeling or righting

energy pertaining to dynamic metacentric stability are

approximated, according to Sec. 68.6,

hull has been roughed out.
First Sketch of Designed Waterline

Naval Architecture)," Paris, Arthus

Bertrand, 1870; Pollard, J., and Dudebout, A.,
"Th^orie du Navire," 1890, Vol. I, p. 113;

when the abovewater

SNAME,

of the vessel is to lay out the designed waterline.

Formulas

for

1893, p. 29]

KB = H

-(- +

66.15

Shape.

The next

The diagrams

)
(66.iii)

step in determining the shape

of Fig. 24.

illustrate

some

historic

yet highly instructive waterhne shapes. Fig. 51.C

depicts the actual designed-waterline shapes for
six typical vessels in several speed-length groups.

The B/Bx
For the

ABC

design at this stage

26

is

ft,

andA^ = 510(73)0.713 = 26,545 ft',

whence /A^ = 574,000/26,545 = 21.62.
Then KB = 26 - 1/3(13 + 21.62) = 14.46 ft,
574,000

KM

14.46

16.16

30.62

ft,

KG = KM - GM =

30.62

4.38

26.24

ft.

= KB

of the fully loaded vessel lies

in the designed

very nearly

It should

easily be
below this limit, even
with a fairly large abovewater hull and with the
sizable upper works required for passenger

waterline.

possible to keep the

CG

quarters. On the other hand, the CG is not so

high as to produce undesirable rolling features
[Vedeler, G.,

INA,

somewhat lower

1925, p. 166]. It

in proportion

for ocean hners [de Vito, E.,

than

is,

in fact,

customary
INA, 1952, Table

VIII; partial abstract in SBSR, 13

is

Nov

1952, pp.

642-643].

The

other waterline shapes

SNAME

Resistance Data

sheets.

expression

Because of the effect of the waterline slopes

forward upon surface wavemaking and of the

upon separation, the shape

waterplane depends upon the speed-length
quotient T^ or F at which the vessel is to run.
waterline slopes aft
of the

Since the relative speed of the

This means that, with the assumptions made,

CG

many

ft',

+ BM =

the

values for

are to be found on the

is

KB^ /H s available as a rough

BM, where k varies from
i

check on the value of

0.08 to 0.10 [Attwood, E. L., and Pengelly, H.

S.,

BM

pp. Ill, 476]. For a rectangular box hull,

ABC

ship

is

rather

high, with a T, of 0.908

and an F, of 0.270, a
small waterline slope at the stem and an easy
waterline in the entrance are indicated, to keep
down the pressure resistance Rp due to wavemaking. With the small length-beam ratio of
and the Ukelihood of using a bulb bow, a

6.986,

considerable degree of hoUowness in the entrance

waterlines

is

a certainty. Taking into account

the speed ratios listed and the

Vincent's data of 1930
139;

p.

revised

Cp of 0.62, S. A.
[MESA, Mar 1930, Fig. 5,

unofficially

to

1952]

indicate

something between a very hollow and a moderately

hollow entrance waterline.

study of nominal

WL

entrance slopes is for

easily driven hulls, plus available reference data

on the subject, produced the graphs

of Fig. 66.1.

ABC design, where B is at

and H is 26 ft, BM = (say)0.08(73)
26 = 16.40 ft, compared to the value of 16.16 ft
determined previously.
A complete preUminary design requires, at this
or at a slightly later stage, an estimate of the
vertical and horizontal CG position as determined
by the weights [PNA, 1939, Vol. I, pp. 102-103],
including if possible a check from the known
values for a somewhat similar ship. It requires
also an estimate of the transverse metacentric
0.08357^- For the
present 73

stability

ft

for

the light as well as the loaded

condition; possibly also for one or

more

inter-

mediate loading conditions. As these are not

Fig. 66.1

Graph op Design Values for Waterline

Slope is at Entrance

HYDRODYNAMICS

480

These exclude the shapes

of

Sec. 66.15

stems made blunt

purposes only.

functional

or

construction

for

IN SHIP DESIGN

Past practice, and good performance as well,

indicated by the spots in the region of T = 0.4
and justified, in a way
to 0.75, has embodied
the use of large ie values in these low-speed

ranges. Further study of the large deflection

drag undoubtedly associated with these blunt

plus consideration of the equally large

stems,

wavegoing drag in head

in these slopes,
in Fig. 66.1

is

if

The

a reduction
design lane

therefore lower than one laid out

most

to fence in

seas, calls for

practicable.

of the spots.

Because of the lower

L/B

ratio of short vessels,

explained in Sec. 66.7 and indicated graphically

in Fig. 66. E, their is values are necessarily larger.
66.1 contains therefore a branched design

Fig.

lane for vessels of low

The

ratios.
rises

L/B

lane for vessels of

but high

L/B =

V/\/L

6.0 to 10.0

sUghtly at high T,'s because of the straight

or slightly convex designed-waterline shapes used

For the ABC

waterhne entrance an is value of 7 or 8 deg
appears suitable for the present, until the whole
waterhne is laid out and its characteristics are
checked with various requirements.
Hydrodynamically, and for easy driving, any
in the forebodies of these craft.

parallel waterlines at

20

10

30

40

50

Lenqth of Parallel Designed Vi/oterline

of Ship Lenqth

in

60
70
Percentoqe-

Design Lane for Percentage of

Parallel Waterune

Fig. 66.J

and near the surface are

On

the

ABC design the optimum position

to be avoided, for the reasons given in Sees. 4.7

portion.

middlebody is used, parallel

waterlines of course come with them. When
vessels are built on slips or in docks of limited
width, or when they have to pass through canal
some parallel waterhne is inevitable,
locks,
even without parallel middlebody. The lane on
Fig. 66.J is an indication of what has been found
acceptable in the past on vessels with varying
Cp Judging by this the ABC ship could have a
up to about 0.22L,
parallel portion of the
but to keep the longitudinal waterhne curvature
more nearly constant a value of O.OL is selected.

appears to be about 0.54L; the exact position is

not too important. It will probably depend upon

and 24.13.

If parallel

DWL

This

is

The

also within the lane.

fore-and-aft

designed waterhne

position

of

beam Bwx

the

maximum
may or

which

not be opposite the maximum-area section,

determined by the position of the latter to

may
is

some

extent. Nevertheless, for easy-driving ships

these positions are well related to the

and hence are shown

logically

on

Cp

value,

different dia-

gives a lane of good positions

grams. Fig. 66.
for a large range of Cp values. When there is any
parallel waterhne, the indicated position along

the ship

length

is

for

the midlength of that

DWL

to achieve
subsequent adjustment of the
nearly constant curvature.
Inspection of the many waterhne endings and

run slopes in on the available

sheets, for ships of

SNAME RD

normal form and with canoe

or whaleboat sterns, together with those

Figs. 23. A, 24.G,

and

shown

51. C, indicates the

in

extreme

shaping such a stern with a slope ig

deg or less. Even the TSS parent form,
EMB model 632, with a Cw of only 0.66 and an
L/B ratio of 6.85, has a run slope at the stern

difficulty of

of 15

as high as 22 deg; see Fig. 24.G.

One

solution,

and the one adopted here for the ABC afterbody,

is to use an immersed-transom stern, along the
hues described in Sec. 23.2 and illustrated in
Fig. 23.A. A conservative preliminary figure for
a not-too-wide transom beam B^ on the ABC
This may have to be increased
ship is 0.3B;r

later to

keep the run slopes down to the order of

12 or 13 deg.

Despite difficulties encountered with the wavegoing performance of certain full-stern vessels

STEPS IN PRFLTMTNARY nF.STCN

Srr. 66.1 r,

of the past [Thompson, R. C, NECI, 1935-1936,

pp. 216-217], no such problems have presented
themselves with the multitude of full-stern and

transom-stern vessels of the U.

S.

Navy

able for this preliminary design.

now

It is

possible to sketch a tentative designed

ABC

(j)

(k)

or say 50

ship on the basis of the

Several attempts produce a result that meets

sketches are not illustrated here but the final

designed waterline shape appears in Fig. 07. A.

A preliminary check of the curvature, by the

graphic method described in Chap. 49, indicates

However, before making another try at the

designed waterline

(a)

Length, 510

(b)

Slope at stem, 7 to 8 deg

(c)

Entrance

ft

from

S.

[MESA,

A. Vincent

0.8 to 0.85,

with hollow portion

No

(e)

Slope at stern, 13 deg,

(f)

Beam, maximum, 73

(g)

Position of

(h)

Nearly constant curvature amidships

(i)

Cr =

parallel waterline

0.713;

work

Estimated Draft Variations.

66.16

how

other

out.
It

is

useful

underwater body, to have some idea of the

variations in draft to be encountered in the several

maximum

510(73)0.713

The

first statement
Table 66.d of Sec.
66.3, requires modification because of the changes
in fuel weights. The second variable-weight
statement appears in Table 66. f.

variable-weight conditions.

ft

0.54L, or 275.4

Aw =

well to see

is

at this stage, as an aid in developing other features

of the

(d)

it

parts of the underwater form

1930, Fig. 5, p. 139], for T,

B^x

The preUminary

the requirements fairly closely.

ing.

offsets

O.IOL,

ft.

that the early contours could stand some smooth-

following:

Mar

ft

built

from the middle 1930's to the present. Since the

transom stern proposed here is on the small
side as transom sterns go, it is considered accept-

waterline for the

'IRl

Transom width Bu = 0.3(Bx) = 21.9

Transom radius in planform, tentative,

of these conditions, given in

ft

abaft

26,545

FP
ft''

The

tons per foot immersion for the designed-

dimensions tentatively selected are

approximately 26,545/35 or 758.4 tons per ft,
equivalent to about 63.2 tons per in. This value

0.90

waterline

diminishes as the load decreases and the ship

comes up in the water. The change is allowed for
in a

rough way by reducing the 758 tons per foot

progressively to a guessed value of 725 tons per

at the lighter drafts. On this basis the drafts
corresponding to the entries in Table 66. f are
about as set down in Table 66.g. These show that
ft

when the

vessel

through the canal

designed

maximum

Port Amalo

returning to

is
it is

some 975

fighter

than the

service displacement.

When

Amalo it may be from 2,400 to 3,400

or even more, depending upon the liquid
carried. This decreases the mean draft

leaving Port
lighter

ballast

by from 3.26
reduce the

to 4.63

maximum

It

ft.

draft,

may be expected to
with the stern down

to keep the propeller under water,

ft.

OSOM

5
Position

of

Byjx

II

60
55
50
40
-4S
Maximum Designed Waterline Beam

in

Fig. 66.K

Percentaqe of Ship Lenoth from FP

Foee-and-Aft Position of Maximum

Waterline Beam Bffx

The minimum bed

of

the ship in the Port

28

(26

3.26)

by

at least 1.0

clearance under the middle

5.26

Amalo

ft,

which

is then
undoubtedly

canal
is

more than enough for the limiting speeds of 8

and 10 kt. The designed draft of the vessel might
possibly be increased from 26 to 27 ft, but then
the bed clearance in the river when leaving Port
Correo would be 3 ft minus the fresh-water
sinkage

correction,

or

about 2.35

ft.

This

smaller than the 3 ft indicated in Fig.

is

66. G.

HYDRODYNAMICS

482

TABLE

66.f

IN SHIP DESIGN

Second Statement of Variable- Weight Conditions

This table, at the present stage of the design, supersedes Table 66.d.

Load Condition

Sec. 66.17

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.18

TABLE
The

variations from the designed

value for fresh water

is

maximum

reckoned constant, at

Load Condition

483

First Statement op Variable Draft

66.g

service load are taken

its

maximum

value.

from the

last

column

of

Table

66. f.

The sinkage

HYDRODYNAMICS

484

to be determined. Unfortunately, the results of the

parallel-middlebody series of models developed

by D. W. Taylor, reported in the 1943 edition of

book "The Speed and Power of Ships,"
pages 70-72 and 257-271, have not been analyzed
and put in suitable design form. It is therefore
necessary to use an empirical design curve. Taking
his

as a basis Taylor's original 1910 diagram [the

same

as S and P, 1943, Fig. 83, p. 71], his data

have been supplemented by parallel-middlebody
percentages (Lp/L) for ship models on the
SNAME RD sheets whose performance was
equal to or better than that of the TSS model of
the same proportions. When suitably extended to
cover higher and lower values of Cp
the new
plot of Fig. 66.M reveals that these ship data he
in a rather narrow lane running diagonally across
the diagram. Since Cp and T (or F) are, for
,

easily driven ships, related

lane of Fig.

66. A,

are therefore plotted in Fig.

The new
proper ratio of Lp
Cp

only.

D.

by the lower design

the data recently analyzed

66.M on a

to

Lg^Ldiagram

AV. Taylor's original

Fig. 83, p. 71], as well as Fig.

(a)
is

basis of

design lane gives directly the

[S and P, 1943,
66.M, reveal that:

Inserting parallel middlebody of length

Lp

a definite advantage at low T, and F values.

For a given Cp it adds displacement amidships

and allows finer ends. It also gives rectangular
passenger and cargo spaces and may result in
reduced building costs.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 66. IS

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.21

cated in a preceding paragraph, placed with

its

midle ngth at the selected fore-and-aft position

LMA

maximum area.
Bulb-Bow Parameters. Considering

of the section of

66.19

next the forward end of the ship,

whether a bulb bow

first

is

it is

determined

largely

by the

ratio of the speed to the length at

the point where

The

maximum

tapers

and

less

off

is

desired.

is

in the region of a T^ of

down

to a T of about 0.75 or

greatest saving

1.0; it

performance

diminishes at 1\ values up to 1.5 or

it

From
of is

is

within the opti-

a value

tentatively selected for the designed

range of T, of from 0.828 to 0.908.

The detail design of the bulb is worked out in
Sec. 67.6.

Transom-Stern

66.20

Parameters.

For

an

estimate of the immersed-transom area and the

value of fn
is

in Sec.

lies

the upper diagram of Fig. 67.

0.9

Feb

67.D

0.06

portions of this vessel.

more. Inspection of F. H. Todd's Table 5 [IME,

1945, p. 18], as well as of Fig.

mum range, and it affords ample room for the

bottom anchor contemplated, although it is
somewhat lower than the optimum for the pro-

advisable as a means

of saving pressure resistance. This is governed

485

mediate value of f E

it is

assumed

that the transom

first

definitely to clear at the designed speed

of

67.6, reveals that for the speed-length quotient

20.5 kt. In other words, at this speed the entire

of 0.908, corresponding to the trial speed of the

transom area is to be exposed to the air. On the

assumption described in Sec. 67.20 that the
corresponding Froude number, using the immersed-transom depth Hu as the length dimension,
is hmited to 5.0, this immersed depth works out

ABC

a bulb bow is indicated.

It is to be borne in mind that this ship, for
probably the greater part of its time at sea, will
ship,

run at a speed closer to 18.7 kt than 20.5 kt. In

other words, the T, for the majori ty o f service

approximate only 18.7/ VolO = 0.828,

F = 0.247. At this lower speed the bulb may
show up to less advantage. Furthermore, a
smaller /^ is called for than at the higher T, of
0.908, in the ratio of about 0.07 to 0.08 or more.
The bulb parameters may be worked out by
D. W. Taylor's method [S and P, 1943, pp. 65-70,
243-254]. However, it is pointed out in some detail
in Sec. 67.6, where this procedure is illustrated,
hours

that

as follows:

will

rarely possible to utilize all of the

is

it

optimum

section

interferences with

area in

a bulb,

because

of

bower anchors and possible

under-the-bulb slamnoing.

There

is

one other factor to be considered. In

the lighter-load conditions on the

ABC

ship

it is

F,

_
=
~

6889)1'
[ 20.5(1.6:
5.0
L

^t/

3^ (6.925)'

emerge at less angles of pitch than at full load.

If
the proposed under-the-bottom anchor

installation described in Sec. 68.11 does not

out,
to

may

be necessary at a later design stage

bower anchors in the orthodox side locations.

it

fit

work

lay down, in the standard 1:4 box described in

Sec. 24.12, a tentative section-area curve for the

ABC

full-load

conditions.

The value

of

representing installations of the past,

enough to make a bulb worth

while.

is

An

hardly
inter-

design.

The

typical A-curve on S. A. Vin-

Cp

cent's 1930 data for a

W.

0.02 from the broken hne of Fig. 67.D,

sketching the section-area or A-curve.

it will

66.21
The Preliminary Section-Area Curve.
With the data thus assembled it is possible to

plot.

first

are given in Sec. 67.20.

smaller bulb area Je than that indicated by the

full-speed,

ft.

not be larger than this.

Further details of immersed-transom design

This consideration alone points to the wisdom

of using, for the ABC design, a considerably

Se

1.49

of 1.5 ft, the immersed-transom area at rest

would have a maximum value of about 33 ft'.
The terminal value Ju is about 33/1,815 = 0.018.
A tentative value of f r = 0.02 seems reasonable

Certainly

will

Taking the transom width previously agreed

upon of (0.3)73 = 21.9 ft and a constant depth

when

submergence. At these varied trims by the stern

the bulb at the bow will be nearer the surface and

= V/VgHv,

g{H^)
''^

in the tanks aft will be used to bring the stern

to give the propeller adequate tip

5.0

whence

comtemplated that liquid cargo or water ballast

down and

1930, Fig. 4, p. 138]

is

of 0.60

[MESA, Mar

ticked in with dots on the

is checked from the cross curves of

van Lammeren [RPSS, Fig. 42, p. 92],
from those of F. H. Todd for the TMB Series 60
[SNAME, 1953, pp. 516-589], or from similar

This

P. A.

sources, provided the curves lend themselves to

vessels with bulb bows.

HYDRODYNAMICS

486

is

The position of the section of maximum area

marked as 0.515L from the FP. The tentative

value oi fs = 0.06 is laid off at the FP and a

tangent to the section-area curve at the FP is

drawn by working backward the formula

Sec. 24.12. Since

1.00

which

0.06

is

fs

intercept

as

is

0.9,

gives the

FP

A/Ax

abaft the midwidth of the lane in Fig. 66. N.

of

Although the corresponding values are

shghtly different for the final section-area curve.

67.W
The value

intercepts mentioned.

illustrates the

of

insufficient

is

laid off as 0.02

but there are

data to indicate a good terminal

This preliminary yl-curve is omitted

value of Ir
for lack of space but the final curve
.

in Fig.

is

depicted

67.W.

Integrating the preliminary curve numerically

an underwater hull volume of 572,050 ft'

and a Cp of 0.618. Both values are a little small
when compared to the previous figures of 574,000
ft' and 0.62, but before modifying the curve it is
well to see what the underwater form looks like
gives

when

other requirements are applied.

The

first

y4-curve appears sufficiently fair to permit sweUing

it here and there, but it must first
be found where these volume changes are of most
benefit to the ship. A discontinuity in the ^-curve

or shrinking

to be expected at the stern, where the singleskeg area drops rather suddenly to zero.
In this connection it is to be remembered that
is

ship

sections,

body

customarily laid

plans,

to the

off

and waterUnes, are

molded dimensions

For a metal vessel this is to the outside

framing and the inside of the plating.

of a ship.
of the

Furthermore,

the

rudder,

roll-resisting

keels,

and other appendages

displace considerable quantities of water and
thus help to support themselves. The volume
occupied by the plating of a steel vessel is assumed
equivalent to about 0.0075 times the molded
volume if in-and-out strakes are employed. It is
about 0.005 times that volume if the plating is
flush, as in a welded vessel [Robb, A. M., TNA,
1952, p. 77]. The volumes occupied by the appendages are readily computed when they are roughed
propeller, exposed shafting,

out.

For the

ABC

ship

stage that the shell

and nearly

all flush.

it

is

may

be assumed at this

to be rather fully welded

Taking a value

the corresponding volume

is

66.22 Longitudinal Position of the Center of

Buoyancy. As an indication of the fore-and-aft
position where the CG must He, an integration
of the preUmin ary s ection-area curve shows that

LCB is about 0.506 or 0.507L,

reckoned abaft the FP. This position is slightly

the midlength ordinate at a value of

Fig.

Sec. 66.22

and the weight is 3,157/35 = 90.2 t;

say 90 t. This leaves a molded displacement of
16,400 t or 574,000 ft' as the end point in working
up the final ^-curve and the underwater hull form.
ft'

intersects

Adding 0.846 to 0.06

0.846.

indicates that the tangent at the

0.906.

by

0.94. Multiplying 0.94

the tentative value of /^

in

0.06, the intercept

is

IN SHIP DESIGN
3,157

of 0.0055^,

(0.0055) (574,000)

the value of

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.23

do

this

by sketching freehand on paper with

Hght-blue cross-section hnes, producing the result

waterline to a rounded main-deck planform at

the stern.

depicted in Fig. 66.0. Small profiles, sections, and

The

deck plans, plus a midship section, bow and

stern profiles, and a stern elevation to larger
scale, suffice for this purpose. The first such
sketches for the ABC design were drawn to a
scale of 80 f t = 1 in. For a complete preliminary
design these sketches would be supplemented by
an inboard profile and several additional deck

calls for

plans,

drawn to a considerably

larger scale.

The maximum-section contour

of Fig.

66.

and the preliminary designed waterline form the

bases of these sketches.

tentative freeboard

487

wide,

somewhat shallow underwater form

rather drastic narrowing aft

if

proper

flow to both top and bottom blades of a single

A pronounced cutting
might give a reasonably good
performance with twin screws; a twin-skeg form
of stern almost certainly would. However, the
use of two separate propelling plants for an
output of the order of 16,000-20,000 horses
propeller

up

is

to be achieved.

of the stern

involves increases in space, cost, weight, operating

personnel,

upon

and so

in Sec. 69.2,

on.
it

For the reasons elaborated

appears not

justifiable.

and then checked as

described in Sec. 66.30. A sheer line is drawn in,
more or less by eye, with the low point of the
deck well aft of amidships and with a sheer

The efficient, economic transportation required

by item (5) of the mission, in Table 64. a, calls
for high propeller and propulsive efficiency. One
method of gaining the former is to use a screw

forward that looks right, to be checked later as

propeller of the largest practicable disc area

outlined in Sec. 68.4.

diameter.

amidships of 23

ft is selected

curved raking stem and a bulb that projects

and

below the

For the current style (1955) in single-screw

merchant vessels having canoe or whaleboat
(cruiser) sterns, a good rule for the propeller
diameter D is to keep it less than O.IH at the

designed waterline and a stern profile raking

designed-load condition. This insures reasonable

The square

submergence at drafts not too much smaller than

the maximum, and as good submergence as can

slightly

scale

forward of the

bow

profile.

transom depth
sUghtly forward

transom

is

of

is

FP

At the

complete the smallstern the immersed-

1.5 ft is laid

added above

off

it.

indicated as fading out above the

25 5-ft Station Spacmq

Fig. 66.0

Sketches of Outboard Profile, Main Deck and Waterline, and Sections

HYDRODYNAMICS

'IfiS

IN SMTP DESIGN

Sec. 66.21

be expected in wavegoiiig. With a draft

of
26 ft, this gives a hmiting diameter of 18.2 ft.

Molding a
Within the framework

New

For better-than-average

portions, coefficients,

and parameters, plus the

efficiency the propeller

should be considerably larger, with a diameter of

the order of 20

ABC

the

It is

ft.

The

latter size is selected for

ship, as the basis for further sketching.

soon found that, even by working reverse

curvature into the buttocks ahead of the transom,

to make room for such a large
on the centerline. The situation is
eased somewhat by eliminating the rudder shoe,
carrying a semi-balanced rudder on a fixed horn,
and dropping the propeller disc almost down to
the baseplane. However, when enough fore-andaft room is left for the rudder, the horn, and the
propeller aperture abaft the upper blades, the
it

is

difficult

propeller

propeller-disc

position

rather

is

far

forward,

where the buttocks are definitely curving downward. Flattening the under side of the main hull
to fair into the transom leaves a sort of shelf of
considerable extent just above the wheel. The
latter is thus shielded exceptionally well from air
leakage but it is difficult to provide a large tip
clearance at the top center.

An

66.24

now required to fashion a good underwater form. So far as propulsion is concerned, it

should have the smallest practicable shaft power
which will drive it at the designed maximum
sections, it is

meet

and

speed

requirements. It

vicinity of the centerline

the lower apex of the V-sections in the skeg

ending, the rudder shoe, and other obstructions
to

be

accommodated

abreast the propeller on the centerline

Moving the

propeller farther aft, where

more vertical clearance between the
baseplane and the buttocks, by shortening the
fore-and-aft length of the rudders. There would
be twin rudders behind the two skegs instead of
(b)

there

is

a single rudder.
(c)

The

creation of such a shape, as the best final

most complex flow and resistance

problem in hydrodynamics, is probably as much
a matter of unconscious understanding and of
inspiration as of the straightforward use of all

hydrodynamic knowledge. The selection

good underwater form as a guide is contingent
upon the availability of a store of information on
available
of a

ship forms, contained in the designer's

hterature,

Providing room for a propeller of greatly in-

much

smaller tip

clearance needed inside the tunnel.

Further developments of this alternative stern,

an arch form, are described in Sec. 67.16.

called
It

becomes apparent, as the small-scale afterbody

it

own

files

in the

may

require different

widths and shapes of the designed waterline in

the run than the transom stern.

SNAME RD
is

among

sheets,

and

in

equally contingent upon the

those data, of a form re-

sembling the one wanted, and on a certain amount

knowledge and good judgment, mixed with

when working over that form.
Many good shapes have been developed
through a long process of intelligent refinement,
as witness the Taylor Standard Series. For the
ABC design being carried through here the
Taylor Standard Series form has too low a
maximum-section coefficient, 0.923 as compared
to a range of 0.955 to 0.96, it has too low a waterplane coefficient, 0.66 as compared to at least
0.71, and it does not have a bulb bow. Further,
of

experience,

as the

form,

it

TSS

parent is essentially a twin-screw

appears not suitable for the single-screw

project in hand, even though the

B/H

ratio of

ABC

beam-draft ratio of
2.808. The
Series 60, block 0.60 parent
form, having a Cp of 0.614, has too full a maximum
section {Cx = 0.977) for the easy shallow-water
driving required of the ABC ship, too small a
B/H ratio (2.50), too much parallel waterUne
(15 per cent), and no bulb bow. Rather than to
follow some other well-developed form of good
2.92

creased diameter because of the

sketches proceed, that

specification

not have a low

solution of a

availability,

have

may

hull resistance, but it must embody a

machinery plant that represents the minimum in
first cost and in operating expenses consistent
with durability and refiabihty.

skegs offers advantages which appear to

warrant the development of a preliminary-design
variation along these fines. This arrangement
eliminates man.y of the usual difficulties in singlescrew sterns by:
the

normally

or

total

similar sources. It

which

remaining

the

may

or in those available to him, in the technical

adaptation of the twin-skeg stern with a

mounted in the tunnel between

Removing from the

Form.

of the selected ratios, pro-

general shape tentatively selected in the preceding

single propeller

(a)

Underwater

is

close to the

TMB

performance, or to use

body plan

for the

clean sheet,

both

new

it

as a guide, a large-scale

ship

literally

is

roughed out on a
figuratively, on

and

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.24

the basis of present hydrodynamic knowledge.

The guiding

principles in this procedure are

based upon an understanding of the water

flow around a ship-shaped form, and the effects
of this flow.

One such

principle

is

based upon the

fact that, for the underwater hull of a surface

vessel

which varies not too widely from the normal,

the upper layers of water

met by the

ship pass

around the sides of the entrance while the lower

layers pass under the bottom. This feature is

by Figs. 4.0, 22.E, 24.L, 25.G, 66.R,

and a number of diagrams in Chap. 52. In the
run, the water which has passed around the sides
rises rather rapidly toward the surface, so that
toward the stern the water flowing over the hull
is largely that which has come up from under
the bottom. The shortest paths from the bow to
the stern are, in general, those which cross the
section lines at right angles, indicated by the
position of flowlines when projected on the midsection and shown in a body plan. However, it is
illustrated

not always possible for the water to flow in this

fashion under a more-or-less flat free surface and

around a hull which must meet requirements

other than those of minimum resistance.
Since neither the section shapes nor the flowline
positions for

an entirely new hull are known at

the outset, this means that both have to be

worked

in simultaneously,

(streamlines)

as for the flowlines

and the equipotential

lines

of

Compliance with

this shortest-path rule, con-

formity to the general flow pattern described in

the references listed, and consideration of curvature changes along the flowlines, calls for V-shaped

and the run. Consideration of pressure resistance due to wavemaking, and of the height of the bow-wave crest
sections in both the entrance

in

particular,

sections in

way

vertical-sided

calls

for

of the

bow-wave

crest.

entrance

A bulb bow

does not work well into V-shaped bow sections,

nor is it easy to fashion a deep forefoot from them,

where the bulb must be. These considerations,

coupled with the division of flow described in
(1)

of

the following paragraph,

indicate

that

U-shaped bow sections are to be preferred to

V-shaped sections, for this ship at least.
Specifically, a few more detailed rules may be
formulated for guidance in shaping the hull of
the ABC design, with its B/H ratio of about 2.8
and its T of about 0.9. These should be part of a

comprehensive set for a large range of

values, hull shapes,

this set is

yet completed.

The present

B/H

and speed-length quotients

a formidable task not

additional rules are:

Along the region of the designed waterline,

extending below that line for the order of 0.20
to 0.25H at the bow, 0.9H amidships, and O.IOH
at the stern, the water flows primarily around the
sides. The position of the dividing line at the stem
between the side and the bottom water depends
also upon the height of the wave crest at the bow
and the change of level at the bow when underway.
(2) To minimize surface wavemaking the changes
(1)

in longitudinal curvature along the flowlines in

this belt, as well as the curvature itself, should

be a minimum. This embraces the number of

curvature changes between bow and stern; the

number

lowest possible
(3)

Changes

in

is

two.

curvature

region indicated in

the

in

side-water

at successively deeper

(1),

depths below the designed waterline, should if

practicable be offset longitudinally, and should
not occur at any one transverse station. The
reason for this is explained in Sec. 4.8 and the

accompanying

Fig. 4.1

In the region at the stem below about 0.20

to 0.25H, measured downward from the designed
waterline, the water flows outward but then
(4)

swings downward rather rapidly, to pass under

the bottom inside the turn of the bilge, below

about 0.9 to l.OH

(5)

flow net, described in Sec. 2.20.

489

but making up

The

twisting of the stream tubes accompany-

ing this turning of the flow, depicted in Fig. 4.P,

should be accomphshed as easily and as gradually

as practicable. Some remarks by D. W. Taylor,

made many
are

still

years ago

[SNAME,

pertinent at this point;

1907,

p.

comments

11],

in

parentheses are those of the present author:

"... this work shows the importance of an easy bilge,
that is to say, at about one-

tolerably well forward,

quarter the length of the ship from the bow. The water
is trying hard to get under the bottom, and if you have

a shape such that

it is difficult

to get

around the

sections,

you have a ship that is harder to drive. Some of our

analyses of model trials appear to indicate that at about
the point where the water wants to go under the ship,
you ought not to have (a) full section not over eighty-five

per cent coefficient of fullness (section coefficient) at the

outside."

(6)

If

the ship has a deep centerline skeg under

the stern the stream tubes passing out from under

the

bottom must twist back again through

nearly 90 deg as they approach the skeg ending.

Assuming a single propeller carried by the
centerline

skeg the flow should,

somehow

or

HYDRODYNAMICS

-190

other,

axis as

be brought nearly parallel to the shaft

it passes into the propeller disc.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 66.24

outline at the

AP

rules

67.20.

of Sec.

next sketched, following the

is

Since the afterbody

is

to

as for the side-water paths, the

terminate in nearly horizontal shelf-like sections

changes in curvature along the bottom-water

paths should be a minimum, both in number
and magnitude. This means easy and gradual
longitudinal slopes in the actual flowplanes,

approximating the form of the immersed portion

of the transom it is evident that any centerhne

with small magnitudes of curvature.

to be added under the

The same

(7)

skeg must of necessity be relatively thin. This

is

So much

mind

as sketching of the sections progresses.

The

maximum-area

la3'out of the

from Fig. 66.G, forms the basis

The

be kept in

for the general rules, to

station

offsets

of

the

section,

for the

tentative

plan.

designed

laid off along the 26-ft designed

waterUne are

waterline trace on this plan and are

numbered

accordingly. Short vertical hnes are sketched in

through these points in the entrance, to serve as

zero-flare references for the section lines where
they cross the designed waterline.

The bulb-bow

FP

section at the

the rules of Sec.

following

is

67.6.

drawn

first,

tentative

then sketched in at the forward

is taken from
a curve of section coefficient based on ship length,
section at Sta. 5

is

quarterpoint. Its section coefficient

similar to Fig. 67.1 of Sec. 67.10.

The

section

tangent to the floor hne at the bottom

and to the vertical reference hne at the DWL;
a large radius or easy sweep is used below about

outhne

is

0.3H. This

does
care

is

is

the region where the bottom water

and where particular

required to insure easy flowlines. Except
greatest twisting

its

for the designed-waterline region

it is

probably

the most important part of the hull, at least in

the entrance, and the part that has the greatest
influence

upon pressure

resistance. Before easing

the section at Sta. 5 too much, the area is measured and checked with the forward-quarter
ordinate at Sta. 5 on the preliminary section-area
curve. Section 5

is

reshaped as necessary to give

the proper area and section coefficient; see Sec.

67.10. This may involve a possible widening of

the

DWL. By

the use of the bilge diagonal for

fairing, or several waterlines, or both, it is fairly

simple

sketch in the remaining entrance

meeting the designed waterline along

to

sections,

the short vertical reference

lines,

including inside

them the areas given by the preliminary sectionarea curve, and conforming to the section-coefficient

curve.

The abovewater

portions

of

will, in fact,

stern profile, the centerline or half-siding buttock,

the one meeting the bottom of the transom and

taken

body

form a sort of major appendage

main hull. The next step
therefore to sketch in, on a separate large-scale

skeg

the

section lines in the entrance are reserved for the

time being.

Turning to the afterbody a tentative transom

representing roughly the top of the skeg. There

must be room

at about the after quarterpoint,

from the

or possibly at one-fifth of the length

stern, for

main

a large-diameter motor or gear on the

shaft,

low down

in the vessel.

must

The

half-

no farther
aft than the after quarterpoint and must rise
rather rapidly to meet the bottom of the transom.
Indeed, if reverse curvature (concave downward)
is to be worked into the after end of this buttock,
as is desirable, the latter must rise at a rather
siding buttock therefore

angle

steep

forward

One must be prepared

of

the

start

concave

to bring

it

portion.

upward

at a

slope approaching closely the critical angle for

separation at a submergence of about Q.7H. It

known

is

that the owners will require one or more

model tests as a check on the performance of the

underwater hull. It appears, therefore, that a
centerline or half-siding buttock slope as steep

as 17 or 18 deg
design.
scale

may

Laying

on what

this

will

be risked at this stage of the

buttock down to a large

eventually be the stern profile

gives a series of heights for the termination at

the centerhne of

all

main-hull sections in the run.

Taking the after quarterpoint at Sta. 15 as a

sort of midpoint in the run, an easy curve is
swept in between the designed-waterline intercept
and the half siding at the baseline. The lower or
inboard portion of this section is made somewhat
flat and the upper portion is given a slight outward flare at the DWL. The area at Sta. 15 is
then measured and checked with the A-curve,
whereupon the section is readjusted as necessary.
Sections between Stas. 10 and 15 are rather
easily drawn, following the general procedure for

the sections between Stas. 5 and 10.

as

if

section

meet the centerhne buttock,

there were to be no skeg; see the broken

line is

drawn

first

to

hnes at Stas. 16 through 18.5 in Fig. 66.P. The

skeg is then drawn in separately. However, the
stations abaft 15 include the skeg as a part of
the main hull, so some little sketching and re-

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.25

491

A
All

Wolerhne Heights and BuUock Dislancts ore

in

1^ lO-deg Flare

feel

Parallel

Deck L

TT

Line' of Floor

22
1.5

36.70 ft to

Maximum

Wolerline

Beom

A rea Section at

ABC

Body Plan of

Fig. 66.P

ft-^

ot Sto.ll

Ship with Single-Skeg Transom Stern

adjustment is necessary to bring their areas into

conformity with the tentative 4-curve. As the
skeg area diminishes to zero at the forward end
of the propeller aperture, leaving only the

hull

main

a discontinuity in the

abaft that point,

^-curve appears there.

Holding the waterline (level-line) slopes in the
upper part of the skeg termination to a value not
exceeding 15 deg involves a considerable amount
of drawing and erasing. It requires the use of
with rather small radii where the
upper end of the skeg ending merges into the hull.
transverse

fillets

However, these small

disadvantage
generally

parallel

and does not

fillets

The body plan

stern

is

The

fillets

provided

the

to

cross
for

reproduced in

offer

the

no particular

resulting

fore-and-aft

flow

is

line

of

it.

the single-skeg transom

its final

form

5ta. 10.3 _

in Fig. 66.P.

question of "clubbing" the lower part of

the centerline skeg

Since the aftfoot

is

is

discussed in Sec. 67.23.

to be cut

away on the

ABC

design, working a club into the remainder of the

skeg, just

above the

keel,

would leave it rather

be effective.

far forward of the propeller to

66.25

Bow and Stem

Profiles.

To

finish

roughing in the centerline skeg the position and

shape of its termination are added to a large-scale
is done by starting at the
transom termination the location of the AP
and working forward. With a single skeg and a
single screw, a single rudder is indicated. It
should have some mechanical clearance ahead
of the transom; 2 ft appears adequate at this stage.
To meet the maneuvering conditions in Port
Bacine the rudder needs to have ample area. By
the first approximation of Sec. 74.6 this area is
say 0.02iL)H = 0.02(510)26 = 265.2 ft'. Assuming for the moment that the rudder height is

stern profile. This

492

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 66.25

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.27

about

0.7//, or 18.2

roughly 14.5 or 15

fore-and-aft length

its

ft,
ft.

With a clearance

between the leading edge

is

of 2 ft

and the
end

of the rudder

after edges of the propeller blades, the after

hub is of the order of 19 ft forward

AP. Estimating the propeller hub as about
4 ft long, the plane of the propeller disc is about
21 ft forward of the AP.
of the propeller
of the

At

this disc position the height of the tentative

half-siding buttock, already laid

down,

is

about

above the baseline. When the aftfoot is cut

away to save wetted surface and improve maneuvering, the propeller should have at least 0.5 ft
clearance above the baseplane. With a tip clearance at the hull of about 2.4 ft, a rather small
figure for a large wheel with a shelf-type stern
23

ft

above

the relative tip or hull clearance for a

it,

works out as 0.12Z). It is doubtful

whether a larger screw could be accommodated
under this type of stern, on a draft of 26 ft.
The propeller tip circle is now drawn in on the
20-ft propeller

and a rough outline of the propeller

side projection added to the stern profile. Making
the aperture clearance ahead of the upper blades
at least 0.2D or 4 ft, rather larger than customary
[ME, 1942, Vol. I, p. 275], terminates the upper
aperture some 26.5 or 27 ft forward of the AP.
This is the position into which the upper part of

body

plan,

the skeg

is

to be faired. After the rudder

is in-

creased in area, and other small changes are made,

the resulting stern profile

is

as

The worked-out example

Fig. 66.Q.

delineated in
in Sec. 59.11,

combined with the design rules for propeller

apertures in Sec. 67.24, and with the characteristics of the screw propellers found suitable for
this design, indicate that the aperture

the upper blades

is still

Details affecting the

Sees. 67.4

it

and

somewhat

bow

forward of

small.

profile are

20

ft.

These are done in the sections follow-

For a given volume or weight displacement

very nearly as L"'^. At this stage

the 510-ft length of the

Analysis of the Wetted Surface.

The

wetted surface, by the estimate of Sec. 66.9, is

to involve an expenditure of well over half the
maximum designed power in overcoming friction.

As a check

it is

useful to consider D.

W.

Taylor's

broad conclusions on this subject [S and P, 1943,

pp. 22-23]. They are adapted here to an analysis

ABC

appears that

it

ship

is

not too

great in relation to other dimensions or with

respect to the ship's mission.
(b) For a given displacement and length the
wetted surface varies little within the permissible
hmits of beam and draft in service. With a B/FI

and a Cx value

ratio of 2.808

ABC

hull, reference to Fig. 45.

of 0.956 for the

the wetted-surface coefficient Cs

minimum

indicates that
is

in a region

normal vessels.
(c) For a given displacement and dimensions, the
wetted surface is affected very little by minor
close to the

for

variations of hull shape.

The

ABC

sections are

neither the extremely full ones which, according

somewhat

to Taylor, are

prejudicial to low S,

nor are they the extremely fine ones which are

markedly
(d)

prejudicial.

After length, the most powerful controllable

factors affecting wetted surface are the forefoot,

the aftfoot or deadwood, and the appendages.

The

have large surfaces

For the ABC design
the presence of the bulb bow should more than
repay its extra wetted surface. It is proposed
to cut the aftfoot away by an undetermined
amount. The rudder, with its large surface in
parts listed in

compared to

(d)

their volumes.

proportion to its volume, is necessary. The fixed

horn to support it, if given a twisted or contraform to recover energy in the propeller outflow
jet, should likewise pay its way. The roll-resisting

not a part of the main

considered

hull, are

in Sec. 73.18.
is

some added surface under the transom

ABC ship. It is hoped that the extra

stern of the
friction

drag of this surface

may

be overcompen-

sated by the energy recovered in straightening

(leveling) the flowlines of the water leaving the
stern.

66.27

Second Approximation

Making use

ing.

66.26

(a)

the wetted surface varies mainly with length,

There

68.7.

Before proceeding any further with the lines

is well (1) to insure that the wetted surface is

not becoming too large in proportion to the size

of the ship, and (2) to make a second check of
the probable shaft power for a propeller Dma^
of

of the ABC design but they apply to any usual

type and form of ship:

keels,

covered in

493

to Shaft

of the thrust-load factor

Power.

method

for

powering described in Sec. 60.14, the results for

the

ABC

ship are as follows.

the resistance

From

for the bare hull

is

Sec.

66.9

estimated, in

round figures, as 172,000 lb. An increase of 10

per cent for appendages gives an estimated final
hull drag of 189,200 lb. The corresponding propeller thrust

for

an estimated thrust-deduction

HYDRODYNAMICS

194
fraction

of 0.20 is 189,000/(1

0.20)

236,500

IN SHIP DESIGN
the

if

the Velox system waves

disc area A^ of the 20-ft propeller is 314.16

For an estimated wake fraction w of 0.30,
the speed of advance V a is 20.5(1 0.3) = 14.35

kt or 24.24

ft

the disc area

per sec.
is

coefficient

Ctl

=
is

T/qA

The corresponding

1.287.

236,500/183,725 =
taken as

To of 0.5, F of about 0.15; at this low limit a

small or a large waterline slope in the entrance

from Fig. 34.B, is 0.636. This

working condition of the propeller.

hull efficiency r;

0.2)/(l

0.3)

Voivif)vR

(1

is

0.8/0.7

a relative rotative efficiency

value of vp
0.7415. This

0.9953

real efficiency,

0.877,

The

load over

qAo

The

lb.

??

is

770

for the

t)/{l

1.143.

w)

of 1.02, the derived

0.636(1.143)1.02

remarkably close to the value of

0.74 assumed in Sec. 66.9.

is known about the

and its probable performance, the
latest derived power and machinery-weight figures
from Sees. 66.9 and 66.10 are allowed to stand,
namely 16,930 horses and 1,250 tons.

hull shape

Sketching of

66.28

The

Wave

Profile

appears not to have too great an

Using the procedure described

Assuming

is

able Flowlines.

the height of the

effect,

one way

or the other.

Until something further

new

that

thrust-load

The ram-pressure

183,725

52..J

bow-wave crest is a function of

the Froude number F or the speed-length quotient
T^ and of the waterline slope z'e in the entrance.
The bow-wave crest height (not necessarily the
spray of the boAV roll) becomes noticeable at a

then (0.5)pAoFi

(314. 16) (24.24)'

observed from Figs. 52.1 and

It is

The

ft'.

r]p

to the bilge

are relatively deep.

lb.

(1

way

Sec. 66.28

and Prob-

Standard-Series procedure

developed by Taylor was an effort to predict, in

advance of or without a model test, the probable
effective power required to drive the bare hull
of a ship of given proportions. This procedure
omitted any means of judging the effects of
changes in shape for fixed proportions. One
method of accomplishing this is an analysis of
the flow diagrams around a model of the selected

However, to employ this method for

predictions, in advance of model tests, it must be
possible to draw a lines-of-flow diagram from a
rough set of lines, such as those of the ABC
shape.

design at this stage.

bow-wave

height

crest

Unfortunately, neither the method of analysis

in Sec. 52.5, the

the

ABC

ship

is

measured from the

plane of the undisturbed water level at a great
distance from the ship. To find how far this crest
may climb up the side of the ship there must be
added the predicted sinkage or change of level
of the bow. The graphs of Fig. 58.A give this
change of level as -0.0046L or -0.0046(510) =
2.35 ft. At the stern the change is about
-0.00145L, corresponding to -0.00145(510) or
about -0.74 ft.
calculated as 7.17

This

ft.

is

The predicted lag of the bow-wave crest,

worked out in Sec. 52.5, is 13.86 ft. This is at
about 0.027L abaft the FP, where the sinkage of
the bow, by linear interpolation between 2.35 ft
and 0.74 ft, is about 0.05 ft less than at the
bow. The bow-wave crest may then be expected
to rise up the side by (7.17 -|- 2.35 - 0.05) ft or
9.47

indicated in Fig. 66.R.

ft,

It is

almost certain that the effect of the bulb

bow on
no

ABC

the

predicted

ship

data

quantitative

lowering

is

to lower the crest height

by the referenced formulas. However,

is

are

available,

so

this

not taken into account. Since a small

waterline-entrance slope and a bulb

go hand in hand,

or the techniques of drawing the lines of flow in

for

bow

generally

probable that a substantial

it is

reduction in height occurs on vessels having these

features.

advance have been worked out. Nevertheless,

the latter is attempted here, on the basis of the
principles set forth in the sections preceding, and
with the background of the diagrams in Chap. 52.
If it is possible only to tell whether or not a form

profile

has objectionable features the prediction pro-

the ship and as observed on the model are intended

worth while. In any case the

to be independent of any thin spray roots extend-

cedure

is

well

experience gained will go far toward working out

unknown methods and techniques.

The first step is to start with the wave

the

it.

This

effect

there

profile

extends

all

is

any

lying inside a
rises

would have

flare

whatever in the section

bow-wave

crest,

the

wave

higher on the ship's side than

if

it

the section lines had been vertical.

The bow-wave

crest heights as predicted for

ing above the crest

The graphs

because the surface contour along the side affects

the flow pattern below

When
lines

line.

52.
and the procedure
produce a predicted sternwave height for the ABC design of 5.32 ft. This is
for a normal form of stern, probably of the canoe

of Fig.

illustrated in Sec. 52.5

14

Fig. 66.

known data

to

what the stern-wave height would be

for a transom-stern hull. Since the water closes

much

in at a

slower rate along the small waterline

slopes ahead of the transom, one

\h

\h

Wave Profiles and Flowlines for Bow and

Predicted and Observed

or whaleboat type; there are no

indicate

4%

STEPS TN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. r,6.2S

might estimate

Single-Skeg Transom Stern

coincides with a hump, there may be a wave

hollow at the stern, or a crest of greatly diminished
height.

The

shape of the accompanying wave

a function of the shape of the

exact

profile is manifestly

and

some

a wave height above the surface of the undisturbed water at a distance of something less than
2/3 the predicted amount for a normal stern,

hull

say 3.55

sharp as those of the parallel-sided, wedge-ended

form of Fig. 10. F, secondary wave systems are

ft.

The stern-wave

crest

may

be

expected

to

climb up the side of the ship at the outboard

corner of the transom by this amount plus the
stern sinkage of 0.74

The data

or about 4.29

ft,

ft.

listed in Sec. 52.6 indicate that a ship

corresponding to the

ABC

design, running in a

range of T, values from 0.828 to 0.908 (from 18.7

to 20.5 kt), F of 0.247 to 0.270, is accompanied
by transverse waves of the Velox system about
half as long as the ship.

At

20.5 kt there

is

first

of

certain

distinctive

known and some unknown.

has

pronounced shoulders,

features,

a ship waterline

If

not

necessarily

as

generated. Their transverse Velox waves combine

with those of other systems to form a rather

complex pattern. A predicted wave profile for the

ABC

hull with a single-skeg

transom stern

is

sketched in light lines in Fig. 66. R, before any

test runs are

To

made on

a model.

predict the flowline positions

it is

estimated

that the dividing point on the stem, between

the water passing around the side and that under

because of the

crest

the bottom,

trochoidal

and the expected drop of the

bow of about 2.4 ft. A figure of O.SH or 7.8 ft
below the DWL appears about right; this is at

about 0.027L abaft the FP, a second crest

at about amidships, and a third crest at or near
the stern. As a matter of interest, the length of a
ship

is,

wave

at the 20.5-kt speed of the

from Table

formulas, 234.3

ft;

ABC

48. d

and the accompanying

This

is

roughly 0.46L. The

general pattern for these and other speed ranges,

on cargo-ship models,
and 52. J.
Furthermore,

it

is

is

shown

known

that

in

Figs.

52.1

when the T,

large

B/H

the 18.2-ft

relatively high,

is

ratio

WL. The

It is to be expected that the wave profile,

representing a constant-pressure upper boundary,
will influence the shape of the flowlines passing

value coincides with the position of one of the

around the

hollows along the lower edges of Fig. 66. A there

waterline or below.

is

a prominent wave crest at the stern.

When

it

flowlines sketched in the

forebody resemble those of diagram 3 in Fig.

4.0, and of the many illustrated in Chap. 52.

The

side,

flowlines

perhaps down to the

under the nearly

flat

10-ft

bottom, not

HYDRODYNAMICS

496

shown

maj^ be expected to diverge

in Fig. 66. R,

move

slightly with distance as they

a run that

is

roughly

the flowlines

lie

flat,

aft.

Under

or of a shallow V-shape,

generally along the buttocks,

parallel to the centerplane of the vessel.

When

IN SHIP DESIGN

6629

Sec.

volumes for accommodating the passengers and

crew and for carrying the machinery and cargo.
The ratio of total hull and superstructure volume
to underwater hull volume of 2.77, derived
previously in Sec. 66.8,

is

somewhat

therefore

the buttocks terminate at a knuckle under water,

large.

as at Stas. 18 to 20 in Fig. 66. R, the flowlines

stand rather high out of the water.

somewhat parallel to the buttocks may be

expected to leave the ship surface at the knuckle.

with a short forecastle to give added freeboard

lying

The

predicted flowlines are indicated in light

broken Hues on the body plan of Fig. 66.R. The

actual flowlines, determined from a test of a
20-ft model, using chemicals on the model surface,
are shown in heavy

wave

profile

full lines in

marked along the

indicated also by a heavy

is

the figure.

side of the

It

is still

model

possible,

of

Good

with a given set

of principal proportions and form coefficients, to

vary the underwater shape within rather wide
limits, and to obtain perhaps wider variations in
Existing forms,
the resistance for a given F
often several of them, are therefore wisely used
as guidance or as a means of keeping one from
getting too far afield. Certainly a well-tried
parent form or a ship form which has a high
merit coefficient and which has proved itself in
service can be employed as:
.

(1)

(2)

A
A

starter for laying

sort of running

down a

comparison as the hull

for judging the performance of the

new

(or

bad)

is

to be

performance.

The

will

flush-deck

and

hull depth at the stem, and with so-called

tonnage openings below the main deck near the
stern.

Taking
23

ft at

for a starter a

minimum

freeboard of

the lowest point of the deck at the side,

the hull depth Z)

26 -f 23

is

49

By

ft.

May

R. Nevitt [ASNE,

the

1950, pp.

318-319] and others,

it appears that the 49-ft

depth and the L/D ratio of 10.4 he within a good
design range for a length L of 510 ft and a draft
of 26 ft. The ratio of draft
to depth D is
26/49 = 0.531. The depth from the keel to the

top of the highest superstructure,

to the beam,

76/73

Based upon Atlantic-liner practice

INA,

when

related

approximately

is

[26 -1-23-1- 3(9)]/73

1.041.

[de Vito, E.,

SBSR,

1952; partial abstract in

13

Nov

1952, pp. 642-643] this ratio could be as high as

any

case, it is

assumed that the

necessary preliminary strength calculations, not

gone into here, show the assumed hull depth of

49 ft to be adequate for a static wave whose
height

is 1.1

form.

made, however, past

or existing forms should not be too slavishly
copied unless one knows rather accurately just
what features are responsible for their good
future progress

indicated, as in Fig. 66.0, possibly

is

1.16 or 1.20. In

A reference, after model tests have been made,

If

abovewater hull

set of lines

shaping proceeds
(3)

type of ship

criteria of C.

full line.

Comparison with a Ship Form

66.29

Performance.

The

It appears that the

designers of these

mair,

J.

VL,

or 1.1

V510 =

p. 14]. Fig. 48.

in Sec. 48.7

of these heights for various

The

24.84

ft

[Nieder-

C, "Ship Motions," ASNE, Feb

1952,

embodies a graph

wave

lengths.

ship appears to have adequate freeboard

throughout, of the order of 0.045L or more,

the abovewater hull

is

made

large

enough

when

for the

forms would be the first to admit that they could

unquestionably be improved with further thought

volumetric capacity and for the required depth

and

hull,

effort.

Following a series of model

comparisons
powers of a new
design with the effective powers of the TSS ship
of the same proportions. This comparison for
the ABC hull, comprising the transom stern
designed in this chapter and an alternative arch
stern described in Sec. 67.16, is to be found in
Sec. 78.16 and Figs. 78. J and 78.K.
66.30 Abovewater
Hull
Proportions
for
Strength and Wavegoing. The ABC ship requires, as do many others, rather large internal

may

be

made

of the effective

tests,

of ship girder.

taking

A detailed

all

study of the abovewater

necessary factors into considera-

Chap. 68. A further study of its

wavegoing service requirements
is deferred to Part 6 in Volume III.
However, it is possible at this stage to make the
first estimate of its natural rolling period. For
this estimate the added mass of the surrounding
water is not taken into account, partly because
it is not known, and partly because the actual
period is then longer than the estimated one. As
tion, is given in

ability to

a result,

meet

all

the ship should

comfortable than predicted.

be somewhat more

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.31

The volumes

497

Using the standard formula [PNA, 1939, Vol.

II, p. 11, Eq. (22)] and assuming different values
for the gyr adius k and the transverse metacentric

spaces, can be contained within the total

height GM.

of the hull

For a

GM

(2)

When

For a

(a)

(b)

of O.OQBj, or 4.38

GM

of

0.045x or 2.92

ft,

0.25Bx or 18.25 ft, T = 11.82 sec

O.SOBx or 21.9 ft, T = 14.19 sec.

is

GM

66.31

First Longitudinal

Weight and Buoyancy

Before completing this

Balance.

preliminary design

it

is

first

stage of the

necessary to determine

approximately whether, for the designed maxi-

mum
(a)

service-load condition:

The

with the
as the

in nearly the

same transverse plane

CB

The

(d)

hull

volume

is

hull

so large as to be objection-

strong wind.

body plan on a much

larger scale than the

small sketches of Fig. 66.0

is

now

available in

Fig. 66. P for

an adequate estimate of the areas,

volumes, and moments to be used in this operation. Further, it is assumed that the abovewater
hull has already been roughed out, as in the upper
part of Fig. 66. P, and that a rough outline has
been made of the upper works (superstructure).
is

now

possible

to sketch in the principal

subdivisions between passenger and crew accom-

modations,

package-cargo

space,

liquid-cargo

machinery spaces.
These are indicated by the hatched areas on the
tanks,

fuel-oil

tanks,

and

profile of Fig. 66.S.

rough integration of these volumes, allowing

5 per cent for ship structure in the dry spaces,

comparison there are

volumes of Sec. 66.8.

listed

It is next necessary to

TABLE
Item

room within the

sufficient

is

gives the tentative volumes of Table 66. h. For

ship has reasonable longitudinal balance,

CG

There

able from the standpoint of ship handling in a

It

apparent that, with the large beam, the

lowest permissible
will produce the most
comfortable ship.
It

and superstructure. This requires a

gears or motors on the propeller shaft

ft,

When k =
When k =

and cargo
volume

structure for certain large items such as reduction

0.25Bx or 18.25 ft, T = 9.65

sec, for a complete roll. This is somewhat too
small for the comfort of passengers and the safety
of package cargo.
(b) When k = O.SOBx or 21.9 ft, T = 11.58 sec.
This is still rather short for comfort, on a rolling
ship, but not too short as to be disturbing at this
(a)

as well as of the passenger quarters

(c)

v:gGM
(1)

of the various parts of the ship,

re-check of the hull volume estimate of Sec. 66.8.

2irk

T =

(b)

66.h

Second Estimate op Volumes for

ABC Design

also

the required

determine whether the

HYDRODYNAMICS

498

13

IN SHIP DESIGN

"9
5
7
6
S
Inner Bottom Spaces not complete

12

Cofferdom Spaces not shown

Tentative Distribution op Principal Volu.mes in the

Fig. 66. S

Sec. 66.32

ship trims properly with the principal weights in

after developing

ABC

what

is

Design
considered to be an

longitudinal weight balance comes out as indi-

CG is found to be
from the CB of that shape, do not change
the shape to bring the CB to the CG position.

cated at the bottom of Table

Rather, rearrange the internal spaces, volumes,

the locations indicated.

centers

Selecting

approximate

gravity for each of the items the

of

66.i.

This tentative balance for the designed-load

condition

is

necessarily crude.

The volume and

location of the package-cargo spaces, the tankage,

easily driven hull shape, the

offset

and weights to bring the

CG

to the

CB

position

of the low-resistance hull.

Propeller

66.32

Submersion and Trim in

Havi ng fou nd reasonthe LCG and LCB values for

the machinery spaces, and other items on Fig.

66.S are still only approximate. Since these

Variable-Load Conditions.

matters involve static problems only, not directly

related to the hydrodynamic design, they are

the weight balance in the designed-load condition,

followed only to the point of checking the trim

in two of the variable-weight conditions, de-

consider the situation when:

However, an important hydrodynamic-design

rule,

for these as well as for the later stages

is

well kept in mind:

TABLE
Moment arms

Item

at the 26-ft draft in salt water, there remains to

(1)

scribed in Sec. 66.32.

described in Chap. 67,

able agreement in

66.1

If,

The

leaving

vessel

condition
(2)

is

only partly loaded, as

when

Port Amalo in the hurricane season,

When

Hi

of

Table

66.f of Sec. 66.16

arriving at the river

mouth below Port

First Longitudinal Weight Balance

are in terms of station spacing, 25.5

ft.

Moments

are taken about the midlength at the

DWL,

Sta. 10.

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.32

Two

Selected Inclined Waterlines for the

Fig. 66.T

499

Principal Variable- Weight Conditions

Correo. Table 66.g indicates that the estimated

drafts under these two conditions are

the centers of gravity in the two loading conditions

mean

coincide with the CB's for the displacements

and 20.01 ft, respectively. For round

numbers assume that these are 22.75 ft and 20.00

stern drafts selected.

22.74

ft,

mean

involving reductions in the 26.0-ft

of 3.25 ft

and 6.00

draft

a bulb

bow

check

have an idea of the changes in

trim for a given internal arrangement of the
principal weights. It

is

necessary at some stage

and

made

then

to

used, as in the present

if

case, it will

not be too close to the water surface

is

The

is

made

24.25

transom at the

ft,

AP

stern draft for the

heavier condition, 16,400 t

It is useful to

is

insure that,

for open-sea running.

ft.

2,425 t

13,975

t,

bottom of the
a few inches under water in

to place the

the at-rest condition.

The

stern draft for the

on the transverse metacentric stability for these two loading

conditions. However, the most important hydrodynamic feature is to keep the propellers well
under water, with a reasonable tip submergence
and as good shielding from air leakage as can be

which gives a tip submergence

at the propeller disc of just under 2.5 ft. Fig. 66.T
illustrates these features. While this submergence
is admittedly small, both absolutely and relatively,

obtained.

thrust-load

of the preliminary design to check

The procedure

followed in the

two drafts

to establish

first

aft,

ABC

design

is

corresponding to

the two variable-weight conditions, which will

insure air-free flow to the propeller. Following

lighter condition, 16,400 t

is

the propeller

TABLE

66.J

is

4,400

at

this

light

should be sufficient to

Mean

fill

all

the volume between

Projecting the traces of the two waterlines

Two

Variable- Weight Conditions of the

22.75

Corresponding weight, at 35.977 ft' per ton,

less than designed weight, actual

Tons

LCB,

in fraction of

L from FP

Coefficient of square

Calculated

BM,

moment

of area C, ^ of

WL about i-axis

ft

Inclined waterplane area, ft^

KB,

KM,

estimated, from
derived, ft

KG,

estimated, ft

GM,

probable, ft

Normand

formula, Sec. 66.14,

ft

displacement.

hull just forward of the transom.

Weight, Buoyancy, and Stability Data for

draft, ft

t,

the at-rest waterplane and the under side of the

figures given

Tons less than designed weight, from Table 66.

Weight displacement, nominal, t
Trim by the stern, selected, ft
Volume displacement, from molded lines, ft'

12,000

running at a considerably smaller

factor

apply to the molded shape and dimensions of the transom-stern underwater

weight displacement, molded, in standard salt water is 16,400 tons.

The

ft,

Furthermore, the stern- wave crest at 20.5 kt

the internal weights are so arranged that

this,

selected as 23.0

ABC

hull, for

Ship

which the

HYDRODYNAMICS

500

TABLE
From Table

66.k

66.]',

LCB

IN SHIP DESIGN

Longitudinal Weight Balance for 20-ft

is

0.513

L from

the FP. This corresponds to a

With a weight displacement of 12,090 tons, from Table

tons times station lengths, is -0.26 (12,090) = -3,143.4.
abaft Sta. 10.

Item

Mean

CG

66.],

Sec. 66.32

Draft, 6-ft Trim by the Stern

location at Sta. 10.26, or 0.26 station-length

the corresponding after

moment,

in

terms of

Sec.

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

6634
In

propeller.

the

design

stage,

consideration

501

at least in the river below Port Correo, as

make

many

siiould be given to increasing the capacity of the

cargo vessels

after ballast tanks of cargo vessels to permit fully

traveling

submerged propeller operation."

rapid response of the ship for an equal degree of

First Approximation of Steering,

66.33

Maneu-

and

Shallow-Water Behavior. It is
difficult to obtain an idea of the steering, maneuvering, and shallow-water characteristics of the
hull as roughed out at this early stage of the
design. Nevertheless, something should be known
vering,

of

them before the preliminary design proceeds

much further.
Good steerability,
Volume

III,

excessive

dynamic

matter of avoiding
and providing sufficient swinging moment through the use
of the rudder. The former is largely a function
largely

movable

fin

instability of route

amount and

the

of

is

position of the fixed

rudder, horn, skeg, and the like. It

may depend

somewhat on the shape and proportions

In the

hull.

and

area at the stern, comprising the

ABC

design there

and skeg

latitude in the rudder

is

of the

considerable

areas, especially

away by a "suitable" amount. The swinging moment is a function

because the aftfoot
of the

first,

is

to be cut

shape and area of the rudder, and

second, the magnitude of the lateral forces which

may

be expected on a rudder horn,

on the adjacent portions

amount

of the swinging

or

on the ease
is

swung

inward

The

of the

moment,

difficulty

with

fitted,

and

hull.

The

if

main

depends
which the ship

in turn,

to a drift angle that generates sufficient

lift

to balance the centrifugal force.

ABC

ship

must traverse rather

consider-

able distances with relatively small clearances

under the bottom. Time lost in these inland

waters means just as many hours to make up as
the same time lost in the open sea. Furthermore,
the

maximum

speed in the long,

fresh-water

on the downstream trip with the

ship heavily loaded, may be limited as much by
the ability to steer the ship and to turn it around
bends in the river as by the action of the shallow
and restricted waters in augmenting the resistance
or causing unfavorable changes in its running
river, especially

attitude.

turns in the river leading from Port Correo

and in the canal leading to Port Amalo are known
to be of sufficiently large radius to enable the
average cargo vessel to negotiate them without
difficulty.

However, the

ABC

design

is

expected

to average nearly as high a speed in these waters,

sea.

Furthermore,

means more

Considering the single-screw, centerline-skeg

design of stern depicted in Figs. 66.P, 66. Q, and
67. R, the single rudder is directly behind the

where it works in the outflow jet. It is

enough abaft the propeller to take advantage
some augmented outflow-jet velocity abaft

propeller,

far
of

the disc. It

as close as possible to the stern so

is

arm

of its swinging

moment

is

large.

There is good opportunity to tailor the movable

and the fixed areas to suit all the steering requirements. Adequate and possibly superior steering

may

therefore be predicted at this stage, leaving

the detailed design until later.

Considering

next

the

maneuvering require-

ments. Fig. 64.B indicates that when backing out

of the slip at Port Bacine the ship must turn with

a minimum radius of about 1,090 ft. When going

ahead, out of the harbor, the minimum radius is

about 1,490

ft.

The

latter represents a steady-

turning diameter of 2 (1, 490) /5 10, or a

little over
This must be accomplished at a
relatively slow speed since the ship is at a stand-

5.8

lengths.

still

at the inner end of the

When

backing,

the

"Y"

in the harbor.

steady-turning

radius

is

equivalent to about 2(1,090)/510, or some 4.27

lengths, likewise at a relatively slow speed.
It is

manifest without making any calculations

that the ship's propeller will have to supplement

the normal rudder forces to create the necessary

moments

swinging

for

making

these

turns.

possible that both the

ahead and
the astern turns must be effected more by swinging
the ship on its vertical axis than by changing its
heading through fore-and-aft motion. Normally,
this situation would point up the need of twin
screws. However, as the turns are to be made in
a counter-clockwise direction, bow to port and
stern to starboard, in which a vessel with a
single right-handed propeller normally swings, it
is possible that the necessary augmentation can
be obtained with a single propeller.
Indeed,

66.34

The

open

higher speeds

safety.

that the
as pointed out in Part 5 of

in the

these

at

it

is

Preparation of Alternative Preliminary

Designs.

Often the ship for which the design is

prepared is a large or important one.
Possibly a number of vessels are to be built to
being

the same design, or major decisions may depend

upon the performance of one ship. Wisdom then
dictates that several studies be

made

in the pre-

HYDRODYNAMICS

502

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 66.35

liminary-design stage or that alternative designs

cusses these variations for a rather wide variety

be carried along far enough to indicate their

of hull forms.

relative merit in meeting the established require-

ments and

specifications. In a sense, this is only

a part of good planning, which pays handsome

dividends in any kind of endeavor. The phenomenal

success

of

the

transatlantic

Cunarders

Upon
The requirements

Effect of Unrelated Factors

66.36

Hydrodynamic Design.
the

ABC

the
for

design in Chap. 64 were deliberately

set up, as should be the case for every boat or

ship, to give the designer as

much freedom

as

permits an excellent degree of bracketing for the

and proportion the hull. This

applies to the parts both above and below water,
in an effort to produce the maximum of performance so far as all phases of water flow and ship
motion are concerned. At the least, he should
have latitude in establishing the one feature
which may be found most critical when developing

by extending these studies deliberately

beyond those contemplated for the

are imposed on the layout of a high-speed ship

Lusitania and Mauretania (old), designed in the

early 1900's,

was due

amount

study and preparation carried out

along

of

many

directly to the extraordinary

different

lines

before

plans

their

were completed.

The preparation
final design

of

multiple

design

studies

into regions

actual ship. Rather surprising results, exceeding

those possible

by following conventional

lines,

are often unearthed or revealed in this manner.

There are facilities available in practically all

maritime countries for exhaustive testing of ship
models under a wide range of conditions, at a
cost that

There

is

small in proportion to the ship cost.

is little

excuse for embarking on a major

possible to shape

the design.

If,

for example, rather severe limits

in everything except the length, the designer

still

can do a great deal by adjusting the length and

by fixing the shape and proportions of his vessel
to meet the exacting requirements imposed upon
him.

More
forced

often than not, however, the designer

to

employ

his

strongest

is

arguments to

obtain the latitude he needs in such a principal

shipbuilding project without comparative tests,

feature. All too frequently

on model scale, of several different hull forms.

For the proposed 4-day American superliner of
the early 1930's, T. E. Ferris built 22 models and
tested no less than 14 of them [SNAME, 1931, pp.
314-315]. For the transatlantic liner America of

make

he

is

stymied and must

the best of a situation which he realizes

Newport News shipyard alone

from the beginning is crowding him against the

wall. Faced with a reluctance on the part of the
ship owner or operator to make the ship longer
than a set figure, confronted with the forces of
nature in shortening the roll of a ship which is

tested approximately 50 models, although these

too wide, or recognizing the limitations of channels

were small ones and some of them involved

changes in the principal dimensions [SNAME,

which the ship must traverse, he is driven to

fuller forms than he would otherwise select or
to the incorporation of features which his better
judgment tells him to avoid.
Often, too, through no fault of anyone in
particular, factors not even distantly related to
hydrodynamic features are given priority over
them. Whether the water flow is of paramount
importance or not it is still governed by certain
physical laws. The designer must get this knowledge, then use it to minimize the harmful effects
of unrelated factors, and to assess these effects
when they can be minimized no further.

the late 1930's, the

1940, p. 10].

66.35

Laying Out Other Types of Hulls.

It

is intended that the discussion and the design dia-

grams in the preceding sections of this chapter

cover the preliminary hydrodynamic design of
ships within a rather wide range of proportions.
This range extends as far as the limits of the coefficients and parameters of the various graphs.
Since most of the plots are based upon 0-diml
variables, the range of size extends all the

way

from boats to liners. The design of the roundbottom motor tender for the ABC ship, carried
through in Chap. 77, reveals much the same
procedure as for the larger vessel.

For special-service vessels, certain proportions

and functions are exaggerated at the expense of
resistance, propulsion, and other characteristics
normally considered important. Chap. 76 dis-

It goes

without saying that

many considerations

other than the ones discussed in this chapter

enter into a determination of the weight and
volume displacements, the principal dimensions,
the proportions, the shape, and the general
arrangement which mark the end of a preliminary
ship design. One of these, and a most important

STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Sec. 66.36

one for merchant

vessels,

is

cargo

handling,

especially of the package rather than the bulk

type. It

by

is

most ably and

interestingly discussed

F. G. Ebel in "Notes on

Cargo Handling"

503

vessels with box-shaped holds, discussed in Sec.

76.5.

In practice, a dozen or perhaps two dozen

combinations

may

be worked up as indicated in
most promising of them

[SNAME Member's

this chapter before the

Another one

are carried along further in greater detail.

is

Bull, Feb 1954, pp. 19-27].

cargo stowage, particularly for

CHAPTER

67

Detail Design of the Underwater Hull

General

67.1
67.2
67.3
67.4
67.5
67.6
67.7
67.8
67.9

Design of a Bulb Bow

Laying Out the Bulb for the ABC Ship ...
Check on Bulb Cavitation
Selection of Section Shapes in Entrance and

67.10

Variation of Section Coefficient Along the

Shape

of Vessel

Near Designed Waterplane.

Waterline Curvature Plots

Underwater Hull Profile

Stem Shape

at Various Waterlines

....

Run
Length
Hull Shape Along the Bilge Diagonal

67.11
67.12
67.13

...

Side Blisters or Bulges

General Arrangement of Single-Screw Stern

Vessels

67 18
67.19
.

67.21
67.22

The Design

67.23

515

67.24

517
517
517
518

67.25
67.26
67.27
67.28

Shaping the Hull Adjacent to PropulsionDevice Positions; Hull, Skeg, and Bossing
Endings
Aperture and Tip Clearances for Propulsion
Devices
Baseplane and Propeller-Disc Clearances
Adequate Propeller-Tip Submergence
Design for Minimum Thrust Deduction
The Final Section-Area Curve
Modification of Normal Design Procedure for
a Hull with Keel Drag
Underwater Exhaust for Propelling Machin-

Notes on Three- and Five-Screw Installations

The Arch Type of Single-Screw Stern ...
Flow Analysis for the Arch Type of Stern
Design of Hull and Appendage Combinations
Comments on Design of an Unsymmetrioal

67.1

General.

528

Single-Screw Stern

67.20

Proportions and Characteristics of an Im-

mersed-Transom Stern

529

of a Multiple-Skeg Stern

....

531

Design Notes for the Contra-Guide Skeg

Ending

Stern Forms for Twin- and Quadruple-Screw

67. 14

67.15
67.16
67.17

504
504
506
506
508
508
510
514

67.29
520
521
521
525
526

67.30
67.31

Based upon the preliminary

532

which

may

537
540
541
541
542
543
545

ery
General Notes on Water Flow as Applied to
Hull Design

of the interactions

536

545

be expected, em-

ship layout described in Chap. 66, the hydro-

ploying the best available thought and knowledge

dynamic design proceeds with the fashioning of

the individual parts, making decisions as to
certain secondary form characteristics, such as
the more definite determination of the waterlines,
section lines, and diagonals, and the shaping of
the hull ahead of and adjacent to the positions

on the subject.
67.2
Shape of Vessel Near Designed Water-

The

plane.

shape

of

Sec.

66.15,

together

The factors considered here are those which

govern smooth-water performance. Whether they
may be expected also to result in good behavior
during maneuvering and wavegoing, and possibly
also during operations in shallow and restricted

DWL parameters.

and

is

considered in Parts 5 and 6 of

in

Chap.

particular features which have to

the

given

Some

consideration

with

making a
is

presentation
selection of

required

of

of

good

possible

modifications to the nominal at-rest designed-

waterplane shape due to the ship's own waves.

If the changes in surface level due to wavemaking

Volume

72, respectively, together

for

speed-length quotient T, or F are discussed in

empirical methods for

III

governing

waterline

designed

of the propulsion devices.

waters,

features

principal

the

and if the
have sloping sides,

at the selected T, are appreciable,

with

sections near the waterplane

do primarily

the shape of the waterplane ai the actual wave

with those special operations.

The matter of smoothness of the hull and
minor fairings is covered in Chap. 75; only the

change enough to alter the expected

full canoe
or whaleboat stern, well tapered in way of the
at-rest waterplane but flaring to a wide deck
above, may possess a considerably greater slope
than the designer intended along the raised
surface of the stern-wave crest, with consequent
undesirable separation. A heavy flare above the

major features are discussed here.

In this attack on the design problem the size
and shape of each part is selected on the basis of
its anticipated action in one or more of the
fundamental types of flow around it. The whole
design is then modified or adjusted on the basis

profile

may

performance. For example, a rather

entrance waterline, by humping up the bow-wave

504

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.2

may

crest,

neutralize

much

505

of the benefit gained

in careful shaping of the at-rest waterline at the

designed draft.
It is mentioned previously, but the caution is
worth repeating, that too much hoUowness abaft
the bow, resulting from an effort to fine the bow
waterlines to an extreme, may involve an excessive and undesirable slope in front of the forward

shoulder.

For the transom-stern ABC ship laid out in

Chap. 66 the first sketches of the designed waterline are modified to suit the development of the
underwater hull described in detail in this chapter.
The final waterline shape, with its parameters and
0-diml offsets, is drawn in the lower diagram of
67.A.

Fig.

That

of

the arch-stern alternative

design, described in Sec. 67.16,

is

drawn

in the

upper diagram of the figure.

For a stern shape which is wide and essentially
flat on its under side, like that of a scow, the
horizontal waterUnes at the stern close in toward
the centerplane at steep slopes with that plane.
For a truly flat stern with no rise of floor in the
sections this waterline slope Ir reaches 90 deg.
However, in cases of this kind, the flow upward
and aft under the stern is primarily along the
buttocks, or at least more upward than inward.
the waterline slopes lose their significance.

If so,

Fig. 67. B reveals very steep slopes for the near-

surface waterlines at the stern of the

waterlines.

ABC

ship,

the centerline-skeg

faired rather abruptly into

However, inspection

of Fig. 66. Q

shows

easy buttock slopes in this region; Fig. 66.R

indicates that the actual flow under the stern is

more or less along these buttocks.

The surface waterplane has a definite

function,

not only in minimizing a surface-wave disturbance,

but in providing sufficient square moment of
area to insure the necessary transverse metacentric

stability.

As a

rule,

way

the best

to

change the metacentric height is to change the

maximum beam, assuming that this can be done.
Certainly, it is to be preferred to pulling the
designed waterline in and out, here and there.

This nibbling and padding usually changes the

moment of area only shghtly but it may have

major adverse
teristics of

hand, so

effects

upon the propulsion charac-

the underwater form.

much

hydrodynamic features
that

its

On

the other

attention can be devoted to the

of the designed

waterHne

stabihty features are overlooked.

Exactly this happened in the course of the

preUminary design

of

the

ABC

ship.

It

was

^-

HYDRODYNAMICS

506

considered that, by reason of the wide waterplane

way

shown in the lower

diagram of Fig. 67.A, enough square moment of
area would be gained there to more than compenof the transom,

narrowing of the
whole hull in the entrance. A check of the designedwaterline It value, which shoidd have been made
sate

the

for

Sec. 67.3

After Portions of Afterbody Waterlines for the Transom-Stern

Fig. 67.B

aft, in

IN SHIP DESIGN

rather

drastic

ABC

Ship

how suddenly

this 0-diml curvature can change,

a straight line tangent to a circle of diameter
Bwx involves a sudden change of 0-diml curvature

from

of

(b)

to 114.6.

No

great

extremes of concave or convex

curvature at any point along the length

(c)

curvature plot with the

minimum

of longi-

was made after the lines had been

sent to the model basin. It revealed a. C,t oi only

tudinal waviness. Generally such waviness indi-

sUghtly over 0.52 whereas the preferred value

waterline.

was 0.561 and the required value, from item (42)

of Table 64.f, was 0.55. A proposal to remedy

of constant or nearly constant curvature, as for

this situation is discussed in Sec. 78.18.

the

before, actually

Waterline Curvature Plots.

67.3

designed

watei'line is to be checked for uniformity of cur-

before

vatiu'e

before

it

is

it

is

considered acceptable and

used as a basis for shaping the

re-

of the hull. Sees. 49.10

operation.

The

0-diml curvature plots for the designed

waterlines of the

ABC

transom-stern, single-skeg

ship, as well as for the alternative arch-type stern

described in Sec. 67.16, are given in the lower

diagram

plots

Series parent form,

and

for a

The upper diagram

of Fig. 67. C.

corresponding

for

EMB

merchant ship

three indicate

certain

of

the

Taylor

gives

Standard

model 632 (modified),

good performance. All

correct

features,

(d)

curvature plot with rather long portions

TSS

waterline, provided there are no abrupt

changes at the ends of these portions.

Underwater Hull Profile. The bow prounder water is determined from the desired
section and waterline shapes at the bow, extending
from the baseline up to the designed waterline,
rather than from an effort to achieve a particular
profile that supposedly has merit. In other words,
the bow profile is determined in a sort of automatic fashion, just as if one whittled a wooden
model to the desired section shapes forward and
then cut away the model on each side until the
waterlines met the centerplane. Developed in
this way a ship bow with wall-sided sections all
the way to the stem terminates in a plumb stem.
One with pure triangular V-sections terminates
in a straight raked profile passing through the
67.4

file

through 49.14
describe approximate and precise methods, both
graphical and mathematical, of accomplishing this

mainder

cates poor fairing or inaccurate dra\ving of the

so far

as they are known, for a good designed-waterline

lower vertexes of these sections.

For

many

which operate in shallow

ships

waters, temporary grounding forward

(a)

Not-too-violent changes in curvature with

^---distance

along the length. As an indication of

unusual occurrence.
craft to cut

It

up the

may

is

a not

be advisable on these

forefoot

and thus remove

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.1

Fig. 67.C

Non-Dimensional Curvature Plots op Designed Waterlines for Three Ships

that part of the ship which

is

most vulnerable to

damage when taking the ground. Also, as described

in Sec. 25.5, a small amount of friction and
pressure resistance often

ming up the

507

may

be saved by trim-

forefoot slightly,

in

addition to

illustrated in Fig. 67.E.

Sec. 73.3

The

and

The

latter is described in

illustrated in Fig. 73.B.

stern profile below water

is

influenced

by the number and type of stern propuldevices selected and their tentative positions,

largely

sion

a single propdev on or near

saving some wetted surface.

especially

There may be merit in shifting progressively

aft the forward waterline beginnings with depth
below the surface, as explained in Sec. 4.8 and

the centerplane. For a screw propeller, the comthe type,

illustrated in Fig. 4.1. This is especially true

rudder(s) leaves

waterline entrances are blunt. This

bow

if

the

if

there

is

bination of proper hydrodynamic position with

shape,

and position
little of

of

the steering

the stern profile to be

shape,

delineated to suit the engineering sense of the

embodying a heavily raked underwater profile

resembling the Maier bow, saves some wetted
surface and may result in a slight reduction of

individual designer. Furthermore, that portion of

pressure drag. There

is

reason to believe, however,

that better performance

some T,
carrying

is

achieved, at least at

values, by fining all the

them nearly to the FP.

The bow

profile of the

ABC

waterlines and

design

is

the result

combining a bulb bow of slightly ram form,

extending forward of the FP, with a sharp cutwater. The former is described in Sec. 67.6 and
of

the stern profile just below the

DWL

must be

considered in conjunction with a larger portion

lying above the

DWL.

usually so dependent

In

fact,

the stern profile

is

upon other considerations

having to do with skeg endings, propeller clearances and apertures, transom forms, and similar
features that it seems wise to discuss these
features in detail in those parts of the

devoted particularly to them. The

is

no exception

in this respect.

ABC

book
design

HVDRODYNy\MIC.S IN SHIP DESIGN

508

Stem Shape

67.5

minimum

at Various Waterlines.

For

pressure resistance and reduction in

bow-wave crest, and for the elimination

and feather, the horizontal sections at
the stem of a vessel, just above and just below

erosion,

of spray

and panting

surface

waterline,

made

are

possible. Theoretically, they are

sharp

as

as

formed by con-

tinuations of the entrance and bow waterlines,

with whatever hoUowness the latter may have,
when carried forward to their normal intersections
in the plane of

The

symmetry

hull structure of a

of the vessel.

wooden

or metal vessel

inside the extremely thin, tapering

stem dictated
by these hydrodynamic considerations is difficult
and expensive to fabricate. A simple solution is
to cut the structure back and terminate the stem
in a blunt or large-radius section,

radius of

1 ft

sometimes with a

or more, producing the circular-arc

beginnings depicted in Fig. 25. A.

bow

feather

is

The

resulting

then accepted.
leading edge,

joins the nearly straight side of the entrance,

susceptible

On

to both

certain to tear or

causing noise,

is

separation and cavitation.

a high-speed vessel, therefore, the planforms

pound

off

and inducing vibration

has in fact occurred
on high-speed

of the plating

abaft projecting welding beads

where flush

vessels

shell plates

a rabbeted stem casting.

radius, fair or not,

and

is liable

Any

were attached to
measurable stem

to cause separation at

farther down, if
pushed to speeds of the order of 40 or 50 kt.
67.6 Design of a Bulb Bow. The purpose of
the bulb bow, explained in Sec. 25.3, is to reduce
the height of the bow-wave crest and the magni-

the

surface

cavitation

tude of the pressure resistance caused by

it.

This does not mean that the blunt surface waterlines producing the high crest are to be retained
just because there

is

to be a bulb to cut

down

the

By moving some

high waves caused by them.

displacement volume from the region of

of the

the surface to well below

because of the
sharp change in curvature at the point where it
circular-arc

is

the paint coating. Harmful cavitation, setting up

size of the

the

Sec. 67.5

the shell plating. It

into the bulb,

it,

possible to fine the surface waterlines.

it is

Both the

finer lines and the presence of the bulb act to

improve the hydrodynamic performance of the

ship. It

may

be

said, therefore, that in general

the design of a proper bulb

bow

involves also a

and near-surface

at various levels of the stem, especially near the

definite

surface

waterline, are made elliptical, with a

gradual change in curvature and an easy tran-

regions in the entrance.

sition into the side.

bulb form, good design procedure based on hydro-

Blunt stems build up relatively high dynamic

below the waterline, which adds

resistance

directly to the pressure resistance of the ship.

The blunt nose

of a

submerged bow bulb, and the

bluntness in the horizontal sections of the stem

some distance above it, are accepted for the

sake of the benefit they afford in other respects.
They also enable the ship length to be kept to a

for

minimum.
Both the hydrodynamic and the

in the

form

of

a sharp, narrow cutwater. That

73.3

and
is

ship

is

described in Sec.

illustrated in Fig. 73.B.

With modern
there

ABC

fabrication

no excuse

and erection methods

for lapping the shell plating

on the outside of the stem to form a discontinuity,

D in Fig. 7.J. Indeed, there is a
definite disadvantage to this construction on a
high-speed vessel because of the cavitation that

diagrammed at

takes place abaft the discontinuity in the regions

of low hydrostatic pressure, near the surface.
This may be accompanied by possible erosion of

a normal form of

bow

is

converted to a

dynamics requires that the displacement volume

in the bulb be removed from a surface-waterline
region immediately abaft the stem, say from the
FP back to about 0.15 or 0.20 of the waterline
length. This reduces the angle of entrance and
the amount that the surface water is pushed
sideward in the vicinity of the first bow-wave
crest. Normally it need not and should not be

removed
structural

problems described in the foregoing, at least on a

metal vessel, are solved by adding an appendage
designed for the

When

fining of the surface

from

the

surface

and

near-surface

waterlines in the vicinity of the forward shoulder.

When

a relatively large bulb

ment volume

is

outer corners of

is fitted,

displace-

removed from the lower

the sections at and ahead of the
also

forward quarter point, for a region extending

from about 0.15L to 0.40 or 0.45L, depending

upon the shape of the original hull and the

amount of volume to be shifted.
The manner in which both these changes are
made is well described and illustrated by E. S.
Dillon and E. V. Lewis in Figs. 7 through 11 of
their paper "Ships with Bulbous Bows in Smooth
Water and in Waves" [SNAME, 1955, pp.
726-766].

The

following

is

quoted from page 731 of the

UNDERWATER HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.6

An

referenced paper, with additions in pai'entheses

by the present author:

attempt to reconcile the model-te.st data

M. Bragg, and A. F. Lind-

of E. F. Eggert, E.

and to evolve systematic values

blad,
displacement gained in the larger bulbs was removed
in the region of the design(ed)
waterline so as to progressively fine the angle of entrance
".

Some displacement also was transfrom the shoulder near the turn of the bilge into
the larger bulbs while at the same time the design(ed)
waterline was filled out almost imperceptibly at the
as bulb size increased.
ferred

shoulder

(forward)

to

which had been

recover

ance bettered or equaled that of the Taylor

Standard Series have been plotted therefore on a
basis of speed-length quotient.

waterplane

transverse

This latter step, while perhaps not best from pure resistance point of view, was nevertheless essential in maintaining stability characteristics constant for the design

When
it

is

first

is

lor's analysis [S

for a

new

0.238.

The bulb appears

to be

0.14

'

die

'1 0.^0

oM

<

i-

limit of T,

around

1.9 or 2.0.

The proper value of /g appears to depend

upon Cp and the displacement-length quotient
A/(0.010L)' or the fatness ratio ^/(O.IOL)', but
the various model-test data show conflicting
trends. It is probable that the best value of /^
increases with both Cp and the fatness ratio.

0.80,

most useful

Quotient Tq
0.15

'

(Jk

'lab
Froude

E-

10.12

o.^^

I'

i.ko

'

'
I

o.iz

o.^^

I'

'

ci.^,

Number f- V/VqL
-iO.I4

Optimum and Minimurn fg Values for o Ronqe

To Give Minimum

Pressure

of Speed-Length

Quotient_^

;J0I2

Resistance

g oioi-

"1 0.10
of f Volues.

^ 0.081.g

(b)

To>^lor

o.y

some upper

zero at

LO.

0.I6E-

limit of L50, F

(a) The fs values do not increase indefinitely

with T beyond the range of T, = 1.5 shown in
the diagram. They almost certainly diminish to

p. 69] indicates

indicate a low limit of the order of T,

and a high

were

following shortcomings:

the question for a ship section-area curve. E. M.

Bragg's tests and analysis, in the same reference,

in the vicinity of T,

0.208,

a low limit of

better rules are developed should recognize the

design

low Umit of the order of T, = 0.7, F = 0.208,

but at this low speed the optimum terminal
value Ie is close to zero, which is almost out of

indicate, for T,

0.447.

W. Tay-

D.

its use.

and P, 1943,

these plots
67.

Those who use them as interim guides until

bow

appropriate to

F,

0.70,

necessary to determine whether the

speed range

They

derived.

sizes."

considering a bulb

From

the tentative design lanes of Fig.

lost b5f fining the angle of entrance.

throughout the range of bulb

of the design

parameters f e and Ie from them, has so far proved

unsuccessful. The design values actually used on
a considerable number of vessels whose perform-

from the parent form

inertia

509

-|0.08

I"

S 0.06^

-=0.06

0.04

Lower f?Qnqe of f^ for Existing

Vessels (1955) with Orthodox
'

TQ\jlor

Fig. 67.

Quotient To

Design Data for Bulb Bows

Bower-Anchor Instoliatio
I

HYDROnVNAMICS

510

The upper and lower limits of Cp and

ratio for which bulb bows give beneficial
(c)

fatness
results

value

(d) It is possible that the best

factors other than T, but

qUe depends

so no definite

if

trends are yet apparent. Selecting the proper

value oi

If.

appears, however, to be less important

than using the proper value of /e

rather surprising feature of the lower or

optimum

value, although in one case

it

approaches and in another case it exceeds the

optimum. These low values are traceable partly
to conservatism, partly to lack of precise knowledge of the behavior of bow bulbs at sea, but

mostly to possible damage from bower anchors,

dropped from the orthodox stowage positions
high in the vessel and close to the stem.

The

design rules laid

summary

in the

down by W.

of his classic

They are set down here, with the present author's

comments in parentheses, and with only minor
changes to comply ^ath the nomenclature in this
book:

The
is

useful speed range of a (ship with a)

generally from T,

(somewhat
(2)

The worse

itself is,

bulb,
(3)

different

V/VL

from that
is

of 0.8 to 1.9

of Fig. 67. D)

wavemaking

the

the more gain

the

of

hull

to be expected with the

the

lines

(forward)

are

extremely

hollow the best position of the bulb

is

with

its

(longitudinal) center at the bow, that

is,

with

its

The bulb should extend

as low as possible

consistent with fairness in the lines of the hull

(5)

The bulb should be

and as wide

as short longitudinally

laterally as possible, again

having

regard to the fairness of the lines

The top

approach too
near to the water surface. As a working rule it is
suggested that the submergence of the highest
part of the bulb should be not less than its own
total thickness (measured transversely).
(6)

Moving
duced

of the bulb should not

the bulb well forward of the

excellent

results

on

pre-World

ABC

of the construction

FP by the length

to provide a nearly

water, as
virtue

plumb

cutwater

of a

possible

it

external profile below

drawn in Fig. 67. E. There is no particular

this plumb profile as such, except

in

possibly as a matter of appearance.

there

Ship.

design, projecting the bulb forward

such as mentioned in Sec. 67.5 makes

is

none in the ram-bow

Likewise

profile that

accompany a bulb bow forward

of

would
FP,

the

relative to the waterline.

Extending the bulb below the baseplane

FP proWar I

is

generally out of the question in practice, although

might be done on vessels designed to meet

it might be extended
below the baseplane as a special appendage.
Taking the ABC ship as an example of the
design procedure, the fitting of a bulb bow on this
vessel was settled, at least tentatively, in Sec.
66.19. It was decided to use, pending a further
check, a section-area intercept f e of 0.06 and a
terminal value of Ie = 0.9 at the FP. These
values are indicated by special spots on Fig.
67. D. It remains to be seen whether a value of t
it

particular requirements, or

fit

the final section-area curve.

Assuming for the moment that the bulb can be

worked physically into the ship, a brief calculation
is

made

to determine

how much

pressure resist-

be saved by it. Taking values of

iJ/j/A in lb per ton from Figs. 241 through 244 of
D. W. Taylor's S and P, 1943, a curve of residuary
resistance in pounds per ton of displacement is
ance

nose projecting forward of the hull

(4)

ABC

For the

as small as 0.9 will

and vice versa

Unless

1939, pp. 303-330].

Laying Out the Bulb for the

67.7

paper "The Theory

Bulbous Bow and Its Practical Application"

[NECI, 1935-1936, Vol. LII, p. 65], can hardly
be improved upon today, twenty years later.

(1)

[SNAME,

except to get the bulb into that forward position,

C. S. Wigley

of the

bulb

1910 to the Arizona class of about 1915.

even greater forward projection is embodied
in the recent French liners Flandre and Antilles
[SBSR, 24 Jul 1952, pp. 115-117].
A bulb of extremely large f e ratio, very low,
very wide, and very flat on the bottom, was the
"platypus" forefoot of
model 3383, developed and tested by E. F. Eggert in the late 1930's
class of

EMB

f E diagram of Fig. 67. D is that, for a large number

of existing vessels of good propulsion performance,
the bow bulb-area ratio f b is rarely more than
half the

Sec. 67.7

Navy, from the Delaware

An

are not yet determined

upon

IN SHIP DESIGN
battleships of the U.S.

likely to

is

plotted in Fig. 67. F for the fine ship of series A.

This has a Cp of 0.60, a displacement-length

quotient A/(0.010L)' of 60, and a B/H of 3.35.

Four

Ru/L

1.006,

and

reasonably

values,

for

T^'s

of

0.559,

0.783,

1.118, enable this curve to be located

well,

especially

for

the

region

of

0.8 to 0.9. Reference to Figs. 248 through

252 of S and P, 1943 edition, enables a second

curve of residuary resistance in pounds per ton
displacement to be plotted for the fat ship of

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.7

Stations

).5

Fig. 67.E

series B, for

which Cp

length quotient

The next

is

two

Peofilb,

.qj

Bulb Bow, and Cutwater for

0.65, the displacement-

and the

B/H

is

set

bow

to the

ABC

where T, = 0.828.
J. M. Ferguson has very recently (August 1955)
prepared an analysis of D. W. Taylor's test data
by which it is possible to determine by inspection

in tabular form.

The

four

the saving in

total

(not residuary) resistance

by

using the best values of the terminal value

ships without

and the FP area ratio /, or other combinations

of t and /, without making the special calculations

0.9, are indicated

just described. Ferguson's data are unpublished

The Rg/A values

bulb bows to the two ships

but they are on file in the

Ubrary.
The ABC bulb bow is to extend forward of the
FP, hence the area corresponding to /e is measured at that station. If the bulb were rounded into
the FP, the area would be that at the plane of
the forward perpendicular lying within the bulb

points corresponding to the Rr/A. values calcu-

and

bulbs, at T, values of 0.8

series

and

as such on the plot of Fig. 67. F.

by fitting
are indicated by the vertical
to be saved

justify fitting a bulb

to determine the residuary

vessels without bulbs, having

down

lated for the series

Ship

design, even for the sustained speed of 18.7 kt,

parent forms identical with those of the Taylor

Standard Series, and proportions as given in
the preceding paragraph. In Table 67.a this
derivation

enough to

ABC

ratio is 3.20.

is 150,

step

resistances of

is

Bow

511

intercepts between

the four points just mentioned and the curves

for the corresponding ships with bulbs.

Reducing these intercepts to percentages of

Rr/A. of the parent-form ships without bulbs,
as in Table 67. b, the savings to be expected are
of the order of 11 to 18 per cent at a T, of 0.8

and 14 to 18 per cent at a T,

of 0.9. This is certainly

TMB

surfaces

when extended

to that station, disregard-

ing the rounding.

Since the bulb volume should be as far below

the designed waterline as possible the bottoms of

HYDRODYNAMICS

)12

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 67.7

may, for a ship to run in the open sea,

range from 20 to 45 deg, depending upon the
contemplated width of the bulb proper. The aim
angle. This

to prevent objectionable pounding

is

and slam-

ming under the bulb.

bulb section were made triangular, with
apex at the
and with a zero rise of floor,
width at the bottom would be that of the

If the
its
its

DWL

divided by half the draft.

section area at Sta.

Two

diagonal lines are drawn, one of which

marked DC in
the two sides
which

is

Fig. 67. G,

diagram

is

representing

1,

With a diameter

of this triangle.

of the order of one-eighth greater

than

the total bottom width of the triangle, draw a

construction circle tangent to the baseline. Using
the half-beam at the

Comparison of Residuabt-ResistancePer-Ton Values for Normal and Bulb Bows

Fig. 67.F

the floor

lines,

DWL,

the keel half-siding,

the straight-sided triangle, and the

construction circle as guide lines, sketch in a

the bulb sections intersect the baseline.

good shape for the bulb section, extending
all

way up

A
all

DWL,

decanter shape, as

67.G

for the

ABC

is

done

ship.

in

diagram

The fs value here

of Fig.
is

0.06.

and lying in or projected

upon the transverse plane of the FP, is that of a

found that, in general, the bulb section

passes close to the upper intersection of the

decanter.

As a starter in laying out this section,

draw two short vertical lines at the DWL,
at the half-beams selected for the stem, and then

triangle

first

maximum beam

the

to the

lay off the keel half-siding on each side of the

baseline.

From

two short

the outer edges of the keel draw

floor

hues at a suitable

TABLE

67.a

The data presented here

derived values of

FINE SHIP,
Cp = 0.60

Rr/A

Series

rise-of-floor

Derivation of

Rr/A Values

are taken from the

TSS

are plotted on Fig. 67.F.

It

is

and the construction circle, and that its

is about that of the circle.
Adhering strictly to Wigley's criterion (6),
quoted earlier in this section, that the submergence
of the

top of the bulb be not less than

breadth,
fob

its

maximum

the construction circle for any bulb

Two TSS

Ships

contours of 7?k/A given

Without Bulb Bows

by D. W. Taylor

in

S and P, 1943. The

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. r,7.7

513

should have a diameter not much greater than

half the draft. If this design rule is followed,
the area ratio /e of a bulb laid out in accordance
with these rules is limited to a maximum of

about

0.10, indicated in

diagram 2 of Fig.
the upper part

If larger ratios are desired

67. G.
of the

bulb must approach the surface closer or the

lower part must assume more of a triangular or
platypus form, with a diminished rise of floor.

bulb with an area ratio /b

0.135, on a
where B/H =
Dillon and E. V. Lewis

vessel of relatively shallow draft,

3.07, is

shown by E.

[SNAME,

1955, Fig.

circle for this

S.

9, p. 735].

how

Q.SH, depending upon

To

The

construction

bulb has a diameter of from 0.7 to

it is

used.

simplify construction, with the rather heavy

plating called for in this region, the sides of the

bulb are

if

Sections

made developable surfaces,

The lower part of the

possible

u
If c J- .'
HQlf-S,d,ng|

described in Sec. 27.1.

may

be the surface of a cone, not necessarily

a circular one, whose vertex lies well ahead of the
FP. The following is copied from D. W. Taylor
bulb

[S

and P, 1943,

p. 69]:
architect will have

"The ingenious naval

in devising bulbous forms where

the structural plating

is

TABLE
The value

of

little

no

difficulty

or no furnacing of

necessary."

67.b

T, for the

ship at 18.7 kt

is

Fig. 67.

Layout Diagram for a Bulb-Bow Section

Sketching in a section similar to that of the FP,

1 or 2, corresponding in area to
either or both of those intercepts on the sectionarea curve and fairing generally with the bulb
at about Sta.

18.7/ VSIO

flij/A

At r =

6.96 ftl-

Predicted Improvement in Residuary Resistance

ABC

0.

Fine ship, without bulb

Shown

^^^^pp

Due to Bulb Bow

0.828.

Saving in Residuary
Resistance with Bulb

HYDRODYNAMICS

514

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec.

^Axis
EquoM\j

Fig. 67.H

5poced

an approximation

of the

DWL,

FP.
If some variation from a developable conical
shape is acceptable, the waterlines through the

still

apex forward

of the

maximum transverse thickness of the bulb may

approximate the shape of a single-ended Rankine
ovoid generated by a single 3-diml source placed
in a uniform stream. Fig. 67. H illustrates the
method

graphic

of

construction,

described

in

Chap. 43, and shows the shape of an axial section

through one-half of such a form. The proportions
are varied by changing the source strength
relative to that of the uniform stream.
The lower profile of an ovoid bulb could be
delineated in the

requirement of a

same way except for the

flat keel

for docking support.

practical

extending well forward

Having

this in

mind

it is

convenient to terminate the lower profile in a

radius tangent to the base plane, say of the order
of O.lOff [SNAME, 1930, PI. 41], or it may be
about equal to the mean radius of the extreme
nose of the Rankine form. For the ABC design
the dimension adopted is 3. .5 ft; this means that the
straight keel for docking extends forward to the
FP.
The matter of shaping the bottom of the bulb
to avoid pounding and slamming during wavegoing is discussed further in Part 6 of Volume III.
If the bulb remains normally well submerged
in service, as it might in inland waters, where
pounding or slamming is rarely if ever encountered, the bulb sections may be made rather
definitely triangular, with a fairly flat bottom

[Eggert,

Lindblad,

E.

A.

F.,

SNAME,

F.,

Bows," SSPA Rep.

1939,

pp.

303-330;

"Experiments with Bulbous

3, 1944, p. 7]. This puts the

Bow

centroid of the bulb area even farther below the

slenderness of the bulb cone and the position of

its

Ovoid

Ordinotes or Radii

Construction of a 3-Diml, Single-Ended Rankinb Ovoid foe a Bulb

sections at the FP, gives

of

r,7.fi

with

accompanying advantages. It is
work developable surfaces into the

its

possible to

bottom and the sides of this triangular bulb.

67.8 Check on Bulb Cavitation. In the past
there has been no definite low limit of draft, in
smooth water at least, at which it is not advisable
to fit a bulb at the bow. Even for high-speed
light-draft vessels intended to run in large waves,

bulb bows have been used to advantage. An

example is the pre-World War II Itahan cruiser
Pola, having a standard displacement of 10,000 t,
a length of approximately 600 ft, a beam of
67.7 ft, a draft of 19.5 ft, and a B/H ratio of 3.47.

At a speed
about

of 33.9 kt, T<, for this vessel is 1.38;

is

is

published in Schiffbau

0.41.

close-up

bow view

Mar

[1

of the

Pola

1933, p. 89].

Other examples are the heavy cruisers U.S.S.

Pensacola and U.S.S. Salt Lake City, described
on SNAME RD sheet 121, with /b values of
0.083; see also Fig. 52.Kc.

For the first time, so far as known, cavitation

was recently (1954) observed on each side of the
bulb

another

of

light-draft

high-speed

vessel

somewhat resembling the Pola. In smooth water

the two cavities were plainly visible from the
forecastle head.

This

new development

elliptic or

definitely

calls

for

pointed rather than circular beginnings

of the waterlines well

below the

DWL. The

shape

and possibly also

the shape of some other characteristic line, must
therefore be one for wliich cavitation will not
of the waterline at each draft,

occur at the cavitation

number

o-(sigma) actually

encountered on the ship at designed draft in

smooth water. This check was not made for the
bulb design of the

ABC ship since the observations

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.9

paragraph were
reported long after the completion of the underwater hull design and the construction and tests
described

of the

ABC

When
the ship
the

preceding

the

in

number

calculating the cavitation

for

and to omit
head above the

well to be conservative

it is

increased

for

bow. The transient

cavitation which occurs along the sides of the
bulb during wavegoing, when the bulb rises
toward the surface, may be accepted.
Incidentally, it is not possible to observe either
the separation or the cavitation on a routine
model test because the Reynolds number R^ or
jSj at the stem is too low to produce a flow dynamically similar to that on the ship, and because,
with full atmospheric pressure above the basin
crest or to sinkage at the

the model cavitation

higher than in the

Assuming

quarter-length are necessarily of U-form.

number

is

much

for the

ABC

aft into a more or less straight

be vertical or flared outward.

work

may

Following this
of the

ship that at

some

light-

ABC

rule, the sections in the

of the entrance lying inside the

sensibly vertical so

above the
with a consequent increase in pressure

crest with outward-sloping section lines

DWL,

drag due to wavemaking.

An easy path for the curved and twisting flowlines around the lower portion of the entrance
is

achieved by working as large radii as possible

into the lower "corners"

for the

ABC

in Fig. 51. A. It has

hull resistance

hy)

(13.5 -h 33

also that the speed

is

0.5)

18.63

This value
cavitation

is

ft.

46.0

Assuming

ft.

20.5 kt, or 34.62 ft per sec,

the velocity head hu

(64.348)

Ha

Then

o-

Vy2g = (34.62)7
= 46.0/18.63 = 2.47.

far in excess, numerically, of the

number

o-

0.50 at which cavitation

occurs on the hemispherical head of a body of

revolution, from diagram

1 of Fig. 47. E.

Indeed,

the U-sections in
is

in the

TSS body

been possible to reduce bare-

lower outer corners of the sections abaft the bulb

and relocating the displacement volume upward

by filling out the waterlines of the same sections.
At the suggestion of S. A. Vincent, this was
done with the first set of forebody fines of the
ABC ship. Following the model tests of the hull
shown in Fig. 66. P it is believed that the form
would benefit by a further change of the same
kind.
If

deep or shallow V-sections are to be used in

the entrance, the section shapes follow a fairly

regular pattern from the stem to the

Studies in Eng'g., Bull. 32, 1948, pp. 54, 65].

No cavitation in smooth-water running need be

sections are well illustrated

bow of the ABC ship.

number
corresponding to

expected around the bulb

The

cavitation

cr,

conditions on this or any other ship,

quickly by the use of the

by entering

it

monogram

is

found

of Fig. 47.B,

with the total head in

ft

and the

ship speed in kt.

67.9

Selection of Section Shapes in Entrance

and Run.

The

first

decision

with

respect

to

and the run is

predominantly U- or

section shapes in the entrance

whether they shall be of

V-shape. If the vessel

is

to give its best perform-

is

plan

by the order of 8 per cent in a

bulb-bow model solely by cutting away the

in excess of that at which cavitation occurs

on a blunt head [Rouse, H., and McNown, J. S.,
"Cavitation and Pressure Distribution: Head
Forms at Zero Angle of Yaw," State Univ. Iowa,
it is

illustrated

design in Figs. 66.P and 66.R. It

to the axis or Avidest part of the bulb, reckoned

-\-

of

of the forward quarter. This

from the at-rest WL, is only 13.5 ft, that the

head hJ^ corresponding to the atmospheric pressure
is 33 ft, and that the head due to the vapor pressure of water, hv ,is 0.5 ft, the total static head
represented by {h

made

is

as not to accentuate the

shown more prominently

is

which

forebody

estimated position of the bow-wave crest

load displacement and trim the depth of water h

at the axis of the bulb

side,

ship are of predominantly U-form.

That portion

way

full scale.

hour-glass shape at the bulb,

considering the abovewater sections as well, and

bow-wave

various parts of the bulb due to the

water,

fifth- or

They begin with an

model.

allowances

515

ance under conditions which make a bulb bow

of advantage, the entrance sections in the forward

of the hull

outer corners well rounded.

differences

main body

forward of amidships, with their lower

between

The

relatively small

and U-shaped
by G. Vedeler, in a

V-shaped

diagram embodying alternative hull designs for a

given set of specifications [6th ICSTS, 1951, pp.
169-170].

The design of cutaway dory-type bows with

pronounced V-sections, as in the Maierform, in
icebreakers, and in vessels like the old pilot boat
New York, is discussed under these special forms
in Chap. 76.
The shape of sections in the run is determined
largely by the tentative shape selected for the
designed waterline and by the positions selected
for the propulsion devices. The latter is a major

HYDRODYNAMICS

516
factor,

Sec. 67.9

struction," submitted in partial fulfillment of a

Near the

B.Sc. degree at the Stevens Institute of Tech-

the nature of the flow to these devices.

rudder position (s).

may

be the tentative
For normal-form sterns the

stern a secondary factor

twin or multiple screws calls for sections

predominantly V-shape. For single screws a
V-shape merging into a U-shape helps to provide
fitting of

of

IN SHIP DESIGN

because the section shapes largely govern

greater

degree

of

equality

in

the

vertical

wake velocity, and possibly also

a higher average wake fraction than a V-shape.
With the latter it is almost impossible to obtain
distribution of

anything but blunt endings in the upper part of

nology, Hoboken, N.

J.,

in 1884:

"This eddy resistance, produced by an 'unfairness' in

the run, is a fault common to many boats otherwise well
designed. The run is the most important part of the
sJiip,

as well as the most difficult to design,

therefore, receive very attentive study. If

and should,

it is

not given

a shape, capable of letting the water close in naturally

and smoothly under the stern, the negative pressure of
the water against that part of the ship, will be lessened, or,
what amounts to the same thing, the direct head resistance
will be increased, thus producing a decided loss in

a centerline skeg.
It is to be recalled, when sketching in the run
sections, that most of the water passing the run

efficiency."

comes up from under the bottom. Put in another

way, the water coming up from underneath the

the

ship covers a greater surface area of the run, as

resembles more nearly the orthodox twin-screw

on the body plan, than the water

coming around the sides. The importance of good
shaping in the run was appreciated many decades
ago and its need could well be brought to the
attention of naval architects every few years.
The following extract is taken from pages 16 and
17 of a thesis by Mr. H. de B. Parsons entitled
"Ship Design and a Systematic Method of Con-

rather than the single-screw hull. This shape of

projected

TABLE

Name

or

67.C

Number

Data on Section Coefficients

of Ship

With the

ABC

relatively large

ship,

section lines in

B/H

ratio of 2.80 in

and a transom at the stern, the

the run fall into a pattern which

run does not lend

itself

to deep U-sections in the

portion leading to the propeller. For this reason,

and to hold the thrust-deduction forces to a

minimum, the centerline skeg was made as thin
as practicable, having due regard to accessibility
and lateral stiffness. It was then added to the
main hull as a sort of appendage, indicated by

in the

Entrance for Typical Merchant Ships

UNDERWA lER HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.12

the broken section lines

the afterbody of Fig. 6G.P.

line in

To

and the skeg tangent

preserve a nearly constant waterline slope

at the stern, in the actual

wave

profile at trial

speed, the waterlines just above the 26-ft

DWL

terminate in a vertical knuckle at the outer lower

corner of the transom. With a sharp horizontal

knuckle at Sta. 20 it seems preferable to carry

the latter knuckle forward until it fades out

between Stas. 16 and

17.

Variation of Section Coefficient Along

67.10

the Length. One means of knowing whether the

lower corners of the sections ahead of and at the

forward quarterpoint are cut away sufficiently is

to plot the section coefficients on a base of ship
length. It is indicated in Fig. 24.1 that a normal

form

curve passes through the given value

maximum-area section, diminishes

of this

Cx

of

at the

slowly toward the FP, and rapidly toward the AP.

Because of the parallel middlebody worked into

some ships

it

is

also necessary to consider the

shape of the forward portion of the sectioncoefficient curve with respect to the entrance
length

Le

Many

rather than the ship length L.

years ago D.

W. Taylor emphasized

the

importance of easy curvature in the section lines

at about the forward quarterpoint. He stated
then and it appears to be true by present
knowledge that "at about the point where the
water wants to go under the ship, you ought
not to have a full section not over 85 per cent

coefficient of fullness at the outside"

[SNAME,

1907, p. 11]. While a section coefficient of 0.85

at the forward quarterpoint (0.25L abaft the FP),

represents a good design for easily driven vessels,
it

can and does rise and fall with the value of Cx

perhaps better to say that the lowest value

It is

of the section coefficient in the entrance should

within the range of 0.25 to 0.45Lb from the

FP. Within this interval of length it should have
a value of the order of 0.80 to 0.90 of the Cx value.
These ranges are taken from the data of Table
67. c, for the position and value of the minimum

fall

section coefficient in the entrance of a

number

of

merchant ships and designs, and from unpublished

data on a rather wide variety of combatant
vessels.

Fig. 67.1

the

ABC

stern

is

a plot of the section coefficient for

ship with both the single-skeg transom

and the twin-skeg arch

the curve
this ship,

is

stern.

The shape

typical for a vessel of this type.

with a Cx of 0.956, the

minimum

of the section coefficient is 0.873.

0.165L, or 0.320Lj;

abaft the FP.

of

For

value

It occurs at

The

ratio of

517

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

518

Sec. 67.13

blisters or bulges

on a ship. Sec. 76.9 discusses the

design of ship hulls with discontinuous sections
and includes a number of design rules. Certain of

however, are these small enough to avoid separation at the DWL.

these are applicable also to ships with blisters and

hull

bulges.

flow to the wheel, and the

augment

due to the reduced-pressure

field in

Manifestly, the addition of a blister to the

main

hull or the swelling of a bulge on the

boundthe volume

it comprises an integral part of

which must be pushed through the water. The
form coefficients and parameters of the ship
carrying them apply therefore to its outside
dimensions, shape, and surface. A ship already
built, to which a bulge or blister of large size is
appUed, becomes in fact a new ship, with new

ary of

proportions,

new parameters, new hull

coefficients,

and a different shape.

Assuming that the transverse section contours
of a bulged form are fair, the discussions of Sees.
24.10 and 25.8 show that neither the maximumsection shape nor its fullness coefficient Cx have
an appreciable effect on the ship resistance. This
means that the bulge can be shaped and positioned
to suit other requirements. If it comes at the
designed waterUne, of course,

changes the

Bx/H

ratio,

slope in the entrance

coefficient

Cw

it

the angles of waterline

considerable latitude in these values for a good

General Arrangement of Single-Screw

or fantail type of stern, with
its relatively thin and deep centerhne skeg, its
rather long fore-and-aft abovewater overhang,
and its wide upper decks, came down through the
sailing ships of the Middle and Modern Ages.
It persisted as the normal form of stern for
mechanically driven vessels until the 1930's and
beyond. In the two decades preceding the time of
67.13

The counter

(1955)

it

not only for propulsion

but for propeller maintenance, is that the single

wheel be kept well submerged in

With the

conditions.

all

large powers

put into single screws,

operating

now

being

of the order of 20,000

horses or more, and the likelihood of

still

greater

single-shaft powers in the future, as ship speeds

increase,

ahead

it is

imperative that the waterUne slopes

of the propeller aperture

tively to avoid

At the level

any

be such as posi-

liability of separation.

of the 0.7 to 0.9 radius

on a propeller

blade in the 12 o'clock position, the skeg waterline

slopes just

ahead

of

the aperture should not

exceed 15 deg for near-surface

deg for
face in

20
below the sursmooth-water running. This slope is to
levels, or 18 to

levels that are always well

be carried

aft,

as close as practicable to the aper-

ture, eliminating blunt endings

stern

weldments,

or

forgings,

on sternposts or

The

castings.

to prevent corrosion on thin sections, say 0.1 ft

of area

design.

writing

jet.

What is equally important,

moment

DWL

Stem.

of resistance

the inflow

terminal radii should be no greater than necessary

and other parameters. If it

C,t
comes below the
it changes only the fatness
ratios A/(0.010L)' and /(0.10L)\ There is
coefficient

is really important is the underwater

shape forward of the propeller, as it effects

and run, the waterplane

the transverse

almost certainly

What

has,

for

reasons

still

rather

or less on large vessels.

The aftfoot may be cut up in profile to meet

maneuvering requirements, to form what is
sometimes called a clear-water stern, provided
dynamic stability of route is assured, and the
necessary

docking support remains along the

centerline keel. If

and upward

it is

known

that the flow

is

aft

in

cutaway region the level lines

the skeg termination may be rather blunt. It

is

the hull slope along the actual flowline that

in the

counts, below as well as above the shaft axis.

In some tugs the aftfoot

clear-water stern,
ability

is

to afford

cut away, as in a

greater maneuver-

but the keel bar and the sternpost are

extended

aft

and downward,

respectively,

to

largely

carry a rudder shoe and to act as a guard for

difficult to build,

both propeller and rudder ["Kort Nozzle Tug

Maamal," SBSR, 20 Nov 1952, p. 676].
Freedom from objectionable stern vibration in
service is often a requirement that ranks in

been replaced as the normal

single-screw stern by the whaleboat or canoe
(cruiser) type. The latter has the practical advantage that it is probably less costly and less
obscure,

to the rudder

projections

and

that

and

it

affords better protection

in

smaller

importance \vith efficient propulsion. Meeting this

demand means, in addition to a fine skeg ending
ahead of the propeller, an adequate aperture
clearance ahead of the sweep lines of the propeller
blades. This must be enough to keep down to
acceptable limits the periodic lateral forces on

the stern.

Rarely,

the skeg as each blade, with

and

propeller,

that,

lacking

not likely to
give trouble in a following sea. Hydrodynamically,
it

discontinuities,

it is

usually offers better shielding of the propeller

against air leakage and, because of the greater

waterline
surface

length,

it

should

waterliue slopes at

result

its

circulation pattern

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.13

and pressure

field,

passes through the aperture.

An

hull.

519

The arrangement then resembles

that of

adequate and proper aperture clearance,

although undoubtedly a function of the pressure
distribution around the adjacent blade elements,

each side skeg in a twin-skeg design, discussed

can not be defined within close limits on the basis

of present knowledge. This matter is discussed

as easy as might be expected, with this arrange-

further in Sees. 67.23 and 67.24.

levels of the skeg

modern form

of whaleboat or canoe stern

merchant vessels of normal
design is represented by the sterns of the five
TMB Series GO parent forms for block coefficients
from 0.60 through 0.80. The typical stern profile
is illustrated in a diagram published by F. H.

for

single-screw

in

and

67.21

Sec.

[SNAME,

the technical literature

in

1947, pp. 97-169]. However,

it is

not

ment, to obtain the requisite fining of the upper

ending while giving the skeg

an ample degree of lateral stiffness.

The profile drawing of Fig. 66. Q is an elevation
of the aftermost quarter-length, drawn in orthodox
fashion. The centerline buttock is included as a
sort of construction line, indicating the profile

adaptation to a particular propeller is dehneated

by J. B. Hadler, G. R. Stuntz, Jr., and P. C. Pien

shape of the after main-hull sections on the basis

that the thin centerline skeg is treated as an
appendage. The transom-stern body plan. Fig.
66. P, indicates this feature in the form of broken-

[SNAME,

hne continuations

Todd [SNAME,

1953,

Fig.

28,

p.

562].

The

1954, Fig. 2, p. 123].

In a modification of the normal single-screw

stern, such as that laid out for the ABC design in
Figs. 66. P and 66. Q, the transom leads forward
to a sort of shelf,

worked at about the

level of

the top of the propeller aperture and the top of

the rudder.

One purpose

of this shelf is to protect

the propeller from air leakage as long as the

shelf is

submerged. Another

is

to permit fining of

the upper portion of the skeg ending ahead of

the upper propeller blades by making the skeg

more

of

an appendage than a part

Fig. 67.J

of the

main

of

the sections at Stas.

16

through to the centerline

without taking account of the skeg.
The aperture clearance forward of the upper
through

18.5, carried

blades

made

is

exceptionally large

of the skeg is cut

away

and the

and to improve maneuvering.

It is to

that whereas the centerline buttock

for

about 11

ft

aftfoot

to save wetted surface

forward of the AP,

be noted

is

horizontal

it

was found

not possible to level out the lateral buttocks in

the same

way without

decreasing the slopes of

the lower transom edges or losing displacement

Port Quarter View op Transom-Stern Model for

ABC

Ship

HYDRODYNAMICS

520

Fig. 67.

Profile View of Transom-Stern

volume by hollowing the main portion of the

hull at and forward of the propeller position.
The upper after corner of the rudder is rounded
off to provide a moderate gap below the free-water
surface and to avoid breakdown of the rudder at
large angles.

of

These features are pictured in photographs

TMB model 4505, representing the transom-

stern

ABC

ship,

reproduced here as Figs. 67.

and 67.K.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 67.14

Model for ABC

Ship

screws, could be designed for the

ABC

stern hull, with the shafts supported

further modification of this shelf or transom

ship, as

an additional example of hydrodynamic design

procedure. However, a twin-screw stern (excluding
bossings) usually poses fewer shaping problems
and interferences, and it may be expected to
have less bare-hull resistance than an equally
good single-screw stern.
Save for the cases where quadruple screws are
carried underneath a flat-bottomed or transom-

by

struts, or

propeller bearing

where two of the four quadruple

screws are carried by deep skegs, the design of
a normal form of quadruple-screw stern follows
that of the normal twin-screw stern rather closely.
The inboard propellers are placed in about the
same positions as for twin screws. The outboard
propellers are mounted farther forward and
farther from the centerline, usually far enough so

strut,

that their discs are clear of the inboard propeller

design, particularly for a high-speed craft, limits

the single centerline skeg to a sort of vertical

bossing which terminates just below the shaft.

Carrying this design one step further cuts the

bossing back to a short length of fairing where
the shaft emerges from the hull and supports the

by a single-arm or double-arm
with intermediate struts as may be neces-

sary.

discs

Stern Forms for Twin- and Quadruple-

67.14

Screw Vessels.
stern,

The Taylor Standard

Series

delineated in Fig. 51.A [S and P, 1943,

185 and 186, pp. 182-183], was adapted

from the British twin-screw armored cruisers of
Figs.

it still represents an excelform for twin-screw hulls of today. It

is adaptable to several types and shapes of single
centerline rudder, including the spade or underhung rudder, as well as to rather wide variations
in profile. It may be used with open struts to
support the twin shafts or twin bossings may be
superposed on it.

the 1895-1905 era but

lent basic

Lack
in

for the cases

of space precludes the insertion of sections

which a second alternative

stern,

with twin

of

when both

the

sets are projected

maximum

propellers

project

far

sides of the hull, as

Omaha

on the plane

Whether the four

beyond the above water

section.

on the

light cruisers of the

whether they
below the hull as on a wide transomstern design, is more a matter of the general hull
shape than of the underwater hull design. Rarely,
if ever, is the hull shape modified for the outboard propellers, except as may be necessary to
accommodate machinery parts inside. The four
shafts are carried in bossings, in open struts, or in
any desired combination of the two.
The positioning of screw propellers relative to
the hull, especially the matter of tip clearances,
is discussed further in Sees. 67.24 and 69.3.
(U.S.)

lie

entirely

class of the 1920's, or

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.16

Notes on Three- and Five-Screw InstalAlthough triple screws are, at the time

67.15
lations.

of writing (1955), not favored for

many

early turbine-driven vessels of the

1900's, the passenger vessels Great Northern

Northern Pacific of 1914, and the

many

and

cruisers

and large German capital ships of the World

War I and World War II periods. An excellent
photograph of the Cunard liner Carmania,
fitted with triple 3-bladed propellers, is shown on
Plate 161, SNAME, 1905. A photograph of the
Columbia in dock, showing the three 3-bladed
built-up

propellers,

published

is

Magazine [Feb 1896,

p.

325].

The

economically and efficiently

speed and at full speed.

at

both

cruising

modern ship

have been many successful installations in the past. Notable among these were the
U. S. cruisers Columbia and Minneapolis of the
designs, there

1890's,

521

in

Cassier's

triple-screw

While attractive from the point of reducing

number of propelling plants and propulsion
devices on a high-power ship, triple screws may
have to be associated with something rather
new and different in the way of ship sterns to
the

realize their full possibilities.

It is not beyond the bounds of probability that

with further increases in ship power it may be
found advisable to fit five screw propellers on a
ship. A stern design for such a vessel appears to

involve

many problems

of

both the triple-screw

and the quadruple-screw stern. Because of this

and other reasons it has not, so far as known,
been attempted on more than model scale.

The Arch Type

arrangements on the Argentine battleships Moreno

67.16

and Rivadavia are illustrated in Schiffbau [11

Oct 1911, p. 19]. There was a proposed triplescrew World War II German destroyer of the

With the

of Single-Screw Stern.

increased reUabiUty, decreased weight

[ASNE, Feb

with internal-combustion engine drive

1948, pi. opp. p. 30]. There were four

and space, and reduced fuel consumption of the

larger sizes of modern ship propeUing plants it
becomes increasingly desirable to take advantage
of the inherent simpUcity and lower first cost of

engines of 10,000 horses each coupled to the

single-screw propelling machinery, to say nothing

Z-51

class,

center shaft and one each of 10,000 horses to the

two wing
course
vessel

The

shafts.

much
was

center propeller was of

larger than the

two

others.

The

to carry a large centerline spade rudder

and smaller

offset

twin rudders.

of

its

higher

with propelling machinery and propeller design. The hull shape in way of the center
skeg or center portion ahead of a middle screw
difficulties

Propeller

coefficient.

much

higher than those dehvered to single wheels

in the past can be absorbed at reasonably

rotational

The triple-screw stern, despite its use on many

medium and large vessels in the past, presents

propulsive

design has progressed to the point where powers

sufficiently

speeds.

If

increased,

the
if

rate

of

low

rotation

the propeller

is

is

made

and if it is kept adequately submerged, the shaft power of 50,000 horses mentioned elsewhere may be achieved in the not

large enough,

distant future.

and the wing

Much higher propulsive coefficients can be and

have been obtained with single-screw than with
twin- or multiple-screw propulsion but these are
predicated upon advantageous flow conditions at
the propeller disc. Good flow is obtained with
relatively long and thin vertical skegs ahead of

necessary,

the propeller, giving reasonably high hull

vastly different from the shape ahead of the

is

wing screws, even when the

bossings.

The

latter are carried

by

friction wakes, the angularity of

the flows, and the uniformity of water speeds

over the discs will not be the same for the center
propellers. Although not strictly
almost never possible to make the
center propeller absorb the same power at the
same rate of rotation as the wing propellers.

Many

it is

designers

have been disillusioned by

attractive proposals to use the center propeller

solely for intermediate-speed

ciencies [riH

(1

0/(1

"')]

effi-

at the propeUer

position without excessive circumferential variation

and without objectionable separation or

eddying.

As the

and cruising pur-

poses, only to find in service that:

size of vessels in this category increases,

so does the beam-draft ratio, because the draft

(1)

There were practical difficulties in uncoupling

the wing shafts and permitting their propellers to

more severely Hmited by depths in the waterways of the world than the beam is limited by
berthing and docking facihties. The progressive

free-wheel while cruising

increase in beam, over the years, due largely to

There were many problems in designing a

center propelling plant which would operate

damage-control

is

(2)

requirements,

has

meant

in-

creased difficulty in fining the waterUnes forward

HYDRODYNy\MICS IN SHIP DESIGN

522
to keep

down

making.

It is

pressure resistance due to wave-

perhaps even harder to draw in the

lines aft so they merge into a long and relatively

narrow skeg ahead of the single propeller. Unless
the stern is deliberately made wide and flat,
incorporating a feature not well adapted to
vessels which must operate with a great variation
in draft aft, the demand for fine lines at both
ends of a medium-speed or fast vessel cuts

severely into the waterplane area necessary for

transverse metacentric stability. All things considered, it is difficult to fine the designed waterline

ending in a single-screw ship of normal form

without encountering separation and accepting
the drag which comes with

To avoid

it.

surface

separation completely means limiting the waterline slopes to a value

not exceeding about 12 or

With beams continuing

13 deg.

situation

is

to increase, this

slowly becoming worse. Something

needs to be done about

The termination and

it.

the slopes of waterlines

forward of a single-screw propeller aperture have

on many occasions in the past been relatively
blunt and heavy, with no consistently objectionable effects. This was principally because the

powers absorbed by individual propeller blades

were small and the transient forces and moments
produced when these blades swung through
regions of highly variable wake were also small.
With higher and higher blade loadings the
periodic forces and moments likewise increase,
so that turning out a design with greater power
than a previous design, or re-engining a ship to
accomplish the same purpose, is by no means as
simple as making the propeller shaft a little larger
and mounting a new propeller to absorb the
In the orthodox single-screw stern the propeller
in the

same

vertical plane as the:

(c)

Arch structure over the aperture

Rudder
Rudder horn, if fitted

(d)

Sternpost

(e)

Rudder post

(f)

Shoe projecting from the heel of the ship to

(a)

(b)

Any attempt

tip clearance, or to leave

vertical clearance in the aperture, runs

into the situation that

also be

ones,

and hanging each

skeg,

much more room

on the
it is

the space

accommodated

By shifting the fixed

many

needs,

it

centerline.

far easier to

of

them behind an

is left

offset

for a single propeller

Furthermore, in a wide ship

work gentle

slopes into the sides

upper portions
than into a single

of twin skegs, especially in their

where they join the

hull,

centerline skeg. If a single propeller

mounted

is

between the offset skegs with

an arch-shaped roof overhead it can have a
diameter 20 to 25 per cent larger than would
otherwise be possible. The fact that the tip
clearance in this tunnel can be made sensibly
constant for more than half-way around the
propeller disc means that this clearance can be
very small. It can indeed be vastly smaller than
is thought necessary on an orthodox single-screw
installation to keep vibration down within
reasonable limits. This leaves still more room to
swing a larger wheel.
For the ABC design, a propeller-disc diameter
of 24 ft was selected as one which would always
remain submerged; that is, as one for which the
wheel could be kept submerged during the several
in a sort of tunnel

variable-load conditions

by the use

of liquid cargo

or salt-water ballast in the after peak tanks,

coupled with the

inflow

jet.

The

filling of

the tunnel by a solid

tip clearance of

to be a reasonable value,

1 ft

was estimated

considering

that

it

would be constant over at least half the circumference. It was not too small to bring the blade-tip
fields too close to the hull and not too large to
lose the benefit of whatever boundary layer
existed on the inside of the arch.
This reasoning was based upon satisfactory
ft for

propellers

of one-third the diameter

on tunnel-stern pushboats. In fact, since only mechanical clearance is

required, the tip clearance on a 24-ft wheel might
be reduced to less than 0.5 ft, assuming flush
with

to increase the propeller diameter,

more

all

dividing the one large rudder into two smaller

hull plating abreast the propeller, truly concentric

carry the lower rudder pintle.

to provide

planes where each has

clearances of the order of 0.25

increased power.

is

Sec. 67.16

more

head on

other parts must

in the centerplane.

parts into different vertical

its axis.

For a 20 per cent increase in propeller diameter

over that for the transom-stern design, from 20
to 24 ft, the disc area is increased 44 per cent.
The thrust-load coefficient is reduced 30.5 per
cent (1.00/1.44 = 69.5) by this change alone. A
comparison of the propulsive efficiencies of the
20-ft

and

propeller with

the single centerline skeg

of the 24-ft propeller with the arch stern is

given in Sec. 78.15.

The afterbody plan

of Fig. 67. L

shows how the

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.16

tunnel between the side skegs

is

widened

slightly

p. 116]

52S

indicated a definite thinning of the bound-

way

with distance forward of the propeller in an

endeavor to allow for the increased area of the
inflow jet with that distance. The tunnel is neces-

ary layer in

deep in that portion of the length normally

occupied by a single centerline skeg because of
the need for providing docking support in that

hull surface. This

region.

alternative

sarily

At the time

the

first

modern twin-skeg

sterns

were developed, an easy slope of the tunnel roof

was considered an important feature, so much so
that the
9 deg. It

maximum value was limited

now known that separation

is

to 8 or

does not

occur at these small slopes, even at the freewater surface. Well below the surface, where

much more
gradient

is

the slopes can be considerably greater than the

12- or 13-deg surface hmit.
it

fairly

was believed

For the

ABC

safe to increase the

high transverse velocity gradients at the

is

an additional guard against

the tunnel. Incorporating these features into an

ABC

arch-type stern for the

ship

produced the body plan of Fig. 67.L and the stern

profile of Fig. 67.M.
The resulting stern arrangement is not unlike
one proposed in 1874 by Robert Griffiths [INA,
1874, pp. 165-178 and PI. XXIV, Fig. Sa). He,
too,

was concerned about adequate flow

of

water

to the screw propeller.

The

profile

drawing in Fig.

67.

shows the

starboard skeg, looking from outboard, with the

starboard

rudder.

The

centerline

buttock

re-

design,

sembles in shape that of the transom stern,

maximum

depicted in Fig. 66. Q, except that in this case the

slope to about 18 deg, provided the tunnel areas

ahead of the propeller were kept large enough.

In fact, unpublished model test data on the
twin-skeg Manhattan hull form [SNAME, 1947,

Fig. 67.L

bottom con-

separation farther aft along the sloping roof of

hydrostatic pressure and pressure

available to change the water direction,

of the longitudinal

vexity at the forward end of the tunnel, with

transom immersion at
it

this

buttock

is

only 0.5

ft,

extends horizontally up to the propeller position,

and

it

does not

fair into

The maximum buttock

Afterbody Plan of Arch-Type Stern for

ABC

the keel until Sta. 14.5.

slope, at

Ship

about Sta. 17.35,

524

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 67.16

UNDERWATER HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.17
is

18 deg. This

is

maximum

about twice the

recommended

slope

[SNAME,

1947,

increase the positive

for

Rule

wake

9,

back to

130]

67.17

p.

aftfoot

525

as that of the transom-stern design

Sta. 11, corresponding to 0.55L.

Flow Analysis for the Arch Type of

Although it may involve some duplication

Stem.

of material in the preceding section, there

is

given

velocity at the pro-

here a brief analysis of flow conditions under the

cut away, not so

indication of the study that should be given to a

arch type of stern. This analysis serves also as an

peller position.

The

same

tunnels

between
but it is
made deliberately steeper in an attempt to slow
up the water passing through the tunnel and
previously

skegs

the

on each skeg

is

deeply as in the transom-stern design but extending farther forward.

To

eliminate unnecessary

novel design of this kind in the preliminarydesign stage.

wetted surface, to improve maneuvering characteristics, and to insure a better flow of water into
the forward end of the tunnel between the skegs,
the lower edge of each is cut up for a considerable

What is termed here the arch stern for deepwater vessels is distinguished from the tunnel
stern found on craft intended to operate in

distance to a height of 2.33 ft (28 in), above the

fact that, in the former, the tunnel roof never

two docking
2 ft wide and

extends above the designed waterline. Design

rules for tunnel sterns with roofs elevated above

baseplane, equal to the depth of

blocks. This horizontal skeg foot

extends from about Sta.

Between

Stas.

is

16.25

15 and 16 there

Sta.

to
is

another

18.3.
flat

shallow water, described in Sec. 25.19, by the

the water surface are contained in Sec. 72.13.

There has been no

difficulty in

keeping the

horizontal region at the bottom of each skeg,

centerline tunnel full of water on ships with twin

a distance above the baseplane corresponding to the rise of floor at about the 16-ft
buttock. The fish-eye view in the lower part of

skegs

lying at

Fig.

67.

indicates the

manner

which the

in

skegs converge slightly with distance, from their

forward to their after ends. Transverse sections

at the stations in the vicinity of the propeller
position are

diagram

shown to

large scale in the right-hand

of Fig. 67. L.

The twin

when proportioned

[SNAME,

this is

tunnel or arch type of single-screw stern, the

and proportioning of the tunnel area,

starting

from

curved-blade, tilted-stock twin rudders of the

Thornycroft destroyers of a half-century ago
[INA, 1908, PI. IV, Fig. 6]. The tops of the rudders

in area as

ft

Perhaps

case the propeller disc occupies nearly all of the

tunnel area at the propeller position. In a single-

great care.

are depressed 4

as outlined previously

130-131].

selection

rudders, lying close to the projected

on either

pp.

because in a twin-skeg design, with propellers

carried by each skeg, only a part of the tunnel
area is occupied by propeller discs. In the present

resemble somewhat the

tip circle

1947,

side,

below the

DWL

to guard

tically

fills

its

forward end, therefore needs

The propeller inflow jet, contracting

it moves toward the propeller, practhe tunnel. Too small a tunnel could

be highly detrimental to propulsion. In fact,

there were indications when an alternative arch

ABC

was being planned, that

against air leakage and possible rudder breakdown

stern for the

on turns, with the ship heeling and diminishing

the submergence of the top of the rudder on the

towboats and pushboats suffered

from excessive thrust-deduction forces, apparently
as a result of constrictions in the tunnels ahead

high

side.

To

avoid awkward fairing in the vicinity of the

rudder head the transom contour is dropped at
the sides to 3.5 ft below the DWL, on the basis
that some separation drag due to non-clearing of
this deep portion is preferable to irregular eddying

above the top

of the rudder.

Outboard

of the skegs

the section lines

fall naturally into a V-pattern

corresponding to that of a narrow ship with

centerline skegs such as would be obtained by

removing the center portion between the 14-ft
buttocks and bringing the two outboard sides

together.

The forebody

of the arch-stern design

is

exactly

ship

tunnel-stern

of the propellers.

It

was

possibly be avoided in the

felt

ABC

that this could

ship

by keeping

the tunnel roof well up in the region just ahead

of the wheel.

To diminish the tunnel-roof slopes on the ABC

design to values smaller than those indicated in

would involve loss of valuable disFig. 67.

placement volume, shifting part of the propelling machinery farther ahead, a longer exposed
propeller shaft, and a further widening of the
forward or entrance portion of the tunnel. Any
net increase in resistance, such as that caused by
thrust deduction, is of course only justified if the

HYDRODYNAMICS

526

gain in power from the expected high average

wake drops the

propeller or shaft

power below

the value to be expected with an orthodox type

of stern. It is recalled in this connection that,

model tests of
normal-form sterns and twin-skeg sterns, on a
comparative basis, showed higher effective powers
but lower propeller or shaft powers for the twinpractically without exception, the

skeg form.

By

retaining the high tunnel slopes, at values

which would just avoid separation or Ap's

along the roof of the arch, it was hoped to create
artificially a forward wake current over most of
the tunnel area. This is exactly what is accomplished by a bulb at the bottom of a skeg ending,

IN SHIP DESIGN

it.

the propeller disc in the

ABC

like the

tunnels of the late 1930's and the early 1940's

squats and

1947,

pp.

These

97-169].

velocities

the water passing

all

However, as the tunnel does not cover

ABC design, it was
expected that below the shaft axis the wake
velocities would be appreciably lower than those
above the axis.
In relatively slow-speed tunnel-stern pushboats
and towboats built to operate in shallow waters
there appears to be no great difficulty in getting
water through a narrow bed clearance under the
vessel, into the tunnel (s), and thence aft to the
propeller(s). However, this does not necessarily
assure the designer that this flow is adequate in a
deep-water vessel with the same type of stern,
which has to traverse shallow waters occasionally,
through

all

sketched in Fig. 25. L. It appeared, furthermore,

that the wake velocities within the arch should
be higher than they were in the original twin-skeg

[SNAME,

Sec. 67.1S

forward wake velocities in

ship.

What

saves the situation here

the necessity for the

is

down

slow

Finally,

is

small, else

it

stern drags on the channel bed.

its
it

deep-water vessel to

the bed clearance

if

is

realized that the increased disc

should also be considerably more uniform across

area and improved flow pattern expected with

the tunnel area because of

this arch type of single-screw stern, pictured in

its

circular section,

without the inside corners of the earlier tunnels on

twin-skeg ships. Furthermore, by having the
propeller disc

fill

nearly

all of

the tunnel area

it

should be possible to take advantage of the

Fig. 67. N, are offset to

effect of the

some extent by the adverse

items listed hereunder, based on a

comparison with a single-screw stern of normal

form:
(a)

Increased wetted surface of the side skegs.

This has been reduced somewhat by cutting up

the skegs 2.33 ft, the height of two docking blocks.
(b)

Necessity for a shaft strut within the arch

to support the propeller bearing

(c)

Drag

of the

exposed propeller shaft and of a

short fairing or bossing at

(d)

its

forward end

Necessity for two rudders, neither of which

lies in

the propeller outflow jet

Probable necessity for placing, farther forward than in a normal single-skeg stern, that
part of the propelling machinery directly attached
to the shaft, because of the reduced rate of
rotation associated with the larger propeller and
(e)

the larger main gear.

Despite these

initial

disadvantages, the

ABC

type of arch stern was considered by several

experienced naval architects who examined it to

have

sufficient

promise to justify the building and

testing of a model. In the present state of the art,

this is the best that

can be done with any new

design.

Design of Hull and Appendage ComVery frequentlj' the final design of

that portion of a ship hull adjacent to a fixed or
movable appendage is only possible after the
67.18

binations.

View from Aft of Arch-Stern

Assembly on ABC Ship Model

Fig. 67.N

UNDERWATER HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.18

appendage

detail design of the

This

particularly true at the stern of a vessel,

is

in the vicinity of a screw propeller

completed.

itself is

and a rudder.

suitable procedure to be followed here

illustrated

by the

stern for the

is

well

design of the arch-type

first

ABC ship. It involved a closely spaced

pair of skegs and rudders, a large screw propeller

with exceptionally small tip clearance, an exposed
propeller shaft, a propeller-bearing housing abaft

the propeller, supported

and a contra-propeller

by multiple

effect in

strut arms,

the strut arms.

527

take advantage of the augmented outflow velocity,

described in Sec. 33.21.

obvious reason,

However, there

is

no

except perhaps an instinctive

one, for maintaining this fore-and-aft distance,

expecially as the rudders do not

outflow

lie

within the

jet.

Moving

the propeller bearing with

its

sup-

porting struts abaft the propeller clears the tunnel

and makes

of this obstruction

it

possible to use

the strut arms as vanes for taking out the rotation

and developing an additional

in the outflow jet

manner

After this arch-type stern was completely designed

thrust, in the

was found that an installation very similar to

it had been embodied in the Dravo pushboat
Pioneer nearly two decades before, even including
the twist in the strut arms [SBSR, 14 Mar 1935,

more, by using three and possibly four arms,

curved to straighten the flow in the outflow jet,

it

pp. 291-293].

The

general arrangement of these

appendages, as built into and tested on the

propelled model of the

ABC

of a contra-rudder. Further-

these arms can have long, thin sections while

at the

same time they provide adequate support

One or two arms, gen-

for the bearing housing.

self-

erally vertical, take the weight of the propeller

vessel, is illustrated

and the after half of the exposed shaft while the

two side arms steady the bearing laterally. The
arms are so spaced as to encounter the bladepressure fields at random or in succession rather

and 74.L in Chaps. 73 and

74 on fixed and movable appendages, respectively.
Supporting a propeller bearing within the
centerline tunnel requires either a V-strut of the
usual type ahead of the propeller or a strut of
special type abaft it. Since the tunnel is partly
obstructed by a short bossing where the shaft
comes out of the hull and a length of exposed
rotating shafting, sketched in Fig. 67.0, a V-strut
ahead of the propeller would only add to the
obstructing effect. Standard strut arms, because
in Figs. 73.F, 73.H,

than

simultaneously,

The arms

indicated

in

Fig.

67. P.

and of relatively large chord,

to give good hydrodynamic performance. The
multiple-strut and bearing-housing combination
can possibly be assembled in place and welded
into the ship, if considered advisable, as an
are thin

integral part of the structure.

To remove

the propeller in such a setup

it is

and short fore-and-aft

necessary either to split the propeller-bearing

lengths, are not suitable as deflectors to impart

housing and drop the lower half or to provide a

separate section of exposed shafting. Removal of

of their isolated positions

reversed rotation to the flow in the inflow

see
Sec.

the

discussion

36.9.

The

moving the

the

of

jet;

contra-propeller

in

arch-stern arrangement permits

propeller

well

aft,

into

a nearly

such a section enables the propeller to be pulled

forward a short distance, far enough to get the
shaft extension out of the after bearing.

scheme

horizontal portion of the tunnel, but at the expense

the

of getting the rudders too near the propeller to

the standard

Transom Immersion at

first

Transom Immersion

O'^^r

method

of propeller

with
attachment of

ELEVATION, LOOKING TO, PORT,

WITH NEAR SKEG REMOVED

Ruddei

'

~f

Fig. 67.0

i9

Normally

objectionable because

is

Stations

TT

'

Arch Stern Underwater Profile of

18

ABC

Ship,

with Near-Side Skeg Removed

HYDRODYNAMICS

528
DWU

IN SIITP DESIGN

^-* 5htp

Corner of Transom

Centerlinb

Rudders Toe Out

Bottom of Skeq
Cut Up

b\j

to Suit Conver-

Heiqht of

Two DocNina

of Tunnel

Blocks!

ond Flow
Outside of SUeos

STERN ELEVATION, LOOKING FORWARD

Fig. 67.P

ABC

Abch-Ttpe Stern Arrangement, Elevation from Aft

taper, keys, and nut, the shaft extension must

have a diameter smaller than the root of the

threads for the nut.

To

obtain sufficient area in

becomes so
enough to remain

the propeller bearing the journal

long that
straight.

it is

This

no longer
is

stiff

aggravated by the additional

length required for the propeller nut.

The load

solution

(a)

axis.

Provide a permanently

The purpose

fair surface

of

outboard

of the propeller tips, so as to hold the small tip

clearance

constant throughout the

life

of

the

vessel
is

then far from uniform on the propeller-bearing

material, with unequal and excessive wear.

The obvious

about the propeller-shaft

this heavy plating is to:

(b)

Maintain a

fair surface

the rotating pressure

fields at

under the action

the blade

of

With

tips.

correspondingly heavy transverse framing inside,

is to:

local forces are distributed over the

whole stern
deform

Attach the after end of the exposed propeller

shaft directly to the forward end of the propeller

structure, instead of being permitted to

with a pair of bolted flanges sufficiently substantial

to take the bending and torsion loads and to

thickness of this belt, at least double that of the

(1)

withstand the torsional vibrations in the rotating

system. These flanges are indicated in broken
lines in Fig.

67.0 and in

full lines in Fig.

74.L.

Fashion the propeller journal integral with

it. The journal can
then be made any size and shape desired.

the structure in their immediate vicinity.

adjacent shell plating, combined with

verse

curvature,

renders

it

free

its

The

trans-

from panting

without excessive local stiffening.

(c) Serve as a strong connection for the hull

(2)

ends of the four strut arms. These ends, approxi-

the propeller hub ahead of

mately straight fore and aft, are intended to be

passed through slots in the heavy belt plate
and welded to the internal framing as well as to
the belt plate. Fig. 73.F of Sec. 73.8 gives typical
longitudinal and transverse sections through the
belt plate, showing its attachment to the two
upper strut arms.

Structural plans for this type of stern should

call for

a wide transverse belt of double-extra-

heavy plating abreast the 24-ft propeller and the

4-armed strut, extending approximately from
the bottom of the port skeg to the bottom of the
starboard skeg. Except for the forward end near
the top, this belt

is

cylindrical in shape, concentric

67.19

Comments on Design of an UnsymThe function of a

metrical Single-Screw Stern.

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.20

contra-guide stern or skeg ending, described in

and discussed

Sec. 25.16
67.22,

is

in greater detail in Sec.

to change the direction of the water

flowing past the skeg ending so as to meet the

cases the

and the 6 o'clock positions. The skeg

is deliberately twisted away from the centerplane
of the ship, for a half-propeller diameter or more
ahead of its termination, to cause the water to
contrary

flow to the propeller in the desired

unsymmetrical construction more

than pays for its added resistance by the resulting
increase of incident velocity on the blade eledirection. This

ments, the increased effective angle of attack,

and the higher

The
normal
is

efficiency of propulsion.

flow of water on a ship with a more-or-less

stern, carrying

generally

a right-handed propeller,

upward and

under the

aft

stern. It

meets the downward-swinging blades in the

and 4

o'clock

flowing aft and

positions.

2,

However, the water

upward on the port

side of the

than meets the blades

and 10 o'clock positions. The problem
confronting the marine architect is to

deflection occurred on both

sides of the skeg so the propeller did not benefit

from

it

any more than

upward

rotating propeller blades in the vicinity of the

12 o'clock

529

downward

it

benefits

from the normal

flow on both sides.

It should

not be necessary deliberately to create

a separation zone on the port side of the .ship to

deflect the flow downward on that side. Bulging
the stern out to fill the space which would be

occupied by such a zone means that, on a ship

of limited length, there

would be another separaadded drag.

tion zone abaft the bulge, with its

It

is

not yet known

downward

how

to accomplish

this

deflection of water

on the port side

without using up all or more of the energy to be
gained by the change but there is undoubtedly
some way of doing it.
Any asymmetry in the stern in a scheme of
this kind has no appreciable effect upon maintaining the upright position of the ship. Likewise
it

should have no effect in steering or turning;

indeed, such a change might improve the steering

single skeg follows rather

characteristics because of the present need

in the 8, 9,

carrying 2 or 3 deg of right rudder on a single-

now

screw ship with a right-handed propeller.

67.20 Proportions and Characteristics of an

increase the propulsive efficiency of a single-screw

vessel

still

further, possibly as

much

as 3 or 4

per cent, by changing the direction of the water

on the port side so that it flows downward and

meets the upward-swinging blades. If this full
change can not be made, because of prohibitive
drag and other reasons, it may at least be possible
to diminish the upward angle of flow on the port
side.

There is no structural, machinery, or hydrodynamic reason why the stern of a single-screw

with a single
symmetrical if there is
gained by making it
much more so than
vessel

stern. Indeed, there is

is

to benefit

centerline

be

decidedly unsymmetrical,

the present contra-guide

no reason why,

by the change, the

propeller need

skeg need

a distinct advantage to be

if

the ship

axis of the single

be in the centerplane or even

exactly parallel to

it.

There are cases on record

which the flow near the end
carrying a single propeller

of tanker

is

of

models

in

it

Stern.

There

is little

reason,

at least as far as resistance, speed,

and power are

concerned, for the use of an immersed-transom
stern unless, at some speed below the designed
value, the water clears the transom and leaves its
exposed to atmospheric
knowledge indicates that this
speed depends mostly on the immersed depth of
the transom at its lowest point, and partly upon
the buttock slopes just ahead of the lower edge
entire

after

surface

pressure. Present

of the transom.

As described

"transom"

in Sec.

25.14,

submergence Froude
number F,, may be set up, having as its length
dimension the greatest immersed draft Hu of
the transom below the at-rest waterline. For
so-called

reasonably

flat

or

buttock slopes at the stern, indi-

cated as Ib in Fig. 25.1,

F,,

may

be as small as

5,

Table 67.d gives a set of

possibly as small as

4.

immersed-transom

drafts

and

corresponding

a centerline skeg

speeds, for a g value of 32.174 ft per sec^, at which

downward

number F equals 5.0.

In general, the immersed-transom draft H[/ is
selected upon the basis of the lowest speed at
which economical operation is desired, partic-

directed

meets the propeller. This may be due to

deflection from the under side of a separation
zone below the water surface and above the
propeller, or to downward flow on the insides of
two large longitudinal-axis vortexes coming off
the bilges, somewhat larger than the one diagrammed in Fig. 25. F. Unfortunately in these
as

Immersed-Transom

for

the Froude

ularly when this speed lies below that at which the

underwater portion of the transom is completely
exposed to the air. The lower this speed, the

shallower should be the immersed portion of the

HYDRODYNAMICS

530

TABLE

67.d

Here V/\/gHu

Speed V,

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 67.20

Immersed-Transom Drafts Hu and Corresponding Speeds for a Transom-Submergence

Froude NUi\rBBR Fh of 5.0

5.0.

The

draft

Hy is measured in the at-rest condition. The value of g is taken as 32.174 ft

per sec^

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

6121

Sec.

corners

probably

is

than

objectionable

less

I'oiinding the lower edges.

The transom bottom

transverse plane,

such

is

is

measured in a
slamming and as

slope is

related to

discussed in Part 6 of

Volume

III.

ABC

was completed, in the

course of preparing the body plan of Fig. 66. P,
the transom depth was increased from the original
1.5 ft to 2.0 ft. This gave more slope to the lower
transom section lines and decreased the probability of pounding or slamming under the stern.
The planform of the ABC transom stern at
the

DWL

is

ship

made

is

one to be given consideration. A square, vertical

transom should apparently be avoided for this
reason, yet large vessels with a stern termination
of this type have reported no difficulties in service.

Taken by and

Before the shaping of the transom stern of the

single-skeg

531

the matter of throwing spray or meeting waves

large, the

German World War

class,

transom stern

II destroyers of the

portrayed in Fig. 67. R,

is

of the

Narvik

commended

as

slightly convex, with a radius

of O.IOL, partly to facilitate angling the vessel

much greater than its

and partly for the sake of appearance. The
transom width at the DWL, projected to the
plane of the AP, is 0.33BaThe transom of the ABC arch-type stern,
sections of which appear in Figs. 67. L and 67. P,
into a short berth, not
length,

deliberately made deeper at the outer corners

than the depth which will clear at 20.5 kt in
order to avoid the most troublesome problem of

Transon Stern on Model of German

Destroyers of Narvik Class

Fig. 67.R

is

fairing the

upper parts

under the

hull.

Some

of the

two skeg endings,

separation

is

certain to

exist in either case. It is considered far preferable

to fair the hull directly into the upper portions

of the

two rudders, and to accept eddying abaft

the deep sides of the transom, than to permit

separation farther forward, nearer the propeller

and possibly

interfering with rudder action.

The transom planform

shghtly convex,

of this vessel is

with a radius of 0.15L.

made
The

transom width at the DWL, projected to the

is 0.4455^
In profile, the shape of the transom is generally
determined as a matter of appearance and construction. In all vessels which may upon occasion
be required to run astern at considerable speeds,
plane of the AP,

embodying all desirable hydrodynamic features

and offering a pleasing and ship-shape appearance
without expensive or complicated construction.
67.21
The Design of a Multiple-Skeg Stem.
Design rules for multiple-skeg sterns are available
in rather

complete form in the technical literature

[SNAME,

1947,

pp.

130-132].

The

historical

examples in that reference are supplemented by a

quadruple-screw design for English channel
service by John Dudgeon [INA, 1873, pp. 88-95
and PL VIII]. The hull form illustrated in the

two skegs, with two

screws inboard and two screws outboard of them.
latter reference comprises

The tunnel between

was ever

the

way

craft of this

type

the skegs extends

to the bow. So far as

known, no

all

built.

For the design

of multiple skegs

on a modern

craft the rules in the

SNAME

considered adequate,

when supplemented by the

1947 reference are

following:
(1)

Consider the use of twin skegs or multiple

skegs only on afterbody forms which lend them-

which beneficial
includes wide
ratios, where it is

selves to this arrangement, or on

Probable Direction
of Flow Leaving a
^
Sharp- Edc^ed Transom
Terminotina ot the Knuckle
Fig. 67.Q

Diagram of Probable Flow Under

Rounded Transom Edge

results

may

ships, or ones

be

expected.

with large

difficult to close

This

B/H

the waterlines in to the center-

plane without large slopes. In general, the after-

body should have a prismatic

0.60 or larger.

coefficient

Cp

of

HYDROnVNAMTCS

532
Incorporate

(2)

forebody

employed Math a normal form

Do

(3)

would

which

be

IN SHIP DESIGN
ahead

of a

termination

of stern

not hesitate to use twin or multiple

Sec. 67.22

screw propeller. The unsymmetrical

usually extends both above and

below the propeller

axis,

but this

is

not necessary.

skegs under a transom or shelf-type stern

The plane

concerned about asymmetry

(4) Do not be
between the inboard and outboard sides of skegs
carrying screw propellers if the water flow or
propeller performance is improved thereby

lies close

Give serious consideration to the use of

twin or multiple rudders. If maneuvering qualities

jet of the propeller. Before proceeding

(5)

twin rudders are placed abaft

important,

are

Work

arrangement whereby the

and shafting can be disassembled or removed with the least interference
between themselves or from other parts
(6)

to leave as

an

out

For rudders mounted in propeller races, keep

far enough from the propellers to permit
removing the propellers without disturbing the
rudders other than turning them to a convenient
(7)

them

angle
(8)

If the
full,

of the

as explained in Sec. 25.16,

is,

as possible of the rotational or

little

component

tangential

of velocity in the outflow

design of a contra-guide skeg ending,

known whether

a contra-rudder

is

it

with the
should be

to be fitted

purpose.

The

propellers,

and

The purpose

to the shaft axis.

contra-guide feature

abaft the propeller to accomplish part of this

twin propellers.

rudders,

of the termination passes through, or

afterbody of the ship

and the ship

is

is

especially wide

to have three or four

design problem consists

of:

Determination of the true deflection angle 9s

is a
general problem involving the flow about the
trailing edge of any body when circulation is not
(a)

abaft any unsymmetrical skeg ending. This

present, discussed in Sec. 36.3.

Subdivision into a series of subproblems, one

(b)

each for a series of horizontal planes passing

through the termination of selected radii on the
propeller.

It

customary

is

to

subdivide

the

propellers, consider spreading the skegs far apart,

propeller

and carrying the outboard or wing

indicated on the propeller drawing of Fig. 70.O.

The

the skegs.

inner propeller(s)

propellers in

may

be placed

radius

tenths

into

or

twentieths,

the exact or final propeller diameter

If

is

may

not

between the skegs, with the shaft (s)

for the inner propeller(s) carried by double-arm

known

struts of the erect V-type.

the waterlines used for delineating the remainder

in the tunnel

Study

of flow

phenomena

since the publication

of the 1947 reference indicates that the

limiting slopes for the tunnel roof

may

former

be approxi-

mately doubled, making them 16 to 18 deg, but

probably with an accompanying increase in
thrust-deduction

The flow pattern

however, by taking the usual

be

by horizontal planes passing through

intersected

of the hull.
(c)

Selection of the actual angle ds to which the

flow into various radii of the propeller shall be

deflected. This flow

the propeller blades

is

directed always to 7neet

when

rotating in the ahead

direction.

fraction.

should be checked,
flowlines around the skegs and inside the tunnel
in a

the skeg ending

at the time,

model basin, and by observation

a circulating-water channel.

(d) Selection

the

of

offsets

of

the

deflector

terminations from the ship centerplane or from

the construction plane of the skeg, to give the

of tufts in

The thrust-deduction

values require checking by a self-propelled model

angles selected in

(c)

Avoidance of separation on those sides of the

deflectors having the steeper waterhne slopes.
(e)

test.

If tests

tufts

on a model with chemical indicators or

show

irregular flow within the tunnel or

water crossing underneath the skeg in the design

as completed, the skegs may be shifted sideways
until a satisfactory flow pattern

twin skegs of

full

is

obtained. If

depth interfere with maneuvering

may be cut away in profile in the manner of

a clear-water single-skeg stern.
67.22 Design Notes for the Contra-Guide
they

Skeg Ending.

These

design

notes

apply

to

coutra-guide features in a vertical skeg termination

Reference books on the design of hydraulic

machinery,

including

appear to give

little

propeller-type

pumps,

or no specific information on

the actual design of guide vanes ahead of impellers.

One

of the early patents

1,500,073,

by Hans Haas,

that

deflector

the

specially suitable"

shape

on

this device [U. S.

July 1924], states

"has proved to be
1

when the product

of (1) the

component imparted to the

water opposite any propeller radius and (2) that
propeller radius formed (3) a constant quantity
rotational velocity

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Snc. 67.22

the entire radial extent of the deflectors.

This means roughly that the natural sine of the
deflection angle ds imparted to the water abaft
the skeg termination at any selected point, times
for

the propeller radius

at that point,

is

constant,

or that the natural sine of the deflection angle

varies inversely as the radius.

A. Betz of Gottingen in his paper "Zur Theorie

der Leitapparate

Propeller" ["The Theory of

fiir

Guide Vanes Apphed to the Propeller," NACA

Memo 909, Sep 1939], makes the basic
assumption that the tangential velocity component in the outflow jet, due to induced velocity,
varies inversely as the radius from the propeller
axis. This corresponds to the variation mentioned
Tech.

the Haas patent. Unfortunately, the Betz

paper does not tell how to design the vanes. The
outline of a proposed method follows.
Consider first the determination of the correct
or effective deflection angle for any given unin

symmetrical skeg ending. Obviously, from

ence to Fig. 67.S, there

is

no

Direction

of

refer-

single flow in the

533

would be rather moderate.

on the other hand, what is desired is to lessen
the angle of flow by which water in the inflow
propeller inflow jet
If,

jet follows the blades,

described in Sec. 33.12,

then even small slopes on the concave or pressure

side of a skeg ending or bossing termination can
be most effective.
For design purposes

assume

sufficiently precise to

it is

that, as indicated in Fig. 67.S, the direc-

tion of flow at a small distance abaft the traihng

edge of a skeg corresponds to the direction of a
tangent to or extension of the median line of the

skeg ending at that edge.

"small" distance

is

assumed to be from 0.5 to 0.9 times the width

of a blade on the propeller. If the aperture
clearance is greater than 0.9 times a blade width,
the direction of flow expressed

by the

speed-of-

advance vector Ua is assumed to be more nearly

a prolongation of the +Ap or concave side of the
unsymmetrical skeg ending.
Actually, the amount of prerotation to be
imparted ahead of the disc by the design being
worked out depends upon:

Motu
(1) The tangential component of induced velocity
which is to be imparted by the blade element at
any radius. This in turn is a function of the
effective or hydrodynamic angle of attack aj of

Streomlines

that element, the strength of the circulation there,

and the magnitude

Maximum

Waterline

(2)

region

Method of Laying Out Skeg Waterline

FROM Median Line

abaft

the

ending where

works but a confluence

of

two

flows.

There

the rotation in that region.

effective flow abaft

moves more nearly

some contra-guide

is

the traihng edge of a hydrofoil surrounded by

circulation

or whether

feature, such as a contra-rudder, is to be fitted

propeller

side,

ample evidence that the

to be put in

abaft the propeller, to take out the remainder of

the

having the greatest slope to the

longitudinal axis, is the predominant one. There
is

is

of the disc to give zero resultant rotation

abaft the disc,

It is often necessary to design the

httle reason to believe that the flow over the

convex

induced velocity Ur

Whether enough rotation

ahead
Fig. 67. S

of the

far astern.

5lope^^

in the direction

However, the
around the whole ship hull in a horizontal plane, due to the sUght asymmetry in
question, is surely very small. Whereas the flow
abaft a thick airfoil or hydrofoil producing hft is
predominantly in the direction of that passing

appendages,

model test, before the propeller

design is worked out, so that the values in item
(1) may have to be estimated or taken from data
on some other design. It is a difficult design
problem to achieve the first step listed in item (2).
at least for a

may

be said, therefore, that in the present

of the concave or straight side.

It

circulation

state of the art a skeg ending should not be

along the face or

indicated by
this is

many

+Ap

side of the

foil,

as

is

published flow photographs,

unhkely to be the case here.

If it were,

the prerotation which could be given to a screw-

called

upon

to compensate for lack of a contra-

guide device abaft the propeller.

It is not possible without more

extended
knowledge of the intricate flow which takes place
between a skeg ending and a screw propeher to
state definitely the parameters and the relationships which should govern the variation of medianline slope ds with radial distance from the pro-

HYDRODYNAMICS

534
peller axis.

Were

these relationships available

it

be necessary to substitute in them

some data assumed for the propeller proposed
but not finally selected. It appears sufficient,
therefore, to state that the skeg ending slope ds
should vary with propeller I'adius at some rate
of the
less than the geometric blade angle
proposed propeller. Table 59. b lists these angles
for tenths of blade radii and a rather wide range
of P/D ratios. A good working rule, admittedly
an engineering compromise without theoretical
foundation until the analytic and experimental
development is carried further, is to vary the
offset
termination with propeller radius as
The 6s is then left to adjust itself by
sin"
proper fairing of the skeg ending into the offset

would

still

<j)

(t>.

termination.

and

sin"

table listing the variation of

with R, for a

P/D

</>

ratio of 0.98, is

given in Fig. 67. T, described later in this section.

Practical considerations, both structural

and

hydrodynamic, usually limit the maximum offset

of the trailing edge to somewhat less than the
half-diameter of the propeller-bearing boss.

not wise to work too large a hunk of metal into

a cast stern frame where the deflected portion
inside

of the

Too small a reentrant angle on

the

deflected portion of the skeg or

stern frame encircling the propeller shaft bearing

is

not conducive to good flow.

The geometric blade

angle

has an appre-

small

propeller;

it is

about

ratio of 0.6. Similarly, the

velocit}^ kiUr generated at the tip has a

but appreciable axial component. Even

when the

sin^
relationship is used, the skegending slope ds is a little more than zero opposite
the blade tips. The reason for using the sin^ <^

function

</>

to avoid offsets which are too large

is

opposite the tips; this

brought out more clearly

a

is

in Sec. 74.16, in connection with the design of

contra-rudder.

Further,

the propeller blades

if

are already heavily loaded at the tips,

wise to load them further.

On

it is

not

the other hand,

makes the point ["Zur Theorie der

fiir
Propeller (The Theory of
Contra-Vanes Applied to the Propeller)," Ing.

A.

Betz

Leitapparate
Archiv,

p.

1938,
in

transl.

Vol.

NACA

435-452;

pp.

9,

Memo

Tech.

English

Sep 1939,

909,

is gained by carrying the

beyond the propeller radius.

that efficiency

13]

twist to distances far

This means that a skeg ending need not terminate

top and bottom with symmetrical waterlines.
It is found, in

median

most

cases,

that

when a

fair

and skeg
side by the

line is laid out, as in Fig. 67. T,

section lines are

drawn on

either

equal-radii construction shown, there

is

a shght

hollow on the side of the skeg having the smaller

curvature. This is arbitrarily filled in to produce
fair surface.

By

Stations
Fio. 67.T

any

induced

a
still

Sec. 67.22

P/D

10.8 deg for a

It

is

joins the boss.

IN SHIP DESIGN
ciable value at the tip of

the requirements of Table 64. a, item

ia.75

19

Design of Contra-Guide Skeg Ending for

ABC

Transom-Stern Ship

18.5

(5),

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.22

the propulsion of the

ABC

vessel

to be effected

is

as economically as the present state of the art

permits.

bearing boss to a
1.1

is

therefore indicated for the single-

skeg transom stern. The skeg waterlines above the

and
would be easy to work a considerable degree
deflection into that structure. However, above

way

occur in

of the inside of the skeg deflector,

another practical limit to which the

shaft are fined to reduce the thrust deduction

there

trailing portion

the shaft axis the aperture clearance

made

is

deliberately

be derived from
doubtful. Further, the lower part

large, so that the benefit to

prerotation

is

below the shaft

of the skeg,

any

cut

axis, is

away

so

factors

all

decided

is

ending, assuming this waterline to be genei'ally

especially at the shallow drafts. This

into

consideration,

provide

to

therefore,

contra-guide

it

is

skeg

maximum median-line slope at the

WL, at about x' = 0.16, to some 8.8 deg,
a maximum slope on the convex side of 18

to hold the

deg at the same

is

laid out for the

upper half only of the single skeg of the ABC

ship, producing the form shown in Fig. 67. T.
This embodies a more nearly vertical profile
above the shaft, with less aperture clearance
than for the symmetrical skeg ending.

shown
body plan of the transom-stern
The maximum offset value, at a

radius of the propeller bearing boss

in Fig. 66. P, the

L75

ft.

starting level of x'

is

boss radius, or 0.85(L75

ft)

P/D

the blade angle

4>

0.90682. This

R = O.l^Max above
taken as 0.85 times the

0.1 or

the propeller-shaft axis,

is

1.4875

ft.

Assuming

ratio of 0.98 for the propeller,

is 72.225 deg and sin^
a sort of reference value cor-

at O.IK
is

</>

responding to the x' = 0.1 offset of 1.4875 ft.

For example, at x' = 0.7, <^ is 24.019 deg and
sin^

(^

is

0.16569.

Then

(0.16569/0.90682)1.4875
in the table
is

admittedly

and checking from actual ship designs known to

be successful. Values which are definitely out of
bounds can be determined from vessels where
separation, vibi'ation, and air leakage are known
to exist. For the ABC ship, Fig. 67. T, it is possible

with

a constant

is

a rather indefinite rule which requires amplifying

not

is

under normal circum-

stances not exceed 18 deg or, at the most, 20 deg,

herein, a contra-guide ending

design,

be bent. The slope of any

in the plane of flow, should

ending for the transom-stern afterbody.

Nevertheless, as an example of the rules given

The

may

waterline through the offset portion of the skeg

deflection effect

would be lost on the

propeller. A contra-shape is to be worked into the
fixed rudder horn, above the shaft axis, and there
appears to be room for enough shaping of the
horn to remove much of the jet rotation. Taking
far that

smaller value at 1.0 or

especially in front of the upper propeller blades,

it

of

much

times the propeller radius.

Since no separation, or semblance thereof, must

twisting of the skeg ending to give

a contra effect

535

on

the offset at x'

ft

Fig. 67. T.

17.325 deg, sin'

<f>

is

(0.08868/0.90682)1.4875

=
At

0.2718
x'

ft,

1.0,

0.7

0.1455

The use

level.

contra-guide skeg ending is

approached with caution when the waterlines
(or flowlines) leading up to the forward edge of
the propeller aperture in a skeg have a slope
already approaching the limit beyond which
separation may be expected at that level, indicated in Sec. 46.2. Superposing the deflector shape
upon a symmetrical skeg ending diminishes the
waterline slope on one side but greatly increases
it on the opposite side.
The augmented slope on the outer or convex
side, away from the deflection, may easily become
greater than the critical slope for separation.
of

Since the blunter waterlines are generally to be

found above the shaft

axis, it is wise,

the skeg to the region below the shaft boss,

the

upper portion symmetrical,

leaving

where

equal waterline slopes on each side.

</>

The slope of the median line bisecting the angle

between the terminal portions of the level waterlines on each side of the skeg ending is limited to
the order of 0.175. This corresponds to just under
10 deg, as reckoned from the ship centerplane or
the construction plane of the skeg. These limits
are admittedly rather arbitrary, to comply with
the requirements of the paragraph following.
The median-line slope varies from this maximum
value just beyond the radius of the propeller-

with

In view of the limited pressure, and the low

is

ft.

under these

circumstances, to limit the deflecting portion of

as Hsted

0.08868 and the offset

ft

is

12-ft

pressure gradient available on the convex side

of a twisted skeg or stern, the

water on that side

not easily changed in direction. This means

that a relatively long time, coupled with a

is

relatively long distance, of the order of 0.5 to 1.0

times the propeller diameter, may be required to

it any appreciable transverse component

impart to

of velocity

without risking separation.

To

take

care of this situation, the asymmetrical slopes of

the contra-ending are to merge gradually into

the symmetrical waterline slopes ahead of them.

HYDRODYNAMICS

536

Generally no part of the median line is straight

until it merges into the centerplane or the skeg

may have

construction plane. It

other suitable shape. If

it is

a parabolic or

expected that the

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 67.23

selected propulsion device

that the inflow jet

is

contracts in lateral dimensions and area as

it

approaches the device, normal to the flow direction.

Further, this contraction continues in the

service conditions, run with a

outflow jet for an appreciable distance down-

portion of the contra-guide skeg ending exposed

to the air, the terminal median-line slope at the

stream from the device. These axial distances

are of the order of at least one diameter in the
case of a screw propeUer; of the blade length,

will, in

ship

some

about 3 deg. In

free surface should not exceed

any

case, it is wise to

work gentle

slopes into

any

twisted skeg ending, consistent with achieving

the desired prerotation of the inflow jet. If the

measured transversely, in the case of a paddlewheel; and of the "basket" diameter in the case
of

a rotating-blade propeller. The contraction

pointed out in Sec. 16.3, is a function of

owner and builder are to go to the trouble and

expense of twisting such a skeg ending, the
twisting can at least be done properly.
For twin-skeg endings, assuming outward-

ratio, as

turning propellers, the twisting involves deflection

of the lower portions of the skegs in an outward

the outhnes of the inflow and outflow jets for

direction.

This

markedly

expanding

is

inadvisable

tunnel

produces

it

if

sides,

On

specifically

the thrust-load factor Ctl

Since the thrust, the

propeUer-disc area, and the speed of advance are

known reasonably

well at this stage of the design

be

can

operation

open-water

by

visualized

reference to Fig. 59. G.

second guiding principle

is

that the hull

the other

should produce, in the region selected for the

hand, one way to increase the efficiency of twinthe

skeg propulsion is to slow down the water
lower after portion of the tunnel. Good design

propulsion device, a flow of water which results

cautioned against in Sec. 67.21.

much

expansion in tunnel
thought to be consistent
with regular flow, to be confirmed by thorough
tests in a circulating-water channel with the
therefore indicates as

area in this region as

propellers driving.

is

Any

adverse or detrimental

flow conditions pertaining to the twisted skeg

endings will certainly show up

when the

flow

This is
specially recommended if the skeg endings have
full lines, with large waterUne slopes, and if
contra-guide features are incorporated in them.
pattern in this region

determined.

is

Indeed, a necessary step in the design of any

contra-guide skeg ending, as

it is

for a deflection-

type bossing and a contra-rudder,

is

a flow test

in the

most

efficient

and most uniform loading

of

the blades. For example, the swept volume of a

rotating-blade propeller and a paddlewheel includes the whole thickness of the boundary layer

next to the hull, as portrayed in diagrams

and 2

of Fig. 11. C, plus a region of potential flow outside

the blades. This

is

not particularly objectionable,

however, where the mechanism is able to take it.

Furthermore, the sum of the overloading forces
for all the

immersed blades, as created within the

boundary

layer, remains nearly constant through-

out each revolution of the device.

A third principle, really a corollary of the
second,

is

that unavoidable local loading of the

blades, one at a time, with the resulting unequal

loading of the whole device,

is

to be reduced to a

when

in a circulating-water channel, using tufts, dye,

minimum. This occurs

or the equivalent, to check freedom from separa-

or the outer portion of a single screw-propeller

tion,

irregular

or

cross

flow,

and any other

Design rules for deflection- type bossings, usually

vertical, are

given

blade passes through the region of high wake

boundary layer or behind a

zone of separation.
progress of the last two

The commendable

decades, in which screw-propeller blade shapes

in Sec. 73.10.

Some

the tip

velocity in a ship

questionable features.

more nearly horizontal than

particularly

notes applying to the incorporation of

have been brought into

close conformity with the

and contra-rudders in
auxiliary saiUng yachts and propeller-driven small
boats are presented by F. A. Fenger [Rudder,
Jan 1954, pp. 76-79].

drawings,

Shaping the Hull Adjacent to Propulsion-Device Positions; Hull, Skeg, and Bossing
Endings. One guiding principle in shaping a
hull form to produce efficient operation of a

that individual propeller shaft struts had to be

contra-guide

67.23

features

is

at the time of writing (1955) be-

ginning to be matched by general refinements in

sternpost, skeg, and bossing terminations at the

forward edges of propeller apertures. The fact

as thin as possible
specify

made

it

relatively easy to

and to obtain sharp terminations at

traihng edges.

Since

the

advent of

their

cast-steel

UNDERWATER HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.24

537

German "schncUboote"

sternposts and bossing or spectacle frames the

shafts of the

square and blunt endings of forged-steel stern

speed S-boats of World

frames have largely disappeared. However, the

slopes are too steep and the trailing edges of
sternpost castings are in general

still

much

too

blunt to eliminate objectionable separation and

eddying behind them. Also there is no more

excuse to lap shell plating on the outside of a
sternpost than to lap it on the outside of a stem.
The effect is different but it is an objectionable
discontinuity just the same.
The projecting portions of Thermit welds used
to join several cast or forged sections of a sternpost or a stem need not be left for reinforcement. They can and should be trimmed off to
conform to the shape of the adjacent parts. Likewise, butt welds can and should have the external
reinforcements removed.
The slope angles on the trailing edges of skegs
and other major parts should be 15 deg or less,
reckoned from the known or the predicted direction of water flow. Drawings of these trailing
edges should call for smoothnesses and tolerances
of the same order as those required on shaft struts.
Despite all that is said here and elsewhere
about the fining of skeg endings ahead of a screw

propeller, experience indicates that

some

delib-

erate thickening of the skeg ending ahead of

its

termination increases the wake fraction at the

disc position. It

is

particularly beneficial below

War

affect

aperture clearances,

discussed at length

67.24

Aperture and Tip Clearances for Pro-

pulsion Devices.

the

blades

The

lift

load per unit area on

any moderately loaded

of

unit of wing area on an airplane,

rather narrow limits, say 8 to
of heaviest loading, say

ment has been

in use for

many

years on motor-

boats and larger vessels, such as on the center

within
in".

from 0.5 to

0.95i2, are

quite similar for both narrow and wide blades of

a modern screw propeller.

lation patterns

On

this basis the circu-

and the pressure

fields

around

all

screw-propeller blade elements in the given radius

range may be taken as roughly similar, using the

expanded-chord length as a reference dimension.
Based on these assumptions, the pattern of corresponding streamlines and isobars

is

roughly

proportional in size to the chord length or blade

width. Very approximately, therefore, at least

for a not-too-wide

range of thrust loading, a

point in space one blade width from a blade

pressure as a point in the

expose the
propeller shaft, and support the propeller bearing
by a V-strut just ahead of the wheel. This arrange-

lies

13 lb per

Furthermore, the section shapes within the region

element on one propeller

shorten the skeg drastically,

screw

propeller, corresponding to the weight loading per

where the average wake fraction is usually

much smaller than above the axis. The greatest
thickening can be applied at the bottom, just
above the keel, where the upward and aft flow
of the water eliminates most of the boundarylayer wake. For this reason the thickening of
such a skeg ending is called clubbing. However,
the design of a club ending or bulbous skeg,
illustrated in Fig. 25.L, is a ticklish procedure.
If the thickening is carried too far, it may do
more harm in producing vibration than help in
improving propulsion [Williams, E. B., Thornton,
K. C, Douglas, W. R., and MiedUch, P., SNAME,
1950, p. 78]. No design rules have as yet been
formulated for this feature.
As a means of reducing the interference from
a skeg ahead of a screw propeller the designer

may

Its

in the section following.

the shaft axis in a ijormal form of single-screw

stern,

or high-

use undoubtedly diminishes the wake fraction at the

propeller but it may diminish the thrust-deduction
fraction by a greater amount, and it may reduce
the periodic vibratory forces from the propeller.
As a rule, the profiles of major hull and skeg
endings are not too important except as they
II.

is

same
same corresponding

subject to the

one blade width distant from a blade

element on another propeller. This is an absolute
rather than a relative value because, ahead of the
position,

propeller at least, the reduced pressure can not

drop below the vapor pressure of water.

The foregoing argument may be a reason for
specifying propeller-aperture clearances, defined

and indicated in Fig. 33. D as "upper

"upper forward," and so on, in the form of
absolute dimensions for a certain range of pro-

in Sec. 33.3
aft,"

[ME, 1942, Vol. I,

van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS,

peller diameters or ship sizes

Table

1, p.

275;

1948, Fig. 73, pp. 127, 278]. It may be a reason

even for specifying these edge clearances as
functions of the propeller diameter [Ayre, Sir

Amos

L.,

INA,

1951, pp. 145-148]. It appears,

however, that the propeller-aperture clearances

are logically a function of the maximum blade

width of the propeller.

In general, the aperture clearance ahead of
the propeller, at the Q.IR, should be equal to, qv

HYDRODYNAMICS

538

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 67.24

greater than the e.rpanded chord length of the widest

Taking the 4-bladed Wageningen B.4.40

pointed out in Sec. 33.3,

and diagrammed in Fig. 33. E, that the clearance
abaft the wheel, at the 0.772, may be less than

for example, the note in small print at the right

element or section. It

is

However, it should not be small

enough to interfere with the circulation flow
around the blade elements, or to bring the trailing
edge of the blade through a region of large +Ap
ahead of a blunt rudder post or equivalent. A
good rule is to make the after edge clearances,
both upper and lower, as marked on Fig. 33. D,
not less than the maximimi thickness of whatever
hull element or fixed or movable appendage may
that ahead.

lie

It is well to note that the application of the

knowledge of the
the propeller which it

rules given here require prior

maximum

blade width of

to run in the aperture being designed. Also that

most

of the propeller charts

employed to work

out the preliminary design of a wheel, following

Sec. 70.6, do not give the ship designer the

blade-width

Table 8 on page 204 of the Dutch book "RePropulsion, and Steering of Ships"
[RPSS, 1948] states that the (expanded maximum)

of

sistance,

blade-element length at 0.6/2m. is 0.2187Z). For

the after aperture clearance, specified as not less

than the thickness of the fixed or movable appendage lying abaft

data for

the

optimum

propeller.

He is then required to use the maximum expandedchord width for that series propeller which best
meets the needs for the preliminary design.

it,

the designer

rough out these parts;

this

is,

is

required to

in fact, part of the

preliminary stern design.

general guide at this point as to the loading

on the individual blades and the aperture

ances necessary

abaft the propeller.

series,

Ctl on the

factor

clear-

the value of the thrust-load

is

propeller. If of the order of

1,

may

be somewhat on the low side.

If 2 or greater, the clearances must be larger to
the clearances

avoid vibration.
Fig. 67.

is

a diagram which indicates, by the

small circles and the rules set down, aperture

clearances which are in general acceptable, for a

screw

propeller

not too

heavily

loaded.

The

contours give the actual clearances worked into

the preliminary transom-stern design for the

ABC ship.
Rules similar to those for single-screw propeller-

WQterline~-|^

Designed

aperture clearances govern for the edge clearances

Clearance to
Nearest Point 'of Hull

Arch

|T,p
Submerqence

at the termination of bossings, multiple skegs,

and the

like,

indicated in Fig. 33.B of Sec. 33.3,

with the proviso that this clearance, at any

propeller radius, should be not less than the
O.ZT) or

C0.7R,

length at
0.7 radius, whichever is qreater

chord

expanded chord length

is

difficult,

entirely independent,

weep Line s,
Aft and Ford.

for\

0.05 to 0.10 ft

Small Croft

Boseline^
Small Circles

0.E5 to 0.5

Indicate

Than Rudder Post

Thickness Aboft Propeller

- Not Less

NOTE 2-

If

NOTE 3-

Edge

Leodinq

Rudder
Profile

Stern

is

Fine

Shown

ABC

for

Lorqe Vessels

Minimum Normol Clearances

NOTE

ft

or

Rudder

of Rudder Post or
and Well-Shaped

is

That

of

Transom-

Hull

Fig. 67.U Elevation of Rudder Horn, Propeller

Aperture, and Skeg Ending for ABC Transom Stern

of the blade at that radius.

with present knowledge, to

formulate a rule for determining the hull tip
clearance of a screw propeller, illustrated in
Figs. 33. B and 33. C. In fact, probably no one rule
or group of rules could cover all cases to be encountered in ship design. Two features, not
It

are involved here.

First,

the propeller blade tip should not be subjected to

brief passage through a region of high wake
velocity where the

lift

and drag forces on

its

elements are suddenly increased. Second, assuming

uniform, non-axial flow, a blade tip should not
swing close enough to the hull to cause a sudden
large force on the shell plating or an adjacent

appendage due to the pressure field around the

blade or beyond the tip.
Keeping the blade tips clear of high-wake
regions
(a)

is

a matter

of:

Boundary-layer thickness, a function prin-

cipally

of

absolute ship speed, of fore-and-aft

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.24

539

the V-shaped portion of the hull, sometimes

or .T-distance from the stem, of transverse hull

is

curvature, and of hull roughness

rather narrow, lying above the arch of the propeller

(b)

Boundary-layer velocity

profile,

which

is

function of hull roughness, transverse curvature,

and other factors. For example, a tip clearance

which may be greater than the boundary-layer
thickness

5 (delta)

when the

The shape

of hull endings, of

skeg and bossing

terminations, and of objects ahead of the propeller

may

which

(cruiser) type. The volume is small

and the obstruction occupies only a small part
of the circumference around the tip circle.

whaleboat

An

ship has a clean

bottom, freshly painted, may be much less than

5 when the bottom has been severely roughened
by barnacles and other marine growth.
(c)

aperture in a single-screw stern of the canoe or

adjacent structure of considerable area,

lying generally in a longitudinal plane passing

through or close to the propeller axis, calls for

greater tip clearance even though it is thin.
A larger area is exposed to the pressure fields

beyond the

tips as the blades pass by.

The

tip

clearance for such a structure could possibly be

produce near-separation.

as small as O.IZ) or less for a lightly loaded pro-

Keeping the

most intense part

beyond the tip involves

hull clear of the

of the blade-pressure field

much more knowledge

of this field

than exists at

present. For a given thrust loading

it

roughly

is

similar

for

all

screw

propellers leads to one of the rules in present use,

which gives the hull

tip clearance as

a function

Ctl of the order of 1.0, yet as large as

more for a heavily loaded one, with a

0.2Z) or

Ctl

of the order of 3.0.

An

appears,

however, to be a direct function of the circulation

distribution at the tip. The assumption that this
distribution

peller,

flat in

adjacent expanse of hull plating, generally

shape and more or less normal to the plane

of the propeller disc, calls for

an ample

of the preceding paragraphs.

tip clear.33.3 and

and com-

ance, following the reasoning of Sec.

logical

prehensive rule has not yet been developed for

minimum

of the propeller diameter. Since the thrust loading

calculating a

among

under these conditions. Incidentally, this clearance is measured transversely, in the early stages
of a design, between the propeller disc or tip

different

types

of

ships

varies

rather

widely, however, this latter factor can no longer

be neglected.

Furthermore,

the

increased and the pressure field

sified

when

is

circulation

is

greatly inten-

the tip swings through a high-wake

portion of the boundary layer. Both the factors

mentioned therefore require careful thought and
study when establishing hull tip clearances.
The shape of the ship sections opposite a
screw-propeller position, whether concave and
generally concentric with the propeller axis or
convex to that axis, is an important feature,
although it is not yet known how this effect is
related to or combined with that of tip clearance.
The volume of the adjacent hull or appendage
is at times a controlling factor.
Blade tips often pass an appendage or a part
of the hull which occupies only a small area and

a small radial distance in the plane of the disc.

Examples are the shoe at the bottom of a sternpost to carry a lower rudder bearing or a rope and
cable guard on a submarine.

clearance

is

Only mechanical

then necessary, say 0.10 to 0.50

ft,

depending upon the size of the vessel. If the

appendage is liable to be bent toward the propeller
axis in service, as for the cable guard of the submarine, this clearance may be increased by say
twice the dimension of the appendage, measured
radially from the propeller axis. Another example

circle

and the

When

it is

or a desirable tip clearance

hull section directly abreast

it.

known whether or not the propeller is

to be raked, and when the slope of the adjacent
hull surface can be determined, the minimum
clearance is measured from the tip circle of the
swept volume normal to the hull, as in diagrams
1 and 3 of Fig. 33.B.

The recommended method

for selecting screw-

propeller tip clearance abreast a generally flat

fore-and-aft structure
Fig.

45.C

or

is

to determine

from Eq.

(5.viii),

from
nominal

first,

the

thickness of the turbulent boundary layer at the

a;-distance

position.

from the bow selected

The

sustained speed

is

for the propeller

the one used for

this estimate because it gives the greatest value

5. The boundary-layer thickness thus derived
only a rough approximation for large values
of X, but it is at least an approximation.
It is also estimated, from the turbulent-flow

of

is

velocity profiles of Fig. 5.K, that the friction-wake

velocities in the outer half-thickness of the

bound-

than about 0.1 the ship velocity

V. At the same time it is known that the boundarylayer thickness is increased by fouhng of the hull
surface, as in Fig. 22.H. It seems wise, therefore,
ary layer are

to

fix

less

the hull tip clearance at a value at least as

HYDRODYNAMICS

540

IN SHIP DESIGN

thickness

draft

5 (delta).

ABC

For the

transom-stern

estimated x-distance of 489

and 0.75

Fig. 45.1,

1.96

is

ft.

ft,

design,

2.8 ft

5 is

From

Fig. 66.Q the

tip clearance at the top of the wheel,

at indirectly,

2.62

is

ft.

an
from

at

arrived

This should take care of

a certain amount of thickening of the boundary

layer under the stern due to fouling, for which
there are no rules at present (1955).
Since so

little is

known concerning

the effect of

Sec. 67.25

For certain vessels whose

great as 0.7 times the noininal boundary-layer

is

maximum

or extreme

appreciably less than the channel or

river depths

where they are to operate, the base-

plane clearance

may

be negative. The propeller

then extends below the baseplane for a

distance limited only by the height of the blocks
when the vessel is drydocked or hauled out.
disc

Only rarely should

is

this exceed 4

ft;

probably 5

ft

maximum.

When

propellers

mounted abreast each

are

other or nearly so their disc clearances may,

if

hull shape

necessary, be reduced to mechanical values only,

ness 5,
at the proposed propeller position (s), extending
from a point inboard as close to the hull as may

say O.OoD, regardless of the direction of their

relative rotation. Indeed, the large 19.5-ft twin

be experimentally practicable, to a region outboard, at least O.IR beyond the far side of the

Majestic, built in 1889,

propeller disc(s).

Ferry,"

and curvature on this nominal thickwake measurements are made on a model

The nominal boundary-layer

the short model

is

thickness

on

greater in proportion to the

screws of the old Atlantic liners Teutonic and

ance of 5.5

propellers," 1900, pp. 64-65].

disc

6.8 and illustrated in

compensated for by the inevitable thickening of the ship boundary layer when
the hull surface is roughened by fouhng. The
propeller tip circle should, if practicable, be kept
outside the boundary-layer region on the model
where the wake fraction is 0.25 or more, reckoned

disc

described in Sec.

ship,

Fig. 6.E. This

preferably

is

by

the

pitot-tube

survey

method

and edge clearances are both involved, as for the wing propeller of a twin-screw
vessel with long bossings, and where vibration is to
be minimized, the combination of theory, model

Where

tip

negative disc clearJ.,

"The

Atlantic

The port

propeller

was placed 6.25 ft ahead of the starboard

and the tips of each wheel swung beyond the

centerplane, to the opposite side of the vessel,

through a large aperture in the centerHne skeg.

Contemporaneous accounts of the behavior of
these passenger liners, at that time the largest
on the Atlantic, make no mention of vibration or
other disturbances caused by these overlapping
propellers, possibly because of their large diameter

and

illustrated in Sec. 60.6.

had a

[Maginnis, A.

London, 1892, pp. 186-187; Cassier's

Mag., Jan 1897, p. 231; Barnaby, S. W., "Marine

than the nominal thickness on the

scale ratio

ft

relatively light thrust loading.

When

adjacent propellers are offset by appre-

ciable fore-and-aft distances,

as on quadruple-

screw vessels of normal form, great care

in establisliing the disc

is

required

clearance between the

indicate that fore-and-aft

outboard and inboard wheels, reckoned by the

edge clearance is more important than transverse

tip clearance. In other words, it is better to move
the propeller aft and to cut away the bossing

projection of their discs on a transverse plane.

tests,

and experience

all

termination as far as possible, than to move the

away from the hull [Tomalin,

propeller outward,

P. G.,

SNAME,

Propeller-Disc

Clear-

clearance for a screw

determined by the service operating
conditions, by considerations of drydocking, and
possibly by the fact that the ship may rest on

ances.

The baseplane

propeller

is

the bottom at certain wharves

out, as in the

Thames

general direction of flow in

it is necessary to sketch in the probable

boundaries of the inflow and outflow jets of each
propeller, doing this on a plane passing approximately through the propeller shaft axes and

when

the tide

is

at London. For a propeller

normal to the hull plating in the

is

and inflow
by angular
between the flow direction and the

not

modified

appreciably

to follow the general ship flow.

p. 279].

Lammeren, W.

P. A.,

RPSS,

ft

on

1948,

On

direction of flow through the outflow

jets

mum

on small vessels to 0.5 or 0.7

vicinity.

the principle that, at designed speed, the general

differences

large ones [van

of these

preferably in a circulating-water channel. Follow-

unprotected by a shoe, say on a twin-screw craft,

the baseplane clearance may vary from a miniof 0.2 ft

way

approximated by analytic
methods or determined by flow tests on a model,
offset propellers is first

ing this,

1953, p. 592].

Baseplane and

67.25

The

shaft axes, the propeller jets should be resketched

They do not, in
AVhen so modified
the forward propeUer theoret-

general, follow the shaft axes.

the outflow jet of

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.27

be clear of the disc of the after

ically should

propeller.

This means that

the general ship

if

flow runs parallel to the ship centerline there can

be nominal overlap
small

of the propeller discs,

negative disc

with a

because of the

clearance,

contraction in the outflow jet of the forward

propeller. In the

Omaha

cla,ss

of quadruple-screw

cruisers of the U. S. Navy, designed in

about 1919, there was negative disc clearance of
this kind but the vessels ran successfully for
many years without vibration troubles. Similar
difficulties reported on other quadruple-screw
vessels with offset wing propellers having positive
disc clearances are beUeved due to excessive
light

elasticity of the thrust-bearing foundations within

the ship.

541

Numerical values or

ratios are not available

minimum

for estimating the proper or

mergence as functions

and

of (a)

tip sub-

(b). It is

known

only that the greater the thrust loading, the

greater the advance ratio, and the greater the
circulation near the blade tips, the greater

the

is

Ap on the back of the blade tips and the thicker

must be the superposed water layer to prevent
Regions of high wake velocity
air leakage.
close to the water surface augment (a), (b), and
(c) locally and call for good shielding.
If

the hull shape

is

such as effectively to shield

the propeller from air leakage, say in the form of

a wide transom stern over a single wheel, the

nominal tip submergence can be small, approaching zero. In fact, under the tunnel stern on a

When a vessel with offset propellers turns with

a drift angle, the propeller outflow jets change
shape, rather drastically if the turn is a tight one.

shallow-draft

Undoubtedly in these cases the outflow jet

forward or wing propeller on the outside

of the

low- and medium-powered ships having propellers

of the

of adequate diameter, the increase in water

depth due to the wave crest which forms at the
stern when running at designed speed is usually

turn passes through the disc

propeller.

Two

propellers on the

the inboard

of

same

side of the

the

vessel

For the thrust loadings and advance

ship can almost never be given sufficient disc

sufficient to shield the wheel.

clearances to avoid this interference.

ditions, the

Adequate Propeller-Tip Submergence.

As a general rule the greater the tip submergence

be small.

67.26

the better, until

it

reaches a value equal approxi-

mately to the propeller radius R. This is the

minimum tip submergence used for
open-water propeller tests in model basins. There

standard or
is

no need

eliminate

increasing

of

reduce

or

it

further unless to
or

cavitation,

to

insure

adequate submergence when the ship is pitching

heavily during wavegoing.
The tip submergence required for any load or
operating
33. C,

condition,

and 33.D,

is

indicated

in

Figs.

33. B,

a function of the:

(a) Thrust-load factor at which the propeller is

intended to work. The greater the value of Ctl
the greater the submergence needs to be.
,

(b)

Advance

(c)

Radial distribution of circulation along the

ratio or slip ratio, related to (a)

propeller blade, particularly near the tip. Large

Ap

values near the tip

call for

a water layer of

appreciable thickness over the propeller.

(d)

Amount

of shielding

from

air leakage

which

When

nominal

tip

upper blade
ing

by the

tips

become extremely

decreased)

the propeller position.

nominal

tip

sub-

crest (or trough) over

may

also

large. Shield-

only effective

preventive against air leakage.

The degree

of

submergence

expected during wavegoing

sequently in Part 6 of

or

is

Volume

emergence

considered sub-

III, together

with

on propeller performance.
67.27 Design for Minimum Thrust Deduction.
The manner in which a thrust-deduction force
is exerted on a hull, either inside the limits of the
inflow jet ahead of the propeller or inside those
its effect

of the outflow jet astern of

it,

leads to the con-

clusion that the transverse projected areas within

these jet limits should be a

minimum. This

is

accomplished for a skeg carrying a screw propeller

by keeping the skeg

as thin as possible for at

ahead of the wheel, within the

limits of an imaginary cyUndrical surface projected from the screw disc along the propeller
axis,
described previously in Sec. 33.2 and
least 2 diameters

a wing propeller

(or

on

Under these con-

submergence

hull, as in tugs, is the

illustrated in Fig. 33.A.

Increased

ratios

maneuvering rapidly, such as during

attitude of the ship

(e)

is

crash-backs, the pressure differentials around the

can be expected from the hull at the running

mergence due to a wave

submergence

tip

definitely negative.

is

large bossing carrying

likewise as thin as possible

consistent with stiffness as a shaft support.

For

a tunnel within which a screw propeller is mounted

the roof of the tunnel is not to drop too sharply

HYDRODYNAMICS

542
in the

2-diameter regions just ahead of and just

abaft the disc. Fig. GT.RI indicates that this condition

is

not met in the

ABC

arch-stern design.

single-screw stern having an exceptionally

thin skeg, with the after part cut entirely away,

leaving the propeller supported by a projecting

is illustrated and described by H. Waas
[STG, 1952, Fig. 9, p. 209, and Fig. 18, p. 214].
If found practicable in any particular case this
is one way to reduce thrust-deduction and lateral

stern tube,

IN SHIP DESIGN
deduction

fraction

Sec. 67.28
is

negative.

however, to rely upon this unless

by a model

It

unwise,

is

it is

confirmed

test.

The reduced-pressure

field ahead of a sternwheel extends forward of the point of immersion

of the foremost blade for a distance estimated as
twice the maximum depth of blade immersion,

or dip, as

it is called.

For

this

and other reasons,

set forth in Sec. 72.11, the buttock endings of a

sternwheel vessel are given an easy slope, and

vibratory forces at the same time. If the after

possibly reverse curvature, below the level of the

end of the stern tube needs support, it can be

provided by a V-shaped strut assembly.
Paddlewheels mounted abreast parallel water-

wave profile at designed speed.

The first approximation of the resistance
augment to be expected at the designed speed is
found by the transverse-area method, described
in Sec. 60.9. The method of performing this

lines or in

way

of the

maximum

waterline

beam

are admirably placed for eliminating practically

all

resistance-augment forces. In

fact, it is quite

with a pair of paddlewheels amidships,

for the Ap field to extend forward into the
possible,

entrance and the

The

+Ap

field

differential pressures

forces

in

Station

back into the run.

then generate thrust

the ahead direction and the thrust-

operation for the transom-stern

ABC

design

is

illustrated in Fig. G7.V.

67.28
all

The

When

Final Section-Area Curve.

principal parts of the underwater hull, ex-

cluding the appendages, are worked out

ciently

to indicate the distribution of

suffi-

volume

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 67.29

throughout the ship length, a revised section-area

curve is drawn. The areas are determined for at
least 20 sections, the A /Ax values calculated,
and a fair curve passed through the 21 ordinates.
A bulb bow calls for fairing to a designated /c
value at the FP; a transom stern to an / value
at the AP.

A discontinuity of sorts is to be expected

opposite a skeg ending, especially at the forward

end

of a propeller aperture.

for the

are

ABC

drawn

ship, covering

The final ^-curves

both types of stern,

in Fig. 67. W.

Except for the regions known to be discontinuous the eye should detect no unevenness in the
curve, nor should it appear when using a batten.
However, the eye is often deceived by the presence of other lines in the vicinity, even those in

Hence the 0-diml

and preferably 40
stations along its length is determined by one or
more of the methods described in Chap. 49 and
is plotted to the same base as the section-area
the

coordinate

network.

curvature for at least 20

X shows a 0-diml curvature plot

A-curve of Fig. 67.W for the ABC design
with the transom type of stern, as well as similar
plots for the Taylor Standard Series model,
EMB 632 (modified), and for a merchant ship
of good performance.
Integrating the section-area curve, by whatever
procedure may be appropriate [PNA, 1939, Vol. I,
curve. Fig. 67.
of the

pp. 13-27], gives:

(a)

By

its fullness coefficient,

prismatic coefficient

Cp

should be within 0.01 or

the corresponding

For the

less of

ABC

ship this

the selected value

of 0.62.
(b) The molded underwater volume, without
appendages, up to the designed waterfine. This

ABC ship displacement

weight of 16,400 t for standard salt water
(c) An accurate determination of LCB, with
respect to the FP, for reference and comparison
should correspond to the

purposes.

This revised A-curve

may

final if the analysis brings

features or irregularities in

and
and

be considered as

out no objectionable
it, if

the values of Cp

are reasonably close to those selected,

if final

indicates

fairing of the lines to a large scale

no appreciable changes

in the

amount

or distribution of volume.

67.29 Modification of Normal Design Procedure for a Hull with Keel Drag. It often

becomes necessary,
coefficient, rotative

for reasons of propulsive

speed of the propelling plant,

543

5444

UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN

Sec. 61.3]

propeller, or other causes.

On

the other hand

it

may

be worse because of increased drag due to

separation behind fuller waterlines at the stern.
the keel drag

If

may

easily

is

limited to small

become more

amounts

it

of a nuisance in laying

out or building the ship than a help in

performance.

its

service

true

if

the gas-producing portion of the propelling

machinery can be placed

if

the draft aft

On

is

close to the stern,

reasonably constant.

is

provided in the form of a

slender stack, to care for lighting

off,

tall

port opera-

may

be assumed that the duct area

required for underwater exhaust need be no
greater than that for vertical exhaust at full
it

20

sides

is

forward on either

ft

depth of 2

Ap

ample to provide the necessary outlet

may

pressure

high velocity of the combustion gases in the

ducts leading to the underwater stern outlet.
insure that the gases are discharged into

the separation zone deliberately formed abaft

the stern, within the variations in draft which
will

occur there, a high-level as well as a low-level

is

required.

Both may be connected

to the gas discharge lines which should enter the

high-level outlet box from the top, to prevent

entry of sea water back into the gas

line. Escape
from the high-level outlet when running at
the shallower draft at the stern is prevented by a
combined gravity- and buoyancy-operated flap
valve which closes when it is above the waterline
but opens when it is submerged.
On the basis of limiting slopes of 15 deg for
separation at the light- and deep-draft waterlines
of a vessel of about the size of the ABC ship but
having a canoe stern, the separation zone is

of gas

area.

of the order of

be slightly negative, due to the

experiments

full-scale

are

model and

necessary

to

verify

this point.

When underway in smooth water the stern-wave

may rise above the at-rest designed water-

crest

Une by an amount estimated as from 2.5 ft to

4.0 ft, depending upon the stern shape and other

may

circumstances. It

be necessary to provide

several levels in the outlet boxes so that one

may

condition.

When

the ship

pitching in waves so that the

is

mean

selected underwater gas outlet for the

alternately

is

submerged and exposed,

it

draft

may

be

necessary to lock the flap valves closed in the

outlet boxes

and to

resort to vertical stack-gas

discharge.

67.31

condensation of steam in the exhaust gases or the

use of stack-gas coohng as a margin against too

gas outlet

is

in the separation zone. Further

power. This takes no account of the possible

To

side.

ft for

The estimated back

post or

low-speed running, maneuvering, and emer-

gencies,

to points at

Assuming a
each outlet screen, one-third of
the length of the separation zone on the two
least

be selected which best suits any given operating

the basis that an alternative vertical gas

outlet

tion,

and

AP

estimated to extend from the

zero, or it

Underwater Exhaust for Propelling

Machinery. A passenger-carrying vessel having
propelling machinery that produces gaseous
products of combustion and that is intended to
run at all times with the propeller(s) fully submerged offers a favorable opportunity for installation of underwater gas exhaust. This is especially
67.30

545

General

Notes

Applied to Hull Design.

on Water Flow as
At the risk of boring

the reader with duplication

it

can not be too

recommended that the flow pattern and

the wake diagram at the positions proposed for
any type of propulsion device be adequately
investigated and recorded on a model by chemical
or physical means, by strings or tufts, and by
strongly

spherical-ended pitot tube. These data should be

when

finally fixing the form

appendages adjacent to the
propeller positions and when establishing the

given great weight

of the ship

and

its

propeller clearances.
It

may

be taken as an axiom, in the detail

design of the underwater hulls of ships and their

appendages, that separation and cavitation and

all

other

forms of discontinuity in a liquid,

whenever and wherever occurring, are detrimental to good performance. As such they are
to be carefully and systematically minimized or
avoided altogether.

CHAPTER

68

Layout of the Abovewater Form

68

General Design Features, Exclusive of Wavegoing

68.2
68 3
68 4
68.5

Reserve-Buoyancy Requirements
Freeboard and Sheer for Protected Waters
Freeboard and Sheer for General Service
Design of Abovewater Section Shapes;

68.6

Tumble Home; Compound Flare ....

Check of Range of StabiUty and Dynamic

Metacentric Stability

68.7
68 8
68.9
68.10
68.11

Abovewater
Selection of

Profile and Deck

Deck Camber

Bulwarks and Breakwaters

Design of Anchor Recesses
Proposed Under-the-Bottom

Details

Anchor

stallation for Ships with Bulb Bows

Knuckles and Other Longitudinal Discon.

546
546
547
547

68.12

68 14

Transverse Discontinuities
Shaping and Positioning of Superstructure

551

68.15

Design of

68 16

and Gas Discharge

Reducing the Wind Drag
and Rigging

68.17

Consideration of Increased Draft Through

68.18

Preparation of Hull Lines for Model Tests

tinuities

68 13
.

and Upper Works

553
553
553
554
556

558
560
561
561

Abovewater Smoke

Facilities for

563
of the Masts, Spars,

566

the Years
.

566
566

In-

68.1
General Design Features, Exclusive of
Wavegoing. Were it not for wavegoing requirements the abovewater portions of a ship down to
the ship-wave profile at designed speed could be
given a strictly utilitarian shape. This shape
might even be found adequate to meet damagecontrol and floodability requirements. Actually it
is done with many ferryboats, day-service pas-

is

senger vessels for inland waters, river and harbor

distance above the heeled waterplane. This takes

craft, and canal boats. Since the abovewater

shape of the average seagoing vessel is so intimately related to wavegoing, a considerable part

accompanying a

of the discussion pertaining to it is found in

Part 6 of Volume III. The design rules in this
chapter therefore apply principally to ships of

when trimmed,

aU types operating

by the general

to

plus a rise of the

forward and aft in the form of

For the heeling and change-of-trim conditions

be expected in service, assuming that the

situations represented
static,

by them

are essentially

a certain margin of buoyancy or freeboard

necessary, particularly in the form of a limiting

care,

among

other things, of the overshoot action

incidental waves.

relatively

sudden

list,

The margin may take

of a corresponding distance

or

of

the form

above the waterplane

to give protection against the

water in the crests of waves made by the ship's

own motion or by passing vessels. Certain types
of craft acquire temporary and unexpected lists,

service

Kke the heel

Reserve-Buoyancy Requirements. Reserve buoyancy in the form of intact or waterti^it

volume of the main hull above the designed
waterplane, a rather important feature of submersible and submarine vessels, is rarely set
68.2

is

of a tug

when a heavy

towline tension

exerted transversely or the heel of a small

day-service passenger vessel

when a

passengers crowd suddenly to one

All craft

rail

great

many

or the other.

may at times be subject to unsymmetrical

may have to run at the corresponding

loading and

down

as a design item for a surface ship. It is

not to be found in the requirements of Chap. 64

ABC

mentioned,

line

sheer.

every vessel.

for the

just

weather-deck

in protected waters, as well

as to those features covered

of

freeboard,

lists

or trims for uncomfortably long periods.

The reserve-buoyancy volume

could well be

appears partly as the customary specification for minimum freeboard to

reckoned, not from the designed waterplane with

some

profile

ship. It

specified deck,

when the

designed to
remain afloat with one, two, or three compartship

ments flooded. It also appears as a requirement

for an adequate range of transverse metacentric
although rarely stated in so many
words. Wavegoing requirements are not forgotten
but they generally take the form of a minimum
stabiUty,

the vessel at rest,

is

when the

but from the actual wave

is running at its designed

ship

volume
and the reserve-buoyancy volume of a small,
fast tug have an appreciably different shape in
speed. For example, both the buoyant

way

of the surface when the tug is running free

than when it is pulling and standing almost still.
It can be argued that a vessel will never be

546

ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT

Sec. 68.4

running at
its

designed speed

its

reserve buoyancy.

when

The answer

it

needs

to this

is

all

that

regardless of that

one never knows what a ship may have to do

during its lifetime, nor what kind of rough
handling and severe treatment it may receive

ancy requirements.

when

position

trying to do

its best.

and practical

logical

mentng that

specification,

supple-

and range

of trans-

verse metacentric stability, calls for a

minimum

of floodability

reserve-buoyancy volume, expressed as a percentage of the displacement volume below the designed
waterplane. A minimum of 25 per cent for a

a reasonable and not particularly

exacting requirement. Reserve-buoyancy ratios
for a number of submarines, of the vintage of

new

vessel

is

by E. Dodero
[Ann. Rep., Rome Model Basin, 1941, Vol. X,
pp. 95-107]. These vary from 0.112 through
through

1901

are given

1918,

The watertight closures

by no means as secure as

0.467, averaging 0.252.

of a surface ship are

are those of a submarine, so these values represent

some

sort of

vessel.

more

minimum

For the

is

latter,

maximum

of 0.35

or

not too much. This, with freeboard and

other requirements, should insure that hatches

and other vulnerable

hull openings are reasonably

out of reach of the destructive action of solid,

green water [Goodall, F. C, "Whaleback Steamers," INA, 1892, pp. 192-193].
Even though the hull may be extended farther

upward than reserve-buoyancy requirements demand, such as the deck of a ferryboat which
must match the top of a landing platform at
various stages of the tide,

it

may

not be necessary

to build an intact or watertight hull

One item taken

all

the

way up.

care of in floodability calcula-

on small vessels for

which these calculations are not made is the matter
of the fore-and-aft position of the reserve buoyancy.
If a craft is bilged and flooded aft it does little
good to have a great volume of reserve buoyancy
forward. On many fishing vessels, especially tuna
clippers, the freeboard aft is deliberately low to
facilitate getting fish in over the side. It has to
tions but often overlooked

be recognized that the safety of these craft is

equally jeopardized by the absence of adequate
reserve buoyancy there [Hanson, H. C, "The
Tuna Clipper of the Pacific," SNAME, Spring
Meet'g., 1954, p.
68.3

Waters.

6].

Freeboard

Any

craft

and Sheer for Protected

which produces bow and

wave crests of appreciable height when

underway in protected waters, such as a freestern

its lifetime

the

bow

embodied

to operate

called

upon during
heavily by

when trimmed

or the stern

and shape

in the reserve-buoy-

may be

If it

it

needs

still

of the sheer line

to the designed waterline

by the

more.

The

with reference

then controlled largely

is

and reserve-buoyancy

wave-profile, trim,

requirements.

The

craft

may have

a curved sheer line, as

may have a straight

for a seagoing vessel, or it

weather-deck line
exceeds
optical

if

the freeboard everywhere

minimum. However, there

illusion involved in looking at any
the

with a straight deck line throughout

which makes it appear that the hull
slightly.
is

When

appearance

desirable to incorporate

is

is

an

vessel

its

length

is

hogged

a consideration,

some curvature

it

in the

deck or hull line at the side, with the bow normally

higher than the stern and the stern higher than
some position near or slightly abaft amidships.

for the average surface

547

running tug, needs a certain amount of freeboard

reasons for straight deck

throughout a considerable part of the length,
possible to retain the sheered appearance by

If there are practical

lines
it is

adding sheer only at the bow, or in the forebody.

By the clever and artistic use of curved bulwark

combined with the slight depression in the

deck edge at the side due to camber, or even of
curved painted lines on the hull, it is possible to
avoid entirely the appearance of hogging while
holding a perfectly straight deck line at the

lines,

centerplane.

was generally found best for appearance' sake to

the lowest point of the freeboard about one-fifth to
one-seventh of the ship's length abaft amidships; and to
"It

fLx

give rather quicker curvature aft so as to prevent the

tangent to the sheer line falling below the horizontal when
the ship had the maximum trim by the stern" [Narbeth,
J.

H.,

INA,

1942, pp. 144-145].

68.4 Freeboard and Sheer for General Service.

Concerning freeboard requirements for general
service, it may be well at this point to review
the object of freeboard, and its functions. These
were well expressed some seventy years ago in

the following terms:

"Perhaps the most important of these are: to limit
the ship's load; to provide a reserve of buoyancy, both
as a margin against leakage and as lifting power in a
sea way; to assist in securing a sufficient range of stabiUty;
and to

to provide a suitable height of working platform,

protect the vessel from deck

INA,

1883, Vol. 24, p. 205].

damage" [West, H. H.,

HYDRODYNAMICS

548
It

is

buoyancy

minimum

in Sec. 68.2, that a certain

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 6S.4

Volume III, is
the bow rather

design for wavegoing in Part 6 of

mentioned, in the discussion of reserve

therefore usually measured at

centric stability, floodability

than amidships, although the freeboard for good

wavegoing is sometimes reckoned at 0.3 the length
from the FP, or at 0.1 that length. The latter
procedure is based upon the reasoning that the
most objectionable water comes over the side at

rolling

those positions.

freeboard of the intact hull amidships,

the lowest point of the sheer

line, is

or at

more often

than not regulated by law. This takes into account

considerations of the range of transverse meta-

and damage control,

and righting energy, classification and
insurance rules, and the like, which need not be
gone into here. All these and other features are
discussed by H. F. Norton in Chapter II and by
J. F. Macmillan and J. P. Comstock in Chapter
V of PNA, 1939, Vol. I. Normally the minimum
freeboard based upon the considerations set forth
therein is sufficient to meet the wavegoing requirements for the service of any particular ship.
However, the freeboard may be and often is
determined by the difference between the hullgirder depth D necessary for strength and rigidity,
and the draft H. This is the basis for selection of
the freeboard of the

ABC

Fig.

To

dimensional,

and generally

wave length

if

position

T1

n^rr

In other words, short

decreases.

is

tentative. In general, the ships

still

those below the line are definitely lacking in

the

freeboard forward.

The minimum

freeboard forward (and aft)

is

by a combination of minimum
freeboard amidships and a sheer height forward
also determined

board for wavegoing, discussed more fully under

50

is

average

with ratios above the line have proved to be

good-to-excellent sea boats in service. Many of

is

l"iT'1\

the

craft like a fishing boat the ratio of freeboard

forward to length must be large while for a large
liner this ratio can be diminished considerably.
The heavy curved line of the figure is intended to
indicate this relationship. It is broken because its

not to be inundated when pitching at sea.

As a rule, the lower the minimum freeboard
the higher must be the sheer forward. The freevessel

that

waves are steeper than long waves. For a short

ship amidships, ex-

also at the stern,

the reason

for

steepness ratio of natural waves increases as the

must be added sheer

this freeboard there

a diagram for selecting a value of

is

preliminary-design stage. Its scale of abscissas

plained in Sec. 66.30.

at the bow,

68.A

the freeboard at the forward perpendicular in the

III

II

l|

I
I

250

200

150

III

II

300
meters
I

Waterlme

Leriolh,

0.09-

Spot for

ABC Ship
0.08-

\\

0.07-

-^.
'0.06

0.06-

T'

0.05-

-0.05

004-^

004

llllllll

100

2^00

300

400

500

600

Woterline
Fig. CS.A

700

Length

Tentative Freeboard Ratio

j'or

in

600

SCO

1000

feet

Ships Traversing the

Open Sea

1100

1200

ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT

Sec. 6S.4

TABLE

68.a

Sheer Heights

Source and Reference

in Fractions op

Wateblinb Length

549

HYDRODYNAMICS

550
Fig. 68. C,

apply to types of vessels in the following

are in the

services:
(1)

Low- and intermediate-speed merchant

types,

low point of sheer at or close to amidships, 0.50L

from FP, sheer at stern about 0.5 of sheer at bow.
In average heavy- weather areas the wave speeds
are greater than the speeds of these slow vessels.
For a considerable part of their running time
they are being overtaken by seas, hence the need
for rather large sheer at the stern.
(2)

Medium-speed passenger and cargo ships and

intermediate

low point

liners,

of sheer at

about

0.575 to 0.625L, sheer at stern about 0.33 of

sheer at bow. These vessels, running at speeds

higher than those in

their

(1)

preceding, spend less of

time being overtaken by following seas.

Furthermore, they often have more than the

minimum

freeboard in order to have internal

space for accommodations. However, at the higher

speeds, they pitch

With

IN SHIP DESIGN

more than the slower

same category

Most

of the tankers

as the intermediate-

speed merchant cargo types, running for a large

percentage of the time in overtaking seas. However, at these speeds they require

more sheer

aft

than the cargo vessels because their average

is less. The trawlers and fishing vessels
heave to or creep along at slow speeds on all
courses and in all weathers so that they are overtaken by waves to about the same degree as
other ships encounter them.
(5) Tug and similar types, lowest point of deck
profile at about 0.65 to 0.8L, sheer at stern about
0.4 of sheer at bow. Ocean-going tugs may require
from 1.5 to 2.0 times as much sheer forward as
harbor tugs. To prevent the excessive heels
mentioned in Sec. 68.2 it is necessary that the
towing bitts of tugs be kept close to the water.
This means that the low point of the profile is
well aft, in the vicinity of the bitts, and that the

freeboard

vessels.

their finer entrances the pitching axis

Sec. 68.4

ships, parallel to the baseline.

sheer aft

is

is

of safety

the

minimum

permissible

which have been proved

by standards
in

everyday

farther aft.
(3) Large medium- and high-speed liners, low
point of sheer at about 0.65 to 0.75Z/, sheer at
stern about 0.2 of sheer at bow. To obtain internal
volume and superior wavegoing performance the
freeboard is usually exceptionally high. This
means that the pitching depth at the stem and at
the stern are adequate without using great sheer.
The latter may, in fact, be governed more by
appearance than by wavegoing, or by the necessity
for rapid shedding of the water that may come

aboard.
(4)

Tankers, trawlers, fishing vessels, and other

low-freeboard craft, low point of sheer at from

0.5 to 0.65L, sheer at stern

bow.

An

about 0.7

of sheer at

alternative straight-element profile for

is indicated in broken lines. There are

incUned straight lines at the bow and stern and
about half a ship length of straight sheer amid-

tankers

Fig. 68. B

service.

For

sailing yachts the

line is usually

much

low point

of the sheer

farther aft than for

any other

type. It can be as far aft as 0.75 times the overall

length from the bow.

All the sheer curves in Fig. 68. C are arcs of

second-order parabolas, x^
directed keelward for

-|-

az, where

is

values. Their axes are

and their vertexes are at the low points

by circles. The forward and after arcs
belong to different parabolas but they can belong
to the same one if the low-point position and the
forward and after sheers correspond. New sheer
lines are easily drawn by taking constant percentages of the ordinates shown in the figure, as

vertical

indicated

illustrated for the sheer fine of the

If

ABC

design.

construction costs are a factor, any part or

of the sheer line

Typical O-Duil Freeboard Ratios for a

may

all

be straight, as shown in

Whale Catcher

Sec. 68.5

HYDRODYNAMICS
Oranje of 1939 [Prius, H. N., and

liner

Ijssel-

muiden, A. H., De Ingenieur, The Hague, Holland,

23 Jun 1939, p. 50; 30 Jun 1939, p. 74; WRH, 15
Oct 1939, pp. 316-323;
Transl. 128, Nov
1939]. The tumble home amidships is 8.75 ft in
a height of about four decks above the DWL, for a
waterline beam of 83.5 ft. This is so extreme that
the lifeboats can not be launched clear of the

TMB

ship's side.

Tumble home

not called for by the particular

is

ABC

requirements of the

ship. It

is

incorporated,

however, in the body plans of Figs. 66. P and 67. L,

in an effort to provide parallel sides and constant

beam

in that portion of the ship set aside for

passenger accommodations. Laying out, building,

and equipping staterooms and similar rooms is
greatly simpUfied

if

the region has parallel straight

and no deck camber,

corresponding to a building on shore [Watsuji,
H., SBSR, 2 Aug 1934, p. 118].

sides, practically zero sheer,

Tumble home
confined

abovewater

the

to

usually, but not necessarily

is

extended below the

reduction in C/r

DWL

list

may

be

in order to achieve a

some respect, or
when the vessel is

[SNAME,

It

to modify the rolUng charac-

teristics in

sHght

hull.

to take care of a
in light condition

1905, PI. 119].

It is often desired,

for wavegoing,

to incor-

porate flare in the abovewater sections forward

for a considerable distance above the DWL. To

avoid the excessive top weights and volumes

involved by carrying that flare all the way to
the weather deck, a compound-flare section of the
type sketched at E in Fig. 26. B is useful.

Compound

flare built into

the bows of British

cruisers for the past forty years has proved its

worth in service. More recently it has been
worked into the cargo vessels of the British
Windsor class, both forward and aft [MESR,

Jul 1952, pp. 89-90]. It is often of advantage,

with no appreciable impairment of wavegoing
behavior, to widen the deck below the weather
deck so as to get more useful room there. This is
because internal space lying above a ship's side
with excessive flare is difficult to utihze.

The
flare

following

method

IN SHIP DESIGN

way, in

working a compound
is adapted

from that employed by the Naval Construction

Department of the British Admiralty and is
pubhshed with the kind permission of the Director
of Naval Construction, Sir Victor G. Shepheard:

The shape and

at the side

is

position of the weather deck

determined from operational and

three planes.

The

in the

6S.5

usual

section lines forward

though there were to be no compound flare.

(b) A fair knuckle Une is then drawn on the outboard profile (sheer drawing) in the position
desired for the lower edge of the diminished-flare
region. Its vertical position, shape, and curvature
depend upon the position of the internal decks
below the weather deck, the anchor-stowage
positions selected, and other factors. The line of
the knuckle runs more-or-less parallel to the
weather deck, or at a slope to it, either up aft
or down aft, depending partly on appearance and
the aesthetic sense of the designer.
(c) At two selected stations, about 1/3 and 2/3
the length of the knuckle from the bow, two

level lines are

drawn on the body

plan, represent-

ing the height of the knuckle line at those stations,

as taken from the outboard profile

Two

(d)

partial-section lines are projected

down

on the body plan from the weather deck edge, at

the stations in question, to the knuckle level
lines at those stations, giving the knuckle halfbreadths. A suitable flare slope above the knuckle
is about 80 deg (with reference to the horizontal).
It is not necessary that the flare slope be constant
for all stations; appearance and room inside the
ship may determine this.
(e) Laying out the knuckle half-breadths at the
two selected stations, and the fore-and-aft position

of the

knuckle line at the stem, a

drawn on the half-breadth

breadths of the knuckle at

fair line is

plan, giving the halfall

stations along its

length
(f)
Level lines for the remaining stations are
then added to the body plan, whereupon the
knuckle half-breadths for these stations are laid

off

on them

(g)

With the

points thus determined the knuckle

completed on the body plan,

and the straight section-line segments above the
knuckle are drawn in between the weather deck
and the knuckle
line projection is

are

The
now

original section lines

below the knuckle

meet the

flared out in easy curves to

knuckle intersections at the respective stations,

which the section-line segments above and
below the knuckle, and the knuckle itself, are
after

check-faired

Adjustments may be necessary if the resulting

below the knuckle is too great to avoid
objectionable pounding or slamming
(i)

(a)

all

faired

is

are faired into this deck edge and completed as

(h)

of

into the abovewater entrance

Sec.

other requirements and

flare

Sec.

ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT

^.?.,'?

For structural reasons the knuckle should be

(j)
well clear of all deck edges along the shell.

The knuckle and

forebody sections of the

Fig. 66. P, are laid out

The knuckle

compound

the

at Sta.

ABC

flare in

the

ship, delineated in

by the procedure described.

0.5 lies shghtly above the

knuckle line because of discontinuities in way of

the single centerline bower-anchor position.

For vessels carrying wing screw propellers it

may upon occasion seem wise to afford lateral
protection

by widening the
above them, rather than by

abovewater hull
fitting abovewater propeller guards.
68.6 Check of Range of Stability and Dynamic
Metacentric Stability. At this stage in the
preliminary design, if not before, a check is made
to insure that:
(1)

sections of the fast sailing ships of the 1840's were

what is now known

1 and 2 in Fig. 26. D.
It is regular shipyard practice to camber a
straight stem to compensate for the optical illusion
of concavity inherent in a perfectly straight stem
carried forward to produce

as the clipper bow, pictured at

bar [Baier, L. A., unpubl. Itr. to HES, 4 Aug 1950].

Profiles and planforms for transom sterns are
discussed and illustrated in Sec. 67.20.

For the

the propellers

to

The range

of positive metacentric stability,

in a transverse plane

and

653

the flaring, slightly concave abovewater entrance

made

is

ABC ship the planform of the main deck

the stern, solely as a matter

elliptical at

Some

additional abovewater
volume and deck space are achieved by carrying
the transom all the way up to the main deck, as
has been done on many U. S. warships, but at the
expense of some additional weight and an unquestionably heavy, clumsy appearance at the

appearance.

of

stern.

adequate for the service expected of the vessel.

This operation is particularly important for a
vessel of special shape, such as sketched subsequently in diagram 1 of Fig. 68. K in Sec. 68.12.

The forebody portions of the ABC transom

and arch sterns, above the DWL, are exactly
alike back to Sta. 11. However, the afterbody
portion of the ABC arch-type stern above the
DWL is slightly different from that of the tran-

The method

som-stern ship because of the greater waterline

for the static case only,

is

many

of accomplishing this is set forth in

and reference books on naval architecture [PNA, 1939, Vol. I, p. 135].

(b) The vessel possesses adequate dynamic metatext

beam

it

has sufficient stored-up righting energy

more than absorb the dynamic

to

[Vincent, S. A.,

This matter

1939, Vol.

I,

rolling

energy

pp. 135-136].

discussed further under wavegoing

is

in Part 6 of

PNA,

Volume

AP. The main deck planform and

same way, except

centric stability in a transverse plane; in other

words,

at the

the uppermost level lines are rounded in the

to a larger radius.

Selection of

68.8

weather deck, with a

desire to achieve a certain appearance. Centerline

rise at

normal

the centerline amount-

of the ship (0.25 inch per foot of

to 0.02085x),

Abovewater Profile and Deck Details.

The abovewater profiles of a ship, like the section
shapes, are governed partly by the necessity of
meeting certain wavegoing requirements and
partly by utilitarian needs. They may result from
fairing the sections into the ends, or from a

ing to say 0.020 or 0.025Bx for the widest part

III.

68.7

Deck Camber.

degree of circular-arc or parabolic camber in a

some help

is

beam corresponds

in

shedding water

during wavegoing but it is hardly to be classed

as a quick-unloading device for a boarding sea

an emergency. Constructions

in

parabolic arcs are illustrated at

by G. de Rooij

68. D; also

and
and 2 in Fig.

for circular
1

in "Practical Ship-

building" [1953, Figs. 329a and 329b, p. 133].

No

one camber shape among a number that

anchor stowages at the bow and stern, propeller-

are available has

aperture clearances for single-screw vessels, and

superiority or significance.

other features usually play a part more important

than hydrodynamics [Coqueret, F., and Romano,

appropriate, therefore, to the drafting as well as

P.,

SNAME,

to the shipfitting

any particular hydrodynamic

The camber may be

and fabricating procedures. For

camber curve may be used for

this reason a fixed

1936, pp. 131-132].

In the main, however, the abovewater profile

all

widths of deck along the length. The curvature

should, like the underwater profile described in

or slope need be sufficient only to insure that,

Sec. 67.4, be a sort of automatic result of first

determining the ship form desired, in transverse

within the

planes,

and

forward and

then

carrying

aft, in fair

at the centerplane. This

the

hull

surfaces

shapes, until they

is

meet

what happened when

-pressions

life

in

of the ship, there will be

no de-

the deck at any small heel angle

because of ill-formed or buckled plates or minor

service

damage.

Flat, straight decks are admittedly economical

riYDRODYNy\MICS IN SHIP DESIGN

554
All

Comber Heiqhts
(About

ore

10

Exocjtjerated

times

in

Dioqroms

I,

2,

two

and 3)

Sec. 6S.9

straight elements, lying at a constant angle

to each other.

The

ridge surfaces are then develop-

able cyhnders of very large radius.

In fact,

if

a circular or parabolic arc of constant

employed for the deck-beam lines on a

cambered deck, and if the intersections of the
deck-beam Unes with the centerplane lie on a
straight line fore and aft, as at 4 in Fig. 68.D, the
shape

is

whole deck is a developable cylindrical surface.

the deck line at the center or at the side follows
a curved sheer, corresponding to 5 in the figure,
the departure from true cylindrical form, for
any one plate, is usually insignificant.
If

ridge-type deck, having the

centerline,

possesses

same rise at the

more slope

considerably

amidships and less slope at the sides of the vessel

than a camber with a circular arc or even with

paraboUc arc. Whether this represents an

advantage for the straight-element deck in
shedding water is debatable, especially as at one
angle of list the high side has no slope at all.
68.9 Bulwarks and Breakwaters.
Bulwarks,
either partial or full, are appropriate for both
a

Ridqe Line Mq\j Be Held Fixed in Position ond Shape

(straight in this Cose) ond Sheer Line at Side Allowed
to Take Its Shape "Automaticallu"
Construction

b\j

the Geometric

large
(a)

and small

vessels

when

it is

desired to:

Afford some protection along a deck edge

Sheer Line at Side Held Fixed in Position and Shope

and Ridcje Line at Centerplanc Allowed to TaUe Its

against wind and spray blowing across the deck

Shape

slopping over onto the deck

(b)

Automoticalli^,

Constant Ridqe Slope Assumed

FiQ. 68.D

in

Dioorams 4,5

and fabricating stages

welding. Generally there are

more plating buckles

there are upward. Here

where the greater

stifi'ness of

plate of equal or slightly less

is

a case

an aluminum deck
weight might be a

advantage.
Ridge-type decks, hke the low ridge roof of a

di,stinct

house, illustrated at 3 in Fig. 68. D, are composed

of

two

the

flat surfaces

horizontal,

each lying at a small angle to

enough to insure
and joined in a low knuckle

only

large

drainage in service,
at the centerUne. This knuckle is a straight line
if the ridge surfaces are flat [Dawson, A. J.,

SNAME,

1950,

Fig,

10,

p.

13].

However, the

knuckle can be curved, with a sheer incorporated

in

it,

from

(c) Retain on board loose gear, small items of

deck cargo, fish dumped from nets, and the like.

but no ship deck, certainly not one of metal, ever

finishes fiat nor does it remain flat. It always
bends downward under its own weight, if not
under compression loads due to riveting and

downward than

crests

"^

Straight and Curved Deck Camber Lines

in the drafting, shipfitting,

Prevent marginal waves and

leaving the deck-beam lines composed of

If the owner desires or permits, bulwarks may

be added solely for the sake of appearance, as
when carrying a graceful sheer line along a straight
deck edge.
While bulwarks can hold back some marginal
water from coming over a deck edge they can
and do keep on deck large menacing weights of
water which need to be unloaded quickly, before
the next sea comes aboard. Freeing slots along
the lower edge of the bulwarks, or hinged-cover
freeing ports in the bulwarks, are provided for
this purpose but the average head to make water
run through them rapidly is rather low. Furthermore, the port edges are usually sharp and the
orifice coefficient is also low.

customary to provide a port opening of

bulwark area and to hmit the bulwark
height to 5 ft [Lovett, W. J., "Applied Naval
Architecture," 1920, p. 174]. This rule takes no
account of the width of the vessel and the volume
of water trapped between bulwarks of a given
height, apparently on the theory that for a given
It is

0.1 the

ABOVEWATER FORM LAYOUT

Sec. 6S.9

555

angle of heel, the greater part of the water on a

two breakwaters

wide ship

appreciable fore-and-aft distance,

To

spills

over the top of the bulwarks.

require that a deckload of water,

top of the bulwarks, should run

off

up

to the

completely

within the interval of one pitching cycle would

taking

away

bulwarks

practically

require

altogether.

It is therefore necessary to

that some

the

assume

water

in

tandem, separated by an
so

that

the

one is trapped by the second.

A set of tandem breakwaters of concave section
is fitted on the French battleship Jean Bart
[The 111. London News, 9 Apr 1955, p. 661].
A breakwater of any type requires adequate
spilling over

angle or pitch angle, or both, will

bracing against the hydrodynamic forces. These

unload most of the water over the bulwark rail.

To get rid of the rest of the water in one pitching
or rolling period it appears that the freeing-port
area should be more nearly 0.2 the bulwark area.
Furthermore, this freeing-port area should be
provided abreast the volume which needs to be
emptied if the vessel ships a deckload of solid

known but
magnitude may be estimated by
assuming a dynamic load imposed by solid water
striking the breakwater at a certain velocity. For
a head sea, or an angle of encounter Q:(alpha) of

roll

water.

Bulwarks at the extreme bow can serve as an

effective

increase in

freeboard in that region,

over and above that provided by the intact hull.

If not extended too far aft, say to not farther

than the point where the local beam exceeds

0.55x it should be possible to leave them solid,
without freeing ports or slots.
Breakwaters require positioning and shaping so
that the maximum water is deflected for the
minimum of splash or spray over the top. This
calls for a deflecting surface which is never
or rarely ever normal to the onrushing water and
which does not form an objectionable spraythrower for water in quantities greater than the
breakwater is designed to handle. The water
deflected from the forward side should have no
upward component, and as great an outward
component as possible, to throw it toward the
gunwale and get it off the deck. Fig. 68.E illus,

are not accurately or even roughly

their order of

180 deg, this

is

compounded

of (1) the speed

Not Less Than

J-enqth

of

1.25 3l"ont

Breakwoter
on One Side

and 4, two alternative methods of

accomphshing this. The function of the horizontal
lip along the top of the barrier is to throw moderate
quantities of water back forward but to permit
large quantities to pass over the breakwater
without too violent obstruction.
The breakwater on a forecastle is usually of
V-shape in plan, with its vertex forward and with
diagonal sides extending practically to the deck
edges. The planform angles may vary from 45
to 60 deg with the centerline, indicated at 1 and 2
on Fig. 68.E. The height at the center, where
the water can not run off the deck freely, should
be higher than at the sides. A breakwater having
an elliptic or parabolic planform, with the sharp
curvature forward, is shown for an early German
trates, at 3

"schnellboote" (high-speed boat) in Schiffbau [26

Oct-2 Nov 1921, Fig. 4, p. 114]. There may be

which it is estimated the ship can make in heavy

weather and (2) the orbital velocity Uorb of the
crest of a wave which breaks over the forecastle
and strikes the breakwater. While, strictly speaking, the dynamic pressure is that due to the component of (7 + (7 Orb) normal to the breakwater,
there is little assurance that the deck load of water
sliding aft on the forecastle will strike the breakwater from ahead. The blow may just as well
come from the side, striking against one face for

Fig. 68.E

Design Sketches fob Forecastle

Brbakwateks

*1
|

HYDRODYNAMICS

556

whole length. Only one such impact is necessary

is not sufficiently
strong or sturdy. It appears unwise, therefore,
to use for the design any striking velocity less than
the sustained speed V plus the orbital velocity

IN SHIP DESIGN
Design of Anchor Recesses.

68.10

its

Sec. 6S.10

Protrud-

to tear loose a breakwater that

ing stockless anchors are unsightly and they are

f/o.b.

abominable spray-throwers. They represent definite collision hazards in that such an anchor can
tear open the whole side of another ship, when
the bumping or sliding damage might otherwise

The

force on the breakwater, exerted parallel

to the deck,

may

be taken as that developed by

a uniformly distributed

(F

pressure q

0.5p

Uorh)' acting over the whole area of the

When an

face.

ram

obstruction of this kind deflects

onrushing water back upon

itself

a doubling of the impact load. This

there
is

is

usually

compensated

by the fact that a

stream of water only half as high as the breakwater can be reversed in direction by the action
of the deflectors shown in Fig. 68. E. A deeper
layer of water is only deflected upward, with a
ram pressure corresponding to (F
f/orb) and a
force on the breakwater that is not doubled.
for in the present instance

be

slight.

on the German World

Bismarck and Tirpitz the
anchors were hauled, not into orthodox external
hawsepipes or anchor recesses but up onto the
main deck. There they lay flat, suitably secured.
When it was desired to anchor, they were apparently pushed over the side by mechanical gear.
This left the sides of the bow entirely clear of
any major projections or recesses, and eliminated
the throwing of spray from that cause.
It

is

War

reported

II

On

the

that

battleships

German World War

II cruiser Prinz

Fitting the breakwater at an angle of from 45

to 60 deg to the ship centerline, indicated in the

outward

water

deflects

figure,

and

helps

to

reduce the impact load on the structure for seas

coming from directly ahead.

For the ABC design, it may be assumed that
the ship can maintain 18.7 kt in a sea made up
of regular waves 800 ft long with an angle of
encounter a of 180 deg. If these waves have a
steepness ratio as great as 1/20 the orbital velocity
in the crests

is,

10 ft per sec.

then 31.6
10

ft

from Table

approximately

striking velocity

is

per sec (equivalent to 18.7 kt) plus

per sec or say 42

ft

48. e,

The nominal
ft

per sec. Taking a round

value of 1.00 for 0.5p in salt water, the

ram

pres-

approximately 1.00(42)" or 1,764 lb perft^.

This is just over 12 lb per in'. The ultimate-load
factor for an installation of this kind, where it is
sure

is

particularly important that

it

not be torn loose or

that leaks should not be started in the forecastle

deck, should be at least 5 times the calculated load.
If

it

amount

is

of

to expend

desired

only a moderate

weight on a breakwater, the generation

of excessive

ram and dynamic

pressures on

it is

prevented by cutting holes in it. These are of

moderate size, at about midheight. The holes
permit the breakwater to catch and shed small
amounts of water but relieve the load on it when
large

quantities

of

solid

water come rushing

against the breakwater structure

1954, p. 43], In this respect

it

[SBMEB, Jan

resembles the dive

brakes of certain airplanes, in the form of flaps

rather well perforated with holes.

Fig. 68.F

Anchor Recess as Used on Great

Lakes Freighters

ABOVEWATER FORM LAYOUT

Sec. 68.10

557

Eugen the spare anchor was stowed in a centerhne

hawsepipe well up in the clipper bow but there
were no hawsepipes as such for the port and
starboard bower anchors. They were drawn up,
practically on top of the weather deck, onto
shelves built into the side and the deck at the
gunwale, where the anchors lay nearly horizontal.
arch piece over the stock held the anchor in

An

position

and kept the chain from jumping out

of

the shelf. However, because of the acute angle

between the stock and the deck line a projecting

was necessary. These bolsters and the

still throw some spray. Similar
stowages have been provided on certain classes
of small combatant vessels of the U. S. Navy
during the 1940's and 1950's.
Recesses of varied types have been worked
bolster

anchors could

Fig 68.G

Anchor Housed in Recess, Great

Lakes Freighter

Photograph by courtesy of the Great Lakes Engineering

Works

into ships in the past to house stockless anchors,

many

of

which are

still

unsightly and are objec-

tionable spray-throwers.

proper anchor recess

respective

the

of

side

Crossed

centerplane.

recessed anchors were used successfully on the

U.

Navy submarines

Argonaut,

should really house the anchor, not only within

3,000-ton

the fair line of the side but, so far as practicable,

and may
have been used elsewhere.
Wherever an anchor chain under load changes
direction on a ship, at least three consecutive
links should bear on some fixed bolster or structure. Since the chain can lead in a great range

within the hull plating

itself,

leaving only enough

opening to pass the anchor when the flukes are

the stock. Recesses for stockless

in line with

anchors

may

properly be fitted on vessels as

small as 100-ft harbor tugs [AM,

Apr

1953, p. 21].

Anchor recessing is accomplished on the Great

Lakes by the general arrangement shown in
Figs. 68.F and 68. G, in successful use there for
the past four or five decades. The "backroom"
required for this scheme is made available in lake
freighters by the extremely blunt waterlines in
the vicinity of the recess and the hawsepipe, with

Nautilus,

S.

and Narwhal

in the

1920's,

or directions in service this poses a problem,

whether the chain comes out of a hawsepipe

recessed in a pocket or whether it runs over an
external bolster.

that there

is

The

little

designer

must also remember

by pulling the

to be gained

anchor up into a recess and then adding, outside

horizontal slopes of the order of 40 or 45 deg.

the fair plating surface, a tripping plate or bolster

that will throw nearly as much spray as the anchor

On

itself.

the British battleship Vanguard, completed

in the late 1940's, the external surfaces of the

anchors form a remarkably

fair

continuation of

18
[111. London News,
Sep 1954, p. 473]. On some British passenger liners
of the same era, among them the Himalaya, the
anchor recess opening is not much larger than
the crown and tripping lugs of the anchor, corresponding to the small openings on the Great
Lakes freighters.

the adjacent ship's side

On bows

of relatively fine form,

completely

It is also

a problem to provide an external

bolster large enough, let alone the lower corner

a bower
anchor which must drop clear of a sizable bulb
of a recess within the hull plating, for

at the forefoot.

Considering specifically the

ABC

design, with

an abovewater bow shape shown on

beam

Fig. 67. E,
at the level of either the

there

is sufficient

main

or the forecastle deck to permit full recessing

of stockless anchors in the usual

way. This would

the

by offsetting the port and starboard anchors in some

convenient fashion, and by bringing the chain
for each bower anchor up on the opposite side of

involve

the vessel. This arrangement gives space for each

appears to be no objection
to protecting the anchor windlass from the weather
by mounting it on the main deck under cover.

recessed stockless anchors can be fitted

anchor recess about equivalent to the full width

of the bow instead of limiting it to a space on its

crossed

chains,

however,

leading

starboard anchor chain to the port wildcat and

vice versa. As the vessel is not to be required to

moor with two anchors and a

normal

service, there

single

chain in

HYDRODYNAMICS

558

However, the

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 6S.ll

abovewater body at
the hawsepipes is so narrow, as compared to the
width of the bulb bow under them, that a dropping
anchor is sure to strike the shell plating at the

wrapped around
it accidentally. Under-the-bottom anchors were
installed on the famous ironclad Monitor and on

bulb.

have frequently been proposed through the years

for ships that could not house them conveniently
above the water; one such was the "great mushroom anchor" to be hung under the semi-globular

It

is

widlli of the

therefore proposed that the

ABC

ground

tackle consist of:

(a) One heavy under-the-bottom anchor, housed
and handled as outlined in Sec. 68.11
(b) One abovewater bower anchor housed in a

to clear turns of chain which are

several British-built vessels of the 1860's.

naval battery Cerberus

[SNAME,

They

1904, Pis.

7,

centerline hawsepipe in the stem, with its flukes

combination of underwater mushroom

anchor and abovewater stockless anchor was in

drawn up

use for

tightly against the projecting bow,

above the crown and forward of the hawsepipe.
68.11
Proposed Under-the-Bottom Anchor Installation for Ships with Bulb Bows.
Since an
anchor is always used under water it seems absurd
to hoist and carry it above water, unless possibly

Fig. 68.H

I85].

many

years on U. S. submarines in the

early part of this century [Nimitz, C. W.,

Dec

1912, pi. facing p. 1200]. G. de Rooij

an under-the-bottom anchor

for

USNI,
shows

modern sub-

marines ["Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Fig. 611,

p. 264].

Proposed Housing for Mushroom Anchor in a

Bow Bulb

ABOVE WATER-FORM LAYOIH^

Sec. 6S.11

Anchorinq Dioqrom Showinq Both

Choins Tonqent to Bed Surface at
Respective Anchor Positions

Hull

ABC

The

One

(a)

Proposed Under-the-Bottom Mushroom Anchor for

proposal involves:

13,000-lb centeiiine

Navy

water, of the U. S.
as an

LWT

bower anchor above

lightweight type,

anchor, housed in the

known

manner shown

67.E
(b) One extra-heavy centerline mushroom anchor,
below water, housed within and dropping out of
the bulb at the keel, indicated in Fig. 68. H.
Fig.

The mushroom anchor

more

is

proposed because

it is

by the chain than any other

type, and because it houses reliably and firmly,
out of sight, in a hawsepipe of simple shape and
sturdy construction. Above the mushroom anchor
and to a point just under the wildcat, at the main
deck level. Fig. 68. H shows a length of chain
free of fouling

several

sizes

chain. This
in

pp

Openinq
Fig. 68.1

by

,559

is

heavier than the regular anchor

to insure that no breakage occurs

not easily accessible when

The heavier chain next to the

a section which

the ship

is

afloat.

is

ABC

Ship

prevent the chain from rattling and banging in

the chainpipe with the ship underway. Indidentally, this arrangement provides a full half-

turn

chain

of

possibly

or 2

around a horizontal wildcat,

hnks more than is customary on

bow-anchor windlasses of the orthodox type.

One great advantage of anchoring through a
keel-line hawsepipe is that a much flatter "lie"
of the anchor and chain is obtained, with a much
shorter scope of chain, illustrated by the box
diagram of Fig. 68.1, than if the chain is led from
a hawsepipe many feet above the surface. This is
especially true in the shallow water of rivers,
estuaries, and harbors, where the ship occupies a
much smaller mooring circle. On the ABC ship
the difference in level of the hawsepipe openings
is

some 50

ft,

or well over 8 fathoms, indicated in

The heavy
mushroom anchor,

the small-scale diagram of Fig. 68.1.

chain pendant next to the

some 46

ft or

over 6.5 fathoms long,

is

of great

anchor also increases its holding power. Both

chains going over the wildcats are of the standard

assistance here. These factors combined might

size for this vessel.

anchor, which must be normally at least 2.5 times

An

alternative arrangement for housing the

bottom anchor farther

If the
it is

anchor windlass

necessary to

aft is
is

move

shown

in Fig. 68.1.

heavy as a stockless anchor for the same holding

power in firm ground. It is, furthermore, far

to be kept well forward,

easier to obtain a three- link bearing for the chain

leading out of the morning-glory-shaped bottom

at about 0.05L, in

anchor recess than out of any known shape of

abovewater hawsepipe and bolster. Lastly, the
anchor and hawsepipe are mounted much lower
in the vessel than is customary, helping to lower

1,

order to house the anchor completely above the

baseplane and to provide a slope of 15 deg in the

hawsepipe leading from the anchor recess to the

as

the hawsepipe as far aft

as the vicinity of Station

wildcat.

permit reducing the weight of the mushroom

slope of this order

is

necessary to

the

CG.

HYDRODYNAMICS

560

It is recognized that the under-the-bottom

anchor scheme for the ABC ship has several
disadvantages of major proportions:
(1)

Greater weight of mushroom anchor,

servatively estimated as 64,000

lb,

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. riR.12

Bulqed Fender Stroke

of Constant Rodius
Forms Port of the Shelf
Plotinq

con-

compared to

22,500 lb for a stockless anchor, or 13,000 lb

for

an

LWT

anchor. Slightly greater weight of

due to the extra-heavy 6.5-fathom shot

just above the anchor.
chain,

(2)

Greater power required in the anchor windlass

to hoist the heavier anchor and adjacent shot of

heavy chain. Inasmuch as the holding power

calculated for the ABC ship is 160,000 lb, a
standard windlass might be adequate for the
purpose if not required to hoist both anchors

Bulged Fender Strake for a Small Vessel

Fig. 68.J

simultaneously.
(3)

Greater hawsepipe and chainpipe weights

(4) Lost buoyancy due to water around anchor

and chain in hawsepipe and lower part of chain-

amounting to about 5 tons in the ABC

design. Sufficient volume is left above the cup of
the anchor to clear stones, clay, and mud caught
pipe,

in the cup, as well as to permit the

anchor to
drop clear in the river below Port Correo, where
there may be less than 4 ft bed clearance above
the

mud.

(5)

Difficulty of buoying the

external knuckle of the compound-flare tj'pe of

section proves quite acceptable.

The

projecting edges of thick fenders or fender

strakes rec[uire chamfering in a transverse plane

to prevent their hanging

up on

along docks, especially

when the

and

similar projections
tide level rises

This chamfering should also be sufficient

to prevent the fender from throwing objectionable
falls.

spray, although the offending surfaces need to be

nearly vertical to eliminate

all

spray.

bottom anchor when

dropped

neat solution to the problem of the abovewater fender is offered by the heavy, bulged
fender strake of Fig. 68. J, forming a part of the

(6)

Impossibihty, except in clear tropical waters

in dayfight, of noting the direction in which the

main hull. In addition to

dynamic requirements

anchor chain leads from the hawsepipe. However,

with a bottom anchor and a short scope, this
information is not really necessary.

great inherent stiffness as a fender because of

Although the proposed under-the-bottom anchor

by no means proved itself sufficiently to warrant working it into the design of a

installation has

ship to be built,

is carried through here as

preliminary design because it
permits the use of a moderate bulb and a fore-

part of the

shape and

it

satisfying all the hydro-

construction

this

requires no care

and preservation

other than that afforded

service,

The

proper.

ship designer

is

to

in

cautioned, however,

not to place a bulge of this kind where the water

can climb up around its convex surfaces in normal
running.

it

ABC

Reentrant discontinuities or coves, near the

waterline, are to be avoided where

designed

wide and blunt.

Knuckles and Other Longitudinal Dis-

continuities.

its

the hull

castle that is not too

68.12

has

Flaring sides, projections, recesses,

and other discontinuities of considerable fore-andaft extent often have to be worked into the abovewater form to meet service or utilitarian needs.
For smooth-water conditions, with relatively small
waves, these discontinuities have little or no adverse effect provided they are kept clear of the
ship-wave profile along the free surface under any
conditions of load, trim, heel, and speed fikely
to be encountered. Even for wavegoing, the

Internal Coves

and External
Chines Need

Not

ie Filleted or Rounded
if

The-y Lie Generollij

Porallel

Fig.

to

The Lines

68.K

of

Flow

Projecting Blisters and Sponsons

ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT

Sec. 68.14

practicable but not necessarily shunned. Reen-

trant angles in these coves, typified

by the long

purpose.

561

Even wind

screens and shelters have to

be provided for passengers, especially on highspeed ships [Currie, Sir William, SBMEB, Jul

cove at the bottom of the set-back trunk of

diagram 1 in Fig. 68. K, and by the long junctions
of hull and sponsons in the ferryboat section at
2 in Fig. 68.K, and in SNAME RD sheet 84, can
approach 90 deg provided this small angle is
necessary for other reasons. Little extra drag is
encountered if these coves are under water in

involve some air drag and produce some wind

some load condition provided the corners follow

resistance.

the temporary flowlines reasonably well.

be provided or exerted, or speed must be sacrificed.

Keeping abovewater discontinuities out

reach of waves at sea

is

The

change in direction as the water

strikes the discontinuities the less spray they
throw and the smaller are the hydrodynamic
forces exerted on them.
68.13 Transverse Discontinuities.
Any longitudinal discontinuity which runs for a considersmaller the

discontinuity.

The

latter

is

is

also a transverse

distinguished here

as one which involves a projection or a recess

from the fair section lines in the vicinity which is
large compared with its fore-and-aft length. A
good example is an old-fashioned gun sponson
on a combatant vessel, protruding from the ship's
side like a bay window to obtain a line of fire

along the side. Projections or recesses of this

kept clear of the ship-wave

profile, need
from a hydrodynamic
standpoint for ships which travel in relatively
smooth water, surrounded only by their own

type,

no

if

special consideration

waves.

The use

of isolated transverse braces or sup-

ports for overhanging portions of the abovewater

hull or upper works, even
of the

wave

profile,

is

when nominally

clear

not encouraged. Under

some unusual and unlooked-for circumstances

these transverse members are liable to become
fouled by floating debris, ice, or breasting floats
(camels).

Abovewater projections may be fitted, as on

whaling factory ships [SBSR, 5 Dec 1946, pp.
625-635], to increase the deck space locally, to
serve as large-area fenders for protection of the

underwater hull when other vessels lie alongside

in the open sea, and for other purposes.
68.14 Shaping and Positioning of Superstructure and Upper Works.
Several major
considerations enter into the design of that portion

any ship lying above the main hull. Every

deck erection, every spar or post, every protuberance of whatever kind has a utilitarian
of

these upper works on weight, cost, and transverse

metacentric

stability,

practically

To overcome

this,

of

all

extra power

them
must

of the

Avell-nigh impossible.

able distance along the ship

1955, p. 435]. Some of these purposes are served

only in port, some only at sea, and some are used
almost all the time. Aside from the effect of

"The model

Mauretania required an into drive the structure added

to represent deck houses" [Barry, R. E., Mar. Eng'g.,
Sep 1921, p. 690].
of the (old)

crease of 20 per cent in

power

Regardless of the type of vessel or the service

it, any owner and operator may be
expected to affirm that convenience of access,

expected of

availability of outside light

and

comfort of

air,

the passengers, and the needs of the crew are

to take precedence over the reduction of

resistance of the upper works.

way, he

will

Put

wind

in another

unquestionably be found reluctant

to sacrifice utility, passenger comfort,

and other

having to do with the handling and

operation of the vessel for the sake solely of
reducing its wind resistance. Nor will he generally
find it a paying proposition to spend a great deal
of money and effort to diminish the wind resistance, at no sacrifice in other features, unless some
outstanding improvement is to be gained.
Tests at the Case School of Applied Science,
on 33-in wind-tunnel models of the Atlantic liner
Manhattan, showed that by completely streamlining the whole ship
in other words, by treating
both hull and upper works as a unit the wind
resistance with the relative wind ahead was
reduced approximately 84 per cent, compared to
the Manhattan as built. This was for a ship speed
of 20 kt, a true wind speed of 23.2 kt, and a
relative wind speed of 43.2 kt. The modification
involved an entirely different concept of a passenger ship, with everyone completely housed at
all times, but it indicates what can be done if all
factors

other considerations are disregarded.

This

effort

shows how easy

it is

to lose sight of

the fact that so-called streamlining of individual

deckhouses and other erections above the hull

by no means insures that it will be easier for the
crew to make their way about the upper works
under storm conditions. Structures of fair form,

when blown upon

in a direction

approximating

HYDRODYNAMICS

562

that for which they were shaped, rarely have

sizable regions of reduced velocity or separation

around them. They create few eddies

in

which a

person can stand, as is possible in the lee of a

square corner on a deckhouse, and fewer calm
areas in which a passenger can

"The wind
excessively

velocity

streamlined

sit

in comfort.

over the open decks

superstructure),

even

(with an
in

quite

mild conditions, can be such as to render intolerable

any attempts to walk or sit out!" [Hind, J. A., SBSR
14 Jul 1955,

To

p. 37].

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 68.14

equal distance back of the side of the ship. This

is because of the separation zones behind the

sharp corners at the deck edges and the reduced

velocities in way of the miscellaneous small
obstructions on the deck. Unit air pressures on

the exposed sides of deck erections increase with

above the main hull and Ukewise

with the absolute size of the areas subjected to
ram pressure from the wind. For a wind velocity
their height

of 60 kt, or 101.33 ft per sec, with

pass around a streamlined structure in a

wind of ferocious velocity;

becomes a struggle if one is heavily clothed.
Nevertheless, certain things can be done to reduce
the air drag without sacrificing any functional
features of the upper works.
First, it is possible, even in rather small vessels,
to provide complete internal access from hving
quarters to operating stations for all officers and
crew. Indeed, this is now general practice on
large vessels and may be taken for granted in
any modern new design. If the same provision is
made for unusual operating conditions and for
manning emergency stations it is possible to
eliminate the necessity for crew members to move
around outside the upper works in bad weather.
The diagram for composition of air velocities
around a ship, indicated at C in Fig. 26.H, shows
that the ratio between the true-wind velocity
Wt and the ship velocity V has an appreciable
effect upon the bearing angle of the relative-wind
velocity
r at the ship. For winds normally encountered in good weather at sea, with velocities
not exceeding 20 kt, this relative-wind angle
increases, for a wind nominally on the beam,
from 45 deg abaft the bow at 20 kt to about 59
deg abaft the bow for 12 kt. For winds of stronggale force, say 60 kt, the difference between the
relative-wind angles for a nominal beam wind is
still appreciable, of the order of 71.5 to 80.5 deg
abaft the bow for 20 and 12 kt, respectively.
Streamlining a deckhouse which can not swivel
into the wind like a weathervane but which is
shaped to give minimum air drag with the true
and relative winds both dead ahead appears

in a stagnation area

an

ram pressure

ture of 59 deg F, the

is (0.5)

air

tempera-

q due to

wind

(0.00238) (101.33)' or

gale requires bucking a

12.22 lb per

this

a 60-kt wind, developing a relative velocity of

90 kt, or 152.00 ft per sec, the corresponding ram

somewhat absurd.

deckhouse not extending

all

the

way

sides or to the ends of a surface ship hull

to the

and not

having any overhanging deck at its top level,

may be considered as relatively sheltered from
the wind if it has a height not exceeding 0.12 or
0.15 times the beam of the ship and if it hes an

pressure

is

ft'.

For a 30-kt ship steaming into

27.49 lb per

ft'.

Shaping the deck erections for least wind drag

is based upon a relative-wind direction of about
30 deg on either bow, because it is at about this
angle that the wind blows separately on the
several structures spread along the length of the

This is also the angle, indicated by the

diagrams of Sec. 54.9, at which the fore-and-aft
wind resistance i2wind becomes a maximum. The
beneficial effects of housing uptakes, ventilators,
mast and instrument foundations, and the hke,
within deck erections necessary for some other
purpose, are not to be overlooked. Objects which
vessel.

can not be so enclosed often

objects

(inside

the

lie

in the lee of larger

separation

and

eddying

region behind them), at the 30-deg relative-wind

angle,

and so do not require any streamlining

themselves. It

is

for

not to be forgotten, however,

that swirling backflows into these regions, where

Ap's
and

exist,

may

them smoke, soot,

from poorly placed

take with

foul gases discharged

openings.

what may be expected in

about a great variety of deck
erections and upward projections from the hull
and superstructure, for a relative wind from ahead,
Fig. 68. L shows the velocity vectors in both
elevation and plan view around the hull and upper
works of a large ship. Diagrams 1 and 2 of this
drawing were adapted from a series of five
detailed diagrams pubUshed by H. N. Prins, in
an article describing the hull features of the Dutch
passenger liner Oranje [De Ingenieur, The Hague,
Holland, 23 Jun 1939, PI. II and p.W. 56]. The
comprehensive data were taken from windtunnel tests, made on a specially constructed
model of the vessel, complete to the last detail.
Unfortunately, they cover only the wind-ahead

As an
way

the

indication of

of air flow

ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT

Sec. 6S.15

563
Uniform

More or Less Undi sturbed

Troce of Surface Above Which the Flow

Air

From

and Reversed Flow Occurs Aboft Almost

Edd\(inq

Fig. 68.L

All

and Exposed Objects ond Aboft tht Abrupt

Projections

Air-Flow Pattern Over a Passenger

condition but they illustrate vividly the back

and the extreme irregularity

the eddies,

flow,

of the air flow in general.

For the many smaller

The Motor

736;

Ship,

ships,

and some

large

SBSR, 2 Dec 1954,

London, Dec 1954, pp.

374-375], on which the deckhouses and other deck

erections (except possibly for a raised forecastle)

are

the

all

way

aft,

there

is

a possible major shift

and upper

of the center of pressure of the hull

works which may affect maneuverabiUty in a high

wind. Apparently this offers no real problem in
operation, aside from learning initially how the
ship behaves and controlling it accordingly.
It

is

customary, for

many

ship designs,

to

build a simple, inexpensive model, usually called

drafting-room

model,

embodying the

hull

DWL

and all the principal deck erecabove the

tions and exposed parts in their proper shapes,
sizes, and locations. Fig. 54. B shows such a model.
It is an easy task, for which techniques are well
developed [Nolan, R. W., SNAME, 1946, pp.
46-60], to mount this model in a large wind
tunnel at various angles to the relative wind
and to determine the nature of the flow over and
around it. A hght thread or tuft, carried by a
thin wand which is manipulated by hand and
placed at selected points, indicates instantly the

type of flow to be expected there. Multiple tufts

of contrasting color, attached to the model at

many

photographed for record,

such a model may
be tested in the open provided a platform or
deck is available, over which a uniform wind is

at

points, are readily

any

thread or
far

ones [Swedish tanker Oceanus,

p.

blowing.

test condition. Indeed,

Ship,

Endincjs

I"

low

Ahead

Deckhouses

of

from a Model Test

long fish pole, carrying the roving

tuft,

enables the experimenter to stand

enough from the model so that

not interfere with the uniform

his

body does

air flow

near the

model.

Shepheard describes the results

made at the NPL, Teddington, upon such a model of the British Royal
Yacht Britannia [INA, 7 Apr 1954, pp. 11-13].
In this case white smoke filaments were used,
which were found to photograph satisfactorily.
It is possible to make exactly the same type of
flow test on an upside-down model of the upper
works attached to a large horizontal surface board
and suspended in the water of a circulatingwater channel. Jets of water from a suitable
pump are caused to issue from the stacks at a
velocity having the proper ratio to that of the
overall stream, corresponding to the relative- wind
velocity. Colored dye injected into the water
streams from the stacks gives a true and vivid
indication of the paths of the exhaust gases on
the full-scale ship, complete with swirls, eddies,
Sir Victor G.

of wind-tunnel tests

and the like.

Methods for calculating the

air

drag and wind

resistance of ship hulls, upper works,

and deck

erections are given in Chap. 54.

Abovewater
World War II,
a considerable amount of research and development on methods of keeping combustion and
objectionable exhaust gases and soot clear of
passenger and operating spaces on ships has
68.15

Design

of

Facilities

Smoke and Gas Discharge.

revealed that:

for

Since

HYDRODYNAMICS

564

These gases must be discharged into regions

smooth and regular flow, rather
than into flow containing large-scale eddies. The
discharge must be above and outside of separation
(a)

relatively

of

zones,

else

scattered

are

the gases

widely in

drawn back and

downward by the reversed flow and the eddies.
(b) Stacks of large diameter, width, and horizontal area create their own separation zones,
regions of low velocity or are

into which the escaping gases are drawn, thence

to find their

way

to the decks below

Raising the stack top to a great height,

(c)

projecting far above the top of the turbulent

region, will not of itself prove satisfactory because

and dirt that falls upon the ship at

wind velocities approaching zero [Smith,

of the soot

relative

W. W., SNAME, 1946, pp. 76-77]

(d) To insure that gases issuing from

a stack top
open are projected far enough into the
regular flow to prevent their mixing with the
turbulent flow behind the stack or over the ship
in the

it

is

necessary that the stack-gas velocity

S,

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 68.15

may

be larger than the opening,

structure that

chimneyshaped stacks are not acceptable, combustion

and exhaust gases may be discharged from the
after upper corner of a stack casing, as on the
liners Constitution and Independence (1950-1951).
Supplementing (a) preceding, wind-tunnel tests
on ship models reveal that set-backs or steps in
the forward surface of a multi-deck superstructure
give the equivalent of a streamlined forward face
if the set-back slope through the upper edges of
the various vertical surfaces is not more than 30
deg with the horizontal. If the slope is as great
as 60 deg, the turbulent separation region above
the uppermost deck is about as high and as large
as if the superstructure face were a solid vertical
wall, with a 90-deg slope. Furthermore, performance on the ship is found to be somewhat better
than the model tests predict [Acker, H. G.,
SNAME, New Engl. Sect., Oct 1951, p. 5].
For the reader who wishes to pursue the subject
(g)

If,

for reasons of appearance, tall

further the following references are quoted:

approximately vertical, be at least as great as

the relative-wind velocity

S may have

velocity

volume

Wr

in the open.

to be 1.5 or 2.QiW r

of stack gas is not large.

general service conditions the

if

The
the

(1)

p.

For the worst

maximum

should exceed 65
turbulent

ft

areas.

per sec

For

ships the actual relative

fine,

if

(3)

there are adjacent

fast,

high-powered

vortex of a long, thin stack shaped like a symmet-

is

properly placed

at the

(5)

forward edge of the gas

opening, and not at the forward edge of a stack

stack

lie

Squire,

(6)

Nuisance,"
(7)

SNAME,

1946, pp. 42-82

Sharp, G. G., "Design of

Modern

Ships,"

SNAME,

1947, pp. 462-466

(8)

Valensi,

J.,

and Guillonde, L., "Sur les

Formes de

Carenage de Chemin^es de Navires Propres k

Eviter le Rabattement des Fumfees (On the
Shaping of Stacks of Ships Intended to Prevent the
Settling of

Smoke over the Decks)," ATMA,

1948,

Vol. 47, p. 173

stack-gas

turbulent region. This shield or elbow, however,

Ingenieur, 7 Jul 1939, p. 79. In Figs. 27, 28,

above and abaft the stack.

H. B., and Troucer, J., "Round Jets in a
General Stream," ARC, R and
1974, 1944
Nolan, R. W., "Design of Stacks to Minimize Smoke
to

rical airfoil. If

velocity in an effort to keep the gases clear of the

1941

this page, there are given three diagrams

arrangements tested, apparently in a
wind tunnel. For each of the diagrams there is
sketched the type of flow found to issue from and

of

to project the objectionable gases into the tip

of

Mar

A. H.,
"Machine- en electrische
van het m.s. 'Oranje' (Machinery and
Electrical Installation of the Motorship Oranje),"

De

upward component

of

installatie

and 29 on

the

de fumee (maquettes
(Method of Smoke FilaAirplanes and Airplane
Tech. du Ministere de

fillets

Ijsselmuiden,

works should still be smoke- and gas-free.

(e) It may under some circumstances be possible

of

Julius Springer, 1936, Vol. Ill,

Mich. Res. Bull. 29,

(4)

60 or 65 kt, corresponding to 100 or 110 ft per

under conditions when the decks and upper

some

AT,

Wings)," Publ. Sci. et

I'Air, 1938, No. 128, pp. 11-16
Sherlock, R. H., and Stalker, E. A., "A Study of Flow
Phenomena in the Wake of Smokestacks," Univ.

sec,

caught in such a vortex the gases

remain there reasonably well, at least until they
are downwind far enough to be clear of the ship.
(f)
For fast ships in which the relative wind is
generally in the forward quadrant a shield around
the forward side of the stack opening or a partial
elbow directing the combustion gases aft as well
as upward, long used on French men-of-war and
built into the German cruiser Prim Eugen and
other naval vessels, is a simple means of retaining

F.,

"Methode des

ments using Models

relative-

wind velocity may reach

W.

165

d'avions, ailes d'avions)

wind velocity
r may be taken as 40 kt, so that
for no contamination the stack-gas velocity

Dui-and,

(2) Valensi, J.,

(9)

Eustaze,

S.,

"Le Rabattement des Fum6es sur

les

Fonts d'un Navire; Essais sur Modeles et Dispositions Pratiques (The Settling of Smoke over
the Decks of a Ship; Tests on Models and Practical
Arrangements)," ATMA, 1951, pp. 285-307

ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT

Sec. 68.15
(10)

(11)

(12)

and Burge, C. H., "Funnel Design and

Smoke Abatement," INA, 1950, Vol. 92, pp.
J19-J37; also ASNE, Aug 1951, p. 704. Seven
references are listed on p. 730 of this latter article.
Acker, H. G., "Stack Design to Avoid Smoke
Nuisance," SNAME, New England Sect., Oct 1951
Valensi, J., "Sur un Moyen Propre h Eviter le
Ower,

E.,

Rabatteraent des Fumfees sur les Fonts des Navires

(On a Good Method of Getting Rid of the Smoke
Settling on the Decks of Ships)," Bull. Tech. du
Veritas,
(13)

(14)

Mar

1952

Thieme, H., "A Contribution to Funnel Aerodynamics," Schiff und Hafen, Nov 1952, p. 453
Richter, E., "Neuzeitliche Schornsteinformen (New

Forms

of Stacks)," Schiffstechnik,

Aug

1954, pp.

36-44
"Passenger Liner with Engines Aft,"
IME, Deo 1955, Vol. LXVII, Figs. 21 and 22, pp.
446-447; abstracted in SBMEB, Dec 1955, pp.
689-693.

(15) Craig, R. K.,

circular outlet not

more than

for a gas velocity

of placing the pro-

machinery as far aft as practicable in the

ABC design are augmented by moving the exhaust
fan or smoke discharge aft with it, where the gas
may be projected upward through one or two
tall,

slender stacks.

The

G.,

SNAME,

1952,

of each stack casing could

then have a width of say 3.5 or 4.0 ft with a

ft. This leaves room for a
safety-valve escape pipe and for a damper and
fore-and-aft length of 5

mechanism

its

to keep

the stack-gas velocity

high at reduced powers, as when running in the

Port Amalo canal and the river below Port Correo.

To

give the structure rigidity without the use of

heavy scantlings or
of the order of 5

some 8

to

ft

ft.

stays, the

The bottom

bottom width
length

is

is

increased

to give the profile the appearance of

The aft edge is raked downward and aft

transom profile. The streamlined casing,

sturdiness.

in the

form

of a round-cornered rectangle at the

converts to a square-cornered rectangular

top,

shape just above the

rigid

fidley. This is to provide a

foundation where the ends and sides of the

stack casing attach to the transverse

beams and

fore-and-aft carlines directly below them.

superstructure for housing the passengers

and the public spaces

clear the forward

The top

ft

1946, p. 68;

1947, p. 465; SuUivan,

W.

E. K., and Scarborough,

pp. 488-490].

55 to 75

C, SNAME,

SNAME,

Sharp, G. G.,

3.0 ft in diameter

of the order of

per sec [MacMillan, D.

like the

The obvious advantages

pelling

565

is

a unit placed well aft to

deck for the handling of package

cargo and to be close to the pitching axis.

The

derrick posts forward are to be in pairs, so

it

appears logical and architecturally consistent to

carry this scheme aft by mounting two tall

If it

were considered that an underwater smoke

discharge, into the

Ap

region of the separation

zone, along the lower edge of the transom, could

be worked out in the course of the design of the

steam generators well

admirably to this arrange-

vessel, the position of the

aft

would lend

itself

ment.

inlet-and-exhaust-air shafts over the superstruc-

ture and placing two steeple-type

smoke stacks

one over each steam generator. An

estimate of the extent of the turbulent region
well

aft,

over the ship is sketched in Fig. 68.

with a
moderate true wind of 25 kt from ahead, on the
basis of H. G. Acker's estimate that the thickness
of the turbulent zone over the top of the super-

structure

is

of the order of 0.8 the height of

stepped-front superstructure above the main hull.

Combined with a
wind velocity

The

is

ship speed of 20 kt, the relative-

45

kt, or

stack gases from

about 76 fps.
each of two modern

8,500-horse steam generators should require a

,.

Combustion

;j.^
..'-'^"*%.

GQsesp

Estimated

Upper Limit

of Turbulent and

Exhaust -^'r]

Fig.

68.M

/
^^

EsTI^LA.TED

Eddv/inq

"Necessity, if not reason, has provided another flourish.

Large steamships now e.xpel their waste gases through
giant chimneys surmounted by all manner of strange
devices. To prevent these unpleasant vapours obstinately
returning to spotless decks below, invention has run riot
in providing amusing, if not always elegant or effective,
headgear for funnels. Angels' wings, admirals' caps,
upturned pudding bowls, skeleton triplanes all of these
and other fancies now proudly sail the oceans in the cause

of science and clean decks. What shall we see tomorrow?

Perhaps someone may get rid of those obnoxious fumes
somewhere else? Why not through the stern?" [SBSR,
1 Apr 1954, p. 401].

Some

excellent

comments

relative to the dis-

posal of the products of combustion,

Flo

Not Less Than 0.8

hg

"Tf
^IL

Air-Flow Pattern Over the

ABC

Ship

made by

HYDRODYNAMICS

566

John Johnson two decades ago, are

still

worthy

IN SHIP DESIGN
neath.

Sec. 6R.16

transom stern

may have

its

immersed

designer

draft increased to the point where the transom

[Thomas Lowe Gray lecture, IME, 10 Jan 1936;

SBSR, 16 Jan 1936, p. 74].
68.16 Reducing the Wind Drag of the Masts,

does not clear at the designed speed. Finally, a

consideration

serious

of

and Rigging.

Spars,

self-propelled

vessel

ship

raked masts on

Tall,

undoubtedly reUcs of

are

They

saiUng-ship days.

the

b}^

serve well for the flying

propeller designed for the original displacement

may

be heavily overloaded at a later one, when

the average draft has increased.

Model

Preparation of Hull Lines for

68.18

It is recalled that the design rules for

Tests.

apertures

and

clearances

the working of long derrick booms. Nevertheless,

bodied in Sec. 67.24 are in

many

cases based

with their attendant rigging they are subject to

heavy loads when rolling and they represent

propeller-blade widths,

of flags,

the carrying of navigation lights, and

wind resistance out

usefulness.

attached

to

of

the

ship

outside and, in the proper places, for the propelhng

and without

machinery within the ship, it is necessary to run

through a prehminary design of these devices, in
the manner outlined in Chaps. 67, 69, 70, and 71.
Before attempting to delineate the whole ship
hull on a single drawing, the fixed and movable
appendages need to be roughed out and checked
for position, shape, and dimensions. This procedure is described in Chaps. 73 and 74. Furthermore, the hull-and-appendage combination requires design attention and checking to insure
that shallow-water maneuvering, wavegoing, and
other requirements are met. These matters are
covered in Chap. 72 and in Parts 5 and 6 of

structure

serve as an air intake or exhaust,

all

at the

same

time. It can not easily be streamlined for flow

bearings in which high relative winds are

wind drag

encountered but

its

by the number

of functions

is

at least justified

which

performs

it

simultaneously.

Masts intended to be used as ventilators

appeared as far back as 1860 on the steamer
Ly-ee-Moon [SBSR, 9 Nov 1939, p. 507]. It is
possible that these in turn were rehcs of the early
smoke stacks which were extremely tall in order
to obtain good natural draft.

stays eliminated to reduce wind drag, inter-

ference,

and expense, are coming rather rapidly

into use [SBSR, 8 Oct 1953, pp. 484-485;

Dec

On

1953, p. 53;

SBSR, 24 Jun

MENA,

1954, pp. 800-801].

the Uner Orsova the running rigging for the

derricks

is

[SBSR, 20
68.17

carried

May

entirely

inside

the

posts

1954, p. 645].

Consideration

of

Increased

Draft

Through the Years. Before leaving the prehminary design of the abovewater body as finished
it is to be remembered that, as the result of a
continual series of modifications and changes in
the course of its life, most of which act to increase
the weight, the ship sinks slowly but steadily
deeper in the water. This is specially true for a

combatant vessel or

for a

merchant vessel which

likely to be converted to a naval auxiliary in

time of emergency. A heavy or pronounced flare
or a sharp knuckle may in this way be brought
too close to the designed waterline. A flat counter
may be lowered to the point where it is subject

is

to frequent sea slap

Volume

and slamming from under-

Simultaneously

III.

working

needs

design

volumes,

Self-supporting masts and derrick posts, with

all

of

proportion to their

can mount a radar antenna,

hold up one end of a radio antenna, support a
crow's nest, carry a range or masthead light, and

all

upon the thicknesses

pole or post, properly

benefit of stays,

on

emupon

rudder posts, and so on. To determine whether

there is room for the propulsion devices on the

all

tall vertical

screw-propeller

over

the
for

strength,

capacities,

preliminary

arrangement,

metacentric sta-

damage control, and other non-hydrodynamic requirements.

With this work accomplished, and with the
bihty,

shape and principal features of the underwater

and abovewater hulls, propulsion devices, and

appendages worked out, a set of lines for the hull

as a whole is drawn. This is in no sense a set of
lines to which the ship is to be built. For the
hydrodynamic design, its principal function is to
guide the building of a model or models for towing,
self-propulsion, maneuvering, shallow- water, wavegoing, and other tests.

The preparation

of lines

to

embody

all

the

features developed in the foregoing sections

largely a matter of drafting, except as

is

mathe-

processes such as those discussed in

Chap. 49 may be used to calculate the offsets
for drawing (and fairing) these lines.

matical

high degree of precision at this stage

called for.

large

The

scale,

fines

is

not

should be to a sufficiently

not only for construction

of

the

model, but for a fairly detailed design of all the

appendages which are eventually to be added to it.

CHAPTER

The General Design

Introductory

69.1
69 2

of the Propulsion Devices

Comment

Type and Number

of Propulsion

Devices

and Limiting Dimensions ....

Effect of Type and Design of Propelling
Machinery
Number and Position of the Engines
Use of Systematic Wake Variations ....
Rate and Direction of Rotation of Propul-

69 3
69.4

Positions

69 5
69 6
69.7

69 9
.

69.10

69.1

Comment.

Introductory

ances and Reserves

69.

are

common

Discussions
propellers,
lers,

of

specific

like,

69 14

573
574

69.15

There are con-

down

Rudders
.

The

these
(1)

69.2 Type and Number of Propulsion Devices.

Only rarely can lines be sketched for the form of a
new ship without first making a tentative decision
as to the type, number, and position of the pro-

the propelling machinery

is

The

to drive these devices

and powers which result in the highest

efficiency and the greatest economy for both.
Generally speaking, therefore, the type, number,
and position of the propulsion devices are determined directly from the ship requirements. The
corresponding features of the machinery are
at rates

So many considerations, most

of

them con-

enter into the selection of the propulsion-

device characteristics that

it

is

difficult

to set

on the basis

(2)

Maximum

(3)

Best general position in the

of:

including limiting

re-

vessel, considering

of wavegoing anticipated,
with
(4) Amount
consequent change of position of the instantaneous
water surface with reference to the region in

which thrust

being produced, such as the disc

is

of a screw propeller
(5)

Type

This boils

of propelling plant available or desired.

down

generally to the rate of rotation

output shaft on the last machinery unit,

just ahead of the propulsion device. In the past,
slow-speed engines drove screw propellers through
multiplying gears, and in the present, high-speed
of the

engines

drive

paddlewheels through reduction

need be few Umitations in

gears. Therefore there

this respect.
(6)

Facihties available for repair or replacement

of the propulsion devices

selected to suit the devices.

flicting,

first,

the latter's type, functions, and duty

are

function of

selected

is

and available depth of water

ship speed and total power
quired to be absorbed by the device (s)

type of propulsion device are worked out or

are installed to drive the ship.

type

Operating requirements,

draft of vessel

selected in actual practice.

these features

The

serve until something

well in a region of poor flow.

order in which the characteristics for any one

often

580

better is developed, remembering first, last,

and always that no propulsion device, whatever
its type and position, can be expected to perform

two chapters

determined by the types, sizes, and powers of the

propelhng units available; admittedly this procedure is inescapable at times. It is proper to
remember, however, that the propulsion devices

may

579

580

the procedure in systematic form.

outline given here

on the water.
devices such as screw

of

578

579

Vibration Frequencies

act

are found in the

Too

....

572

The systematic treatment

devices.

Re-

Disadvantages of Unbalanced PropulsionDevice Torque

Propulsion-Device Design to Meet Maneuvering Requirements
Relation of Propulsion-Device and Hull-

design features does not necessarily follow the

pulsion

Adjustable,

69 13

paddlewheels, rotating-blade propel-

and the

following.

which

576

Feathering,

of

Propulsion Devices to be Used with ContraVanes, Contra-Guide Sterns, and Contra-

to the design of all mechanical ship-

devices

Selection

versible, or Controllable Features

sidered in this chapter only those features which

propulsion

69. 12

sion Devices
Design to Equalize or to Apportion the
Powers of Multiple Propellers
Powering Allowances
Graphic Representation of Powering Allow-

69.8

567
567
568

570
570
572

69

areas where the ship

ship's force or
(7)

567

by

is

and

their parts in the

to operate, either

by the

repair crews

Frequency with which the propulsion devices

HYDRODYNAMICS

568

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec.

are to be used, such as those on a self-propelled

the design demand, and no more than the

floating crane.

for

Concerning the Jiumbcr of propulsion devices,

the following considerations govern:

69.3

number

which good working positions can be found.

Positions and Limiting Dimensions. The

matter of how far to keep the thrust-producing
69.3

away from the hull and its boundary layer,

how close to bring them to the hull, is discussed

areas

Available depth of water in operating areas,

(a)

limiting extreme draft, probable draft of hull of

vessel,

and approximate beam-draft

ratio of hull.

This item involves factors such as adequate tip

submergence to prevent air leakage to submerged

adequate hydrostatic head to prevent

devices,

most

cavitation,

efficient

missible extension,
It

may

fit

a larger

if

blade lengths, and per-

through 67.25
and other devices in Chap.

for screw propellers in Sees. 67.23

and

for paddlewheels

71.

The

selection of the particular position of the

propulsion

device(s)

in

any ship

takes

into

account:

any, below the baseplane.

be necessary, for some of these reasons, to

number

or

of small-diameter or small-size

propulsion devices, or a fewer

number

of large-

(1)

The nature

of

the flow into the possible

positions, considering

wake

fraction, uniformity

of inflow velocity, non-axiahty,

and absence

of

contra-flow

or

excessive turbulence

diameter ones.
(b) Special operating

requirements such as those

maneuvering in restricted waters and emergency stops. Wing propellers provide appreciable
swinging moments by going ahead on one and
backing on the other.
(c) Probability of large exciting forces and excessive hull vibration if large powers are concentrated
in too few propulsion devices. As of 1955, the
largest power applied to the propeller of a singlescrew vessel, the tanker W. Alton Jones, is about

for

22,000 horses [Mar. Eng'g.,

However, powers

Nov

1955, p.

119].

of the order of 50,000 horses

by the individual propellers

and these may
eventually be reached by the propellers of fast,

are being developed

of quadruple-screw installations,

single-screw ships. K. E. Schoenherr pointed out

some years ago that

it

was then "possible

(2)

The

possibility

of

fitting

contra-guide devices adjacent to the propulsion

device (s)
(3)

Freedom from entrained

air

coming along

the hull from forward, leakage air coming from

the free surface, and eddies in or trailing abaft

separation zones
(4) The tip submergence considered necessary in
view of the specified loading and anticipated
wavegoing conditions
(5)

Permissible

depression

of

blade

the

tips

below the baseplane. Usually this can not exceed

about 4 or 5 ft, the height of the keel blocks in
the average drydock.'
(6)

Available

propelling-machinery

positions

within the hull.

Each design

to

case

is

on

considered

its

own

design propellers to transmit 50,000 horsepower

merits, taking account of all the items listed in

on one shaft and to obtain propulsion efficiency

of as high as 80 per cent on single-screw ships"
[SNAME, Phila. Sect., 21 Feb 1947].

down

(d)

Interference likely to be caused with internal

arrangements in the vessel by the presence of one,

two, or more shafts, including their shaft alleys
or tunnels
(e)

Efficiency of propulsion.

device,

if

there

is

room

for it

One
and

large propulsion
if

indicated, almost invariably proves

good inflow

more

is

efficient

than two or more small ones, reckoning efficiency

here on the basis of the least propeller or shaft
power for a given weight displacement and length
of the ship.
(f)

Reliability

and safety aspects

of the entire

engine-shaft-propulsion-device combination

good general rule is to use no more propulsion devices than the special requirements of
(g)

and in Sec. 69.2. It is difficult to set

which apply even in the majority of
especially when the relative importance of

this section

cases,

rules

the several controlling items often

is

not known

N. J. Brazell has given some good

ideas in a paper entitled "The Positioning of
Propellers and Shafts" [ASNE, Feb 1948, pp.
32-48]. On the motor vessels Brunshausen and
Brunsbiittel the single propeller is mounted about
9 ft abaft a clear-water stern post, in an effort
to improve propulsive efficiency and to reduce
vibration [SBSR, 12 Jan 1956, p. 38; MENA,
Jan 1956, p. 28; both references embody photographs of the stern].
The result of an analysis by H. Dickmann
in advance.

[Ingenieur-Archiv, 1938, p. 452], set

down

by K. E. Schoenherr [PNA, 1939, Vol.

is

that:

briefly

II, p. 145],

GENER/VL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 69.3

for best efficiency of propulsion the screw propeller

should be located in a high friction wake, a negative or
".

low positive streamline (potential-flow) wake and in the

crest of a wave."

propelling machinery.

condition that the propeller work in a

negative or low positive potential or streamline

wake is that which obtains generally in a normal

form

of ship

if

the hull

is

assumed

to be

expanded

to include the displacement thickness 6* (delta

of the boundary layer. With run lines of
easy slope, such an expanded form has only a
moderate positive streamline wake fraction due
star)

to potential flow.

To

achieve the highest practicable negative

wake fraction, propellers could be

streamline

mounted on

outriggers abreast

the section of

about the same

Here the speed of
advance becomes greater than the ship speed.
Because there is no ship forward of the side
propellers, the thrust-deduction fraction becomes
practically zero. High negative-wake fractions
are actually to be found inside Kort nozzles and

maximum
position

area,

as

occupying

paddlewheels.

other types of fixed propeller shrouding.

When some form of hydraulic jet propulsion

been faced and always

that

employed, requiring large volumes of water to

be taken within the hull boundaries and discharged
from internal ducts, the positions and shapes of
the inflow and the outflow openings become almost
a part of the main hull design. These features, of
which relatively little is known, are indeed

worthy

of

more attention than

is

will

be faced with the

and

shipping

these devices are too small. Never-

theless, larger facilities

the past and

have always been

built in

they will continue to be

made

no reason why
the propulsion-device designer should be bound
by existing facilities if he can produce a better or
more efficient ship.
Since most propulsion devices rotate, there
are problems of gearing and transmission, which
may govern the rate of rotation and through it
available in the future. There

may

is

influence the size of the propulsion device,

the thrust-load coefficient, and the hydrodynamic

Furthermore, the necessity for me-

efficiency.

protection

chanical

of

damage by

against
shielding

the

propulsion

external

against air leakage, as

it

device

and for
done for a

objects,
is

screw propeller by the main hull of a single-screw

tug, may call for a diameter smaller than would
otherwise be used.
required thrust-producing area Aa of any

type of propulsion device being considered is

readily calculated from the ship resistance Rt
and the speed V. After estimating or assuming

wake and thrust-deduction

values of the

w and
which

and

T =

Ctl

a good value of the real efficiency

will give

(0.8?;/),

fractions

selecting a thrust-load factor

the values are substituted in the formula

normally

devoted to the position of a screw propeller and

the shape of the hull in its vicinity. Following the
practice on jet-propelled aircraft, the ram action
of the water flowing toward the hull is utilized
to force water into the inlet and to keep it moving

probable that the

fabrication

existing

facilities for

The
is

is

designer of ship-propulsion devices always has

fact

The

It

569

C,

i2j

Cr

AoVl

Ao[F(l

w)f

whence

A =

against the friction and pressure resistance en-

2Crz.(l

pRrlVil

- W)f
t)

the internal ducts. This is

where practicable, by an inlet
opening facing directly forward or forward and

for determining quickly the diameter of a screw

outward.

propeller in the course of a preliminary design

countered

within

accomplished,

As

for the limiting dimensions of propulsion

devices,

it

is

obvious that there are practical

by good all-around engineering,

good mechanical design, and economic operation
of the vessel which are in conflict with hydrodynamic requirements for the ultimate in prolimits dictated

pulsion-device efficiency.

To

E. Burtner gives a simple dimensional formula

[ASNE, Aug

1953, pp. 545-548]. This formula

appears to give reasonable values for both 3- and

4-bladed wheels and for a rather wide range of

expanded-area

ratio. It is

[Ps (in horses)]"

(in

ft)

(69.i)

(rpm)"

increase the latter

means increasing the thrust-producing area and

lowering the thrust-load coefficient Ctl but at the
expense of increased volume occupied by and
increased weight of the propulsion device and the

On page

547 of the reference Burtner includes

nomogram for finding any one of

a small-scale

the three values quickly

when the other two

known. For example, assuming

for the

ABC

are
ship

HYDRODYNAMICS

570

Ps is 16,000 horses and D is 20 ft, the estimated rpm are about 118. The rates of rotation
derived by the use of several propeller charts in
that

from about 104 to about 110 rpm.

69.4 Effect of Type and Design of Propelling
Machinery. The general design of propulsion
devices is never dissociated entii'ely from the
type and design of propelling machinery because
these units or systems are, always figuratively
Sec. 70.6 vary

and generally literally, at opposite ends of the

same shaft. Nevertheless it may not be amiss to
point out in this book that the greatest freedom
of choice for the design, construction, and position
in the ship for both the propulsion-device and
the propelling-plant systems is afforded by a
suitable combination of the following elements:

IN SHIP DESIGN

An

(1)

Sec. 69.4

generating plant,

electric

driven by a

steam, internal-combustion, or gas-turbine engine,

some type unknown at present but

be found feasible in the future.
This plant is to be in units of sizes and powers
which lend themselves readily to manufacture,
to mstallation in the most advantageous position (s) in the ship, to economical and efficient
operation, and to progressive maintenance.
or a plant of

which

An

(2)

may

electric transmission system,

DC, with

or

either

AC

the necessary safety and control

devices

(3)

high-speed

reasonably

rugged

electric

motor or motors, suitably cooled and protected

from dirt, moisture, spray, and liquid. The
modern railway traction motor fulfills all these
requirements.

plant

which

need not be located in the ship in some

specific

(a)

type

of

power-generating

gearing

Speed-changing

(4)

double-reduction

of

epicycUc

or

the

single-

type,

or

utilizing

region, dictated by the position of the propulsion

device (s), but which can be placed where it best
satisfies ship operating conditions. It should not

wherever practicable the so-called flexible construction which provides uniform load distribution
along the gear faces and consequent maximum

be forced into a certain and not always deposition because the propulsion-device
sirable
design requires compliance with a completely
different set of conditions, nor should it be such

loading on the teeth.

that

into only one position in the ship.

it will fit

completely flexible power-transmission

(b) A
system by which a power-generating plant or
driving member can be connected to a driven
member on the propulsion-device shaft with

freedom

of

direction

of

rotation,

direction

shaft axes, relative position in the vessel,

distance between the two.

is

afforded

by

Freedom

of

and

of this type

electric-wiring or piping systems.

(c) A propulsion-drive unit which is small, light,

compact, and adaptable as to location, requiring
a minimum of maintenance

speed changer which

(d) A propulsion-drive
permits use of the optimum speeds for both the
propulsion-drive unit and the propulsion device.

At the time of writing (1955) these requirements

met for a wide range of powers by the following
units grouped in one machinery plant. The important matters of space, weight, and cost are not
are

disregarded but are for the

moment

considered

although

powers only,

are

It

is

who

[Lisle, 'T. O.,

p. 36],

often

is

keenly interested in the hydrodynamics

of his propulsion device (s), that active develop-

ment along
69.5

these lines will continue.

Number and

Position of the Engines.

comment in items (a) through (g)

on the number of propulsion devices,

ParalleUng the
of Sec. 69.2,
it

may

be said that:

(a) A single machinery unit is lighter, more

compact in total volume occupied, more cheaply
and easily installed and maintained, and cheaper
to run than several units of the same total power.
Aside from only one engine there is only one

thrust bearing, one line shaft, one propeller or

stern-tube shaft, and one set of shaft bearings

and

(b)

The space and weight

be devoted to other useful

hull stuffing boxes.

of the fuel

saved

for crew's stores.

flexibility.

installation

available

to be hoped, for the sake of the ship designer

to fulfill the requirements of the preceding

paragraph. Such an installation comprises:

an

of

where weight and space are at a great premium.

items.

of

some

themselves in severe service afloat

Motorship, New York, Mar 1953,

The specific mention here

resembUng an electric-drive
plant is intended solely as an example and not as
indicating the best or the ultimate achievement

secondary to

by the
them in limited
and have proved

Practically all the elements required

foregoing,

may

single unit requires fewer operating per-

and weight
devoted to crew accommodations and required

sonnel. This in turn reduces the space

(c)

Modern machinery may not yet be sufficiently

GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 69.5

never to require any reserve pro-

reliable so as

home

pelling unit(s) to bring the vessel

in the

event of casualty. It is, however, vastly more

than was the machinery of a former age,
which saw a shift to twin-screw machinery
reliable

largely to provide this measure of safety.

The

position of the propelling machinery in

the vessel

the

(d) Affects

the hydrodynamic

of interest in

is

design principally because

it:

and

declivity

the

horizontal

angle (s) of the propeller shaft(s), as well as the

shape and positions of the shaft struts or bossings

main hull
the size and shape

(e)

Affects

of

large

motors,

of the hull in

condensers,

gears,

way

other

or

machinery parts which need certain clearances

from the hull structure
Concerns the readiness with which the screw
(f)
submerged in

kepi

are

propellers

all

operating

conditions. This item is considered most important

[Rupp, L. A., and Jasper, N. H.,

SNAME,

1952,

pp. 352, 354].

(g) Affects

the disposition of the products of

combustion and the air resistance of stacks,

standpipes, or other deck erections
(h)

Controls the possibilities and the methods of

underwater gas exhaust.

Assuming that the

ABC

ship

is

to be driven

by

screw propellers at the stern, the following hne of

reasoning was employed when determining the
proper number. With the tentative beam-draft
proportions of the
66.e

of

Sec.

combinations of Table
varying from 78.25:26 to

first

66.11,

74:26, it appears easy to

twin screws. However,

fit

the propellers are there to drive the ship, not

necessarily to

make

it

easy to design or construct.

On

the basis of requirement (5) of Table 64.a, for

"Performance of the required transportation as

efficiently

and economically as the present

of the art permits,"

indicated.

The

corresponding

a single screw

resultant
increase

in

San Francisco (old) and Maui of the

and middle 1910's, running between San
Francisco and Honolulu. Two later Matson
hners, designed primarily for carrying cargo, and
having the single-screw machinery installed way
aft, were the Manulani and the Manukai [MESA,
Sep 1921, pp. 707-708]. This arrangement,
incidentally, was adopted as far back as the
period 1843-1845 in the American auxiliary
sailing ships Commodore Preble and Bangor
[Bradlee, F. B. C, "Steam Navigation in New
England," Salem, 1920] and in the Edith and the
vessels

early

Massachusetts, built for R. B. Forbes [American

Neptune, Jan 1941,

external to the

saving
other

is

in

fuel

useful

should be of the order of 3 per cent. It

state

definitely

is

and
items

agreed,

571

version

is

Pis.

2,

A much

5].

later

the Shaw-Savill finer Southern Cross,

a pure passenger ship, with a single mast and

single stack, far aft

1953, p. 1020;

[111.

London News, 19 Dec

1953, p. 569; SBSR,

MENA, Dec

Int. Des. and Equip. No., 1954, pp. 3-4]. In

Europe an after machinery position was first
used on the EngUsh coastal colher John Bowes
in 1852 [Bowen, F. C, SBSR, 30 Sep 1937, pp.
421-422]. It is no longer necessary, as on the
latter vessel, to put the machinery and the smoke

stack "right aft," out of the

way

of the fore-and-

on three masts. Nevertheless, the other

reasons for placing the machinery in the stern
are as valid today as they were in 1845, 1852,
and again in 1892, when the steamer Turret was
built in this fashion. These reasons, stated at the
time by F. C. Goodall [INA, 1892, pp. 194-195]
and later by G. C. V. Holmes ["Ancient and
Modern Ships," 1906, Part II, p. 120] are summarized here from those authors:
aft sails

(1)

When

to trim

the ship

by the

without cargo

is

stern,

it

helps her

and thus gives good immer-

sion to the propeller

(2)

Water

or fuel tanks

may

be

fitted in

the after

part of the vessel, to help submerge the propeller,

shown on Plate XXIII

as

of 1892. This
vessels,
(3)

and

is

is

The main

of the Goodall paper

now standard on

all

incorporated in the
shaft

is

shorter

Great Lakes

ABC

and

design.

lighter,

with

fewer bearings to watch and lubricate

The hold space occupied by the

shaft tunnel

however, between the designer and the future

(4)

owner and operator, that a prehminary design

with twin screws is to be worked up if time and

is

opportunity permit.

rectangular section amidships, greatly facilitates

The layout

selected for the

ABC

design calls

machinery units to be placed as far aft as

practicable, following in some measure the
designs of the combination passenger and cargo

for the

saved

(5)

Using the most valuable part

the stowage of cargo

(6)

[SBMEB, Jan

Less useful volume

ery components,
part of the vessel.

if

of the hull, the

is lost,

1953, p. 4]

around the machin-

they are placed in the after

HYDRODYNAMICS

572

A subsequent commentary is equally applicable:

bow and
moving through many feet and the amidships
movement only angular, and this space occupied by the
." [Lord
engine, and the engine was never seasick
"... of the ship in a big swell pitching, the

stern

Brabazon, SBSR, 23 Oct 1952,

p. 555].

Comments on machinery-aft positions were made

by G. Gravier, concerning the performance of
the passenger steamer El Djezdir [SBSR, 23 Sep
1954, p. 397], and by A. C. Hardy [SBSR, 7 Oct

Were

recently E. C. B. Corlett has

made

Sec. 69.6

necessary to equalize the blade

it

loads per unit length for any reason this could be

done by narrowing the blade at its inner end and

widening it at its outer end.
For practical and mechanical reasons, it is
advantageous to have the greatest blade load
nearest to the point where the torque is delivered
to the wheel.

end

The

increased loading at the inner

paddlewheel blade, or at the hull end of a

Kirsten- Boeing rotating-propeller blade, is accordof a

ingly accepted.

1954, p. 465].

More

IN SHIP DESIGN
the ship.

The

rotating blades of a Voith-

further study of the advantages and disadvan-

Schneider propeller develop thrust on opposite

sides during any one revolution. It is possible to

tages of installing machinery aft,

take advantage of the velocity variation in and

modern

He

conditions.

based upon

also discusses the question

of placing the navigating bridge

and

all

the crew

accommodation aft [The Motor Ship, London,

Feb 1955, pp. 483-485; IME, Jun 1955, Vol.
LXVII, pp. 84-85].
69.6 Use of Systematic Wake Variations.
It
has been said [author unknown] that "The more
uniform the wake, the simpler does it become to
design an efficient propeller." Fortunately, because of the practicability of changing the

size,

form, and attitude of the blade sections along a

it is only needful that this
maintained for the complete
travel path of any given blade section. For a
screw propeller this calls for circumferential

length or a radius,

uniformity

be

beyond the boundary layer by

local changes in the

width but not in the section of a blade.
69.7 Rate and Direction of Rotation of Propulsion Devices. Rather extensive comment
concerning the rate of rotation of screw propellers
is given by J. E. Burkhardt [ME, 1942, Vol. I,
pp. 28-35]. These remarks, coupled with the
discussion of Sec. 70.10 on the rate of rotation of
screw propellers as an element in design, is
sufficiently general so that no further comment is
needed here about other propulsion devices. The
matter of selecting a rate of rotation that will
not cause vibration of the ship structure or of its
major parts in resonance with the shaft or blade

frequencies

The

uniformity in the wake fraction at any radius.

When

examining wake diagrams such as those

is

discussed briefly in Sec. 69.15.

selection of the direction of rotation of

new ship

upon the

relative

variations which permit the propulsion device to

design usually depends

importance of the propulsive
efficiency to be achieved and the maneuvering

be adapted locally to them. The next step

and other

qualities desired. For small

depend upon the availability

in Chap. 60 the procedure

is

to look for systematic

is

to

determine the correct or proper average wake

characteristics in the regions

from

where the variations

contemplating the design of a paddlewheel, for instance, it is known that, apart from a
of

ship-wave

effects,

may

also

craft it
of pro-

pelling plants developing the necessary individual

and which rotate in the directions

For the smaller
where one may have to use available

shaft powers

this average are the smallest.

When

consideration

these devices for a

the

wake

velocities near the ship hull are positive because

boundary layer alongFarther from the ship, outside the boundary

desired, left-hand or right-hand.

vessels,

stock machinery, rotation in a desired direction

may

be too expensive because of necessary modifi-

may

involve the carrying of too many

w^th engines

of the viscous flow in the

cations or

side.

spare parts on a craft equipped

layer, these velocities are negative because of the

rotating to both hands. In large vessels practically

accelerated regions of potential flow abreast the

all

diagram
C of Fig. 6.B. Theoretically, the paddle blade
elements away from the ship should travel faster
than those next to the ship. However, this is not
feasible in a shipboard installation and it might
not be advantageous hydrodynamically for other

can be

ship, indicated in the velocity profiles of

reasons.

ship

is

The blade

load per unit area next to the

therefore larger than at a distance from

propelhng plants, at least in the design stage,

The
gears

made

to operate in either direction.

interposition of reduction or multiplying

may

or

may

not change an engine direction

to the desired propeller direction. Nevertheless,

it is

generally possible, even in the construction

stage, to obtain a desired direction of rotation of

the propulsion-device shaft

if

there are sufficient

advantages to be gained thereby.

GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 69.8

Assuming that the

latter is the case, a syste-

matic variation in the flow at the position of the

propulsion device is looked for, one which will
give a superior efficiency or perhaps a larger
thrust

absolute

for

rotation. This matter

and

particular

is

direction

of

discussed in Sees. 33.4

upward component

on
the outboard side of a twin skeg is larger than
on the inboard side, outward-turning screw
33.6. If the

of flow

propellers are indicated so that the outer blades

moving downward may "meet" the water flowing

upward to them. If for some special reason the
reverse

is

the case, as with the outside water

flowing horizontally and the inside water

upward

through a tunnel, inward-turning propellers are

found more efficient. If circumstances limit the
design of long deflection-type bossings or asymmetrical skegs to a particular diversion of the

surrounding water the screw-propeller rotation

to take advantage of

is

provided of
course that other design requirements are met.
Considering hydrodynamics only there are

selected

very few reasons

single-

rotate

the

in

why any

multiple-unit

or

direction

it,

propulsion device of a

may

installation

which best

the desired performance of that unit

This

is

on the basis that the outflow

not
produces

by

itself.

from

jet

any one device does not pass through the

disc

or thrust-producing area of another device,

and

that the resulting unbalanced torque applied by

the propelling plants to the hull, discussed in

It is

customary for large

vessels,

but by no

for all vessels, that screw pro-

pellers be rotated in the following directions:

573

As soon

of Multiple Propellers.

as

Twin

screws, in opposite directions, especially

proper proportioning of the powers, regardless

of the number of propulsion devices, to the designed powers of the propelling units which are to

them.

drive

The

quadruple-screw

large

ocean service but for around-the-world cruising

the outboard screws were to be removed entirely,

by the inboard
These were capable of absorbing
two-thirds of the total power and were the only
ones which could be reversed.
Proper design procedure involves consideration
leaving the ship to be driven
propellers only.

and,

if

possible, control of the following items at

each propulsion-device position:

for

Boundary-layer thickness and velocity profile,

both clean- and foul-bottom conditions

(b)

Retardation or possible reversal of flow behind

(a)

blunt bossing or skeg endings, involving wake

fractions

with

exceeding

LO

large

positive

values,

possibly

General and local direction of flow through

(c)

propeller discs or other thrust-producing areas,

plus wake-survey

flow
(d)

is

of

data.

This

is

a case where

only the axial component of

definitely not adequate.

Non-axiality of flow, due not only to the

shape of the adjacent hull but to the necessity

(b)

much

of the time with part or all of their

out of water,
if

must rotate in opposite

the large lateral forces pro-

duced by them are to be balanced

(c) Triple screws embody wing propellers rotating
in

opposite

directions.

most

The

center

propeller

and convenient
direction, especially if under some conditions the
vessel is to be propelled entirely by the center
propeller, with the wing propellers free-wheeling.
(d) Quadruple screws rotate, in pairs, in opposite
directions on opposite sides of the ship.
rotates

69.8

in

the

Design

suitable

to Equalize or to

an outflow

Apportion the

its

jet

way

from a propulsion

into the inflow jet

of one abaft it

upper
(f)

blades

directions in pairs

Possibility of

device ahead finding

Surface propellers or those which run for

and

the propulsion devices outside

(e)

hands, symmetrical with the centerplane

liner

Empress of Britain of the early 1930's was propelled by two large inboard screws plus two smaller
outboard ones. All four were to be used in trans-

the flow patterns are decidedly of opposite

if

is

about the problem of equahzing the powers

absorbed by all of them. This corresponds to the

for placing shafts to suit the engines inside

(a)

it

decided to use multiple propulsion devices, two

or more in number, the designer begins to think

consideration

Sec. 69.13, lies within acceptable limits.

means necessary

Powers

Rate

The

of rotation of the various propulsion

when absorbing

devices

propeller torque

the

designed

powers.

may

be so large that the

engine delivers rated torque at less than the
designed rate of rotation, preventing the develop-

ment

of full rated power.

speed of advance

may

reaches

rpm

its

rated

On

the other hand, the

be so high that the engine

when developing less than

the rated torque.

(g)

Necessity for accurate correlation of torque

and rate

of rotation to achieve full rated

powers

for internal-combustion engines driving (single or)

multiple propellers.

HYDRODYNAMICS

574

The

available data relating to power equalizaand proportioning and to correlation of

torque and rate of rotation on existing merchant
ships or on self-propelled models of them are
by no means extensive. J. M. Labberton in a
paper entitled "A Method for Determining
Proper Pitch for the Inboard and Outboard
Propellers on a Four-Screw Ship" [ASNE, Nov
1937, pp. 576-584], discusses this question and
tion

gives the following data for the old Mauretania,

taken during the

Rate

Shaft power, horses

AH

ft.

however,
propelled

still

it

tests,

practiced

in

20,650

20,650

18,600
ft

and

velocities

and

both at

positions,

to

estimate
distribu-

it

is

possible

An

thrust-deduction

estimate of

fractions

Before a model

for hull features not

or

method,

17,350

wake magnitude and

One

alternative

188.6

is

is,

self-

should be possible to determine what

of the designer.

The

1S8.6

variations in propeller design are necessary to

compensate

This means that the ship hull is shaped to be

driven efficiently at a speed greater than the
sustained speed when developing its maximum

186.6

the propeller

difficult.

advantages to be gained by designing a speed

margin rather than a power margin into the ship.

187.3

use of existing model-testing techniques

individual

repeated subsequently in the

concentrated on the outstanding

sustained speed and then to add a large power

tion at each propeller position.

the

being

Outer

In this case the rates of rotation

these data

are

The emphasis

Inner

the hull and appendage surfaces and at distances

from them. It is possible, for example, to make a
wake survey at an after propeller position with a
model propeller working in a position ahead.
Facilities have been developed but are not yet in
general use in model basins, whereby a wake
survey is made just ahead of a working propeller.

From

is

characteristics
in Sec. 65.3.

Inner

which indicate and record the flow

rather closely the

that section,

present one,

down

some

The designer may find that he has only limited

freedom in shaping the hull and placing the
propulsion devices. After he has done what he
can in positioning these devices properly and
working out the adjacent appendages he is able

at

set

Star.

pellers.

directions

in

is

Star.

were as uniform as could be hoped for in such a

new ship but the inner propellers were
absorbing some 53.5 per cent of the total power,
or about 15 per cent more than the outer pro-

make

formulated,

Port

large

to

whose principal

ship

Port
Outer

four propellers had a diameter of 17

a pitch of 15.75

Sec. 69.9

applying to the hydrodynamic features of a new

power.

trials of 1907:

rpm

of rotation,

IN SHIP DESIGN

under the control

more series

of self-propelled

possibly with a change in propeller design in

quarters,

is

to design the ship hull for the

allowance. This might be acceptable if the

problem were only one of overcoming increased
resistances due to heavy weather and to fouling.
However, it results in overdriving and poor
performance at the augmented speeds necessary
for a ship which, running on a definite schedule,
has to make up time after a spell of bad weather.
Good design of the propelUng plant of any
water craft calls for a reserve of power (1) to
meet emergeircies, (2) to enable the plant to
keep running and to deliver a sort of average
power with minor casualties, and (3) to permit
it to run much of the time at less than maximum
rating. With pressures, loads, and other factors
reduced, wear and tear is usually diminished and
the periods between overhauls is increased.
Almost every plant is capable of developing an
emergency overload power for a few minutes,
perhaps for a few hours, if it becomes a matter
of saving life or the ship. Since this

may

result

but permanent damage to the machinery,

it is not considered in the customary powering
calculation. The maximum designed shaft power
therefore that "for which the propulsion
is
machinery is designed to operate continuously"
[SNAME, Stand'n. Trials Code, 1949, p. 11].
For powering a boat or ship, the machinery
reserve is reckoned below this level.
In general, the reserve of power is a function
of the length of time that operation at maximum
designed power is required. For a racing motorboat
which may run at full throttle only a few hours
between engine overhauls, but which must then
in slight

do
the

its

utmost, the reserve

game

is

is

practically zero. If

considered worth the candle, so to

between, should insure reasonably close equaliza-

speak, the emergency power

tion or apportioning of the full-scale shaft powers,

which case the reserve is negative. The other

extreme is a boat or sliip wliich operates under a
wide range of conditions and which stops for
repairs only when it will no longer run. The

and correlation of the torque-rpm values.

69.9 Powering Allowances. A doctrine involving design and performance allowances.

is

called upon, in

GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 69.9

may then be as much as

maximum designed power.

reserve
of the

maximum power

able to develop

its

continuously, a full measure of

everyday operation, over most

reUable
life, is

is

of

its

maximum designed
developed by say 0.95 of

assured by limiting the

speed to that which

is

maximum designed power [Burkhardt, J. E.,

ME, 1942, Vol. I, p. 28]. It is usually assumed
the

that this speed

is

to be achieved at the full-load

or other specified draft, in smooth, deep water of

the given specific gravity, in fair weather

(little

no wind), and with a clean bottom. In other

or

words,

it

maximum

represents a trial speed at 0.95 of the

designed

machinery reserve

power,

with

propeller,
(in horses)

word "designed"

Notwithstanding that the

implies that the machinery

0.3, 0.4, or 0.5

so-called

of 5 per cent.

Actually, a ship design starts with the designed

turn

it

bearing,

575

not in terms of the power absorbed

but in terms of the torque required to

and the thrust achieved at the thrust

all

at a specified rate of rotation [Smith,

E. H., lESS,

1954-1955, Vol. 98, Part 3, pp.

encountered in transmission
between the thrust bearing and the propulsion
127-128].

The

losses

device are then to be estimated or predicted by

the propeller designer in cooperation with the

machinery designer.
As has often been done in the past, the designer
may wish to add a reserve of power over and
above that necessary for the sustained speed to
be achieved under trial conditions in good
weather, following the method of

may

wish to base his reserve on an analysis of

the particular situation involved.

schedule which the ship

and sometimes

to maintain, or from

preceding.

average percentage to this power,

using a figure taken from good practice, or he

sea speed or service speed, determined from the

is

(c)

He may add an

six or

more

At

least four,

factors enter into the

a study of economic and other reasons. For the

percentage increase applied to the power pre-

ABC

dicted for sustained speed in good weather and

design this operation was completed

by

the owner and operator before the design require-

ments were formulated. To compensate for slowing

down in heavy weather a reserve of speed above
the designed

sea

speed

is

necessary.

This

with clean bottom. These factors,

customary percentages, are:
(1)

is

achieved either by one or by a combination of the

following:
(a)

Specifying

it

as

an

increment

of

resulting in the 1.8-kt differential of the

speed,

(b) CaUing for a 'percentage increase in speed

over the designed sea speed, varying from about
8 to 15 per cent

(3)

Increase with age of structural

and

and of
some vessels)

dis-

placement

(in

(5)

Machinery reserve, to care for

minor
casualties,
inefficient
handling, fuel under standard
quality, normal wear and tear,
and slow deterioration in performance with length of service
Still-air and normal wind resist-

(6)

Scale effect between model and

(7)

ship (may be plus or minus)

Cavitation loss in high-powered

(4)

from 20 to 30 per cent or more.

taking account of small percentages the

machinery is to be delivered; also as to the kind

of power represented by it, whether indicated,
brake, shaft, or propeller power. There are
different means employed to measure power, and
there is still some uncertainty as to just where
along the hne, from the heat-to-work conversion
point to the propeller, the power is to be measured.
It is most important, therefore, that the hull and
propeller designers know exactly where this
point is, and what is transmitted there. In fact,
there are many good reasons for rating the

6 to 20
or

propeller roughness

Requiring a percentage increase in power

question arises as to the point in the ship at

which the maximum designed power of the

8 to 15

other roughness

over that necessary to drive the ship at the

designed sea speed under trial conditions, usually

When

Weather, involving an increase in

power to maintain speed against
head winds and seas or to make
up time lost by slowing in waves
Fouling by marine organisms or

ABC

design (the difference between 20.5 and 18.7 kt)

(c)

(2)

with their

2 to 5

4 to 6

ance of ship

2 to 4

to 3 or 4
to 10

or more.

vessels

All these factors,

more

if

taken into account,

may

from 23 to 54 per cent or more, depending

upon their individual signs and values. It is
customary to omit some and to emphasize others,
total

particularly the increase for fouUng.

The

total

increase in power, over that required to maintain

the sustained sea speed under

trial conditions, is

HYDRODYNAMICS

576

then of the order of 20 to 30 per cent [ME, 1942,

Vol.

I, p.

28; Troost, L.,

It is to be noted that

SNAME,
item

1953, p. 576].

(6) of

the tabula-

IN SHIP DESIGN
power increase

formulation of requirements or in the preliminary

into

design,

know

to

or

the speed-power relationships

all of

these increases in resistance

and power are in effect. For example, when the

bottom is dirty the wake fraction becomes
greater and the thrust loading of the propeller is
increased. It must also be decided at what
power the propelling plant is to operate at maxi-

mum

efficiency.

At a

later stage the detail pro-

an estimate of the propulsion

factors at what might be termed the propellerpeller design calls for

design point, to be explained presently.

p.

running

permit

32]

model under conditions

propellers

in

Bull.

7,

self-propelled

which the model

develop thrust under or over that

necessary to push the model through the water.

The auxiliary towing

or retarding force

is

adjusted

to provide the equivalent of underwater

resistance, additional drag

body

due to roughness

of

may

be

the hull surface, and any overload that

expected on the ship due to fouling, adverse

weather, and the

like.

This procedure admittedly

does not change the velocity

profile,

and other features

boundary layer

of the

the thickness,
cor-

responding to the effects of the roughnesses which

produce the additional drag but

it

the model propeller thrust loading.

does increase

Any

desired

thrust overload can be applied to the model or

runs can be

made

predictions for

given speed.

many

\vith

varying overload to give

any estimated power increase at a

One method

speed but with a

cent

acting on the ship and a 25 per cent

forces

increase to be expected toward the end of the

docking interval, \vith some adverse weather and

other overloads thrown

Data derived from

in.

this

procedure are definitely

to be preferred, for predicting service performance

and

for design of the ship propellers,

to data

derived from driving a smooth model faster than

the sustained speed by the use of the maximum

power that

it is

It is pointed

proposed to put in the ship.

out in Sec. 65.3, and

it is

again

emphasized in a discussion of speed reduction in

wavegoing in Part 6 of Volume III, that a ship
is

much

in

the

it

better position to maintain a high

if it

has a speed margin designed

rather than a power margin designed into

machinery alone. The speed

be a percentage above the sustained
may be a speed increment, as men-

propelling

margin

may

speed or

it

(a) and (b) preceding. It may be

determined by a graphic method such as that

tioned

in

described in Sec. 69.10. Whatever the

method

employed to determine the speed margin, the

designer has more assurance of achieving the
extra speed required to make up for lost time if
the ship

fashioned to

is

make

that extra speed

easily.

Model-testing techniques [C and

1933,

12.5

of

trial conditions.

sustained speed

when some

trial

per

above that
This 12.5 per cent
increase is a sort of selected average between
clean-bottom trial conditions with no adverse
required for

above does not include a sort of average

is customary in
some quarters. This is taken care of by the modeltesting establishment, on the basis of the kind,
number, shape, size, and location of the appendages, relative to the hull and to each other.
When estimating and applying the power
percentages to the predictions derived from
model tests it is most important to insure that
an allowance corresponding to one or more of the
foregoing factors has not already been worked
into the model-basin predictions. In America
it is customary to omit all the allowances listed
except the S(ACi?) for plating, structural, and
coating roughnesses to be expected on a clean,
new vessel under trial conditions; see Sec. 45.18.
It is generally necessary, at some stage in the
tion

allowance for appendages, as

Sec. 69.10

conditions at the designed

successfully used for

years predicts ship and propeller operating

Graphic

69.10

Representation

Allowances and Reserves.

of Powering
Assuming a no-over-

load condition for the ship, involving only the

plating,
structural, and coating
roughnesses to be expected in the clean, new

unavoidable
condition,

a typical speed-power

indicated by

AGB

curve

as

is

in Fig. 69. A. If the clean,

new

maximum designed power

under perfect trial conditions, the speedpower point would be at B and the speed would
be Fmsx If the power were limited to 0.95 of the
maximum designed value, the speed-power point
would be at G and the speed would be Firiai
Running the vessel at the power Pmsi with A;,
per cent of increased resistance due to adverse
ship were run at the

f Mas

elJects,

along the curve

AGE OVERLOAD"

DGjC marked "AVER-

on the

figure,

gives

the

speed-power point C for a speed somewhat less

The ship can now
than the trial speed Ft rial
run at this speed with maximum designed power

Pmox

or

it

can run at a reduced speed Vt with

GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 69.10

0.95 of

Moximum Designed 5hoft Power

No Covilotion Allowances

Shown Here

Curve of Shaft Power on

Speed

FULL OVERLOAD

Pfv^q,,

577

Mochirier>)

less

for

Conditions, Involvinc) Storrrnj

Unexpected

Weather, Heavu Foulinc),and

Adverse

Effects~^

Curve of Shaft Power on Spaed for^

AVERA&E OVERLOAD, with Averoe^e

5 peed Vy
Power Pg5
Under Perfect

Adverse Wind and Sea and Averaoe

Bottom. Points on This Curve.

Trial

ot

Foul

ore Often Selected for

Trial Conditions

Propeller-Desiqn Points,
Represent(nq Averaqe Conditions ^-r

'^^

>

Lower

^^^Curve

_^

^^

Ends of

Curves

All

^,

;.

^^^wer on

Speed with

NO OVERLOAD

but Includinej

Resistance and Normal

Still-Air

Not
Shown

of Shaft

Rouqhness Allowance for o Clean, New

Correspondinq to Model Basin
Prediction for These Conditions

Vessel,

Curves Are for Desicjned Displacement and

Ship Speed, kt
Fig. 69. a

"^Sustained

95 per cent of maximum power. Under what

might be termed "FULL OVERLOAD" conditions,

^Triol

Explanatory Diagram for Powering Allowances in a Large Vessel

sustained

corresponding to the curve FGaE, and

utilizing only 95 per cent of the designed

maximum

speed

and

of

up with

keeping

its

schedule.

Unfortunately in practice the designer rarely

if

ever knows the precise location of the average-

is able to maintain a sustained

speed Fsu.t at the speed-power point Gj
If the ship is really to sustain this speed for

overload or the full-overload speed-power curves

on his plot, despite the availability of procedures
such as those in Sees. 45.22 and 60. 15. He is reason-

must be capable of running faster

of the time. Assuming full-over-

ably certain in the design stage of the no-overload,

power, the ship

long periods

it

than Fsust part

load conditions

by

Fig. 69.

all

the time this

unless the

power

is

is

not possible

increased above

P95 (and above Pm^i as well). Rather than to

do

assumed, and logically

this it is

sustained speed

is

so,

that the

to be achieved under average-

overload conditions, along the curve

DG2C

in the

This means that with a sort of average

power, represented by the ordinate of the point H,
figure.

the ship has a reserve of power represented

the ordinate

HG2 With
.

to P95 at the point Gi

this reserve,
it is

by
extending up

capable of achieving

This speed is somewhat less than

but as long as the speed margin (F,
Fsu.t) is greater than the possible speed reduction
(F3 F4) to be anticipated over any lengthy
period, the ship is assured of maintaining the
the speed Fa
FTriai

speed-power
Fjuns

and

curve

FTrioi

AGB, with its values of

He knows, furthermore, that

the speed-power values along the curve

AGB

be checked by carefully conducted ship

He also knows
may therefore

the required sustained speed.

select a

can

trials.

He

speed Fi such that the

speed margin (Fi Fsust) is sufficient in his

opinion, and in the judgment of the owner and
operator,

From

to

make good

the sustained

speed.

the no-overload ctu've of the figure, this

speed Fi then corresponds to the point A, also

easily determined in advance with reasonable

accuracy and subject to confirmation on trial.

The corresponding power is PNom, which with
an average overload should give a speed F3
,

slightly in excess of the sustained speed or at

least

not

less

than that speed. For most ship

IIYDROnYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

578

about 1.25 or 1.30 times PNorm

Pm.i
One means of making this procedure more
precise is to have the self-propelled model run
with an estimated average overload, say 1.25
designs,

is

times the no-overload ship resistance, as mentioned

DGiC

preceding

the

in

as well as curve

Then curve

section.

AGB

is

obtained and the

speeds Fj and V^ are predicted reasonably well.

The next problem,

equally as important as the

establishment of these speed-power-overload relationships,

is

propeller

is

selecting the condition for

to be designed.

First,

it

which the
must be

capable of absorbing the power Pm.i at some rate

of rotation n which can be acliieved by the engine

when

that power.

delivering

Second,

it

must

operate efficiently at either P95 or PNorm whichever the owner and operator thinks most im,

higher speed

This

is

its best.

power

sarily the

This

for

usually but not neces-

is

which the propelling plant

is

designed to run most efficiently and economically.

At the power,

ship speed,

and overload condition

and

selected the rate of rotation of the propeller

the propelhng plant must also correspond.

In general, the propeller-design point

taken as Gi

in Fig. 69.A. If so,

a check

is

may

insure that the propeller efficiency does not

off

appreciably at the points

be

made

and H. This

one reason

why some

reluctant to

work a propeller near the peak

its

efficiency curve,

designers

propeller

to

fall

of

for fear that at the lower

loadings and real-slip values the so-called working

point

If

pass

will

hump and

slide

over

down

the

maximum-efficiency

utilized the

maximum power Pmsi

is

can be devel-

oped only at the exact rpm for which the engine

designed. This rate of rotation must in turn
correspond to a certain ship speed for that power.

is

If

maximum

efficiency at a sustained speed cor-

of these points,

what was done in Table 64.

ABC design, when the trial
kt was required at a power expendi,

corresponding to the point

on Fig. 69. A. To prevent the problem from becoming too complicated, especially as overload
values are not accurately known, the ABC
propeller is also designed in Chap. 70 for the
speed-power point G. The data from the model
self-propulsion test, without overload, correspond
to that point. The additional shaft power from
P95 to Pjnax is taken care of by the macliinery
designer.

Under other circumstances the

propeller could

be designed equally well for the points Gi or G2

depending upon advance knowledge as to over,

machinery to be installed, the

judgment of the designer, and the wishes of the
owner and operator.
loads, the type of

Feathering,

Adjustable,

Reversible, or Controllable Features.

Feathering

the steep side of the r/-curve.

internal-combustion propelling machinery

designed

Sec. 66.9 for the

ture of 0.95PMai

is

ai'e

maximum

essentially

speed of 20.5

ship to do

at

embody one

therefore logical to

the selected power and to an overload condition

operator wishes the

for,

say G, as one of the design requirements and to

call for a check of it as a sliip-contract stipulation.

and

the owner and

Sec. 69.11

aimed

power corresponding to an average overload at

the point C, the speed-power and the propellerdesign points are then represented by that point.
It is again emphasized
that speed-power
points such as G2 or C are only achieved accidentally on a ship, when the overload from all
causes happens to be either the average or the full
value assumed by the designer. It is therefore not
possible to check these points on an actual ship
by full-scale tests. On the other hand, the speedpower points B, G, and A are easily reached and
checked under planned trial conditions. It is

portant, and at a ship speed corresponding to

at which

is

69.11

Selection

of

features on paddlewheels form an integral part

of

the design of these devices.

are discussed in Sees. 71.6

and

As such they

71,7.

Feathering and folding propellers are fitted

almost exclusively on sailing yachts with auxiliary

desired, the speed-

power, as a means of reducing the drag of the

power point G2 should be the propeller-design

point. Although F is also a point on the full-

stationary propeller. Notes relative to their use

responding to

full

overload

overload speed-power curve

the power developed

is

it

may

not represent

by the internal-combustion

are found in Sec. 71.13.

Adjustable sci'ew propellers, described briefly

in Sec. 32.19, carry blades

whose position

relative

the engine-

hub can be changed only when the adjusting mechanism is out of water. They permit

propeller combination can drive the ship at full

pitch changes in the event that the ship resistance

engine at a rate of propeller rotation corresponding to the speed V^

overload

at

the

However,

speed

if

corresponding

to

the

almost certainly can, with some lesser

power, maintain the slower speed at F. If a
point G2

it

to the

in service is

found not to agree with that predicted

in the design stage.

manner

is

Altering the pitch in this

one means of insuring that internal-

GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 69.13

combustion engines can run at the proper rate of

rotation to develop their

maximum

power. It

may

found in service that fouling rates, with

consequent increased friction powers, are higher
than those contemplated during the design.
also be

The

foregoing advantages, including the very-

practical one of replacing a

damaged

blade, are

balanced against the slightly diminished efficiency

resulting from the larger hub and from unfairness

around the blade attachments. This matter

is

propellers,

which

in

the

blades

swivel and the shaft continues to rotate in the

same

eliminate

direction,

reversing

mechanism

in the

and

gears

reverse

propelhng plant. This

only done at the expense of mechanical com-

is

pUcation in the shaft and the propeller, increased

diameter and bulk of the propeller hub, and

hydrodynamic disadvantages described in

However, if reversibihty of thrust is
the primary object, the latter are not too importcertain

Sec. 32.19.

ant.

The problems

are then primarily ones of

engineering rather than hydrodynamics.

So many extraneous problems enter into a

no
attempt is made to give them here. The designer
decision to use controllable propellers that

may

with benefit study the references Usted in

and repeated here

Sec. 32.19
(a)

McEntee, W.,
43-47

SNAME,

Gutsche,

(c)

Ackeret,

(d)

Fea, L., Ann. Rep.

F., Zeit. d. Ver.

1927, pp. 87-91,

and

Pis.

Deutsch. Ing., 15 Sep 1934,

Escher-Wyss

Bull.,

May-Jun

Rome Model Basin,

1935, p. 63

1938, Vol. VII,

pp. 74-89

Rupp,

(e)

SNAME,
Burrill,

(f)

A.,

L.

L.

"Controllable-Pitch

Propellers,"

C, "Latest Developments in Reversible

IME, 1949, Vol. LXI, pp. 1-11; INA,

1949, Vol. 91, pp. J3-J32

Nichols,

H.

J.,

"An

Propeller System,"

Hydraulically Controlled

Motorship,

New

York,

C-P

May

1949, pp. 22-23, 44-46

(h)

(i)

(i)

J., "Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers

and Fast Launches)," Buenos Aires, 1951, p. 209
Doell, H. A., "What is the Controllable-Pitch Propeller?" Mar. Eng'g., Aug 1953, pp. 71-76
Van Aken, J. A., and Tasseron, K., "Comparison
Between the Open- Water Efficiency and Thrust of
the Lips-Schelde Controllable-Pitch Propeller and

Baader,

those of Troost-Series Propellers," Int. Shipbldg.

Prog., 1955, Vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 30-40.

Do not expect
be found worth while to install a controllable propeller solely to enable the propeller
to run at the proper pitch for any given loading
that

word

it will

of caution is included:

is

made

much

service installations are in

to present

better positions

to design controllable propellers than

the ship

is

designer.

The fairing caps of the hubs of many controllable

shifting

mechanism and are as long

than the propeller hub proper.

It

if

not longer

may be necessary

an allmovable rudder blade to clear the hub cap

[Mar. Eng'g., Feb 1953, p. 1; Jan 1955, p. 104].
69.12 Propulsion Devices to be Used with
Contra-Vanes, Centra-Guide Sterns, and ContraRudders. In general, as described in Sees. 33.12,
36.8, 36.9, and 37.16, it is immaterial whether
to cut a notch in the leading edge of

rotation

is

introduced in the inflow jet of a screw

and taken out by that propeller or

whether the rotation produced by the propeller is
taken out by a contra-rudder or equivalent device
placed in the outflow jet. However, for a given
propeller

average resultant water velocity at the blade

elements, the angular speed of the propeller
if

some rotation

the inflow jet ahead of

it.

is

is

imparted to

Actually, as far as the

concerned, it may be
proceeded with on the basis of no prerotation,
following which an adjustment may be made to
determine the probable angular speed for a given
is

torque and thrust.

Good

propulsion-device design, and good ship

design as well, calls for a thrust-producing device

1948, pp. 272-358

Propellers,"

(g)

and so
any
of them in this chapter. It may be assumed that
organizations which have produced successful
complex that no attempt

usually sUghtly less

for convenience:

1073
J.,

in the detailed design

of controllable propellers are so speciaUzed

design of the propeller

(b)

p.

The problems involved

1948, p. 273].

propellers contain essential parts of the blade-

discussed at length in Sec. 70.43.

Reversible

579

SNAME,

condition [Rupp, L. A.,

which inherently leaves as

turbance as possible in
requires the least

amount

rotation in the inflow

little

its

systematic dis-

wake,

and which

of predeflection or pre-

jet.

Disadvantages of Unbalanced Propulsion-Device Torque. On semi-planing and planing craft carrying multiple propellers below the
hull in such position that the flow to both the
port and starboard sides of each propeller is sub69.13

stantially the same, there are

numerous

practical

reasons for selecting and installing main engines

and propellers which rotate in the same direction.

However, this arrangement has the disadvantage
that,

because of the rotation in the propeller

outflow jets or races abaft the propellers, there

may

be a resultant asymmetrical lateral force

It may be difficult to find

from the rudder (s).

HYDRODYNAMICS

580

may

the neutral angle for each and this angle

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 69.14

are usually too small to be of

any considerable
Indeed, if any

change with speed. An effect of this kind is more

pronounced when the rudders lie within the propeller outflow jets. Furthermore, there is a
cumulative torque reaction from all the engines
which results in an appreciable listing or heeling
moment and an ever-present heel at moderate to
high speeds.
This heeling moment due to torque should be
counteracted, not by a fixed moment, as of ballast
or rnachinery asymmetry, but by a torque which

benefit

varies generally as the engine torque, increasing

during which any ship

gradually with speed and power. This

operation, the requirements for developing astern

best

is

in

maneuvering.

rapid

is to be made in a vessel's turning

path it is necessary to reverse the wing propeller(s)
on the inside of the turn. It is doubtful if any
vessel carrying screw propellers can have its
turning characteristics materially improved by
any practicable positioning of the wing screws or
wing shafts at a large distance from the center-

drastic change

plane.

Despite the overwhelming percentage of time

employed

is

in

may and

ahead

accomplished by applying a hydrodynamic torque

thrust and for maneuvering

which automatically increases with speed. For

right-hand engines and propellers, a positive
heeling moment is required, acting to produce a
starboard heel. On some V-bottom planing craft
[Bureau of Ships Bull, of Inform. 32, 1 Oct 1948]

influence the design of the propulsion device (s).

the chine spray strip

furthermore, enter and leave the water vertically,

is

modified to slope

edge downward and outward, giving

it

its

lower

a negative

dihedral angle with the bottom of the boat.

The

water moving out transversely from under the

boat is deflected sharply downward, and an upward force results from this change of direction.

often do

For example, on a paddle tug with independent

frequently employed in backing and

wheels,

turning, the paddle blades are properly straight

if

without too

this is feasible

An

They

than curved in section.

rather

which

icebreaker

thrusts to

fulfill its

much

needs

mission

complication.

powerful

may

have screw propellers with blade sections nearly

completely

or

symmetrical,

as

for

the

propellers of the double-ended ferryboat.

an

starting, stopping,

as to develop a

lift

the propeller outflow

jet,

so

force forming a torque opposite

to that of the propeller. Fig. 73. P illustrates

and

By and

large

propulsion devices with large thrust-producing

areas.

The

larger these areas the better, since

the form of a cross, placed in the outflow jet of a

upon the thrust-load

single screw propeller to accomplish this purpose.

the disc area.

and size of the propulsion devices when

maneuvering is a major consideration. For stopping and running astern, some design comments
and pertinent references are given by J. E. Burkposition,

hardt [ME, 1942, Vol.

I,

pp. 35-38]. Fortunately

69.15

V a the thrust depends

advance

for a given speed of

sented here a few features relative to the type,

screw

any special requirements for

and turning are fulfilled by

Sec. 73.21 describes a pair of twisted hydrofoils in

69.14 Propulsion-Device Design to Meet

Maneuvering Requirements. The design of ship
hulls to meet maneuvering requirements is discussed in Part 5 of Volume III. There are pre-

astern

advantageously

The hydrodynamic compensating torque is also

produced by a well-cambered hydrofoil placed in
offset position in

should,

factor

and ultimately upon

Relation of Propulsion-Device and Hull-

Vibration Frequencies.

discussion of machin-

ery and hull vibration as such

is

definitely outside

the scope of this book. Nevertheless,

it is

pointed

out here that the rate of rotation of the propulsion

devices, whatever their type, should not be fixed
until a study has

been made of the probable

vibration characteristics of the hull and propelling

machinery

under

ME,

[Lewis, F. M.,

various

loading

conditions

1944, Vol. II, pp. 130-137;

and McGoldrick, R.

SNAME,

there are available sufficient data from tests of

Kane,

model propellers running

1949, pp. 193-252]. This insures that the propul-

references of Part

5,

astern,

listed

in

the

to enable the designer to

J.

R.,

sion-device

rpm

T.,

or the blade frequencies n{Z)

do

check the ability of a propeller to produce a

not coincide with a 2-noded or 3-noded hull

There are

frequency in vertical or horizontal flexure, so that

a slight mechanical or hydrodynamic unbalance

specified thrust for astern operation.

also available in Sec. 60.18 the results of backing

on one self-propelled model.

While it is true that ships can be and have been
steered by changing the rates of rotation of wing
propellers carried by them, the turning moments
tests

is

magnified over the whole ship. Strictly speaking,

the

torsional

hull

frequencies

should

also

be

estimated and compared with the proposed shaft

rpm.

GENER/VL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 69.15

It is usually easy to design or to alter local

581

Probable torsional and longitudinal resonant

structures or small parts of the ship to keep their

fre(]uencies

resonant frctiucncies out of the range of propdev

turbine (or motor) system are likewise estimated,

rpm

or blade frequencies at speeds where the

exciting

forces

are

high.

However,

to

make

material changes in these characteristics of the

hull proper, or of large parts of

nigh impossible.

it,

is

often well-

of

the propulsion-device-shaft-gear-

to insure that they

shaft

or

do not

fall

within the range of

blade frequencies at

or

near service

power or maximum desigued power [Sullivan,

E. K., and Scarborough, W. G., SNAME, New
Engl. Sect.,

Apr

1952].

CHAPTER

70

Screw-Propeller Design
70.1
70 2
70.3
.

70.4

70.5
70.6
70.7
70.8

General Considerations
Design Requirements for a Screw Propeller
Comments on Available Design Methods
and Procedures
Requirements for, Availability of, and Listing of Propeller-Series Charts
Comments on and Comparison of PropellerSeries Charts
Prehminary-Design Procedure, Employing
Series Charts
Modification of Series-Chart Procedure for
Other Design Problems
Preliminary Comments on Propeller-Design
.

Features

70 9
70.10
70.11
.

Determining the Rate

of

Rotation
Ratio;

70.16
70.17

Choice of

583

70.27

584

70.28
589
592

596

598
599
600

Number of Blades

Use of Raked Blades

Hub Fairing ...

601

Determination of Expanded- Area Ratio;

Choice of Blade Profile
Selecting and Applying Skew-Back
Design Considerations Governing Blade

602
603

Propeller-Hub Diameter;

....

Width

605

70.18
70.19
70.20

605
606

Partial

Type of Blade Section

Blade Edges and Root Fillets
Bibhography on Screw-Propeller

Design
Design of a Wake- Adapted Propeller by the

606

70.21
70 22

ABC Ship Propeller Designed by Lerbs'

70.23

Choice of the Number of Blades for the

ABC Design
Determination of Rake for the ABC PropeUer

Selection of

Shaping

of

Circulation
.

Theory

609
1954

Method

70.24

Pitch

Variation with Radius

70.12
70.13
70.14
70.15

70.25
70 26

596
597
597

Selection of Propeller Diameter

The Proper Pitch-Diameter

583

582

611

612
612

70.46

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.3

Must not

avoids major duplication and appreciable overlaps

"(III)

with published material in books, papers, and

vibration

reports, especially those readily available to the

"(IV)

The major

average marine architect.

is

method

ABC

ship, the hull of

which

is

laid

out in Chaps. GG, 67, and 68. This description, inciis believed to be among the first based

dentally,

on

theory by which

this

all

the elements in the

by a continuous, straightforward procedure. This makes it suitable for a

design are derived

mth

no background or experiknowledge of flow and circulation

and its apphcation to the ship and screw-propeller
combination, to be found in Chaps. 14-17 and
32-34 of Volume I of this book.
The symbols, terms, and definitions employed
in this chapter conform to those listed in Appendix
1 of this volume. They are described in SNAME
Technical and Research Bulletin 1-13, containing
"Explanatory Notes for Resistance and Propulsion Data Sheets," July, 1953, and illustrated
in Figs. 32.F, 32.G, and 32.H of Sees. 32.8 and
designer

Uttle or

ence, save the

"(V)

Must be

manship

must be better

erode, or at least

in this

and first-class workfrom trouble.

of sufficient strength

to ensure a long

life

free

"The information given in the papers gave no

guidance in these directions. It might be the
case that these 'purchaser's' requirements can be

met

but it is surely a serious

on ordinary practice to suggest that
propellers as now fitted are, on the average,
10 per cent less efficient than they might be."
70.3
Comments on Available Design Methods
and Procedures. It is expected, when many
minds work on a problem in the atmosphere of a
democratic way of fife, there will be many fines
of attack and many partial or complete answers.
This is as it should be, because different kinds of
answers are required for different situations.
Furthermore, the problem screw-propeller design in particular is so complex that no single
line of attack can do more than make a rather
narrow path through the entire region to be
in exceptional cases,

reflection

covered.

The procedures now

architects

itself.

McAlister,

when

discussing

the

among naval

use

heavily theoretical to the intensely practical, but

situation.

For example, as long ago as 1938 a propeller

in

and marine engineers vary from the

fortunately

the practical needs of the ship

Design Requirements for a Screw Propeller.

It is possible that one reason for the
shortcomings in the numerous design methods
and procedures, including those discussed in
Sec. 70.3, is a partial lack of appreciation of the
basic requirements to be met and of the practical
needs of the ship owner and operator. Perhaps
even more basic are what might be termed
70.2

F.

be due to the existing propeller

Must not

32.9.

designer,

must eliminate whatever

of Dr.

along for a propeller to be used with the transomstern design of

or

respect than the existing propeller

portion of

devoted to a description of the

H. W. E. Lerbs for the
design of a screw propeller, based on the circulation
theory. Accompanying a step-by-step description
of this method, a sample calculation is carried
the chapter

short

may

583
vibrate

each

An

is

useful

engineer

may

in

some particular
a propeller

select

diameter and pitch by some simple formula or

nomogram and

order a propeller out of a catalog,

he and his assistants may toil for several
months, calculating a propeller design for which
no ready rules or precedents are available. The
day is past, or nearly so, when the marine engineer
sketched his propeller freehand in the foundryman's notebook, penciling in the few principal
or

dimensions.
It is well to recognize, therefore, that

a group

symposium on marine propellers

[NECI, 1937-1938, Vol. LIV, pp. D141-D142],
declared that, as reported in SBSR, 6 October
1938, page 415, "none of the papers in the symposium tabulated the qualities required (the italics

scheme of things, even in a so-called advanced age.

For example, in the design of the underwater
hull of the ABC ship, begun in Chap. 66, one of
the principal aims is to swing as large a propeller

are those of the present author)

as possible.

results

of

for full-sized

of several of these

methods has

its

place in the

Since the limit of ideal efficiency

He

described in Sec. 34.2 increases as the thrust

suggested that from the purchaser's point of

view these requirements were:

loading decreases, and the latter decreases as

propellers for ships under service conditions.

"(I)

That the (new)

possible
efficiency

"(II)

propeller

must be

of the highest

say 10 per cent (or more)

than the average existing propeller

efficiency

Must not

sing or be unduly noisy

higher

the propeller diameter increases,

it

works out

that the larger the propeUer, the greater the

propeller efficiency, aU other things being favorable.

The

draft, is

tentative diameter of 20 ft, on a 26-ft

based on a propeUer somewhat larger

HYDRODYNAMICS

584

than that given by the rule of thiunb,

equal in this case to 0.7(26) or 18.2

When,

D <

IN SHIP DESIGN
The

0.7//,

that

ft.

at a later stage of the design, after the

first

Sec. 70.4

group labors under the disadvantage

applies only to propellers with the

it

number

of blades,

same

blade shape, section shape,

had been estimated, together

with the wake and thrust-deduction fractions, it

and so

was possible to calculate the thrust-load factor

and to know that it was low, as desired. When the
shaft power was estimated, it was found from

concerning the nature of the physical water flow

resistance of the hull

charts

propeller-design

several

propeller

would absorb

that

when running

it

20-ft

at a

when

was necessary to
pick a suitable stock propeller for the model
self-propulsion test, the P/D ratio and other
still

later stage,

knowledge

deficient in that factual

is

around a propeller and the applicable hydrodynamic theories, as well as the necessary confirmations of the latter, lag rather far behind
the necessity for knowledge to give the practical
answers.

reasonable rate of rotation.

At a

on, as the propellers of the series tested.

The second

The

it

principal characteristics were determined approxi-

chart

method

only what happens to

moments on a propeller

tells

the overall forces and

which someone has already fashioned, whether

it

be well fashioned or not. The analytic method

mately by several established methods, called

chart methods, mentioned presently and de-

ing of the physics of the problem, which governs

scribed in Sec. 70.5.

the forces and moments, and hence to an indica-

For the
of the

latter part of the preliminary design

ABC

ship, a final design of screw propeller

for a second series of

was

carried through

model tests (not conducted)

by the Lerbs short method,

based upon the circulation theory, described in

Sees. 70.21 through 70.38.

lations required at different stages of a ship

Some

design

call

call

for

tion

just

of

how a screw

propeller should be

fashioned to give the desired results.

Requirements

70.4

Availability of,

for,

Listing of Propeller-Series Charts.

and

should be

It

recognized at the outset that any chart or analytic

procedure may, and probably will take a different

These several methods are mentioned to show

that the approximations, estimates, and calcupropeller

leads gradually but surely to a better understand-

different

these 5-sec, 5-min,

procedures, depending upon

5-hr,

how soon

and

procedures.

and 5-day
the answer

wanted. The precision of each is of the same

Others call them
the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th approximations.
The important fact is to realize that the first
approximation is based upon the application
of one single rule of thumb; the last one upon all
is

order as the time required.

the scientific and engineering information avail-

them have their logical functions in

the design of any one propeller.
In general, neglecting the thumb rules, the
various procedures fall into two groups:
able. All of

Those based upon systematic experimental

model propellers in
methodical series, with uniformly varying parameters and characteristics. The data, when checked
and analyzed, are put in the form of graphs,
diagrams, or charts, whence the name chart design.
(2) Those based upon the application of hydrodynamic theories and knowledge of flow, embodying such gap-fillers and correction factors (derived
usually from experimental data) as are required
to compensate for lack of accurate and adequate
knowledge here and there.

form, depending upon the characteristics that

are given or fixed

and those which are to be

derived. For the pvn-pose of this book, one pro-

cedure only of each kind

freedom

characteristic

ance,

embodying

described,

is

of choice for the designer in that

which should,

him

permit

the

primary

for the best perform-

leeway.

greatest

For

example, in the hull design of the ABC ship,

roughed out in Chap. 66, the weights to be
carried

by the

ship are specified, as

the speed,

is

leaving the length free for selection of the

optimum

dimension.

For the propeller designs to be worked out as

examples in this chapter, the power to be absorbed is governed by that required for driving
the hull at the designed speed. It

is

anticipated

that the best screw propeller will be that having

(1)

the greatest practicable diameter, so the hull in

data, derived from tests of

the vicinity of the propeller position

is

designed

with this in view. Strictly speaking, this means

that the propeller diameter is fixed at the beginning of its design, but at a figure which should

produce a most
tion, the

efficient wheel.

The

rate of rota-

pitch-diameter ratio, and other factors

remain to be selected so as to give high propulsive

efficiency in service. In other circumstances the

propeller

power and rate

of rotation

might be

with the best diameter to be found.

Regardless of the primary characteristics given

fixed,

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Srr. 70.4

and to be derived, a good screw-propeller dala

sheet or design chart meets the following require-

ments, listed in the order of their importance:

Possibility

(6)

by auxiliary

585

and

There should be

(k)

effect of cavitation,

perhaps

charts.
sufficient charts in a

to permit a propeller designer to enter

group

them with

As for any graph of its kind, it should ".

show at a glance the variation of the most import-

given values of any of the primary variables

ant dependent variables with the independent

Future chart groups should embody the

(1)
approved symbols adopted by the International

(a)

variable" [Schoenherr, K. E.,

SNAME,

1951, p.

629]

The range

of the sheet or chart should cover

Towing Tank Conference.

reasonably be

expected

Propeller-series charts must necessarily be

adaptable to the several variations of the design
problem actually encountered. These depend upon

(c) The most important variable to be derived

from each sheet should appear in the formulas
applicable to that sheet in its first power and
should occupy the principal position in the formula

which factors are known or given and which are

unknown. K. E. Schoenherr has set down this
situation in systematic fashion, from which the
following is adapted [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 159]:

(b)
all

propulsion conditions that

may

or chart
(d) The primary numerical design values to be
taken from the chart should require little or no
interpolation between curves to give the precise
engineering answer
(e)

The primary

variable on at least one sheet of

a group should be the pitch/diameter ratio

(f)
The chart should be readily entered and the
desired values found without effort, confusion,
or misunderstanding. It

charts than to

embody

is

better to have separate

too

many

features on one

chart. In other words, a propeller design chart

"should possess graphical simplicity, permitting

ease of I'eading and interpolating" [Kane, J. R.,

SNAME,
(g)

All chart parameters should be dimensionless,

derived by simple substitution and calculation

The

chart should be no larger than necessary

for the precision required in ship

and propeller

design but large enough for easy visual selection

of the data desired
(i)

practicable, for determining the values of chart

parameters and certain physical quantities
(j)

With

at least three variables given, the chart

the data for the preliminary

all

design of a screw propeller, specifically:

(1)

Diameter, pitch, and pitch-diameter ratio

(2)

Number

of

the best efficiency.

Second, Final Design. Given the curve of effective

P E as a function of ship speed V, the prodiameter D, the rate of rotation n (in rpm)
and the engine output in horses, at the designed
rpm, as delivered to the propeller shaft. Required
power

to

find

the

efficiency

570

propeller
,

blades

(considering propeller

considerable

propeller

obtainable

41-44; Gawn, R.

(5)

Maximum

(I)

SD, 1933, Vol. II, Fig. 14 and pp.

W. L., INA, 1937, pp. 159-187;
van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, pp. 251Baker, G.

or actual open-water efficiency

number

Charts of R. E. Froude; also known as the

R. W. L. Gawn [Froude, R. E.,
INA, 1892, pp. 292-294; INA, 1908, pp. 185-204;

Hub-diameter ratio

expanded-area

shape

or both

available, in one

(4)

(3)

the

of chart groups are

form or another, to the
propeller designer. These are fisted hereunder,
as an adaptation of a listing and a description by
F. M. Lewis [SNAME, 1951, pp. 612-613]:

now

series charts of

ratio,

P,

under the given conditions.

Third, Analysis. Given the propeller dimensions,
the ship speed V, the shaft power Ps
the propeller thrust T, and the rate of rotation n, in rpm.
Required to find the fractions Sr for real slip,
w for wake, and t for thrust deduction.

ratio, mean- width

and blade-thickness fraction
Blade shape (outline) and blade-section

efficiency only),

pitch

and the ship speed

Nomograms should be embodied, wherever

should yield

Preliminary Design.

Given the designed ship speed V, the

corresponding effective power Pjs or total resistance Rt and the propeller diameter D. Required
to find the propeller pitch P and the rate of
rotation n (in rpm) for the best propeller efficiency.
(ii) Given the designed ship speed V, the corresponding effective power Pe
and the rate of
rotation n of the propeller shaft. Required to
find the propeller pitch P and diameter D for
(i)

peller

1951, p. 626].

with dimensions in any system of units to be

(h)

First,

256].

S.,

HYDRODYNAMICS

586

The

coefficients are, in

Baker's notation:

X =

Slip constant

IN SHIP DESIGN

dimendo not produce ship-design data for

sional they

where

Sec. 70.4

in fresh water. Since the coefficients are

is

A''

in

water unless a correction

salt

made

is

for the

mass density [Kane, J. R., SNAME,

1951, pp. 625-626]. D. W. Taylor's statement
that "... marine propellers work in water of
." [S and P, 1943,
practically constant density
differences in

rpm, D in ft, and Fi (= Va)

advance in kt
Diameter constant

is

the speed of

where

speed of advance in
is

from

kt,

and

are in

ft,

and

a thrust factor for the blade type, actually an

arbitrary function of blade-area ratio.

The

latter

presumably the ratio Ad/Ao Cross curves of

the diameter constant Y and the revolution
constant X^Y are plotted on a grid of X, Y, and
is

77(eta).

The

Gawn's

series

The method
charts

is

developed-area

A^/Ao

ratio

up

propellers extended

W.

1.10.

R. E. Froude-Gawn

of using the

explained by

to

of

van Lammeren

P. A.

in

detail in the reference cited.

(II)

Charts of D.

W. Taylor

99-102, 109-112, 275-292].

in

Nov

Va

is

Berlin, 1916. Later published in English in

was virtually a

where

Vol.

sequently in

WRH,

see

also

pp.

15

W.

Nov
P.

of

blades

is

generally

coefficient,

_nD

= nD

(or

such

where

IJ is

is

is

is

the

the diameter, and

the speed of advance,

Revolutions-torque

where
,

V a)

where n

~Va

Ve

in con-

all

sistent units

v\

van Lammeren,

coefficients are:

Slip constant C,

VE

1934, Vol. 15, pp.

A.

1948, pp. 191-196.

the

the propeller power

added as a subscript to the basic

as 5p3

Bu =

XL,

254-320 and Pis.

II-XII. Some of these data were published sub1923-1924,

324-327;

is

NECI,

Propulsive Efficiency of Merchant Ships,"

the speed of advance in kt

VI
horses. The number

what

on the subject, entitled

"The Influence of Propeller Revolutions Upon the
treatise

rate of rotation in rps, Z)

NP

in

Charts of K. Schaffran. First published in

in
"Systematische Propellerversuche
(Systematic Propeller Experiments)," Strauss,

basic coefficients

is

Va

given by L. P. Smith [ASNE,

German

and P, 1943, pp.

in rpm, d

is

1935, p. 562].

[S

is

ships operate in

water that varies

(Ill)

The

A''

in

fully fresh to fully salt.

kt from 5 to 50,

diameter in ft, and

B,

where

and others

table of values of Va^, for a range of

RPSS,
The

Nd
= -:^

8 (delta)

Many

too sweeping.

is

fresh water only,

the thrust power in horses, Vj the

is

100]

p.

p/D
_fl_ r
ifi)
D'Vl 1{P/D) + 21J\bJ'

is

constant

Uy

'71'

the torque

the thrust power in

Diameter-torque constant

d^ =

horses.

Cross curves of

P/D

and

efficiency e are plotted

of

abscissas.

Other chart forms are used with the

as ordinate

Diameter-thrust constant

and Bp or B^ as

on a grid

is

where &

DVj,

the thrust

coefficients:

"^

p/d,

Revolution-thrust constant C

Cv = a

where a

is

the pitch ratio

diameter, and p
.

lOOOaU

yA

,2x^3

^,

where the symbols are as de-

scribed previously for the Taylor charts.

These

coefficients

and

charts, as given in the

reference quoted, are for model propellers tested

VI

d and C, on C

W. Schmidt ["Zusammenfassende

Darstellung von Schraubenversuchen (Summarized Description of Propeller Experiments);" this

a pamphlet published by

Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch

copy in TMB Ubrary. See also a
paper entitled "Vorausberechnung der Giinstigis

Av =

basic grids are C. on

(IV) Charts of

UOOO/

the thrust power in horses, d is the

is the pitch, both the latter in ft

is

The

Ing., in 1926;

sten Schiffsschraube

(Calculation

of

the

Most

Favorable Ship Propeller)," by H. Volker; abstracted by W. Hinterthan in WRH, 1 Dec 1939,

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.4

pp. 368-370]. Schmidt's presentation was based

upon the model-test data of K. Schaffran.

The

J (= F^/nZ) by standard

coefficients are

= NP"
'Vr2.5

587

where

the propeller power

is

vl

ses
in English horses

notation) and:

lOOOl^lP

PHP

PHPw"

PHP

,3

where

pD'Ve

PHP

is

Ve = Va is the speed of advance in kt,

and D is the propeller diameter in ft.
There is another set of coefficients in which the
propeller power is replaced by the thrust power.
Cross curves of P/D ratio and e ( = tjo in standard
notation) are plotted on a logarithmic grid of
coefficient

coefficients are

Bu

^:rrj73

of the preceding

The

list.

other

determined by inclined logarithmic

[PNA,

(V) Charts of K. E. Schoenherr

1939, Vol.

the pitch in ft

is

IP

'

2.6

where

the thrust power

is

English horses

^ ( V

V,

coefficient,

A (lambda)
rjj,

scales.

where Ho

D (my
Viooo/

the propeller power

in horses,

and

where K,
the

the 0-diml thrust

is

0-diml

torque

the advance coefficient

coefficient,

Vs/nD, and

the propeller efficiency.

The contours are 8 and tj, on a grid of Ho/D

A^ on a grid of the same kind, Cp
ratio and Bj,
on the same kind, and on the same kind.
(VII) Charts of L. Troost ["Open Water Test
Series with Modern Propeller Forms, Part 3,
Two-Bladed and Five-Bladed Propellers," NECI,
,

II,

pp. 158-168].

The

principal coefficients,

Thrust

coefficient

K,

all

dimensionless, are:

=
prv'd*

1950-1951, Vol. 67, Part

Torque

coefficient

K^ correspond
d

is

K. = ^,i

pna

to the standard

Kt

where K, and

and Kq

and

This

known

3, pp.

89-130].

a later system developed by Troost,

as the continental or "/i(mu)-o-(sigma)"

system.

The

principal relationships are:

the propeller diameter

H
Efficiency

The

is

values of K,

^{^
,K^ and
,

= V
efficiency e are plotted

to a base of J.

(VI) Charts of L. Troost and

Lammeren [RPSS,

W.

P.

A. van

These
pp.
are based upon a so-called A-series of model
propellers, copied from G. S. Baker, in which
rather narrow blades and airfoil sections give
good performance but are suitable only for lightly
196-223].

1948,

loaded propellers, outside the cavitating range;

and a so-called B-series, in which wider blades
are able to carry greater thrust loadings, the

e{-qn), and (^(phi) are

and <r.
(VIII) Charts of Newport News Shipbuilding and
Dry Dock Company. These are described briefly
and one of them is illustrated in a discussion by

Cross curves of P/D,

plotted on a grid of

J.

Kane [SNAME,

R.

The

coefficients are
'550

from cavitation are small, and the propellers

are generally free from singing.

PHP

where A^

is

the rate of rotation in

the propeller diameter in

F (=. Va) is the speed of advance in kt

1951, pp. 626-627; also

limited,

550

where

J and:
to be used

pVl

basic coefficients are:

ND
8 = -r-^
rpm, D is

ju

p. 629].

losses

The

= n

PHP
PHP

to
is

when n is

limited

be used when

is

the propeller power in

English horses.
ft,

and

Cross curves of
e

(=

efficiency

P/D

r/o),

and

are plotted on grids of J,

or

A (delta).

HYDRODYNAMICS

588

W. Keith

(IX) Charts of H. H.

IN SHIP DESIGN

(formerly pro-

Loading

MIT). These were

carefully drawn to about 7.25 in by 7.25 in, but
were never pubUshed. They involve two coeffifessor of naval architecture at

coefficient

Efficiency e(=

jjo)

Sec. 70.4

Ku =

jf^'^'

cients:

Cn

= NU

(this

is

with D.

identical

W.

Taylor's B^j)
tto.s

Cr,

DV\

PD'V}

These charts give contours of the 0-diml coefficients Kt

Kq Ku and e (= efficiency r?o),
as listed in the foregoing, on a basis of J and
P/D, using data from the Wageningen B.3 and
B.4 series of model propellers. A number of
examples in the reference cited show how these
,

charts are used.

where

A''

the rate of rotation in rpm,

is

thrust power in English horses,

diameter in

ft,

and Va

is

is

is

the

the propeller

the speed of advance

inkt.

values of the advance coefficient are extremely

The values

of

(= efficiency rjo) are

Co and P/D. The latter scale

Cn and

plotted on a grid of

uniform and exceptionally

is

(XIII) Charts of W. E. Fermann, formerly of the

General Motors Corporation, developed specifcally for towing and similar situations where the

of these charts are in the

(X) Charts of
631-633].

The

J.

large.

Photostats

TMB library.

G. Hill

[SNAME,

1951,

pp.

These charts are

in four groups:

Design coefficient So = VA[p<f/PsY^^ as abscissas and pitch-diameter ratio a = p/d as

ordinates (uniform scale), with contours of proefficiency

peller

principal coefficients are;

(_

low.

J =

ep

and advance coefficient

and a reference line of

101. 3dV a/ {Npd),

with So constant
Design coefficient S^

2TrQn

ei>(Maj)

vD'V

abscissas

= V a[p/{PsNp)]^''^
ratio a = p/d

as

and pitch-diameter

as

ordinates (uniform scale), with contours of ep and

J = 101.33V a/ (Npd), and

(Sjv

where

V is the speed of advance {V^ in ITTC nota-

tion)

and

all

The
shown by

other symbols are standard.

propeller efficiency

ijo

(not so marked)

is

contours on the two sets of diagrams. To render

them more compact they are plotted as the square
roots of Cp and Cs on a base of J in each case.

(XI) Charts of C.

W.

Prohaska. These are log-

arithmic-type diagrams based upon the earlier

charts of G. Eiffel and W. Schmidt. They embody
both the dimensional coefficients of D. W. Taylor
and a group of corresponding 0-diml coefficients,
with double inclined logarithmic scales. Examples
of these charts are given in Figs.

to follow,

and

and they are described

in Sees. 70.5

70.6.

cients are:

Thrust

Torque

1951,
coeffi-

line of e^jMaj,

with

Design coefficient Eo = VA[pd^/PuY^^ as aband pitch-diameter ratio a = p/d as

ordinates (uniform scale), with contours of Cp
and J = 101.33V a/ (Npd) and a line of ep(Mai)
with Ej) constant
Design coefficient E.y = Va[p/{PuNp)Y^^ as
abscissas and pitch-diameter ratio a = p/d as
ordinates (uniform scale), with contours of ep and
J = 101.33V a/ (Npd) and a line of epfu^x) with
scissas

Etf constant.

Here Va

is

the speed of advance in kt,

the shaft power (per shaft) in horses,

Np

Ps
is

is

the

propeller rpm, d the propeller diameter in ft,

p the propeller pitch in ft, and p the mass density
of the water.

As mentioned

M. Lewis [SNAME,
612-615 and 618-620]. The principal

(XII) Charts of F.
pp.

70.A and 70.B

constant

previously, Fcrmann's charts are

particularly valuable for the design of propellers

for tugs

and

for

towing purposes which operate

at low speeds of advance and high thrust-load

coefficient

coefficient

Kt =

T
pn'D*

For many of these problems the range of

D. W. Taylor's charts is entirely inadequate.
The Fermann charts have not been published
factors.

or circulated but a set

Kq =
p7l'D

library.

is

available in the

TMB

Sec. 70.

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

known, the design methods and

charts developed by C. W. Dyson ["Screw Propellers," Simmons-Boardman, New York, 1924]
are no longer used by propeller designers.
70.5
Comments on and Comparison of Pro-

So

as

far

Some

peller-Series Charts.

charts listed

peller-series

or

in

all

Sec.

certain disadvantages, rendering

of the pro-

70.4 possess

them

than

less

convenient for the use of the propeller designer:

Schmidt

The parent
teristics known

series of

designs.

models possesses charac-

"Nouvelles R6cherches sur la R&istance de

(New Research on Air Resist-

(1)

I'Air et I'Aviation

ance and Aviation)," Paris, 1914

Ex^cutfe Pendant la Guerre,
(2) "Travaux
1915-1918 (Projects Completed During the War,
1915-1918)," Paris, 1919

"L'Etude sur

have

they

of the chart

and so on. This is

makers but a feature in-

herent in their age.

necessary to interpolate between irreg-

(b) It is

ularly curved lines to find the proper

The

D. W. Taylor
admirable in

[S

and

this

P/D

Bp and Bu

basic series diagrams or

ratio.

charts of

P, 1943, pp. 275-292] are

tion

scales of pitch-diameter ratio, closely subdivided.

(c)

It is necessary to

make preliminary

tions or tabulations, to

draw an

on the chart, and to locate

curves

chart

certain

its

before

intersections with

determining

the

The

charts as reproduced in the literature

are too small

and too crowded with

everyday work. This situation

some

in

cases

by procuring

may

lines for

be remedied

large-scale prints of

They

advance

coefficient
,

The Fermann

many

or large values of the real

as for problems involving towing.

charts are in effect inversions of

paramlow advance coeffi-

of the standard charts, in that the

eter values corresponding to

cients

and

the group based upon tests of single propellers.

One such diagram

diagram

This

useful

in

7j

all

cient

the

preliminary

logarithmic

a rather concentrated serving of technical

all on one piece of paper.

information,

logarithmic method of presentation, as

Eiffel in

ordinates are a series of simple

ranging from 0.006 to

1.0,

for

the

vertical scales are logarith-

There are 4 diagonal scales on the diagram,

and 1 single. The upper scales of each

of

the

three

was originated by Gustav

France and later developed by Wilhelm

pairs

represent

values of the factors A,

Ba

Taylor's notation, respectively.

dimensional

the

and Bp

of

D. W.

The mathematical

expressions for each of these, in English units of

feet,

column

in

horses,

and knots, are

the upper left-hand

The lower

0-diml factors

6,.

in

listed

corner

of

the

scales of each pair represent

the 0-diml thrust-load factor Ctl

The

The

Kg

3 double

type of
propeller chart has much to recommend it. This
is on the basis that the designer does not object

far as can be learned,

Kt

Both horizontal and

fraction

so-called

propeller

0-diml coefficients and for the efficiency fractions.

The

to

The

S.

numbers,

and operations other than propulsion must be

the

usual

the

two separate scales, are 0-diml values of the

advance coefficient ./ and dimensional values
(in English units) of the Taylor advance coeffi-

design of a ship, where backing, maneuvering,

considered,

presented in Fig. 70. A.

and open-water efficiency

non-dimensional. The abscissas, embodying

diagram.

Considering the rather varied amovuit of proinformation

is

contains

characteristic curves of torque coefficient

tons,

extra-large real-slip ratios are at the

working ends.

peller

data from the Wageningen series of propellers

developed by L. Troost but there are others in

are not usable for small values of the

slip ratio Sr,

in Copenhagen.
diagrams are based upon test

of these

mic.

the charts from the originators.

(e)

Prohaska, of the Institute

Denmark,

of

thrust coefficient

value of the parameter desired

(d)

Many

calcula-

auxiliary curve

W.

that of C.

is

Technology

of

with their uniform

respect,

of

the most useful, as well

most comprehensive logarithmic presenta-

as the

root sections that are too thin,

no fault

(A Study

The most modern and

root

ogival

sections, blade outlines without skew-back, blade

I'H^lice Aeri6nne

the Airscrew)," Paris, 1920.

to be inferior to those of later

Specifically,

589

Germany, indicated by the following

references to Eiffel's work:

(3)
(a)

in

and bg

and the basic

of Prohaska, respectively.

fourth single scale gives values of the 0-diml

TD/Q.

Prohaska charts, such as those

70. A and 70.B are adapted,
carry additional scales showing the values of
Kt and tjo for / = 0, and the values of /
7vo
for Kq =
and Kt = 0. These hmit scales are
omitted from the reproductions to avoid excessive
original

from which

Figs.

complication.

The

values on the three curves of

Kq Kt and
,

HYDRODYNAMICS

590

Sec. 70.5

IN SHIP DESIGN

PROPELLER FOR DOUBLE-ENDED TERRYBOAT

H.EN0RD5TROMJ947
Number

Z" 3

Blodes

of

Exponded-Areo Ratio

0.42

Me on- Width Ratio

(Width Qt 0.9R)/(MeonWidtl^
Pitch Ratio P/D--

0.960

Blode-Thickness Fraction^ 0.045

Hub-Diometer Ratio d/D'0.16

Ro><e Angle

Sl<ew-

Bock

Zero
None

Blode Sections Symmetricol

Wash Back:

LOGARITHMIC
/j= 1.99

Kt

Ib-sec^/ft^

is

rps

Ka

is in

rpm

,-

PROPELLER DIAGRAM

Diameter

of

Model Propeller

Units for Mixed Form are

jo6''"'af>' 'yid

Fig. 70.A

in:

ton s, feet, Horses, knots

'

Screw Propeller
Logarithmic Chart of C. W. Prohaska for a Single

'7o"

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.5
7/0

of Fig. 70.

by a
them

are related to each other

vertical ordinate intersecting all three of

at the particular advance coefficient

(or

8)

Such an
on the figure
through the points C, E, and F. Corresponding
values on the three double and one single inclined
scales are determined by dropping perpendiculars
on them from the three intersecting points C, E,
and F, indicated in the diagram. A single perpendicular
is dropped from the r/o-curve interat which the propeller

ordinate

is

drawn

in

is

operating.

broken

lines

CM

section to the scale of

TD/Q. Two perpendiculars

E on the Kr curve,
one to the double scale of first basic coefficient
and the other, EG, to the double scale of thrustload coefficient. A single perpendicular is dropped
from the point F at the Kg-curve intersection to
the point H on the double scale for the second
are dropped from the point

By

first

591

basic coefficient br at the intersection near E.

By and

large, the use of

any particular

series

chart for the preliminary design of a screw pro-

same kind of answer.

on the basis that the test data for the
model propellers from which the charts were
constructed did not suffer from scale or surface
effects, that the observed data are accurate and
peller gives essentially the

This

is

carefully plotted,

and that the use

of dimensional

expressions does not omit important factors or

unknown errors. For example, since

model propellers are almost invariably tested in

introduce

fresh water, the derived data are also for fresh

water.

omitted

mass-density factor p(rho)

for

convenience

which

simplification,

or

was done by D. W. Taylor, may make a 2

is

as

or 3

per cent difference in ship-propeller data calcu-

SNAME, 1951,
SNAME, 1951, p. 628].

lated for salt water [Kane, J. R.,

having the two scales of

each pair opposite each other at the feet of the
perpendiculars EG, FH, and the second short
perpendicular from E, it is convenient to pick
off either dimensional or non-dimensional values,

p. 626;

or to enter the diagram with these values.

characteristics worked out

from the charts was rather more than would now
be acceptable. It must be remembered, however,
that the parent propellers all had rather different
characteristics, especially with regard to mean-

basic coefficient.

Assume that a symmetrical-section

CEF

is

propeller

erected through the point

comparison of

ago by H. F.
8-24].

The

discrepancies between the five sets of

width ratio and blade-thickness fraction. Unfortunately, a more modern comparison is not

worked out in the same detail. Some

comments are to be found in the
discussion of a recent paper by F. M. Lewis
available,

and the 0-diml J value is read from either the

top or the bottom scale as 0.596. If the speed of
advance Va and the propeller diameter D are
known, the rate of rotation is obtained directly
from the relationship n = Va/(.JD). The actual
working efficiency at the point C on the ijo curve
is read off from the side scale as 0.6L

rather general

type of

initial

The 0-diml value of the second basic coefficient

bg is determined by dropping a perpendicular

desired

by

whereupon the
0-diml value of bg is read off as 0.313. With
the values of mass density p, speed of advance
Va and rate of rotation n all known, the torque
Q is determined from the bg formula given on
the diagram. The power Pp which will be absorbed
by the propeller is calculated from the derived
values of n and Q.
If the rate of rotation n is given and the power
Pp is known, corresponding to the situation in
Sec. 59.15, the torque Q is derived by direct
from

to the inclined scale at H,

calculation.

value of

The

TD/Q

T is

found eitheiifrom the

at the intersection M, or from the
thrust

kinds of propeller-series

five

was made some two decades

D. Davis [ASNE, Feb 1932, pp.

charts then in use

preliminary-design

such as that depicted on Fig. 70. A is to be used

and that the 0-diml thrust-load factor Ctl is
L065. The scale of Ctl is entered at the point
G and a line GE is drawn perpendicular to that
scale until it intersects the Kr-curve at E. The
ordinate

Schoenherr, K. E.,

[SNAME,

1951, pp. 621-641].

For a beginner in the

find so

many

bewildering to

field, it is

kinds of charts,

all

ostensibly for

the same purpose, but actually varied to suit the

data and the nature of the answer

several groups of people, experienced

in these procedures. It

is

likewise

most confusing

to find different symbols on each kind of chart,

with some expressions dimensional and others

non-dimensional. After trying them
that are available, he

decide which meets his

all,

or all

in better position to

is

own

particular needs,

either for analysis or for practical design.

It is characteristic of

any and

all

propeller-

procedures that the numerical

values required for the full-scale ship are obtained
only by estimating the wake fraction w and the
series chart-design

thrust-deduction fraction

t.

The Vq of the openVa on the ship,

water test corresponds only to

whence

V =

Fx/(1

w),

and the thrust T

HYDRODYNAATICS IN SHIP DESIGN

592
required of the ship projieller

Srr. 70.6

greater than the

derived in Chaps. 66 and 67.

predicted total ship resistance i?r by the ratio

1/(1
0- Further, the propeller efficiency t/b

speed, for wliich the propeller

behind the ship is greater (or less) than the openwater efficiency ijo by the relative rotative effi-

this speed

is

Pb

is

is

These three unknown factors may be

trial data on similar
ships [Davis, H. F. D., ASNE, Aug 1932, pp.
332-352; Schoenherr, K. E., PNA, 1939, Vol. II,
Chap. Ill] or, as is usually the case, they may be
determined from tests of a self-propelled model.
ciency

Tjfi

estimated from analyses of

Preliminary-Design Procedure, Employ-

70.6

ing

Series

For the screw-propellerin this book several

Charts.

design procedure set

down

of the series charts are utilized in the preliminary-

design stage,

particularly

characteristics

and

determining the

for

for selecting a suitable stock

propeller to be used in the first self-propulsion

tests of the

ABC

ship models. This

not to be

is

taken as an indication that series charts are

suitable for making only first approximations in
the early stages of a ship design. In fact, by far

number

the greater

of

propellers

practice and manufactured for

up from these charts, insofar

designed in

worked

ships are

as the propeller

features can be determined from them.

The

is 20.5 kt. The ship resistance at

estimated in Sec. 66.9 as 171,830 lb,
or say 172,000 lb. The corresponding effective

performance,

power

10,827 horses.

estimated from Eq.

is

The wake

(60. ii)

in

fraction

Sec.

60.8 as

from the 0.255

example in that
section because it is calculated at an early stage
of the design, using preliminary dimensions and
parameters instead of the final ABC values inThis figure

0.261.

is

worked out as the

different

illustrative

serted in the illustrative example.

The thrust-deduction fraction

by the method described in Sec.

estimated

is

applying
a 15 per cent reduction to the value derived from
Eq. (60. vi) because of the very thin skeg con60.9,

templated ahead of the propeller. This gives a

predicted value for ^ of 0.111.

To keep the

propeller loading as low as possible,

consistent with good performance, four (4) blades

are to be used. This means that the blade width

and blade thickness can be small, with a resulting
rather high efficiency. The mean-width ratio

Cm/D
to

references of Sec. 70.4 in which the various

The designed ship

is to give optimum

taken tentatively in the range of 0.20

is

The

0.25.

assumed to be

blade-thickness

fraction

t^/D

is

describe in considerable detail the procedure to

be followed .for the particular problem at hand.

These
values are typical for 4-bladed propellers [PNA,
1939, Vol. II, p. 157] and are considered reasonable
for the first approximation. Since adequate

In many cases they also contain examples worked

out to illustrate these procedures.

aperture on the transom-stern

charts

propeller-series

As examples
series

of the

there

charts

are

methods
are

published

usually

of using propeller-

given

here

employed and the calculations made

the

steps

for the pre-

liminary design of a propeller for the transomstern

ABC

ship,

leading to the selection of a

stock propeller for self-propulsion tests of the

first model.

The
(1)

of

clearance

EMB

of

down

in

ahead

tests

PNA,

should not be unduly large. There appears to be

therefore, of raking the blades, especially

as they

would then have to be thicker to with-

stand the offset centrifugal forces.

preliminary-design procedure

described and illustrated

and

SNAME,
That

F.

M.

Lewis, based

upon

tests of

B-series propellers, as described in

W.

five

ratio,

three

20

ft,

-qo

graphs, one each for a given

Fig. 70.A. In addition there are three

(i)

P/D

plus the four sets of diagonal scales of

.1 is

all

somewhat more intricate

70. B, adapted from one of these charts,

contains five sets of Kq graphs, five Kt graphs,

Certain data were taken as basic for

methods, using a propeller diameter D

of

is

used in a somewhat different manner.

efficiency

of C.

is

Prohaska's pro-

Fig.

and

1951, Vol. 59, pp. 618-620

is

Prohaska, based upon logarithmic charts embodying the test data of the Wageningen B series of model propellers.
(3)

first.

peller-design chart, as contrasted to the propeller-

data chart of Fig. 70. A,

(2) That of
Wageningen

and

no need,

design charts

through 4

ship,

the inclination of the streamlines in the

thin,

1939, Vol. II, pp. 158-168, including propeller1

ABC

of the propeller is relatively

inflow jet with reference to the propeller axis

The Prohaska

K. E. Schoenherr, based upon

series propellers, as set

allowed in the design of the propeller

since the skeg

following three methods were used:

That

is

of the order of 0.04 to 0.05.

maximum-

graphs for use when:

The tbrust-load
known

coefficient

Ctl

or the factor

Sec. 70.6

Fig. 70.B

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Logarithmic Chaet of C. W. Prohaska for Five Propellers, Wageningen B.4.40 Series

593

HYDRODYNAMICS

594

The basic factors br or Bu are known

The basic factors bg or Bp are known.

(ii)
(iii)

For the study on the

diagram for the B.4.40

number

series

is

its

This

selected.

expanded-area ratio

The mean-width

0.40.

ratio

only

is

from the information block in the upper

right corner, but this group of propellers appears
to correspond most nearly to that desired.

The first step is to find the thrust-load coefficient

Ctl using the expression Ctl T/{Q.5pAqVI).
The thrust T is obtained by dividing the total
resistance Rt oi 172,000 lb by (1 - ^ = 0.889;
it is found to be 193,476 lb. The speed of advance
,

is

the ship speed, 20.5 kt, times

0.739], or 15.15 kt.

The

[(1

w)

thrust-load coefficient then

becomes
193,476

Ltl

(0.5)(1.9905)(0.7854)(20)'[(1.6889)15.15]'

0.945.

Prohaska's chart. Fig. 70.B, is entered on the

lower of the pair of upper right-hand diagonals,

marked Ctl

Draw

a perpendicular to this line

Ctl =

0.945, marked on the

diagram by an arrowhead. Where this perpendicular crosses the graph marked "tjmsx for Ctl ,"

at the value of

P/D from the

Kt curves for various P/D ratios.
The optimum P/D value corresponding to the
interpolate for the correct value of
series of five

crossing

marked with an "x" on the diagram

is

1.02.

From
of

draw a vertical line to the

Where this line cuts the series

this crossing

top of the diagram.

efficiency curves, at a point corresponding

r/o

P/D

of 1.02, marked by a small solid circle,

read the corresponding efficiency value ?jo From
the scales at the right or left the open-water

to a

efficiency is 0.68.

Continuing up the vertical

fine to the

lower

horizontal scale at the top, the value of the ad-

vance

J is read off as
J = Vo/inD) or
the rpm as follows:

coefficient

relationship
calculate
Vo_

JD

Vj_

JD

0.703.
ra

1.6889(15.15)60

=
=

From

the

Vo/{JD),

109.2 rpm.

(0.703)20

If this rate of rotation

appears to be not suit-

some reason or other, it may be necessary

to sacrifice some propeller efficiency for a desired
rate which is faster or slower. The amount so
sacrificed is determined by following the procedure
able, for

and

values for the crossing of the Ctl perpendicular

and the graph of "r/Max for Ctl or A," they are
picked for the crossings of that perpendicular

with the several

values.

open

The

circles.

The

P/D

Table

70.a.

in

TABLE

Kt

Thrust-

P/D

marked by small

values derived for the complete

available on the chart are listed

Variation op Epficienct with Rate

OF Rotation and P/D Ratio

70.a

The data listed here are

propellers

graphs for a range of

latter crossings are

range of

0.189,

VA

r/o

ship, the propeller

series is

Sec. 70.6

described, except that instead of picking

indicates that the propeller has

four (4) blades and that

Ab/Ao

ABC

IN SHIP DESIGN

for the

Wageningen B.4.40

from Prohaska's logarithmic

series

chart, Fig. 70.B.

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.6

Then Schoenherr's

K, =

Ki{J)~. For a range of

values of the advance coefficient

0.80,

J from

O.GO to

the calculated values of K, are listed in

Table

70. b.

TABLE
From

The parabola corresponding

Data for Plotting Auxiliary

Curve on Schoenhbrr Chart
70.b

the text, K,^

Advance

to these

Coefficient

0.371245

0.371.

A',

K,,J^

0.1336
0.1569
0.1819
0.208S
0.2376

values

At the

is

then drawn lightly in pencil on Chart

intersection of this pencil parabola with

the heavy broken line marked "eMax (or rjuax) for

Ktd Const." the following optimum values are
picked off:

595

HYDROnVNAMICS

596

gave graphs and rules for finding the developedarea ratio of a screw propeller in the preliminary-

Data

["Recent

stage

design

on

pp. 39-47].

1,

ABC

to the

The

Sec. 70.:

[RPSS, 1948, pp. 259-260], based upon the following references:

Cavitation

Criteria," Inter. Shipbldg. Progr., 1954, Vol.

No.

IN SHIP DESIGN

following values pertaining

transom-stern design were used to

Ad/Ao by the procedure on

HSPA, 1940, Vol. II, p. 46

C, lESS, 1934-1935, Vol. 78,

(a)

Kempf,

(b)

Conn,

(c)

Gebers, F., Schiffbau, 1933, p. 235

(d)

Robertson,

1,

G.,

J. F.

C, MESA,

J.

p.

27

1929, p. 102.

calculate the ratio

The only comprehensive data

page 45 of the reference:

Thrust to be delivered by the propeller

in salt

water, 193,476 lb

Rate

n (assumed), 109 rpm

rotation

of

or

advance Va or

of

Ve

15.15 kt or 25.59

per sec

ft

Number

of blades Z, 4

Submergence

propeller axis below at-rest

of

waterline, 15.5 ft

Assumed height
at-rest

WL,

of

stern-wave

Value of pressure head

(p,

e,

peller

ft

0.532.

one of the alternative calculation methods

Manen the value of Ao/Aa (his

given by van

0.546.

chart

series

The developed-area

ratio

is

expanded-area ratio, at
least for not-too-wide blades, so that no distinction
need be made between them.
The diameter is thus slightly smaller than that
sufficiently close to the

Comments

is

intended

for

at least

some indication

of

the effect of these

changes upon the predicted performance of the

new

design.

few

of the principal propeller features

to be decided

have

upon before the preliminary design

begun; they are the given quantities, so to

the final design computations for the ABC propeller, at the end of Sec. 70.31, give a r&t\o A e/A^

of the blade profile or the rake.

indicating reasonable agreement with

any proand

analysis

valid only for other propellers

is

of 0.478,

Propeller-

having the same geometric shape and physical

characteristics. For example, systematic data
based on tests of model propellers having small
solid hubs do not represent the expected performance of full-scale propellers with larger built-up
hubs. In the case of almost every new design it is
necessary to depart from the parent propeller
in some physical respect. The designer must have

in the calculations preceding, and the

pitch-diameter ratio is some 5 or 6 per cent less,
but the area ratio is considerably larger. However,

assumed

on

speaking,

Strictly

ft.

pitch-diameter ratio P/D, 0.952

is

Preliminary

Design Features.
48.5

design purposes

Developed-area ratio Au/Ao

FJF)

F.

70.8
e)/iv,

Cavitation number ao at a value of R/Bm^^

0.8, in the 12 o'clock position, 4.01

By

what might

Nordstrom in "Screw Propeller Charac[SSPA Rep. 9, 1948]. In this report

Nordstrom presents the results of tests on nine
4-bladed model propellers, with P/D ratios
varying from
to 1.6, over a range of advance
coefficient J from -|-2.0 to 2.0.
The problem of designing screw propellers
intended to run normally in the partly immersed
condition is discussed under surface propellers in

by H.

1 ft

ft

values were:

Diameter D, 19.75

for

backing conditions are those given

Sec. 71.10.

Atmospheric-pressure head, 33

Mean

above

1 ft

Assumed vapor-pressure head

The derived

crest

full

teristics"

1.817 rps

Speed

be termed

available on the

model propellers

characteristics of

speak. Others can be determined after the principal

known, such as the exact shape

characteristics are

An

alternative

method

is

preliminary designs with

to

work up a

series of

the given quantities

the foregoing.

varied systematically, and then to select the best

Modification of Series-Chart Procedure

For preliminary
for Other Design Problems.
designs in which the propeller is required to have

development toward a
done by K. E. Schoenherr for
four different propellers, to determine the effect
of varying D and n [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Table 18,

70.7

good backing performance, as for tugs and ferryboats, there are few propeller-series charts available. The stopping and backing situation is
discussed rather fully in Part 5 of Volume III
of this book. Suitable propeller-design features
are well set forth

by W.

P. A.

van Lammeren

of the series for further

final design.

This

is

p. 172]. If series charts are used, the

for each design

is

time involved

so small that this should almost

be considered as routine procedure.

Rather than to burden the description of the
series-chart

method

in Sees. 70.5

and 70.6 or the

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.10

Lerbs short method in Sees. 70.21 through 70.38

with paragraphs involving considerations of
engineering instead of analysis for hydrodynamics,
there are given here

some

comments on the

brief

selection of certain physical features as governed

by the problem

in hand.

Selection of Propeller Diameter.

70.9
In
both the series-chart and the Lerbs short-cut
exaritiples worked out in this chapter the propeller
diameter is selected in advance. If there are
operational or other limitations on diameter, the
designer has Httle or no freedom of choice. He
must do the best that is possible under the
circumstances, but with a clear understanding on
the part of everyone concerned that it is not the
best that could be done if he were free of these

propeller

was

597

to keep the thrust-load coefficient

low and to obtain a wheel that would work in a

region of the highest possible ideal and real
efficiencies, the latter represented by a value of
about O.Sjjj
Another reason was that pointed
out by E. K. Sullivan and W. G. Scarborough in
their paper on "Machinery Design of the Schuyler
Otis Bland" [SNAME, 1952, pp. 467-503]. There
(on page 474) they stated that, as a result of
.

their studies, "the largest propeller that could be

accommodated would have the

Objections against large casting and shipping

and weights can be overcome by developments in detachable blades and welded assemblies
described in Sec. 70.43. It is assumed in the
sizes

limitations.

foregoing that the

he has freedom of choice as to diameter, he

proceeds on the basis that the propeller is the
most important unit in its part of the ship, and
that it can have whatever diameter best fits it
for the task to be performed. If propulsive efficiency is not a primary requirement then almost
any available propeller can be used and only

propeller shaft can be

If

the sketchiest of design procedures

Sec. 34.2 describes

why

and

is

illustrates the reasons

and the lowest thrust loading may be expected

to work at the highest real efficiency. Some years
ago K. E. Schoenherr said ".
in general, that
propeller

is

optimum diameter.

quantity and

is

rate

rotation

of

and

the

of

adjusted to suit the

is

If not, n becomes a given

one of those to be found by

the design procedure.

Means

of

determining the proper diameter,

and comments on optimum screw-propeller diameters, are

given by:

necessary.

screw propellers with the largest diameter

annual

least total

operating cost."

(1)

PNA,

Schoenherr, K. E.,

1939, Vol. II, pp. 159, 165,

170, 172
(2)

Van Lammeren, W.

(3)

Lewis, F. M.,

RPSS, 1948, pp. 232-233

1951, pp. 619-620

P. A.,

SNAME,

(4)

Van Manen,

(5)

Edstrand, H., "Model Teats on the

J.

and Troost,

D.,

SNAME,

L.,

1952,

pp. 446-448

the best choice which has the largest

eter for Propellers,"

SSPA Rep.

Optimum Diam-

22, 1953 (in

EngUsh).

diameter admissible in the propeller aperture"

[PNA,

1939, Vol. II, p. 166]. F.

M. Lewis removed

the latter restriction by saying that "In nearly

cases of

all

will

modern

be the largest that

1951,

p.

619].

way

is

practical,

the ship hull

If

accommodate the
other

optimum diameter

ships the

propeller,

is

."

[SNAME,

designed to

rather

than

the

around, the latter will be properly

guarded against

air

leakage from the surface,

against racing at sea, against rotating through a

region of excessively high wake, and against

other

ills

to which a large propeller

is

all

supposed

to be subject.

The

aim in the prehminary design of

was to swing the largest possible
single propeller. This was the reason for developing the arch type of stern, which permitted a
propeller diameter D of 24 ft on a draft of only
the

26

principal

ABC

ft.

from

The arch
air

effective

ship

hull

is

recess afforded effective shielding

leakage and

was hoped) equally

protection against racing when the

pitching.

(it

The reason

for using the large

If

the propeller power and the ship speed are

low, the friction

becomes large

and pressure drag

of the blades

in proportion to the thrust.

Some

by reducing the propeller

optimum given by the

efficiency 7nay be gained

diameter

below the
orthodox design procedures. However, the designer
is cautioned against any reduction of this kind
for higher powers and higher speeds, where it

may result in an actual loss

arguments against this are

The
by H.

of efficiency.

set

forth

Edstrand, in reference (5) preceding, especially

pages 24-27 and Figs. 13 and 14. His diagrams
illustrate

in

clearly the reasons for decreasing

one case and holding

Determining

70.10

Closely

related

diameter

is

to

it

the

the

in another.

Rate

selection

of
of

Rotation.
propeller

a determination of the proper rate

of rotation. On the basis that the propeller designer

has the same freedom of choice as for propeller
diameter, and that optimum propulsive perform-

ance

is

desired, the rate of rotation

n should be

HYDRODYNAMICS

598

maximum

that which gives the

under the

Tjo

propeller efficiency

or designed-load

trial

conditions

DESIGN

IN SHIP

the selected

P/D

Sec. 70.11

ratio (interpolated

gives the working efficiency

When

specified.

propulsion

is

by a piston-type

internal-

which the mean

effective

pressure in the cylinders

solution, several practical requirements are to be

value,

met before this value can be approved, as it were.

The first involves the ability of the selected or

Sec. 69.8, to

probable type of propelling machinery to deliver

the required torque and power at the specified

maximum

rate of rotation. This situation

is

discussed at

some length by J. E. Burkhardt [ME, 1942, Vol. I,

pp. 28-33]. It is assumed here that no problems
are presented because of the type of engine and
the reduction gear or transmission system

of

employed.

K. E. Schoenherr illustrates a procedure

whereby the effect on propeller efficiency tjo of
varying n, P/D, and certain other variables is
readily determined [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 172
and Tables 19, 20].
the vibration

Finally,

characteristics

the

of

and the machinery

ship, the engine, the shafting,

foundations must be considered

when

the rate of rotation. However, this

selecting

primarily

is

a matter of the number of blades, and as such

is

torque very carefully in order to achieve the

full

neglecting transmission losses.

It

most im-

is

portant, therefore, that after the engine

is

selected

both the pitch and the diameter of the propeller

be correct for the shaft power and rate of rotation
available.

Experience through the past several decades

that inaccurate predictions almost
always err on the side of designing a propeller
which absorbs too much power at the specified
rate of rotation. If slowed down to match the
indicates

power
less

of the engine, the rate of rotation is usually

than for

remedy

maximum engine power. The common

to cut off the blade tips; this enables

is

Assuming that the rate

propeller.

Variation with Radius.

of rotation for the designed

is fixed,

or rated brake power. In other words,

power of the engine is to be utilized,

deUvered at a certain rate of rotation and at
none other, the power absorbed by the propeller
connected to it has to be exactly the same,
the

if

but often

power

maximum

limited to a

becomes necessary, as pointed out in

match the rate of rotation and the

it

The Proper Pitch-Diameter Ratio Pitch

;

specified

is

the engine to run up to rated speed (and power)

discussed in Sec. 70.12.

70. 11

necessary),

in

While the design procedures described by

examples in this chapter give n as a part of the

combustion engine

if

to be expected.

r;

maximum

or that

it is

certain limits, the pitch of the propeller

next factor which logically evolves,

zero real shp the effective pitch

is

There

or other

to he within

a great deal of discussion in the litera-

wisdom

the necessity of attempting to match the

the

or

since

for

pitch

speed of advance divided by the rate of rotation.

is

shape of a useful part of the

ture on screw propellers concerning the

is

the average

spoils the

each radius with the average wake

is under-

at

velocity at that radius. This matching

taken on the basis that the blade element at each

work at an effective angle of attack

and ship-design purposes

the pitch-diameter ratio is found to be a preferable

radius should

parameter.

elements should not be underloaded while others

However,

for analysis

In Sec. 34.15 the

of too high

and

illustrated.

all propeller-series

blade tips involves excessive tip-vortex losses.

possible to pick a

maximum

lodnnx)

P/D

ratio

propeller efficiency

working conditions. In Fig.

is noted that there is a

it

curve of optimum efficiency

of

In practically

it is

for a given set of

jjodua:;)

for thrust-load

normal to the inclined double

A cuts the heavy line for
at the best J-value. Interpolation between

Ctl

by any reasonable method

reckoning. Furthermore, overloading the extreme

70.B, for example,

scale for

overloaded,

are

some

for that radius. Obviously,

ratio are described

which gives the

factor

on propeller efficiency

is efficient

P/D

and too low a

design charts

rjo

effects

that

line

Ctl and

Kt for the various pitch-diameter

along the normal line mentioned, gives the
optimum P/D values. A point vertically above

Three situations are to be considered here, in

which there may be:
(I)

An

appreciable variation of

wake

like

torpedoes,

tion,

ratios,

coincides with the

on the curves

of efficiency

tj

for

velocity

fraction) with radius

the values of

this intersection,

wake

from the propeller

axis, combined with a reasonably uniform wake
velocity around the circumference at any radius.
This situation occurs abaft most bodies of revolu(or

(II)

Some

when

body

the

propeller

axis

axis.

consistent variation of

with radius from the propeller

wake

axis,

but

velocity
in

which

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.12

the magnitude of

wake

velocity around the cir-

cumference at any radius

is

highly irregular. This

the case in the disc position of a single screw

carried abaft a centerline skeg

on a ship

of

normal

form.
(Ill)

tlie

ideal or

hydrodynamic

by the adoption of these procedures is very

is overshadowed by the effects of blade-efficiency
(i.e., section-drag losses, etc.) introduced by the changes
in angles of incidence where the wake concentration is high
efficiency

small,

is

599

gain which might be achieved in

and

On the other hand, the above results suggest that no

from the adoption
moderate pitch variations which are favourable from
the point of view of cavitation or flow breakdown, and
this leaves the designer considerable freedom in the
"(3)

possibility or probability of cavitation, or

special loss in efficiency is to be expected

of

perhaps a certainty of

it if

the effective angles of

attack of the blade elements at each radius are

not kept within certain limiting values. Although

cavitation is not normally to be expected in the

upper blade positions of the propeller of a singlescrew ship, it can and probably does occur if the
vessel is fast and if it is driven hard in a loading
condition where the at-rest tip submergence is
small, approaching zero.

Good

propeller design to

meet situation

matter of adopting such alternative pitch-variation lines

from root to tip of the blades as might be considered
desirable from this point of view
"(4) It appears that the

quantity designated relative-

rotative-efficiency has a real

methods

meaning, in terms of the

and its value can be

of analysis usually adopted,

estimated by calculation, in the manner described in

the paper. The numerical values obtained agree reasonably
well with the experimental data."

(I)

a radial variation in

In the example of propeller design by the circu-

pitch corresponding generally to the radial varia-

lation theory carried through in detail in Sees.

unquestionably
tion in

wake

for

calls

velocity, so that a given distribution

of thrust with radius fraction is achieved. It

been the aim of

many inventors and

has

ship designers

to incorporate a stern bulb around a single-screw

propeller axis which

wake

would produce a high average

was reasonably

velocity as well as one which

uniform around a circumference at each radius.

However, because of the predominantly upward
component of flow under the sterns of most ships,
this desirable end has so far not been attained.
L. C. Burrill and C. S. Yang made a comprehensive theoretical

study of

many

situations,

involving both uniform and non-uniform

wake

velocities over the propeller disc, for a series of

screw propellers having a great

many

types of

variation of pitch with radius [INA, 1953, pp.

437-460]. In fact, they cover analytically most
of the situations that

would be encountered

in a

wide variety of ship designs. They arrived at

certain

pitch

phases

a ship

Items
quoted

general

and Yang
"(1)

conclusions

concerning

radial

which appear to cover most

of situations (II) and (III) preceding that
designer might be likely to encounter.
through (4), listed hereunder, are
(1)
verbatim from page 446 of the Burrill

variation

From

reference:

70.21 through 70.38 of this chapter a propeller

worked up by the Lerbs short method

single-screw transom-stern design of the
It

may

ABC ship.

be argued that, by the Burrill-Yang

criteria, the variations in wake velocity and

wake fraction for this case, indicated by Figs.
60.M and 60. N, are not sufficient to justify the

design of a wake-adapted propeller. Furthermore,

cavitation is not expected to be a problem in the

propulsion of this vessel. Nevertheless, the Lerbs

1954 design procedure is carried through on the
basis

that

both

of

these

features

do require

special attention. This renders the design solution

more general

in

character and

makes

fully

it

as described, for a situation where

wake variation and the possibiUty of

applicable,
radial

cavitation should definitely be taken into account.

If large ship propellers could be and were purchased from stock, there might be some reason
for omitting a propeller-design calculation that

requires

more than one

or

two man-days. For a

large ship, expensive to run as well as to build,

requiring a custom wheel, so to speak, there is

every reason why a propeller-design procedure
should take account of all the possibiUties and
should take advantage of all the latest develop-

ments

in the art.

the point of view of overall efficiency, and apart

from any consideration of cavitation or flow breakdown,

there appears to be no material advantage to be gained
from the adoption of a radial variation of pitch, both in a
uniform stream and in a variable wake-stream
"(2) In particular, it seems that there is no special advantage to be gained from the application of the various
alternative methods of design, based on the principle of
minimum-energy loss, which have been examined, as any

is

for the

70.12

Choice

choice of the
decisions to

of

Number

of

The

Blades.

number of blades is one

be made in the design

of the first
of a

screw

two
more preliminary designs may be worked up
as a sort of series, each with a different number of
blades. The final selection is usually based on a
propeller.

or

As an

aid in reaching this decision,

HYDRODYNAMICS

600

IN SHIP DESIGN

consideration of the natural frequencies of vibra-

machinery foundations, the

and the propulsion system

tion of the hull, the

propelling

[Kane,

plant,

J. R.,

and McGoldrick, R.

T.,

SNAME,

1949, Vol. 57, pp. 193-252]. The number of

blades which best avoids these frequencies or their
major harmonics in the operating speed range is

chosen [Brehme, H., Schiff und Hafen,

Nov

It

is

Sec. 70.13

interesting to note that screw-propeller

designers, even in the earliest days of develop-

ment of this
some latitude
exercised

number

of blades

it.

Use

70.13

had
and usually

device, considered that they

in the

of

Due

Raked Blades.

to

the

contraction of the inflow jet ahead of the propeller,

high power requirements, indicate the use of 5 or

even 6 blades. Also this number of blades may be

the water enters the propeller disc at a slight

inward angle, depicted in Fig. 32. M. A slight
rake aft places the blades normal to the flow,
with a gain in efficiency. On the other hand, rake
causes an increase in the bending stresses in the
blade due to the fact that the centrifugal force is
offset from the blade root. In heavily loaded or

necessary to keep resonant frequencies outside of

high-speed propellers this latter factor

the operating speed range. Two-bladed propellers

are used on sailing ships with auxiliary power, as

the controlling one in limiting rake. Rakes of

abstracted in English in

MENA, Aug

1954;

1955, pp.

318-321].

In some cases restrictions on propeller diameter,

or the need for large blade area, coupled with

they

offer

the least resistance

when housed abaft

the skeg in the saiUng condition.

For twin- or multiple-screw ships, a 4-bladed

propeller can be of smaller diameter than a
3-bladed propeller for the same power. This means
that smaller bossings and struts can be used to
maintain the same hull tip clearance. Usually, the
reduction in appendage resistance more than
compensates for the small loss in propeller
efficiency

when using

four blades.

As

in single-

ships, propeller efficiency is usually a

secondary consideration in the choice of the

screw

number

of blades. First, there is little variation

between 3- and 4-bladed

and second, vibration considerations
in efficiency

propellers
will again

be the controlling factor, especially for ships of

moderate to high power. In many cases other

factors,

inders,

number

such as type of engine, number of cyl-

and the

like,

enter into the choice of the

Further discussions of the proper number of

blades to be used for a screw propeller are given by:
G. S. Baker, SD, 1933, Vol. II, pp. 49-50
(b) R. H. Tingey, ME, 1942, Vol. I, pp. 277-278
(c) D. W. Taylor, S and P, 1943, pp. 143-144
(d) W. P. A. van Lammeren, RPSS, 1948, pp. 225-226.
(a)

Although

it

appears absurd from the point of

balancing and of reduction of bending

over 15 deg are seldom used in any ship or propeller

design.

Forward rakes are rarely seen. Sir Charles

Parsons at one time advocated a forward rake
of 1 in 10 for very thin propeller blades on the
high-speed experimental vessel Turbinia. His idea

was that an axial component of the centrifugal

them would act in an after direction and

force on

help balance the thrust forces acting forward

[Burrill, L.

moments

on the propeller shaft, there are some appi'eciable

advantages in the use of a single-bladed propeller.
These are discussed by S. Sassi [Ann. Rep. Rome
Model Basin, 1938, Vol. VII, pp. 95-99]. There is
reported the case of a sliip which normally
traveled at 10.5 kt at 70 rpm but which, with all
blades except one broken off, made 7 kt at about
85 rpm [SBSR, 6 Mar 1924, p. 289].

C, IME,

1951, Vol. LXIII, p. 15].

In some ship designs, where the maximum

volume must be crowded into a given length,
the hull profile

is

not only carried well aft toward

the propeller position (s) but the waterlines have

large slopes in this region. Blades

may

then be

raked aft to augment the fore-and-aft clearances

between the propeller sweep line and the forward

edge of the aperture opening, if the vessel has

a single screw, or between the sweep line and
the hull, bossings, skegs, or struts if it has multiple

W.

screws.

of blades.

usually

is

P. A.

optimum
(a)

van Lammeren [RPSS, 1948,

the following limits (not design or

p. 229] gives

values) for rake:

With moderately loaded screws

vessels, 6 to 10

deg for single-screw

for

merchant
and 8

ships,

to 12 deg for twin-screw ships

(b)

With heavily

loaded, fast-running screws for

warships generally no rake

When

is

used.

running under load a propeller blade

actually bends forward. This

may

be as

much

as

at the tip of a destroyer propeller.

0.10 or 0.12

ft

Thus

desired to run at the designed speed

if it is

with no rake
peller

it

with a

would be wise to design the prolittle

rake aft to allow for this

bending effect.
If proper attention

is

given to the details of

SCREW-PROPJiLLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.

the stem arrangement in the design stage, allowing ample clearances in

rake

all directions, little

required. There

is

or

no

usually no excuse to

is

be forced to excessive angles of rake in order to

obtain proper aperture clearances.
70.14 Propeller-Hub Diameter; Hub Fairing.
Some general comments on hub-diameter ratios

d/D

More

are given here.

detailed

comments

are

but

is

601

attached to the fixed part

the rudder horn, or the rudder

in Sec. 74.15

and

the rudder,

t)f

itself,

as described

illustrated in Figs. 66.

and

74.K.
It is customary and convenient, as well as
good design, to shape the propeller hub and its

cap as a

fair,

tapering continuation of the barrel

or boss just forward of the propeller which houses

means that the end

to be found in Sec. 70.43, under a discussion of

the propeller bearing. This

the mechanical construction of screw propellers.

the propeller hub next to the bearing has a

hydrodynamics
hub shape and diameter

diameter about equal to that of the bearing

barrel. The end away from that barrel has a

one at the

reduced diameter, as small as is consistent with

the necessary mechanical strength and rigidity

It is rarely possible to consider

alone in a discussion of

for a screw propeller, especially for

stern of a hull. Obviously the blades

must be

attached to some sort of hub or enlargement on

the shaft, which can not have too small a diameter.

for the type of

Further, the geometric pitch angle 0(phi) becomes

able or demountable blades

very large as the radius

zero; too large, in fact, to

effective

there

is

producing

in

is

diminished toward

make any

useful

thrust.

blade

lift

Finally,

no point in making the hub much smaller

than the diameter

of the

housing for the propeller

shaft bearing just ahead of

it.

There have been recurring proposals, over the

past century or more, for propeller hubs having
diameters of one-third or more of the propeller

Some

diameters.

early

ship

propellers

were

way. While it is true that the root

sections of a normal screw propeller do relatively
little work as a rule, at least they permit the
water to pass through, which a large solid hub

attachment

of the

hub

of

to the shaft.

In the case of built-up propellers with adjust-

make

to

it is

rarely possible

the hub diameter as small as the bearing

barrel so that the fair surface of revolution between

the latter and the end of the hub cap has a bulge
in

it

in the vicinity of the disc plane.

In a speed range where the smaller, pointed

end of a propeller fairing cap is covered with a

hub vortex

sometimes having a

or swirl core,

diameter half as great as that of the cap at its

larger end, the portion of the cap within the core
obviously serving no useful purpose.

is

some

in

It

is

to eliminate the swirl

built in this

possible,

would not do.

square at about two-thirds or three-quarters

of its length from the after end. The separation
drag which occurs abaft this blunt end is almost

From

considerations of strength and mechanical

core or

cases,

hub vortex

entirely

magnitude than the drag

from the presence of vapor pressure

certain to be less in

attachment, both of the hub to the shaft and the

blades to the hub, the diameter of the propeller

resulting

hub depends partly upon the diameter of the shaft

and partly upon the widths of the blade sections at

diameter. If the pressure

the root, where they join the hub. It usually varies

persist,

between 0.16D and 0.20D for

solid propellers.

For

controllable or built-up propellers the diameter of

the

hub may be

maximum

of

are

favorable,

the

swirl

core

may

even abaft a blunt or square ending

["All Hands," Bu. Nav. Pers., U. S. Navy Dept.,

Feb 1953, pp.

18-19].

on a fast or high-speed
any reasonable slope at the pointed

It appears unlikely,
ship, that

end
or
of

of

a fairing cap

will eliminate the swirl core

hub vortex entirely. Certainly the small slopes

8 and 10 up to 20 deg (with reference to the

shaft axis), previously used on the fairing caps

of the fastest vessels,

German

avoid separation and cavitation abaft the

hub, a fairing cap

is

usually fitted at the after

end. This cap also covers the propeller nut. In

many

conditions

such as the World

War

II

cruiser Prinz Eugen, are inadequate for

this purpose.

0.670.

To

only inside a swirl core of somewhat smaller

is low enough and other

as large as 0.28 or 0.30Z), with

0.25D for a propeller

having blades that are demountable but not
adjustable [ME, 1942, Vol. I, Fig. 2, p. 269].
It is pointed out in Sec. 70.43 that a loss of
efficiency of from 1 to 1.5 points may be expected
if a built-up rather than an integral hub is used;
for example, a drop in tj from 0.685 to 0.675 or
a possible

by cutting the cap

off

cases the

hub

fairing cap does not rotate

Swirl cores abaft the fairing caps of model

and photographed
model basins, variable-pressure Avater tunnels,
and circulating-water channels. However, because
propellers have been observed
in

HYDRODYNAMICS

602

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 70.15

of the

known and unknown scale effects, it is not

make full-scale predictions from a
model experiment. Swirl cores and hub vortexes

the area ratio of the parent model (s)

yet safe to

expected to give the performance indicated by

the chart. Variations from the parent values

have been and can be observed on ships through

have in the past usually been left to the experience

and judgment of the designer, with little to rely
upon if he does not have that kind of experience.
Only recently there have appeared a new
series of graphs and a procedure based upon
cavitation characteristics of the models of certain
propeller series, devised by J. D. van Manen,
whereby values of the proper developed-area

special glass viewing ports installed

in proper

locations in the shell.

70. 1 5

Determination of Expanded-Area Ratio

Profile.
For design purposes in
;

Choice of Blade
this

book the blade area

of a propeller corresponds

to the expanded area of

all

the blades. This

is

usually expressed as the ratio of the expanded

area

Asto the disc area .4o As a means of arriving

is made of the
.

at the blade outUne or profile, use

mean-width

ratio,

represented by the ratio of

ratio

this

the average expanded chord length c^f of one

blade to the propeller diameter D.

low limits for these

The high and

ratios, in recent

and current

propeller design, are given by K. E. Schoenherr

and W. P. A. van Lammeren [PNA, 1939, Vol.
II, p. 157; RPSS, 1948, p. 227]:

Propellers for

may

1954, Vol.

be determined
1,

method

No.

1,

may

be

[Inter. Shipbldg. Progr.,

pp. 39-47].

Data derived by

are presented at the end of Sec. 70.6.

In the example of the Lerbs' method of designing a wake-adapted propeller

by the

circulation

theory, described in Sees. 70.21 through 70.38,

in

which cavitation

is

definitely to

be avoided,

the chord widths of the sections at the outer

radii are selected to give

Ap

values which will

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.16
(a)

Van Lammeren, W.
K.

(b) Schoenherr,

On page

E.,

P. A.,

PNA,

RPSS,

1948, pp. 226-227

given a formula (119)

which produces a practical form of expanded blade
outline that is generally elliptical in shape. Although

not stated there, this

is

of

1939, Vol. II, pp. 157, 162.

157, 1st col., there

is

for

a propeller not subject

First

Tronsporent
5heet ot
2

*\/

concerning proper blade widths are

and

Selecting

70.16

Skew-Back.

Applying

reasons for applying skew-

back to screw-propeller blades are explained in

Repeated briefly, skew-back is used
to prevent certain corresponding points on the
blade sections at every radius, or at a group of
adjacent radii, from passing simultaneously
through a region of high wake velocity directly
abaft a skeg ending, a bossing termination, or a
large strut. The necessity for skew-back in the
design of a surface propeller is perhaps somewhat
easier to understand. Here it is not desirable
Sec. 32.15.

that the entire length of the leading edge of a

an appreciable portion of that edge,

should swing downward and strike the water
blade, or

surface at the

The

same

instant.

actual application of skew-back

capped, however, because

what part

it

is

is

handi-

known

not yet

a blade element requires to be

time or in angular position,
from the high-wake region. This part is probably
not the leading edge, nor the trailing edge, nor

just

of

offset successively, in

the locus of the midlengths of the expanded

elements. It

is

possibly the locus of the centers of

pressure of the elements, possibly the locus of the

points of

maximum

thickness, or better

still

the

locus of points opposite a certain part of the pres-

sure field of each element, as yet not known.

Lacking
of

this information, the locus of the positions

maximum

blade-element thickness

is

probably

the best but, as explained presently, the use of

this line is neither convenient nor practical.
Little is yet

known about

the rate at which

the backward offset of the selected skew-back line

should change with blade radius

what should be

words,

its

or,

shape,

in

other

defined

in

Sec. 32.15. Manifestly, the basic reference line

or plane for estabUshing skew-back

of the region of

near

its

maximum wake

is

the position

velocity, at or

intersection with the plane of the pro-

peller disc.

For a

vertical, symmetrical, center-

this is the vertical plane

through the propeller axis. For a contra-guide
skeg ending the locus of the maximum-wake
positions in the plane of the disc is not known

plane

skeg ending

|g

25^''(
\

/\ J>^^\.

X .^ x
V=^/\

^iieq
Ending-,

given in Sec. 70.17.

The hydrodynamic

Rotation

Position of

to cavitation.

Comments

603
40

Arc for Meosurinq Ancjles

Intersection

45

50

HYDRODYNAMICS

604

Straight in the disc plane, not coinciding with

(e)

Curved, usually with a sweep-back toward

(f)

is

opposite to the direction of rotation.

Whatever the shape

which

of the locus

on the propeller

not to pass simultaneously across the

is

basic reference trace abaft the hull ending, the

drawn on a sheet of thin transparent

same scale as the reference trace.
In Fig. 70. C the transparent material is shown
as rectangular in outline and the selected-skewback locus is drawn in its proper position with
former

is

material to the

reference to a straight radial line tangent to the

hub radius. To the transparent sheet

added concentric circles at 0.2/?, 0.3i2,

locus at the

there are

and so

on.

pin

inserted through both the

is

transparent overlay and the under sheet upon

which the skeg ending is drawn, at the propellershaft axis, so that the overlay

may

be rotated to

An

simulate the rotation of the propeller.

added on the under

is

circle in

by which the overlay

arc

sheet, just outside the tip

the figure, to indicate the angular

is

amount

rotated from an assumed

zero position.

The

overlay

is

turned in the direction of proon it crosses the

peller rotation until the locus

basic reference trace at

maximum

the

it

is

selected fraction of

The angular

radius, say at 0.2/2.

By

0.3/2.

on

construction

sections

line

in

forebodies of the blade sections at the various

then adjusted in shape until the leading

edge resulting from this construction gives the
desired equidifferent angular intersections. This
radii, is

determined by the method diagrammed in

is

Fig. 70. C, substituting the leading edge for the

schematic

purely

At

or near the tip

differences

rotating
it is

shown

there.

because of the large-

increase

will

locus

expected that the angular

radius curves used to form the tip profile.

The

midlength locus is preferred over the locus of the

chordwise positions of the maximum thickness
of each section because the former is usually

made tangent

to the pitch reference line at the

hub and

less

it

has

Until more
locus, it

is

curvature at the outer

known concerning

appears wise,

if

radii.

the controlling

possible, to give definite

the midlength-of-chord locus and to the position-

position

is

again noted.

taking the angles between successive angular

Fig.

is the
most suitable
which to introduce the
skew-back. This midlength locus, to which are
applied the half-chord expanded lengths of the

expanded blade

turned until the locus crosses the

The angular

positions, set

high-wake region.
It is not feasible, however, by any method as
yet known, to fashion a suitable projected-blade
outline, with fair root-to-tip characteristics, by
working from the leading edge. Experience indicates that the locus of the midlengths of the

angular separation at the successive radii to both

is

reference trace at the next selected radius fraction,

say

the one whose radial segments

then noted, following

position of the overlay

which

some

-projected outline as

Sec. 70.16

should swing successively and uniformly into the

a radius, from the hub radius to the tip radius

the tip that

IN SHIP DESIGN

down

70.C,

as

first

differences in the table

possible to determine at a

of-maximum-section locus. In addition, both

fair from root to tip of the blade, as
should the leading and trailing edges.
Good values for the skew-back at the tip,
should be

glance whether the successive differences between

measured as indicated in Fig. 70. of Sec. 70.36

and by Fig. 78. L, lie between 20 to 25 per cent

a group of adjacent angles are small or appreciable,

of the

it

is

or whether they are equal or unequal.

of

equal and

group

appreciable differences indicates

successive crossings of the locus and the reference

trace at equidifferent angular

and time

intervals.

group of zero differences indicates a simul-

taneous crossing over the corresponding portion

of the blade radius. This simultaneous crossing
is

almost invariably to be avoided.

limited study of propellers with swept-back

blades

that

have

performed

well

in

service

indicates that successive crossings of the leading

edge are spaced at

more nearly uniform angular

any other known

intervals than the crossings of

locus. Therefore, until a better locus

is

found

it

appears acceptable to take the leading edge of the

The

maximum
designer

is

chord length Cmsi of the blade.

cautioned, on a moderately or

heavily loaded propeller at least, never to apply

an appreciable amount

of

skew to a screw-

propeller blade in a forward or ahead direction,

for the reasons given in Sec. 70.44.

For a given

maximum

thickness tx at each

a blade with large sweep-back has a

smaller thickness ratio tx/c because the lengths
of the sections are usually greater in the circumsection,

ferential direction of flow across the blade

than

they would be in a blade with no sweep-back.

This thinness is generally a help in deferring
cavitation.

Theoretically the dynamic ram pressure built

up on the extreme leading edge of a fast-running

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.] S

propeller

and

large,

is

its

harmful

reduced by skew-back, but the angle

p,Af:

3,058(125.66)

made by

pn^d"

1.9905(1.8333)'(20)'

the leading edge with the radius has to be large to

make much

384,268

difference here.

Design Considerations Governing Blade

Width. The matter of proper blade width for a
screw propeller, usually expressed as the meanwidth ratio Cm/D, follows rather closely after
of

For a speed

G.

some

includes

Hill

[SNAME,

instructions

brief

advance

= Zl =
nd "

70.15. If the designer has

J.

of

of 15.15 kt or 25.59 ft per

sec,

expanded-area ratio in Sec.

no preconceived ideas
regarding the blade width he usually encounters
difficulty in this phase of the problem. A partial
solution is to adopt the blade width, or approximately that value, of the series model propeller
which appears to give the best performance from
the chart-design procedure. For example, W. P. A.
van Lammeren gives [RPSS, 1948, pp. 204, 214]
the chord length of the widest section for one
series in terms of the propeller diameter D.

0.359

1,070,410

70.17

the discussion

605

can be

effect

For a p/d

25.59

0.698.

(1.8333)(20)

ratio of 1.0 this point falls well within

the region of no cavitation.

Lammeren

(2) Cavitation check by the van

method, employing his symbols:

Po

"

p.

Po

p,

ft'^,

from

preceding

(1)

3,058

3,058

0.99525(25.59)'

651.7

P.

0.5pF;

Factor

3,058 lb per

<To{FJF)p

4.69(0.4) (1.0)

4.69

1.87

1949, p. 152].

Assuming that the blade width and

selected, the next step is a

J/p

outline are

check to determine
sufficient to avoid

whether the blade area is

cavitation, using one of the available cavitation

Using these

'-ff

0.698

the plot

factors,

Fig.

of

47.

indicates that they are in the region of no cavitation.

RPSS,
Wageningen Model

L. C. Bunill,

(a)

(b)

p.

One

1948, Fig. 123a, p. 186

RPSS,

Basin,

1948,

Fig.

123a,

concerning blade width, rarely disis

that of

its effect

upon

the periodic vibratory forces excited in or on the

186

(e)

D. van Manen and L. Troost, SNAME, 1952, Fig.

455
D. van Manen, Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 19.54, Vol. 1,
No. 1, pp. 39-47
H. W. E. Lerbs' data in PNA, Vol. II, Figs. 30 and 31,

(f)

pp. 179, 181

W. p. A, van Lammeren's chart in 6th

J.

(c)

featui'e

cussed in the literature,

14, p.

adjacent ship structure. Assuming the same shape

of

(d) J.

Fig. 30, p. 94, reproduced with

of detail in Fig.

47.G

(and -)-Ap) chordwise pressure-distribu-

is

and narrow blades deliver-

mean Ap

ing equal thrust, the

the wide blade

ICSTS, 1951,
some modifications

of the present

Ap

tion curve on both wide

are less pronounced. It follows that, for a given

rate of rotation, the periodic forces exerted
.

volume.

on

(or -|-Ap)

smaller and the pressure peaks

by

the wide-blade pressure fields should be smaller

Two

examples

illustrate

how

for the 20-ft propeller of the

this is done,

ABC

both

transom-stern

ship:
(1)

in

magnitude

and

longer

in

duration.

ing the vibratory forces on the ship carrying

Cavitation check with Lerbs' data, using the

in Figs. 30 and 31 of the reference,

with a rate of rotation of 110 rpm and a depth

symbols given

to the shaft axis of 15.5

Ae/Ao =

0.40,

Ae =

0.40(Ao)

n = 110 rpm
Pst.tic

p.

ft.

p.

14.7(144)

2,116

Po

-I-

0.40Tr(10)'

125.66

ft'

or 1.8333 rps

p.

+
994

15.5(62.43)(1.027)

52

3,058 lb per

52
ft'

Both

features favor the wide-blade propeller in lessen-

70.18

The

Selection

of

Type

of

Blade

it.

Section.

and proportions
These may be
different for the inner, the intermediate, and the
outer radii. What is more important, perhaps, is
that the type, shape, and proportions of the blade
sections be suited to the work to be performed.
Of the blade-section types illustrated in Fig.
32. K, the single-ended and double-ended symmetrical sections are employed primarily on
propellers intended to give good stopping and
backing performance, and to run astern for long
periods, as on a double-ended ferryboat.
selection of the proper type

of the blade sections is important.

HYDRODYNAMICS

606

what

Airfoil sections with

known

is

as lifted

leading and trailing edges, set back from a base

chord passing through the main portion of the

way of the roots and the

face, are necessary in

inner

to

radii

good flow through the

obtain

regions where the blades are close together; see

the blade-spacing diagrams at the lower left-hand

corners of Figs. 70.O and 78. L. If the leading

edges are not

lifted sufficiently,

cavitation and

erosion are liable to occur on the faces, close abaft

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 70.19

Both leading and

enough to:

must be

trailing edges

thin

Eliminate excessive dynamic pressures along

(d)

the leading edge because of the relatively large

velocity with which the blade passes through

the

This

water.

particularly

is

true

for

the

sections at the outer radii. Although screw propellers are rarely designed for partial immersion,

there are large

dynamic pressures due

when the exposed blade

to impact

portions strike the water

those edges.
surface.

There are many types

of airfoil section suitable

Some

most satisfactory
forms are those developed by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, based upon
for screw propellers.

of the

the principle of superposing the ordinates of a

symmetrical hydrofoil upon a curved or cambered

meanline, with or without minor modifications

and there. The merits of these NACA

sections and the advantages of using them are
described in detail by I. H. Abbott, A. E. von
Doenhoff, and L. S. Stivers, Jr., in NACA Report
824, issued in 1945, and entitled "Summary of
Airfoil Data." The manner in which these sections
here

are developed for a particular case

is

described

singing.

For the leading-edge shape, a circular arc is

and satisfactory. This is achieved as
indicated in the axial view of Fig. 70.O by
bringing the face and back section outlines in to
tangent points on a small circle. For the trailing
simple

Shaping of Blade Edges and Root

Fillets.
In former years many propeller drawings
did not specify the detailed shapes for the blade
edges but this procedure is no longer compatible
with good design. One method of doing this, for

and setback
shown by W. P. A. van Lammeren

sections with circular noses

[RPSS, 1948, Fig. 126,

The
enough

much

edges

smaller circular arcs are used.

and

tails

p. 190].

leading edge of a blade

must be thick

by

It is possible that

Fig. 70.P in Sec. 70.46.

some

edge at the blade tip

Withstand the impact of small objects without

nicking or deforming the blade edge permanently
(b) Avoid local cavitation, either on the face or
back, when the angle of attack changes from its
predicted value; that

is,

when the

direction of

the incident velocity shifts with respect to the

blade.

This change can occur throughout one

revolution because of local circumferential variations in the wake velocity or it can occur for the
whole propeller because of changes in displacement, in ship resistance, and in thrust loading

over the disc area.

(c)

Render the blade section reasonably invul-

rounded form

be found which

of

will

increasing the diameter of the vortex cores.

In the working drawing of a

final

propeller

the exact shapes of the leading and trailing edges

of the tip edge are to be shown by an adequate
number of large-scale details, such as those given
by R. H. Tingey [ME, 1942, Vol. I, Fig. 6, p. 280,

and

W. Henschke

thickness) of 0.0015Z)
(a)

full or

may

diminish the intensity of the tip vortexes by

Detail "A"].

to:

If,

however, the blade sections are rather thick at

the extremity of the run, they are given a chisel

70.19

is

Prevent the formation and shedding of eddies

lateral vibration which causes noise and

(f)

and the

shape, illustrated

in Sec. 70.31.

as well,

Eliminate losses due to separation drag at

(e)

the trailing edge

of

0.008c

gives a tip radius (in

and a

trailing

["Schiffbau Technisches

edge radius

Handbuch,"

1952, p. 145].

The

days
shape
diagrammed by R. H. Tingey in Fig. 16 on page
292 of "Marine Engineering" [Vol. I, 1942]. This
produces a form resembling that given by nature
to the bottom of a tree, where the trunk joins
the roots and where large bending moments are
to be resisted.
70.20 Partial Bibliography on Screw-Propeller
Design. Although they are not all quoted in this
and other chapters relating to screw propellers,
root

fillets,

gone by, are

now

also lacking details in

of the constant-stress

nerable to changes in the angle of attack, due to

there

variations in the local speed of advance, in the

principal references on the design of screw pro-

direction of flow,

and other

factors.

is

given here a partial bibliography of the

pellers for ships,

most

of

them dating from about

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.20

1939.

few applicable references covering

air-

Hydrodynamik und Aerodynamik (Four Treatises

on Hydrodynamics and Aerodynamics)," Gottin-

screw design are included.

A very complete bibliography containing 227
items, listing references in the literature for

50 or 60 years prior to 1939,

Schoenherr [PNA, 1939, Vol.

some

II,

pp.

of

them duplicating the

PNA

extending only to the year 1942,

W.

P. A.

van Lammeren [RPSS,

The

references in

is

given by

1948, pp. 295-

the appended

chronological

(13)

Goldstein,

order,

p. 151

list appear
without any

attempt at grouping or classification. They do

not duplicate the references in Sec. 70.4, listing
the literature concerning propeller-series charts

Weick, F. E., "Aircraft Propeller Design," McGrawHill, New York, 1930

(15) Lerbs, H. W. E., "Kurventafeln zur Berechnung
Starkbelasteter Freifahrtschrauben nach der Tragfltlgel theorie (Graphs for Calculation of Heavily
Loaded Open- Water Screw Propellers According to
Airfoil Theory)," HSVA Rep. 101; WRH, 1 Feb
1933, pp. 29-31
(16) Gutsohe,

(2)

A.,

"Schraubenpropeller

luftschiffahrt,
(3)

(17)

1924, pp. 150 and 170

Kdrmdn, Th., "Zur Theorie der
Luftschrauben (On the Theory of the Airscrew),"

(18)

(5)

1926, pp. 565-569; 22 Dec 1926, pp. 588-595.

Transl. 15, Feb 1936.
English version in

WRH,
(19)

Horn,

F.,

(Tests

STG,
(8)

(9)

(10)

Slocum,

"Versuche mit Tragflugel-Schiffsschrauben

with Airfoil-Section Ship Propellers),"

1927, Vol. 28, pp.

S.

E.,

"Practical AppUcation of

Modern

Hydrodynamics to Marine Propulsion," ASNE,

Feb 1927, pp. 1-38
Helmbold, H. B., "Nachstromschrauben (WakeAdapted PropeUers)," WRH, 7 Dec 1927, pp.
528-531
Hehnbold, H. B., and Lerbs, H., "Modellversuche zur
Nachpriifung der Treibschrauben-Wirbel theorie
(Model Tests to Verify the Vortex Theory for a
Propeller Producing Thrust)," WRH, 7 Sep 1927,
pp. 347-350

Nov

15

C,

Chartier,

breitfiiigeliger

(Schiffsschrauben)

1933, pp. 319-324

"Sur

le

Champ Hydrodynaniique

dynamic Field Around a Screw Propeller with

Three Blades)," CR, Acad. Sci., Paris, 1933, Vol.
196, p. 1642
(20) Gutsche, F., "Verstellpropeller (Variable-Pitch Pro-

Deutsch. Ingr., 1934, Vol.

mentioned in NECI, 1937-1938, Vol.
LIV, p. D212. In the latter reference Gutsche
tells about a series of propeller charts giving
T, Q, and
and going down to zero speed or 100
peller)," Zeit. des Ver.

78, p. 1073;

t]

per cent

slip.

K.

(21) Schoenherr,

E.,

peller Design,"

"Recent Developments in Pro1934, Vol. 42, pp. 90-127

SNAME,

"Quick Approximation for Preliminary

PropeUer Design," ASNE, Nov 1935, pp. 557-568

(22) Smith, L. P.,

(23)

Durand, W.
Division

342^46

Wirkungsweise

autour d'une Helice k Trois Pales (On the Hydro-

Dec

EMB

(7)

"Uber den Einfluss der Strahlkondie

(On the
Race Contraction and its Effect
on Broad-Bladed Screw Propellers (Ship Screws)),"

Motorluftsohiffahrt, 1925, p. 209

Helmbold, H. B., "Die Betz-Prandtlsche Wirbeltheorie der Treibschraube und ihre Ausgestaltung
zum Teohnischen Berechnungsverfahreu (The
Betz-Prandtl Vortex Theory and its Development
into a Technical Calculation Method)," WRH,

B.,

auf

Influence of the

Zeit. des Ver.

Luftschraube bei Berucksichtigung des Profilwiderstandes (The Most Favorable Thrust Distribution
for the Airscrew)," Zeitschrift fiir Flugtechnik und

1933, pp. 286-289;

in English.

Helmbold, H.

Schraubenpropeller

Motorluftsohiffahrt,

Deutsch. Ing., 1924, p. 1237; Vol. 68,

Nos. 48, 51; Vol. 69, No. 25
Bienen, Th., "Die gunstigste Schubverteilung fiir die

Aug

of papers relating to ship propellers, with

summaries
traktion

Bienen, Th., and von

1933, pp. 267-270; 15

Sep 1933, pp. 303-306

Kempf, G., and Foerster, E., "Hydromechanische
Probleme des Schiffsantriebs (Hydrodynamic Problems of Ship Propulsion)," Teil II, Oldenbourg,
Munich and Berlin, 1940. This book contains a

number

1920

(4)

(6)

Aug

Helmbold, H. B., "Zur Aerodynamik der Treibschraube (On the Aerodynamics of the Screw
Developing Thrust)," Zeitschrift fiir Flugtechnik

und

"Versuche an Propellerblattschnitten

F.,

(Tests on Propeller Blade Sections)," Schiffbau,

mit geringstem
Energieverlust (Screw Propeller with Minimum
Loss of EnergjO," with an Appendix by L. Prandtl,
Nachr. der Kon. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften
zu Gottingen, Math-Phys., 1919, p. 193
Betz, A., "Eine Erweiterung der SchraubenstrahlTheorie (An Expansion of the Screw-Race Theory)," Zeitschrift fiir Flugteohnik und MotorBetz,

Vortex Theory of Screw

Soc, London, Series A,

(14)

(1)

the

1929, Vol. 123, pp. 440-465

and design purposes.

for analysis

"On

S.,

Propellers," Proc. Roy.

items but

301].

generally in

Helmbold, H. B., "tJber den Vortriebswirkungsgrad

(On Propulsive EfHciency)," WRH, 22 Apr 1928,

187-194].

Another extensive bibliography with 191 items,

many

gen, 1927
(12)

given by K. E.

is

607

(11) Prandtl, L., and Betz, A., "Vier Abhlandlungen zur

F.,

L,

"Aerodynamic Theory," Vol. IV,

by H. Glauert, Springer,

written

Berlin, 1936

C, "Champ Hydrodynamique autour

d'une Helice Marine Triple Propulsive (HydrodjTiamic Field Around a 3-Bladed Screw Propeller)," CR, Acad. Sci., Paris, 1936, Vol. 203, p.
1232

(24) Chartier,

"Die Entwicklung der Schiffsschraube in

Neuzeitlichen Stromungslehre (The
Development of the Ship Propeller in the Light of
Modern Flow Theory)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch.
Ing., 26 Jun 1937, pp. 745-753. A partial translation

(25) Gutsche, F.,

Licht

der

HYDRODYNAMICS

608
of this paper

is

given in

ETT

IN SHIP DESIGN

Stevens Note 202 of

12 Oct 1952.
(26) Losch,

"Uber

F.,

die

Wirkungsgrades

Berechnung des induzierten

stark

belasteter

Luftschrauben

(33)

unendlicher Blattzahl (On the Calculation of the

Induced Efficiency of Heavib' Loaded Airscrews

of Infinite Blade

Number)," Luftfahrtforschung,

7. English version in NACA

Tech. Memo 884, Jan 1939.
(27) .\t the session of the North-East Coast Institution of
Engineers and Shipbuilders for 1937-1938 there
was held a "Symposium on Propellers," at which
the following ten papers were presented. These
papers are published in NECI, 1937-1938, Vol.
LIV, pp. 237-414, with the discussions on pp.

(34)

Jul 1938, Vol. 15, No.

D133-D222. The paper

"The

titles

(a)

Baker, G.

(b)

Behind a Ship"
Horn, P., "Measurement of

S.,

and authors

are:

Qualities of a Propeller Alone

(36)

and
(37)

Wake"
Screw Propellers"

(c)

Allan, J. P., "Aerofoil Sections in

(d)

Duncan, W.

(e)

Gawn, R.

(f)

Performance"
Troost, L., "Open- Water Test Series with Modern

J.,

"Torsion and Torsional Oscillation

of Blades"

W>

L., "Effect of

Shaft Brackets on Pro-

peller

Propeller
(g)

Kent,

(h)

Kempf,

J. L.,

Forms"
"Propeller Performance in

Rough Water"

Model Tests on Immersion of

Wake and Viscosity"
Benson, F. W., "Propellers for Tugs and Trawlers"
Yamagata, M., "Model E.xperiments on the Optimum
Diameter of the Propellers of a Single-Screw
G., "Further

Propellers, Effect of

(i)

(j)

Ship."
(28) Troost, L., "Open- Water Test Series with

Modern

Propeller Forms," NECI, 1937-1938, Vol. LIV,

pp. 321-326 and D185-D192. This paper covers
the tests of the 4-bladed narrow-tip A. 4.40 Wageseries, the B.4.40, and the B.4.55 series.
These had 15-deg rake and airfoil sections at all

ningen
radii.

(29) Troost, L.,

"Open- Water Test Series with Modern

Propeller Forms, Part 2, Three-Bladed Propellers,"

NECI,

(30)

(31)

1939-1940, Vol. LVI, pp. 91-95 and

D41-D48. This second paper by Troost covers
the tests of 3-bladed propellers of the B.3.35 and
B.3.50 Wageningen series, also having 15-deg
rake and airfoil sections at all radii.
Troost, L., "Open-Water Test Series with Modern
Propeller Forms, Part 3, Two-Bladed and Five-

Bladed Propellers, Extension of the Three- and

Four-Bladed B Series," NECI, 1950-1951, Vol. 67,
Part 3, pp. 89-130; discussion in Part 5, pp.
D45-D50; author's closure in Part 6, pp. D51-D54
Kramer, K. N., "Induzierte Wirkungsgrade von
Besf^Luftschrauben endlicher Blattzahl (Induced
Efficiencies of Optimum Airscrews with a Finite

Number

of

Luftfahrtforschung,

Jul

An

English translation of this paper

appears in NACA Tech. Memo 884, Jan 1939.
Gutsehe, F., "Einfluss der Gitterstellung auf die
Eigenschaften der im Schiffsschrauben Entwurf
1938, Vol. 15.

;(32)

Blades),"

(35)

bexiuteten Blattschnitfe^ (Influence of the Stagger

Sec. 70.20

on the Functioning of the Blade Sections Used in

Ship-Screw Design)," STG, 1938, Vol. 39, pp.
125-175
Schoenherr, K. E., "Propulsion and Propellers,"
PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Chap. III. This chapter, on
pp. 187-194, lists 227 items of reference.
Flugel, G., "Die giinstigste Sohubverteilung bei
Propellern (The Optimum Thrust Distribution in
Propellers)," Schiffbau, Schiffahrt und Hafenbau,
15 Apr 1940, pp. 108-112; 15 Sep 1940, pp. 250253; 15 Oct 1940, p. 272
Gutsehe, F., "Versuche an umlaufenden Fliigelschnitten mit abgerissener Stromung (Experiments on
Rotating Airfoils in the Stalling Condition),"
STG, 1940, Vol. 41, pp. 188-226
Tingey, R. H., "Propellers and Shafting," ME,
1942, Vol. I, pp. 267-304
Lerbs, H. W. E., "Der Stand der Forschung iiber den
Schiffspropeller im Hinblick auf die Technische
Berechnung (The Present Status of Theoretical
Research on Ship Propellers with Respect to its
Technical Application)," WRH, 15 Feb 1942, pp.
57-62;
Transl. 243, Jan 1952

TMB

C, "Developments in Propeller Design

and Manufacture for Merchant Ships," IME,

(38) Burrill, L.

Aug 1943, pp. 148-169. This is a comprehensive

but concise paper of general interest, covering
many phases on the subject. On pp. 13-14 the
author gives a list of 24 recommended references.
(39) Burrill, L. C, "Calculation of Marine Propeller
Performance Characteristics," NECI, 1943-1944,
Vol. 60, pp. 269-294 and Pis. 8-11. Design is
normally based upon the model-test data of
D. W. Taylor. The circulation or vortex theory is
utilized to develop improvements not incorporated
in existing series. A mean camber line is selected
and the blade sections are superposed on it.
(40) Baker, G. S., "Fundamentals of the Screw Propeller,"
IME, Jan 1944
(41) Ludwieg, H., and Ginzel, I., "Zur Theorie der
Breitblattschraube (On the Theory of the BroadBladed Screw Propeller)," Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt, Gottingen, Rep 44/A/08,
3097,
1944
Guilloton,
R., "Considerations sur les Helices (A
(42)
Discussion of Screw Propellers)," Publications
Scientifiques et Techniques de la Direction des

UM

Industries Aeronautiques, Paris, 1944

(43) Abbott,

L.

S.,

Rep

H.,

I.

von Doenhoff, A.

"Summary

Jr.,

and
Data,"

E.,

of Airfoil

Stivers,

NACA

824, 1945

(44) Strassel, H.,

MAP

"Camber Corrections for Screw

Volkenrode,

K.

(45) Schoenherr,

Feb

Sect., 21

E.,

MAP-VG

1947. There

paper on pages 17 and 18 of

Bulletin for

May

Profiles,"

90-T, 1946

"Propellers,"

SNAME,

Phila.

an abstract of this
the SNAME Member's
is

1947.

"The

Lift Distribution of Swept-Back

Wings," Zentrale fiir Wissenschaftliches Berichtswesen, 1942, No. 1553. There is an English translation of this paper in NACA Tech. Memo 1120,

(46) Weissinger, J.,

Mar

1947.

(47) Burrill, L,

C, "On

Propeller Theory," lESS,

Mar

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Src. 70.21

1947, Vol. 90, pp. 449-488; ,Iun 1947, pp. 489-501.

On pp. 475-476 there is a bibliography of 27 items.

Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,

(48)

J.

"Resistance,

G.,

data are plotted

Propulsion and Steering of

(65)

Theory," Cambridge, England, 2nd

ed.,

Aerodynamics

of the Airscrew)," Berlin,

L. K., Jr., "Theoretical

(50) Loftin,

Data

for

Number

of

6A-Series Airfoil

(67)

NACA

forenings Forlag, 1949. (In English)

"The Design

J. R.,

Vibrations

SNAME,

and McGoldrick, R. T., "Longitudinal

of Marine Propulsion-Shafting Sys-

SNAME,

tems,"

Guilloton, R.,

INA,

1949, pp. 193-252

"The Calculation

of Ship Screws,"

1949, Vol. 91, pp. 1-26

H. W. E., "An Approximate Theory of Heavily

Loaded Free-Running Propellers in the Optimum

(56) Lerbs,

Condition,"

SNAME,

INA,

of

an Unequal
1952, pp. 442-468

S.,

"The

for

Effect of Radial

1953, pp. 437-460

Hannan, T. E., "Principles and Design of the Marine

Screw Propeller," Ship and Boat Builder, Part 1,
Jan 1953, pp. 221-227; Part 2, Feb 1953, pp.
263-270; Part

Apr
(68) Lerbs,

862,

Mar

3,

1953, pp. 306-311; Part 4,

1953, pp. 347-353

H. W.

"The Loss of Energy of a Propeller

Varying Wake Field,"
Rep.

E.,

TMB

in a Locally

Nov

1953

(69) Edstrand, H.,

"Model Tests on the Optimum Diam-

SSPA Rep. 22, 1953

R. E., and Graham, D. J., "Effects of
Leading Edge Radius and Maximum Thickness
Chords; Ratio on the Variation with Mach Number
of the Aerodynaniic Characteristics of Several
Thin NACA Airfoil Sections," NACA Tech. Note
3172, 14 Apr 1954
(71) Lerbs, H. W. E., "Propeller Pitch Correction Arising
From Lifting Surface Effect,"
Rep. 942,
Feb 1955

1950, Vol. 58, pp. 137-183

(70) Berggren,

TMB

(72) Silverleaf, A.,

and O'Brien, T.

P.,

"Some

Effects of

M., "Propeller Coefficients and the Powering of Ships," SNAME, 1951, pp. 612-641

Blade-Section Shape on Model Screw Perform-

H. W. E., "On the Effects of Scale and Roughness on Free-Running Propellers," ASNE, Feb
1951, pp. 58-94. On pp. 93-94 the author gives a

1955, pp. 172, 174.

(57) Lewis, F.

ance,"

(58) Lerbs,

list of

(59) Ginzel,

15 references.

I.,

"Influence of Blade Shape and of Circula-

on the Camber Correction

Admiralty Research Lab., ACSIL/
ADM/52/46, Oct 1951
(60) Burrill, L. C, "Sir Charles Parsons and Cavitation,"
Parsons Memorial Lecture, IME, 1951, Vol.
LXIII, pp. 1-19
tion

Distribution

Factor,"

(61) Okeil,

M.

E.,

Propeller,"

"The Optimum Loading of a Marine

INA, Jul 1952, pp. 162-178. This

represents a study under the supervision of L. C.

based upon the circulation or vortex

theory of the screw propeller. Most of the references
Burrill,

on pages 177 and 178 are included

in this bib-

liography.
(62) Ginzel, L,

(63)

C.

"The Design

eter for Propellers,"

of Propellers,"

1949, pp. 143-192

Kane,

SNAME,

C, and Yang,

Propeller,"

AEW

(53) Hill, J. G.,

Optimum Diameter

1952, pp.

Pitch Variation on the Performance of a Marine

and E.xperimental

NACA

Burrill, L.

SNAME,

D., and Troost, L.,

J.

Velocity Field,"
(66)

1940

Rep. 903, 1948

(51) Lerbs, H. W. E., "The Applied Theory of FreeRunning Ship Propellers,"
Rep. 42/48,
Nov 1948
(52) Burrill, L. C, "Propeller Design and Propeller
Theory," read on 11 May 1948 before the Shipbuilding Group of Dansk Ingeniorforening; published by Teknisk Forlag A/S Dansk IngenioSections,"

Van Manen,

Ship Screws of

1948

(49b) Weinig, F., "Aerodj'namik der Luftschraube (The

Number

73-123

and Airscrew

The

"Moderately Loaded Propellers

of Blades and an Arbitrary

E.,

with a Finite

has a huge bibliography of 191 items on propellers

of Aerofoil

0.2 to 1.1.

chart form.

in

Distribution of Circulation,"

and propulsion.
"The Elements

(55)

W.

(64) Lerbs, H.

A^/Ao from

Ships," 1948, Chap. II, Propulsion. This chapter

(49a) Glauert, H.,

(54)

r,oo

developed-area ratio

"Theory

(73)

Van Manen,

Broad-Bladed Propeller,"

Admiralty Research Lab., Jun 1952

Gawn, R. W. L., "Effect of Pitch and Blade Width on
Propeller Performance," INA, 29 Sep 1952, Vol.
94, pp. 316-317; SBSR, 16 Oct 1952, p. 496 and
pp. 509-511. Describes open-water tests of 37
model propellers in a systematic series. All the
propellers are 20 inches in diameter, are 3-bladed,
and have ogival blade sections with elliptic blade
outlines and no skew-back or rake. The series
covers a range of P/D ratio from 0.4 to 2.0 and of

1955. Abstracted in

D., and van

J.

SBSR, 10 Feb

Lammeren, W.

P. A.,

"The Design of Wake- Adapted Screws and their

Behavior Behind the Ship," lESS, 1955, Vol. 98,
Part 6
(74) Burrill, L. C, "Considerations sur le Diametre
Optimum des Helices (Considerations Governing
the Optimum Diameter of Ship Propellers),"
ATMA, 1955, Vol. 54, pp. 231-261
(75) Burrill, L. C, "The Optimum Diameter of Marine
Propellers: A New Design Approach," NECI,
Nov 1955, Vol. 72, Part 2, pp. 57-82; abstracted
in SBMEB, Apr 1956, pp. 267-271
(76) "Propeller Design and Performance Calculations,"

SBSR, 5 Jan

1956, pp. 9-10.

For the reader's

additional

of the

NECI,

subject,

benefit,

references,

given by

J.

there are

closely

G.

Hill

related

some 17
to

[SNAME,

this

1949,

p. 170].

70.21

Design of a Wake-Adapted Propeller by

Propeller design by the

the Circulation Theory.

chart method is analogous to the design of a hull

by working from a series such as the TMB Series
60, or by virtually copying a previous design
having the proportions desired, combined with a

good performance. However, there comes a time

HYDRODYNAMICS

610

when

the design requirements are so unusual, or

the situation

is

no existing
waters must be

so special, that there

design from which to work.

New

is

traversed, so to speak, which are not only un-

but for wliich there are few reliable

One such situation occurs when
cavitation is to be expected and avoided.
Another occurs when wake surveys show an
unusual distribution of velocity at the propeller
familiar

sailing directions.

position, or

when

it is

desired to take full advan-

tage of a more-or-less normal

third

might

arise

possibility

all

requiring the

if it

tip-vortex

of

wake

variation.

were desired to eliminate

cavitation

cores,

(2)

(3)

(4)

Schoenherr, K. E., "Propeller Design

by the Betz-

Prandtl-Helmbold Circulation Theory," PNA, 1939,

Vol. II, Chap. Ill, Sec. 10, Art. 3, pp. 168-170
Van Lammeren, W. P. A., "Design of a Wake- Adapted
Screw by Means of the Circulation Theory,"
RPSS, 1948, Chap. II, Sees. 138-140, pp. 248-250
HiU, J. G., "The Design of Propellers," SNAME,
1949, pp. 143-192
Van Manen, J. D., and Troost, L., "The Design of
Ship Screws of Optimum Diameter for an Unequal
Velocity Field,"

SNAME,

1952, Vol. 60, pp.

442^68

(5)

Van Manen,

(6)

Vol. 98, pp. 463-482

Eckhardt, M. K., and Morgan, W. B., "A Propeller
Design Method," SNAME, 1955, pp. 325-374.

and van Lammeren, W. P. A.,

"The Design of Wake-Adapted Screws and their
Bahaviour Behind the Ship," lESS, 1954-1955,
J.

For the design

D.,

what

Sec. 70.21

adapted propellers by the circulation theory,

there are gaps and omissions which make it
practically impossible for anyone except an expert
in the field to carry through a design by the
methods described. The sections to follow in this
chapter give a complete and continuous story

new method, recently (1954) developed by

Dr. H. W. E. Lerbs of the David Taylor Model
Basin staff. It is a short-cut method based on the
theory he described completely in his paper
for a

"Moderately Loaded Propellers with a Finite

of Blades and an Arbitrary Distribution

Number

of Circulation"

No

blades to be almost completely

unloaded at their tips.

For problems of this kind, and for developments
of the future leading to appreciable improvements
in propeller performance, it is necessary to fall
back upon an analytic method. This in turn must
be based on the fundamental hydrodynamics of
the problem, in this case the theory of circulation
as applied to a screw propeller. There are to be
found in the literature at least six papers dealing
with this subject and making use of the successive
developments of the theory up to the time each
paper was prepared and published. These are:
(1)

IN SHIP DESIGN

attempt

[SNAME,

is

made

1952, pp. 73-123].

to give here a theoretical

explanation of the principles involved. There are

quoted only the formulas actually employed,

accompanied by a written and tabular explanation

of their use.

Lerbs' short-cut

method was chosen

for several

reasons:
(i)

It has not

and thus
(ii)

been published before in this form

a new approach to the problem

offers

produces the answer rather directly and

It

a minimum of reliance on intuition,

background, and previous propeller-design ex-

involves
perience
(iii)

It gives

method

promise of becoming an excellent

wide variety of

of rational design for a

screw propellers
(iv)

and

It

is

backed up by Lerbs' theoretical papers

based on sound hydrodynamic principles

is

(v) Design calculations using this short method

were checked by parallel calculations with Lerbs'
rigorous method, described in his referenced
paper. The results gave satisfactory agreement.

theory for moderately loaded, wake-

Lerbs'

adapted propellers
that

the

is

based on the assumption

induced-velocity

components

of

the

second and higher degree can be neglected. In the

mental hydrodynamic concepts of circulation set

forth in Chap. 14. At the present stage of the art

development of the short-cut method two additional assumptions are made; first, that the
induced velocity is always perpendicular to the
resultant relative velocity and second, that the

necessary to call upon certain semi-analytic

and experimental sources for information which

Goldstein function may be applied, relating the

behavior of a propeller with a finite number of

will enable a propeller designer to start

blades to that of one with an infinite

of

is

called a wake-adapted

propeller, the procedure is to

employ the funda-

it is

with his

and end with a screw-propeller

design. To do this, the designer need have only
the knowledge that is set down in Volumes I
and II of this book.
In most discussions of the design of wakerequirements

number

of

blades.

The

propeller

chapter

fisted are defined

proceeds:

design

is

carried

along the following

lines.

out in this

The terms

and described as the discussion

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.22

Determine the number

(a)

hub diameter, the

peller diameter, the

rake,

Ludwieg-Ginzel

By

(d)

Sc

based upon the notation of D. W.

Taylor [S and P, 1943, p. 137]
Non-viscous thrust, as in a perfect
hquid
Ratio of local radius R to tip radius

successive approximations, calculate the

Ti

to develop the required thrust

x'

Determine the

lift-coefficient product,

apply

the lifting-surface correction to the hydrodynamic

iSi-

pitch angle, and calculate the hydrodynamic pitch

Wj'

^Max of propeller
Average local wake fraction
Average local wake fraction, corrected
to

distribution

From

(f)

strength considerations determine the

(3/

Choose the type of meanline and thickness

form to be used for the blade sections
Using cavitation

(h)

mum

camber

of

criteria,

determine the maxi-

the meanline and the chord

lengths of the blade sections from appropriate

Tjff(eta)

ratios,

and

lift

co-

Apply the curvature

(j)

correction to the

camber

ship speed

advance

(k)

the final pitch distribution.

(1)

Determine the amount

(m)

Draw

of skew-back,

if

any

the propeller

(n) Calculate the final propeller efficiency corresponding to the design conditions.

Owing

to the intricacy of

all

existing design

screw propellers, based upon the

vortex or circulation theory, it is necessary to
employ a number of special symbols. For the

methods

for

Lerbs method described and illustrated in the

sections following, all

the special symbols, addi-

tional to the standard

symbols

1,

are defined

less,

when they

are

listed in

first

Appendix

used. Neverthe-

these special symbols are listed here in one

place, with brief titles for each:

{Ctl)s

Thrust-load coefficient based upon the

ship speed V instead of upon the usual
speed of advance

Tangent

Va

one half the angle of rake

of a screw-propeller blade, based upon
of

jet

equal to

coefficient,

based

instead of speed of

Va

Viscous-flow correction

ju(mu)

Cavitation number based upon ship

(sigma)

speed

instead of the resultant inci-

dent velocity

of attack at the various blade sections. Calculate

coefficient,

advance

Absolute

Xs

ratio

Correct for viscous flow by adding an angle

with

yx/(7mD)

(Ts

efficients

efficiency,

Absolute advance

(lambda)

upon

chord lengths, camber

ideal

rotation

Fair the blade outline and determine the

(i)

wake

section

Kramer's

charts

final

effective

Drag-lift ratio of an airfoil or blade

(epsilon)

(g)

match the

Corrected hydrodynamic pitch angle

c (beta)

blade-thickness fraction and the maximum-bladethickness distribution

curvature correction,

Maximum section camber, corrected

Allowable stress in a propeller blade,

m.Yo
jet rota-

hydrodynamic pitch angle and the thrust distribution over the blade which allows the propeller
(e)

and P,

applied to the camber ratio

Calculate the required thrust-load coefficients

and advance coefficients

(c) Determine the ideal efficiency with
tion from Kramer's charts

[S

1943, p. 134]

if

any, and the rate of rotation

(b)

611

W. Taylor

the notation of D.

the pro-

of blades,

70.22

ABC

F^ on

a blade section.

Ship Propeller Designed by Lerbs'

As a help in understanding Lerbs'

method, and as a practical illustration of its use,
a screw propeller is designed here for the transomstern ABC ship. The design is based upon the
wake survey diagrammed in Fig. 60. M.
Although cavitation is not expected on this
ship, and the wake-velocity distribution is in no
way unusual, the design procedure is carried
through as though these two features presented
1954 Method.

real problems.

When

selecting the

in the self-propulsion

stern

ABC

model propeller to be used

model tests of the transom-

ship designed in this part of the book,

an estimated propeller thrust of 193,476 lb was

used. This led to the conclusion presented in
Sees. 70.6 and 78.4 that the stock model propeller
should have a P/D ratio of 1.02, four blades of
moderate width, and airfoil sections along the
inner radii. The calculated rate of rotation was
109.2 rpm at the designed ship speed of 20.5 kt.
The corresponding advance coefficient J was
0.703,

and an open-water

efficiency of 68.0 per

HYDRODYNAMICS

612

That this estimate was fairly

accurate is shown by the recorded rpm of 109.7 at
20.5 kt in the model self-propulsion test. However,
cent was expected.

using the resistance of the ship with appendages,

obtained from the resistance test of

TMB

model

4505, and a thrust-deduction fraction of 0.07 at

20.5 kt, obtained from the self-propulsion test

with
is

TMB

model propeller 2294, a revised thrust

20.5 kt;

Pe =

10,078 horses, from model-

resistance test; thrust-deduction fraction

550Pb

Rq

550(10,078)

0.07

160,098 lb

1.6889(20.5)

Sec. 70.23

skeg ending and cuts through the boundary layer

beneath the transom. Cutting back the lower

portion of the skeg should have reduced the
magnitude of the wake velocities in the lower
half of the propeller circle. Nevertheless a localized

region

moderate

of

positive

wake

With such a wake

configuration,

advisable to use a propeller with an even

160,098

172,148

0.93

than the combination used in selecting

the model stock propeller, based on the higher

efficiency

thrust.

Consulting Prohaska's logarithmic charts for

Series B.4.40 and B.4.55 model pro-

Wageningen

one of which

is

reproduced as Fig. 70. B,

and entering with the thrust-load coefficient

Ctl of 0.709, based on the lower thrust value and
an effective wake fraction of 0.195 from the selfpropulsion test, the following optimum characteristics are

J =

P/D =1.2
n = 1.620

rps or 97.2

ships, unless a

4-bladed

subsequent analysis indicates that

is needed to place the blade

a 6-bladed propeller

frequency (n times Z) in a certain range.

Ample edge

clearance

aperture of the

ABC

allowed in the propeller

is

transom-stern design, be-

tween the end of the skeg and the propeller

sweep line, to keep vibratory forces to a minimum.
70.24 Determination of Rake for the ABC
Propeller.
The propeller aperture and stern
arrangement of the transom-stern ABC ship are
designed so that no rake is required. There is

some contraction in the inflow jet, to be sure, as

for any screw propeller, but this is not augmented
greatly at the disc position because the lines of

the skeg ending ahead

determined:

The open-water

the logical choice, as has been found

is

from long experience with single-skeg single-screw

The predicted thrust required to drive the ship

is much less than the estimated thrust. This
means that a new combination of P/D ratio and
rate of rotation n might give a higher propeller

pellers,

is

minimize the unbalance in thrust

between the blades in the 12 o'clock and 6 o'clock
positions and to reduce the periodic bending of
propeller

lb.

it

number

of blades, to

the propeller shaft in a vertical plane.

R,

T =

velocities

remains in the neighborhood of the 6 o'clock

position.

calculated.

V =

IN SHIP DESIGN

propeller circle, where the propeller passes the

ipm

made

0.86
r?o

fine.

of

The rake angle

is

it

are

set at

design carried through here but

0.72

it

deliberately

deg for the

could have

been set at any angle up to about 5 deg

propeller efficiency obtained from

if

the

designer wished to take advantage of the inflow

the self-propulsion test with the stock propeller

at the designed speed was roughly 68 per cent.

contraction.

a possible gain of about

4 per cent in propeller efficiency, with a cor-

The transom stern of the ABC ship was designed

to accommodate the largest practicable propeller
diameter on the given draft of 26 ft. This was

This means that there

is

responding increase in the propulsive coefficient.

new propeller design for the ABC ship is thus

Propeller-Disc

70.25

and

Hub

Diameters.

design are embodied in Sec. 70.12. Those in this

done to obtain the greatest possible propulsive

coefficient, on the basis that the machinery could
be designed to produce the required shaft power
at whatever rate of rotation appeared best for
the propeller. The maximum propeller-disc diameter resulting from this procedure was 20 ft.

section are limited to the final design of propeller

The diameter

definitely indicated.

Choice of the Number of Blades for the

General comments concerning the
number of blades to be used in a screw-propeller
70.23

ABC

Design.

for the transom-stern

ABC

This vessel, with the afterbody profile of Fig.

66. Q, supplemented by Fig. 67.U, is designed with
what is known as a clear-water stern. As might be
expected, and as

is

revealed in Fig. 60.M, there

of the propeller is thus considered

fixed at the outset of the design.

ship.

is

a high-wake-velocity region near the top of the

rotation

in

chosen to give the

The rate of
now to be

P/D

ratio are

maximum

propeller

rpm and

the

and pro-

pulsive efficiency.

For a design situation where the diameter

not

fixed, it is

necessary to determine the

is

optimum

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.26

value of

by the use

of existing propcllcr-design

comments given earlier in

by model experiment.
On the ABC ship, no shaft calculations were
made for the transom-stern design, so the hub
diameter was assumed as 0.18Z), the same as
for the stock model propeller. The hub is faired
into the rudder horn as shown in Figs. 66. Q,
67.U, and 74.K.
charts, subject to the

Sec. 70.9, or

70.26

Calculating

and the Advance

Thrust-Load

the

Factors

With some

Coefficients.

of the

primary characteristics fixed it is possible to

start the design of the wake-adapted propeller by
Lerbs' short method. For the ABC propellerdesign problem only the thrust T, the ship speed
V, and the maximum propeller diameter D are
fixed. The rate of rotation n is to be chosen to
give

maximum

In

efficiency.

restrictions

on the

size of

many

rpm

design cases

due to
reduction gears or by a

there will be limitations on

as well,

requirement for a given rate of rotation at a

given power with a direct-drive diesel engine. In
these cases, the designer accepts the limitations

and attempts

to attain the

efficiency possible,

optimum.
For the

maximum

maximum

even though

it is less

propeller

than the

Pe =

61-

10,078 horses, from model resistance test

Thrust T = 172,148 lb
Thrust-deduction fraction I = 0.07; 1 / = 0.93;
from model self-propulsion test for 20.5 kt

wake fraction w) =

Effective

Number

ship a rate of rotation to give

propeller

efficiency

was chosen

in

on the basis of the Wageningen Series

propeller data as laid down on Prohaska's logarithmic charts. These indicated an t/o of 0.72 for
an n of L620 rps or 97.2 rpm.
For Lerbs' short method it is best to work on a
thrust basis. Because of the assumptions involved
in this method, described in Sec. 70.21, corresponding formulas on a power basis do not yield equally
good results. When using the rigorous method
described by Lerbs in his referenced paper on
moderately loaded propellers, either a thrust
basis or a power basis can be employed. Thus if
the designer is limited to a given power plant, he
must convert the shaft power to effective power
Pe and this Pe to thrust. In the design of the
ABC ship, there is no maximum limitation on
shaft power, so the design is started by using the
thrust obtained from the model resistance test

w=

0.805;

of blades

Z =

Average local wake fraction at the various radii,

w^. from the wake survey on TMB model 4505,
derived by the method described subsequently
,

in this section

1.9905 slugs per

0.5p

for salt water at 59 deg

ft^

0.99525 slugs per

The next

step

is

ft'.

to calculate the thrust-load

and advance

coefficients

coefficients.

The

initial

based on non-viscous flow.

therefore necessary to convert the thrust

calculations are
It is

all

calculated from the model test to a non-viscous

thrust.

good approximation

for this is given

by the following relationship, which was determined by considering the viscous forces on a
blade element:

Tj

ABC

0.195;

from model self-propulsion test for 20.5 kt

Rate of rotation n = 1.620 rps or 97.2 rpm;
from Sec. 70.22

1.03T

where T is the customary thrust in viscous flow

and Ti is the thrust in non-viscous flow.

Sec. 70.22,

Speed

Ao

20

7ri?Ma.

Designed ship speed

Radius Rm..

ft

V =

314.16

20.5 kt

ft

34.622

advance Fa
ft

= F(l -

177,312 lb

w)

34.622(0.805)

per sec

C TL

Tr

Tr

i0.5p)AoVl

(0.5p)7r(fiMa.)'Fl

177,312

0.99525(3 14. 16) (27. 871)'

The
('

^7

thrust-load coefficient based on ship speed

TLjS

ft

per

is

{0.5p)AoV177,312

0.4731

0.99525(314. 16)(34.622)

The

absolute advance coefficient J^b, or

The

= V,
wnD

27.871

0.2738

(3. 14) (1.620) (20)

absolute advance coefficient based on ship

speed

ft'

1.03(172,148)

Thrust-load coefficient

X
10

of

27.871

with appendages, calculated in Sec. 70.22.

The following data are known:

Diameter, D^a.

Ti

34.622

wnD

(3.14)(1.620)(20)

0.3401

HYDRODYNAMICS

611

.001

0,002

0.004

0.02

5.01

0,04

0.1

IN SHIP DESIGN

0.2

0,4

Absolute Advance Coefficient

Fig. 70.

0.730 and

by
and

0.2738, enter Fig. 70.D, a chart prepared

Kramer

1,5

56

irnD

Khamee's Contours of Ideal Efficiency

Using the calculated values of Ctl

X

Sec. 70.26

t/a-

with Jet Rotation

rem, considers only the axial component of the

induced velocity.

To

determine the ideal efficiency with jet rotation tik

This ideal efficiency tja- differs from the t// de-

get a good value it is best to plot a curve of

Enter Fig. 70.D with X
on a basis of C'tl
along the bottom scale, in this case 0.2738, follow

scribed in Sec. 34.2 in that

the diagonal line

reference (31) in Sec. 70.20],

[see

it

considers the effect

both the axial and rotational components of

the induced velocity. The better-known ideal
efficiency ?;/
derived from the momentum theoof

riK

then
in

Ctl

move

the

up

to the

number

of blades Z,

vertically to the several curves oi rj^

vicinity

of

the

0.730 previously

thrust-load
calculated.

coefficient

The

final

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.27

The

6L5

average local

wake

fraction w,-

at each

0-diml radius, obtained from the wake survey,

0.85

shown in Fig. 60.N. It is found that the average

wake fraction over the propeller-disc position
obtained by pitot-tube measurements with the

is

model propeller not mounted, called the nominal

wake fraction, rarely agrees with the wake fraction
obtained from the model self-propulsion test at
the same speed, known as the effective wake
fraction. This is a common occurrence in model
testing. It indicates that the action of the pro-

and the presence of the rudder have a

on the wake velocities. For the
ABC ship, the nominal wake fraction over the
propeller disc, obtained from the wake survey
and shown in Fig. 60.N, is 0.1735 at 20.5 kt, as
compared to the effective wake fraction of 0.195
from the model self-propulsion test. To compenpeller

definite influence

06

05

-a4
Fig. 70. E

09^

OB

077

Thrust-Load

Coefficient

Cj|_

Vaeiation of Ideal Efficiency

Thrust-Load Coefficient

determination of
Fig. 70.E.

Thus

for the exact

tjk
r,K

Ctl

0.783 for C'tl

is

with

yik

shown

in

Approximation of the Hydrodynamic Pitch Angle and the Radial Thrust

Distribution.
The next step is to calculate the
70.27

First

hydrodynamic pitch angle /3/ using the following

formula, which represents Lerbs' approximate
optimum condition for a wake-adapted propeller:
,

tan

Here

x' is

/3j

-7

(70. i)

-;

the ratio of the local radius

tip radius i?Ma:i of the propeller,

^/Bmsi

and

Wx-

is

the corrected average

at each radius, to be explained presently.

TABLE
Col.

to the

namely

70.d

x'

wake

sate for this difference, the local

0.730.

each radius

is

multiplied

by the

fraction at

ratio of (1) the

wake from the self-propulsion test to

wake from the pitot-tube survey.
The method thus makes use of the wake-fraction
distribution found by the wake study, with the
effective
(2)

the nominal

numerical values modified so that its average

over the propeller is the same as that derived

from the self-propulsion test. In the ABC propeller design, the local nominal wake fraction at
each radius is increased by the factor

wake

0.195

0.1735

1.1239 OTW,.

Calculation of Hydrodynamic Pitch Angle

1.1239

iZi,-

HYDRODYNAMICS

filfi

The
in

calculation of

ffi

from

Eci. (70.i) is

shown

Table 70.d.

The next
ship's

step

d{CTL)s

efficient

is

to calculate a thrust-load co-

at each radius, based on the

using the formulas to be given

These values, when integrated over

speed,

presently.

the whole radius, should give a thrust-load coefficient which is close to the desired coefficient,

{Ctl)s

calculated earlier in Sec. 70.26. If the

values are not close, within

it is

make

necessary to

or 2 per cent, then

additional approximations

by modifying the hydrodynamic pitch angle

Pi

until the required accuracy is obtained.

The formulas necessary

for executing this step

are:

tan ^

UiT

=
_
~

^=^
2 sin

)3,

sin

(1

(70.ii)

w,.)

{I3j

(70.iii)

sin^

Va

^ = ^(1-h;..)

(70.iv)

(70 .va)
(7

(70. vb)

where 13 is the advance angle

UiT is the tangential component

of the

induced

velocity

K (kappa;

capital) represents

what

is

known

as

the Goldstein factor.

Most

of

the

relationships

in

the preceding

paragraphs and several which appear in subPropeller-Shaft

N/

of

Aheod Thrust

IN SHIP DESIGN

Ser. 7n.2S

Sec. 70.29
l.b

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

617

HYDRODYNAMICS

618

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 70.29

OOOOOOOO
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CO
CD
CO 00 t^

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to

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00
lO lO

<

<S rA tA fi ci ci

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o
d o o oo oo

<

Tf*

'-'

'-I

<

ooooooooo
'

o o oo o

'Q.-.OO'NOMt^CTi
oocotoeo-^ior^oo
I

o o odo o o

(MI>COCO>-Hi-<incD(N

rPOCOCCCOiNOt^tO

ddcJdddddd
o o o o

d d d d

tl

'^.

II

-r
II

II

<

li
II
II

oooouoooooo

<

II

II

II

gK

II

II

ooooooooo ooooooooo

<

OtDO'^'-'t^OODcD
O.-'.-HOOit-cOiO-^

ddddddddd
I

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3W S3^

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.

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e;^!^^

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c366o6c366o6

Sec. 70.29

^1.0

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

619

HYDRODYNAMICS

620

distribution than the fraction 1/2

The

and the
Table

shown

there.

calculations for the lift-coefficient product

lifting-surface

correction are given in

70.g.

Having applied the lifting-surface correction

hydrodynamic pitch angle, it is
possible to calculate the initial hydrodynamic
P/D ratio for each 0-diml radius by the formula
factor to the

(P/D)^.

where 0(phi)
/3/c
is

irx'

tan

(70.ix)

4,

the pitch angle and

is

is

equal to

at this stage of the design. This calculation

also

shown

ratios is given

in

The upper curve

134

Table

70. g.

plot of the

by the lower curve

P/D

of Fig. 70.1.

in this figure is explained later.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 70.30

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

70 Jl

Sec.

Substituting in Eq. (70.x)

(908) (3 ,3 12 .5)

(4.123)(97.2)(20)'(/o/^)

paragraph, give

=
whence ta/D =

The

621

NACA

64A, and 65A

thickness forms. These, in combination with one
of the meanlines recommended in the following
obtained with the

6,000

(20)\97.2)'

0.053.

maximum

radial distribution of the

ness of the blade elements

is

which have low

uniform distribution of
pressure along the chord length. For the latter
reason they have favorable cavitation charac-

thick-

obtained from the

by J. D. van Manen
["The Design of Ship Screws,"

teristics.

airfoil sections

and

ratios

drag-lift

12,788

16, 66,

The

four

recommended thickness forms

are listed in the order of preference, although

following equation, given

there

and

66 form has zero thickness at the trailing edge;

L. Troost

SNAME,

1952, Fig. 11, p. 453]:

D^
where tx/D

is

/I

must be modified

'tjp

a;'

and t-nJD

is

(70.xi)

maximum

section thickness to the diameter at

radius

blade-

any 0-diml

assumed as 0.003, a typical

at that edge.

Values of / for the various radii are:

= R/Rm

0.2
0.788

on marine screw propellers

The other

it

thickness distributions can

NACA

16 thickness form has performance characteristics

similar to those of the

TMB EPH

section.

The

combination of an ellipse at the nose,

two parabolas along the two sides, and a hyperbola
at the

0.4
0.551

0.3
0.665

0.5
0.443

tail;

derives

it

letters of these

0.7
0.251

0.8
0.162

0.9
0.079

1.00

is

no

EPH

The

calculations for tx/D values are

made

in

(70. xi) and the values are

Table 70.h.
strength calculation may be
phase, as long as the required tx/D

accordance with Eq.

down in Col. B
Any method of

set

used in this

of

ratio at each radius

is

obtained.

designer

is

no means restricted to using the formula shown

section.

The strength

of

the propeller

related definitely to the design problem, but

by
in
is
is

independent of the fundamental propeller theory.

70.31
Blade-Section Shaping by Cavitation
Criteria.

It

criteria, to

is

now

possible,

by using cavitation
mx of the mean-

determine the camber

the chord length c, and the lift coefficient of

each blade element. This is done by the use of
line,

one

of

use these charts

it

charts; Fig. 70.

is

them.
is

first

decide on the blade-section shape.

necessary to

Modern

airfoil

shapes are found as satisfactory as any. They

are obtained by superposing a given set of thickness ordinates on a given meanline.
in effect,

is

What happens,

that a selected airfoil sectipn, with a

base chord through its midwidth, is

bent until this base chord becomes the selected
curved meanline. In this way, all cambered airfoil
straight

sections are transformed

from symmetrical

sec-

tions.

The same shape is used for all blade sections

from the root to the tip. Good blade sections are

its

name from

the

first

an
form but unfortunately there

three types of curve. It

is

design chart available, corresponding

to those for the

To

NACA

slightly to give finite thickness

be used directly without modification. The

efficient thickness

0.6
0.344

this

among them. The

latter is a

value.

x'

difference

therefore, for use

(h

the ratio of the

is little

NACA

designer should use

eddying abaft

it

sections.

propeller

with caution because the

its trailing

edge might cause the

blade to flutter or to sing. Additional comments

on thickness forms are made in Sec. 70.34.

Meanlines commonly used with the thickness
forms listed are the circular-arc and the so-called
a = 1.0, a = 0.8, and a = 0.8 (modified) meanline.
The "a" meanlines have uniform chordwise
pressure distribution from the leading edge to the
point designated by a = x/c, where a; is a distance
from the leading edge. From this point to the
trailing edge the load decreases linearly. The
a = 0.8 (modified) meanline has slight curvature
in

the

decreasing portion

of

the load

curve.

Because of this pressure distribution the "a"

meanlines have good cavitation characteristics.
Also when combined with a given thickness form
they give blade sections with less hollow on the
face than if the same thickness form were used
with the circular-arc meanline. The a = 0.8
(modified) meanline is usually associated with the
NACA 6A-series airfoils. Complete data for the
NACA 16 and 66 thickness forms and the a = 1.0
and a = 0.8 meanlines are given in NACA Report
824, 1945. The data for the NACA 64A and 65A
thickness forms and the a = 0.8 (modified) meanline are given in NACA Report 903, 1948. The
exact process for combining a meanline and a
thickness distribution to obtain an airfoil section

HYDRODYNAMICS

622

o o o o o o

lOOOOOOOOi
6

d
o o oO O

0,00,0

rH

ft

.-I

O O O O O

<

o o o o o o o

o o o o o

ooooooooo
H

O O O O

'

CO.

O
to.

'OOOOOOOO

O O O O O O O

OOOOOOOO'H

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 70.31

Srr.
is

SCREW-PROPELLER DE.STGN

7031

explained iu detail in

NACA

Report 824, 1945,

pages 3-4.

The

chart in Fig. 70.

was constructed

for

Karman-Trefftz blade sections. This type of section, obtained by a conformal transformation

from a circle, has a circular-arc face, a circular-arc
back, and a circular-arc meanline. Fig. 70. K can
be used, with only a .slight sacrifice in accuracy,
for a circular-arc meanline in combination with
various thickness forms, such as the NACA 16 or
the 60-69 series. It can not be used, however, for

any other meanlines. In the design

for the

ABC

of the propeller

ship the circular-arc meanline

adopted because, at the time

1955), the chart

shown

is

of writing (early

in Fig. 70.

K was

the only

one available. Similar charts for the following

combinations of thickness forms and meanlines
are under construction at the David Taylor

Model Basin:
Thickness

Form

62.^

HYDRODYNAMICS

624

where

T'^ is the resultant velocity

approaching

the blade element

(Ts

number

at each

blade

element, with the blade in the upper vertical or

12 o'clock position, based on the ship speed V

the

is

cavitation

resultant velocity
Poo is

number,

on

based

14.7(144)

Po,

ft'

x'{Rm^x)w is a term to correct the cavitation

number to each blade element, with the blade in
the upper vertical or 12 o'clock position

w is the specific weight

64.043 lb per
x' is the

of

standard

water

salt

ft'

0-diml ratio R/Rm^x

For the ABC ship the shaft centerline is 15.5

ft below the designed waterline. The wave crest
or hollow due to the wave profile at the designed
speed

ignored in these calculations.

is

ship,

the positive

The

wave height

In the
resulting

15.5(64.043)

52

3,110

remaining

calculations

the

for

3,110 lb per

3,058 lb per

ft'

ft'

cavitation

for

maximum-camber

ratio

chord length c, and the lift coefficients

of the blade elements at the various radii are
shown in Table 70.h.
rux/c, the

When

the vapor pressure of salt water at an average

service temperature, taken here as 0.36 psi or

ABC

p.

numbers and

the static pressure at the shaft axis, or the

52 lb per

70J]

from the crest at the stern adds a shght margin

the

Vn

atmospheric pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure

with the ship at rest
e is

Sfc.

of safety against cavitation.

the cavitation

is

IN SHIP DESIGN

rrix/c

entering Fig. 70.K to pick the ratios

and

ix/c, the

value of

per cent, as shown in Col.

customary to do

<r

is

reduced by 15

M of Table 70.h.

this for all

It is

merchant ships as a

safety factor to guard against intermittent cavi-

may

tation which
of the

wake

arise

from the non-uniformity

For ships

in a peripheral direction.

which there are highly concentrated wakes,

such as those behind a bossing or a large strut, the
reduction should be as much as 20 per cent. For
high-speed, high-powered vessels with fast-runin

ning propellers, where

it is

almost impossible to

avoid cavitation, no reduction in a

is made.
There are additional limiting factors in the
propeller design which must be considered at

this time. First, the blade-thickness ratio tx/c at

the
l.0f? =

Rr

hub

section or at the 0.2/2 section should not

exceed values of 0.16 for destroyer-type propellers,

and 0.18

Above

to 0.20 for merchant-ship propellers.

these

limiting

values,

the

drag-to-lift

ratio of a blade section begins to rise rapidly.

Second,
section

Expanded Blade Outline From

CoYitotion Criteria

the

Rodiol Disc Line /

Faired Outline

OA H

0.3 R

O.Z R^.^

-Expanded Width at 0.2R

Petermined lyy Strength and
Riqidity

Considerotions

Expanded Blade Outlines with Minimum

Widths for Cavitation Prevention

Fio. 70. L

exceed

Cl

for

about

any blade
0.6.

Values

ping and backing characteristics and increase the

II

not

greater than this give propellers with poor stop-

leakage from the surface.

Using the values of 0.85(7 and C tic/tx), calculated in Tables 70.h and Fig. 70.K, the bladethickness ratios tx/c and camber ratios mx/c are
found only for the 0.5 to 0.95 radii. The inner
radii are off the chart, which means that cavitation
is of little or no concern at these blade sections.
In this case, a limiting value of tx/c of 0.20,
mentioned in the preceding paragraph, is assumed
at the Q.2R section. The Q.2R chord length is
then calculated. This length, together with those
determined from Fig. 70. K, are laid down on a
sketch and a smooth expanded blade outline is
drawn. The result is illustrated in Fig. 70.L.
The expanded blade lengths are, for the time
being, laid out symmetrical to the radial disc line.
The method of introducing skew-back is described
liability of air

lift-coefficient

should

later.

Sec. 70.33

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

625

626

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 70.33

Sec.

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

7035

the hub. A wake-adapted screw for the latter

type of wake variation has a pitch distribution
with the P/D ratio increasing toward the tip.
Just the opposite is obtained in the ABC design.

70.34

ABC

Blade-Section

Final

Shapes for

the

ABC

ship

Design by Lerbs' Method.

The

propeller, designed here, has hollow blade faces

and a mussel shape

in the outer sections

outer

radii, similar to

World War

many German

in the

designs of

Hollow-face sections are unusual

for merchant-ship propellers at the time of
writing (1955) but if they improve the cavitation
II.

performance of a propeller they are worth while.

of modern production methods,
hollow sections are only slightly if any more

Taking advantage
difficult to

manufacture.

By

use of the a

1.0 or

0.8 meanlines, the hollow in this case could

probably be reduced or eliminated. Since the

charts used in this design, shown in Figs. 70.
and 70.M, were not available for the a = 1.0

and a

meanUnes

combination with
suitable thickness forms, the circular-arc meanline
was employed and the hollow sections accepted.
The design procedure is the same regardless of
what meanline or design chart is used.

The

0.8

propeller designer

in

is

cautioned, however,

that screw propellers with hollow-face sections do

not perform well when backing; some do not even

meet normal needs for routine ship maneuvering.

Whether they would

is

in the case of the

ABC

ship

not determined here. For this and other reasons

some

propeller

sections

at

sections

with

designers

the

inner

straight

prefer

radii

faces

to

use

airfoil

and circular-back
(orthodox

ogival

the curvature correction

is

[A(?nxo/c)]

The loss in lift due to reduction in

camber is then compensated for by the addition
of an angle of attack aj
The pitch angle 4> becomes /3/c -f ] -f ofj
The added angle of attack needed to compensate
the lift for any reduction in camber ratio depends
on the meanline. For a circular-arc meanline, the
correction is given by Eq. (70.xviii). This formula,
when used with a = 1.0 or a = 0.8 meanhnes,

the reduction in camber ratio.

was considered unacceptable.

trial-and-error method,

an angle

i.e.,

of attack added,

It is moi'e or less a

the camber

is

reduced,

and the pitch

distri-

These three items are then

checked.

bution
adjusted

until

obtained.

Since the

satisfactory

ABC

relationships

ship propeller

are

is

an

unusual case, the hollow-face sections are accepted

rather than to adopt flat sections with an unfair
pitch distribution. In the normal merchant ship,
hollow sections can be avoided, if desired, by
using one of the other recommended meanlines,

and by adjustment of the angle

camber ratio as necessary.

and

of attack

Hollow-face sections, as obtained in this design,

have satisfactory cavitation

when these sections have
thin leading edges, as they would with the
undoubtedly

will

performance. However,

NACA

16 thickness forms, they are sensitive to

changes in angle of attack, which occur in any
wake field due to non-uniformity of flow into the

blunter leading edge reduces this

For this reason, the NACA 65A
thickness form [NACA Rep. 903, 1948, pp. 6-7]
is used for the ABC ship propeller. It gives the
desired leading-edge thickness with only a sUght
propeller.

sensitivity.

loss in the

cavitation characteristics along the

rest of the chord length. If the blade sections

no hollow then the

NACA

have

16 thickness forms are

better.

NACA

The

ness ratio.

is

This procedure was tried for the ABC design,

but it resulted in an unfair pitch distribution and

shapes) for the outer radii.

In many cases the hollow can be removed by

reducing the camber ratio mxo/c until it is no
more than Q.5tx/c, where tx/c is the blade-thick-

G27

65A

thickness

form

with

the

circular-arc meanline gives airfoil sections

which
are curved near the trailing edge. The back or
Ap side is convex to the flow, and there is a
concavity on the face or +Ap side. Again this
can be avoided by using the a = 0.8 (modified)
meanline, in which case the trailing-edge surfaces

are straight lines.

introduces only a small error.

^2

2(57. 3)/c

[4^)]

(70.xviii)

Undoubtedly more desirable blade

be obtained with the
Fig.

the

ABC project was underway

is

the added angle of attack in deg

70. K,

in

course

sections will

design charts, similar

to

of

preparation
[Eckhardt,

when

M.

K.,

and Morgan, W. B., "A Propeller Design

Method," SNAME, 1955, pp. 334-338]. However,
the main purpose of this chapter is to outline a
method of propeller design. Availability of the

new

charts will not change the method.

70.35

where a^

new

Blade

Introducing

Profile.

Sec.

Skew-Back
70.16 states

the

ABC

that a

good

in

628

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 70.35

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.37

range of values of the skew-back at the tip

0.20 to 0.25cMax

skew-back

is

ABC

For the

is

from

propeller, the tip

taken as 0.245cMax or L25

ft.

An

easy curve, representing the locus of the midlengths of the blade-section chords, is then drawn

skew-back line, starting at the extreme-tip

section and approaching the pitch reference line
as a tangent at the hub. The expanded outline is
laid out, half a chord length on each side of the
skew-back line. From this the projected outline
is drawn, explained in Sees. 32.9 and 32.10 and
for the

illustrated in Fig. 32. L

sketched

With the

projected outline

the angular variation of the leading

in,

edge as each blade section passes the vertical

plane through the 12 o'clock propeller position

The

checked.

is

the

ABC

interval

ship propeller,

Sec. 70.36,

is

between sections for

in Fig. 70.O of

drawn

as follows:

629

except that

has constant rather than

variable pitch, is illustrated in a photograph
published by The Marine Engineer and Naval
Architect [Aug 1954, p. 300].
teristics,

it

One point needs

The

explanation.

blade-thickness fraction to/D

is

required

0.053 as calculated

from the strength considerations. The bladethickness fraction shown on Fig. 70.O is only
0.049.

The axis thickness to on Fig. 70.O has been

determined graphically by conventional practice
[SNAME, Tech. and Res. Bull. 1-13, Jul 1953,
As can be seen from Fig. 70.O, this conp. 22].
vention gives a blade-thickness fraction that is
not truly representative of the thickness at the
hub. Thus the actual tx
equal to AB in Fig.
70.O, is greater than CD, indicated by the construction lines for determining to
The propeller
,

actually has the correct thickness required

0.2ft1.5

0.053
0.3ft-

2.1

the face and back lines were straight.

if

However,

deg

ventional

for the sake of uniformity, the con-

method

for finding

0.4ft-

Calculating the Expected Propeller

70.37
0.5ft-

deg

2.7

deg

graphically should

to

always be followed.

2.4 deg

2.8

by

strength considerations, and to/D would equal

deg

The

ciency.

final step in

short method,

E&-

by Lerbs'

to calculate the expected pro-

is

0.6ftpeller efficiency.

the design,

This

given by the following

is

relationship:
0.7ft1

2.7 deg

2X,e
(70.xix)

0.8ft-

[-(i)d

4.4 deg
0.9ft-

where

This shows a fairly regular interval and

is

con-

may

be necessary at
times to draw several skew-back lines before a
satisfactory angular interval is obtained.
sidered

satisfactory.

It

Several schemes were tried to achieve this. It

was

rjo

the propeller efficiency

is

the ideal efficiency with jet rotation and

r]K is

e(epsilon) is the drag-lift ratio of a blade section

or airfoil.

close

approximation of

finally concluded, as related in Sec. 70.16,

that the locus of the midlengths of the expanded

blade sections represents the most convenient

construction line. It is almost impossible to start

with an arbitrary projected outline and finish

with fair contours in the expanded outline.

Cl
Xj

0.008

Ci, at 0.7ft

0.3064

to

delineate

the

propeller.

The

x'

tan

/3,

0.0261

at 0.7ft, where tan

from Col. G, Table

7/0

70.i.

c is

obtained

0.3711

2(0.3711)(0.0261)'

0.783
1

no

/J/

70.g.

0.7(0.5302)

final

drawing of the ABC design, following the arrangement and details laid down in Fig. 32. F of Volume
I or on the SNAME PD sheet of Fig. 78.L, is
shown in Fig. 70.O. A large propeller having the
same general blade shape and the same charac-

given by:

obtained from Col. D, Table

is

e is

0.008

70.36 Drawing the Propeller.

All unknowns
have been calculated or determined so it is now
possible

is

equal to 0.783, from Fig. 70.E

0.026l \
+ 2Y
3A0.371I/

(0.783)(0.9367)

73.3 per cent.

0.733

HYDRODYNAMICS

630

By way

of comparison,

Wageningen propeller

P/D

as discussed in Sec.

chart

logarithmic

Prohaska's

70.22,

series

for

70.B,

Fig.

B.4.40,

the

and a propeller
efficiency t/o of 0.72. The same parameters as
calculated by Lerbs' short method are P/D =
1.193 at the 0.7 radius and t/o = 0.733. This
shows satisfactory agreement with a good standindicates a

ard propeller

ratio

of

IN SHIP DESIGN

(14) Calculate the final propeller efficiency; use

Eq.

1.2

series.

Summary of Design Steps for Lerbs'

Short Method Schoenherr's Combination. Sum70.38

Draw

(13)

Sec. 70.38

the propeller

(70.xbc).

The Lerbs 1954 method,

described here,

is

con-

sidered neither too long nor too intricate for the

design of a screw propeller to go on an

important or costly ship, especially as it gives the
designer more flexibility in taking account of
unusual conditions than a method based solely
final

marizing the procedure of Sees. 70.21 through

on empirical or experimental data. The calculations proper can be made by anyone who knows
arithmetic, algebra, logarithms, and elementary

70.37:

trigonometry.

rake,
(1) Determine the number of blades Z, the
the propeller diameter D, the hub diameter d,
and the rate of rotation n
(2)

Ctl
Calculate the thrust-load
and the absolute advance
coefficient

the coefficient {Ctl)s

The

correction

several

factors

involved in this procedure, some of them semiempirical, will disappear with increasing knowl-

The

edge.

analytic framework of this

method

should serve well for the insertion of results of

future research and the presentation of additional

and Xs
(3) Determine the ideal
tion riK from Fig. 70.

useful data for the propeller designer, especially

coefficients X

efficiency

with jet rota-

when more

is

known

of the flow in

and around

the propeller position.

(4) With successive approximations, determine

the hydrodynamic pitch angle ^i and the thrust
distribution over the blades which will allow the
propeller to develop the required thrust; use
,

(70.i) through (70.vi) and Fig. 70.G

product
hft-coefficient
the
(5) Determine
Cl{c/D), apply the lifting-surface correction, and
calculate the hydrodynamic pitch-diameter ratio

K. E. Schoenherr has recently [SNAME, 1955,

a logical, workable combination
of the propeller-design chart and analytic method
embodying the following steps, adapted from the

p. 366] outlined

reference:

Eqs.

P/D

for each blade section; use Eqs.

through

(70.vii)

(70.bc)

is first solved by the use of

and the methods described in
PNA, Vol. II, Chap. Ill
(b) The method of Th. Theodorsen in his
book "Theory of Propellers" [McGraw-Hill,

The problem

(a)

design

charts

calculate the
(6) From strength considerations,
blade-thickness fraction to/D, and the maximumblade-thickness distribution ratio tx/c; use Eqs.

New

and (70.xi) and Fig. 70.J

(7) Choose the type of meanline and thickness
form to be used for the blade sections
(8) Using cavitation criteria, determine the maximum camber of the meanhne nix the chord
lengths c of the blade sections, and the Uft co-

thickness distribution are

(70.x)

efficients

Cl

of the

sections; use Eqs.

(70.xii)

(c)

the

lift coefficients;

use Fig.

70.M

if

Apply the curvature correction to the camber

ratio; use Eq. (70.xvi) and Fig. 70.N
(11) Apply the viscous-flow correction and calthe

final

pitch

distribution;

and (70.ix)
(12) Determine the amount
lay out the skew-back fine

use

The blade

area, blade width,

and blade-

chosen to keep the

calculated,

if

not already available, by the method

of L. C. Burrill, explained in reference (39) of

Sec. 70.20
is read from the liftand the final pitch distribution
obtained by smoothing out the calculated

The angle

of attack

coefficient curves
is

results

necessary

(10)

culate

then applied to obtain the

out of cavitation, to meet strength

requirements, and to give good thickness ratios
(d) Lift-coefficient curves for the sections are

(e)

Draw and fair the blade outline and determine

final chord lengths, maximum cambers, and

is

propeller

through (70.xiv) and Fig. 70.K

(9)

York, 1948]

lift-grading curve

Eqs.

(f)

The

effective pitch obtained

from the fore-

going calculations is compared with the pitch

obtained from the design chart as a check on the

accuracy of the solution.

According to Schoenherr, "... variable wake

(70.xvii)

of

skew-back and

can be introduced
procedure.

readilj'"

into

this

design

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.40

Avoiding Air Leakage with Inadequate

Submersion. For a designed-speed and a designed-load condition, assuming no severe limits
70.39

imposed by the projected service of the vessel,

a tip submergence so inadequate as to permit
drawing air is a matter of ship rather than pro-

This
of

G3I

shown by

is

ship

L. P.

Smith

where,

propellers,

for several

after

models
low

reaching

points in the thrust curves due to cavitation, the

thrust begins to rise steadily as the rate of rotation

is

[ASME,

increased

Jul 1937, Vol. 59, pp.

imposed, and ships do have to propel themselves

409-431, esp. pp. 415-419 and Figs. 6, 7, and 11].

It is also shown by R. W. L. Gawn for a pair of
motor torpedoboat propellers [NECI, 1948-1949,

with

Vol. 65, Fig.

peller design. Nevertheless, limitations are often

reasonable

submergences)

The

at drafts (and tip

than the designed amounts.

efficiency

less

operation of propellers under these con-

7L10
and is well summarized by W. P. A. van Lammeren
ditions

described in the references of Sec.

is

[RPSS, 1948, pp. 262-263]. From this reference it

".
appears that screws having blades with wide
tips and circular-back sections are more likely to
be free from air-drawing."
70.40 Design Comments on Propellers for the
Supercavitating Range.
If the cavitation noise,
erosion, and vibration are not serious, a certain
amount of either bubble or sheet cavitation, or
both, may be tolerated on heavily loaded screw
.

provided this loading represents the

propellers,

maximum

may

be encountered under any

condition of service. This is somewhat analogous
that

to loading a boat to the gunwales if

that the boat

When

is

it

known

is

to encounter no waves.

pushing screw propellers to their limit of

performance, involving large Ap's,

ultimate

large real-slip ratios,

and high velocities over the

it becomes necessary, at

backs of the blades,

coefficient

cavitation at that. This

is

Under the conditions described, not only is the

pressure over the whole suction side of the blade
then reduced nearly to zero absolute, representing
the limit for service conditions, but the friction
resistance on the back of the blade

because

craft,

par-

ticularly racing motorboats.

It

is

described previously, in Sec. 23.12, that

the practical limit of intensity of the

Ap

on

the suction side of the blade, from which most

of the Uft and thrust are derived, occurs at the
vapor pressure of water. As the cavitation number
is lowered, sheet cavitation covers more and more
of the back of each blade. The thrust falls off
rapidly and the rate of rotation increases, so that
the propeller serves no longer as a suitable or
efficient driving mechanism for the ship which

carries

The

cavitating range.

resembles

that

of

it.

flow over the blade then

the

right-hand

diagram in

Fig. 23.1.

There has been some theoretical work done in

Russia on the supercavitating propeller but, so
far as known, the only published references translated into English at the date of writing (1955) are:
"On the Working of Supercavitating
Screw Propellers," INA, 1944, pp. 138-149

(1)

Posdunine, V. L.,

(2)

Posdunine, V. L., "Problems in Ship-Propeller Design,"

Soviet Science, Feb 1941; English transl. in SBMEB,
Feb 1946, pp. 69-70

(3)

Epshteyn, L. A., "On the Action of the Ideal Supercavitating Propeller," Inzhenerniy Sbornik, 1951,
Vol. IX. This paper lists five previous Russian
references, published in the period 1943-1945.
Posdunine, in his 1944 paper, speaks of experimental proof for his claim to reasonably high thrust
and efficiency in the supercavitating range. Despite
his assurance that these data would be forthcoming
they appear never to have been published in English.
In the discussion of Posdunine's 1944 paper by
F. H. Todd, on p. 144, there are given the results of
variable-pressure water-tunnel tests at the NPL,
Teddington, on a screw propeller, when extended
into the supercavitating range.

if

the propelling machinery

is

able

One

feature of the design problem,

unexpected situation develops. When finally the whole back area

is uncovered and exposed to vapor pressure in the

much more remains

cavity a further increase in the rate of rotation

affecting the pressure

usually

eliminated,

it.

However,
to turn

is

moving water no longer touches

Under these conditions the propeller is fully

cavitating, and is said to be running in the super-

the case with high-

speed and ultra-high-speed planing

p. 370], where at an advance

about 0.62 to 0.67, the values of

14,

of

Kt begin to increase after reaching their minimum

values. In fact, for one propeller, the Kt value
at J = 0.6 is as high as at / = 0.75 and at
J = 0.83, with a mimmum value at J = 0.67.

least in the present state of the art, to accept

sheet cavitation in the running range, and heavy

it

fast enough, a rather

results

in

a slowly increasing thrust.

to be done,

is

upon which
that of pre-

when altered by the sheet

cavity over the back of one blade, from adversely

venting the flow,

blade. This

is

on the face
done by:

of the following

HYDRODYNAMICS

632

(a) Reducing the number of blades and the blade

overlap (when viewed generally normal to the

blade surface) to a

minimum

Sec. 70.41

the "antiUft." This force exceeds the dynamic

upward

by the lower blades

created

lift

propeller rides too high but

(b) Keeping the slip ratio low, with a reasonably

low angle of attack on each blade

Increasing the pitch-diameter ratio, to in-

(c)

IN SHIP DESIGN

upward

is

less

the

if

than the

the propeller rides too low.

lift if

of incorporating this feature in

Means

a propeller design

are described in considerable detail by E. C. B.

Motor Boat and Yachting, Sep

Corlett [The

crease the gap between blades.

it

1954,

pp. 387-388].

The

down by

can only be held

slip ratio

area,

but

is

Free-Riuining.

Bow Propellers, Coupled and

Bow propellers are either driven

best accomplished in the case of the

by independent

engines, at a speed suitable to

by reducing the ship

and the propeller thrust to the lowest
possible values. At the high speeds in question,
this is only possible with planing craft in which
the resistance varies as some power of the speed

Design of

70.41

loading

the propeller lightly. This may be achieved by

increasing the disc area or the expanded blade

the needs of the moment, or they are, in the case

many

double-ended ferryboats, coupled to the

supercavitating propeller

of

resistance

engine and the stern propeller by a straight-

Two-bladed pro-

through shaft. Icebreakers with bow propellers

are in the first category, along with the larger
ferryboats, where fuel economy is important.
Icebreakers and other vessels with bow propellers are usually required to back hard upon
occasion, or to run in the opposite direction. The
bow propeller then becomes the stern one. Under
these conditions symmetrical sections are employed, with straight meanlines. Actually, since

pellers are preferred. Pitch-diameter ratios should

the propellers rotate in opposite directions at

than the square, possibly even less than the

power; see Fig. 53. D.
Not more than three blades, and not too wide
blades at that, should be used on a propeller

less

first

working

most part

for the

in the heavily cavitat-

ing or supercavitating range.

probably exceed
or more.
If it is

1.4,

known

and may run as high as 2.0

that a propeller will cavitate

throughout the running range, its blade

sections may be of triangular shape, with blunt
or square trailing edges. The blade speed is so
extremely high, and the static pressure usually
so low that the water can not possibly close in

behind even a fair blade section. Wedge-shaped

propeller blade sections for supercavitating propellers are discussed by G. Rabbeno [Ann. Rep.

Rome Model
stiffness

and

The

Basin, 1938, Vol. VII, p. 91].

strength

of

the

blade

may

be

concentrated in the metal near the trailing edge,

enabling the leading edge and the blade section
to be considerably finer than normal.

on supercavitating flow past

foils

Comments
and

struts,

applicable to the propeller-design problem, are

given by

M. P. TuUn
NPL, Oct

dynamics,"
3

Nov

["Cavitation in Hydro1955,

paper 16; SBSR,

1955, pp. 570-571].

For the ultra-high-speed screw propeller which

provides the dynamic

lift

for holding

up the

stern

No

Tests.

its proper level. One solution is to set up a

compensating downward vertical force known as

existing propeller-design procedure

is

comprehensive and reliable to give an

accurate prediction of the open-water performance
of a screw propeller built to a particular design,
sufficiently

either

on model or

peller design

is

full scale.

When

new

the

pro-

only slightly different from that

of a propeller which has already been tested it

would appear that the designer could be reason-

ably

certain

of

predicting

its

performance.

minor changes which seem insignificant often produce appreciable differences

Nevertheless,

in performance.

One never knows when

this will

happen.
It seems wise, therefore, in the case of a new
propeller design, to build a

open water,

was not

at

or

running in the open, give identical performance when rotating one way or the other.
70.42
Open- Water and Self-Propelled Model

stabiUzing influence to hold the stern of the boat

craft,

elliptical

this kind,

tunnel,

very fast planing

are

midchord position, similar to those of Fig. 70.

[S and P, 1943, Fig. 153, p. 132, Type 3]. What
might be termed double-symmetrical blades of

with the propeller

shaft, the struts, and the propeller hub normally
out of water, it is important that there be a
of a

sections

symmetrical on each side of the

lens-shaped,

fully

the

times,

different

(1) in

and

(3) in

ship for which

it

(2) in

model and

to test

it,

a variable-pressure water

a self-propelled model of the

is

designed. Unfortunately,

it

wake-adapted
propeller designed in Sees. 70.21 through 70.37,
nor to include the test data in Chap. 78.
possible to do this for the

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.43

Mechanical Construction Type of Hub

70.43
Shaping and Finish of Blades. The mechanical
design and the details of construction of screw
propellers, of both the solid and the built-up
types, have become rather well standardized in
the past century. They are described and illustrated by R. H. Tingey [ME, 1942, Vol. I, pp.
;

267-293, esp. pp. 291-293] and by the authors

of up-to-date handbooks on marine engineering.

The

choice of whether a particular design of

propeller

to be of the solid or built-up type

is

made by

usually

is

the owner and operator, often

based upon considerations far removed from

hydrodynamics. The marine architect is called

upon only
ciency

to state

involved

is

how much

if

reduction in

the wheel

depends upon the ultimate

and shape

size

effi-

built up. This

is

of the

hub, including the flanges at the roots of the

blades, the fairing of the bolts and nuts for these

in

the fairing of the whole hub into the

and other features. The probable reduction
efficiency on the ship, mentioned in Sec. 70.14,

is

of the order of 2 or 3 per cent. If a solid pro-

flanges,
hull,

has an efficiency

peller

built-up propeller

0.679. In

(70

numerals,

67.9)

of (0.70) (0.97)

ijo

what are known as

by marine engineers
percentage

of 0.70 the equivalent

tjo

may have an

points, often

indicate

to

this

is

used

a change in
reduction

of

2.1 points.

633

distant future there will be developed a strong,

not-too-expensive,
ferrous

alloy

corrosion-resisting,

propeller

for

weldable

which

blades

will

permit the separate blades of a screw propeller

to be cast individually with specially shaped root

palms and welded to a steel hub, or to an enlargement on a short stub shaft. An arrangement
diagram of the latter scheme, for the arch-stern

ABC
(3)

ship, is sketched in Fig. 74.L.

The

availability of a strong,

alloy will,

among

rigid,

ferrous

other things:

Enable the larger propellers, whose shipexpensive and inconvenient, to have their
hubs and blades assembled by welding at the
yard where the ship is built. Annealing of the
welds is possible by induction heating.
(b) Eliminate the trouble, expense, and vulnerability of tapered fits, keyways, keys, screw
threads, and nuts necessary to attach the present
(a)

ment

is

propellers

much
(c)

to

their

shafts.

Bolted

flanges

are

simpler and more reliable.

Eliminate

need

the

galvanic-action

for

protectors in the neighborhood of bronze propellers,

with their never-ending added drag and

continual expense
(d)

By

the use of plated

chromium

or

some

other material, such as on the stub shaft project-

ing abaft the

ABC

ship propeller in Fig. 74. L,

eliminate the need for bronze bearing sleeves on

of reducing this loss and retaining

demountable-blade advantage, there are
several possibilities which call for comment:

As a means

steel shafts.

the

(1)

The

many
blade

without

propeller

built-up

decades, the base or bolting flange of each

is circular.

geometric pitch

is

over a blade, and of plus and minus 1/2 per cent

in local pitch variation, are now being approached

constant

or exceeded. Blade thicknesses in important posi-

means equivalent

is

bolted firmly

if

the blade

must be a
This

is

by no

to a constant change in linear

pitch P, or even to a constant percentage change

in P, because

P =

2tR changes with

2:rfl

tan

radius.

and the distance

<^

The

great

number

of

a small need for

the adjustable feature and for changing pitch in
service. By eliminating the adjustment in angle,
solid propellers in use indicates

and with

it

the need for the circular base flange on

each blade,
detachable

it

is

possible to

or demountable

make

the blades

without greatly in-

It appears

almost certain that

tions are being specified

excellent as far as

it

mean

face pitch

and measured. This

goes, but

it still

is

leaves as un-

back or Ap
is a growing
appreciation of the importance of back shape
among owners and operators as well as among propeller designers. Lack of suitable equipment to
make measurements on large propellers, both
during manufacture and inspection, is delaying
specified the shape of the entire

surface of the blade. However, there

progress along this

Edge shapes

line.

of propeller blades are important.

These require delineation on the drawings by

creasing the size of the hub.

(2)

propellers

plus or minus 1/4 per cent in

for all blade sections.

d(j>

is,

conforming more nearly to the design drawings,

has produced valuable results. Tolerances of

This permits some adjustment in

on the hub. However,

in place

the past two or three decades, that

when the blade

shifted in this process, the shift

angle

adjustable

In the orthodox design, followed for

features.

Constant pressure and attention applied to

the manufacture of more accurate propellers for

in

the not-

large-scale details or

by geometric dimensions.

HYDRODYNAMICS

634
described in Sec. 70.19.

checked

b.v

They

are rather easily

small full-scale templates.

Considering that the surfaces of a screw-problade almost always travel through the
water faster than the ship, and the surfaces of
peller

the outer portions often several times as

fast,

the blade surfaces should be as smooth as modern

tools and techniques can make them. Indeed, in
keeping with the necessity for smaller roughness

tolerances on a large ship than on its model, to

make

IN SHIP DESIGN

(a)

Schoenherr, K. E.,

SNAME,

(b)

Schoenherr, K. E.,

PNA,

"6.

re-emphasizes Decision 2 of the 1948

Conference on this subject, which stated that 'It is necessary that the model propellers should be made to a. high
degree of precision and in all published work the measured
tolerances
"

and the quality

of the surface finish should be

stated.'

How to keep this ship-propeller surface smooth,

even on the "stainless" metals which are essentially resistant to corrosion

and

erosion, is

(e)

Van Lammeren, W.

(f)

Hecking,

marine engineers.
70.44 Blade Strength and Deformation.
On
many if not most screw propellers it is necessary
to shape the root sections, and possibly also

some

others, to give the necessary strength

rigidity to the blades.

ships,

structural

those

of

On

icebreakers and ice-

considerations

hydrodynamics.

and

may

However,

outweigh
it

is

not

book to devote space to this

feature, other than has already been done in
Sees. 70.19 and 70.30.
possible in

this

P. A., RPSS, 1948, pp. 269-273

J., "Strength of Propellers: Analysis Made in
Connection with Classification Rules at the American Bureau of Shipping," MESA, Oct 1921, pp.
762-767.

It may very well be that elastic deformation

under heavy load of the blades of a nearly perfect
"static" design will modify rather appreciably
the shape and the performance contemplated by
the designer. This is a manifestation of hydroelasticity, described in Sec. 21.5 and mentioned
in Sec. 70.13. Furthermore, this deformation
may take place periodically and in varying
amounts as a blade rotates through a complete
revolution, leading to blade vibration and other

objectionable results.
It is interesting to note in this connection the

comments made by Dixon

Kemp

in

the late

1890's in his treatise on yacht design

["Yacht

Architecture," Cox, London, 1897, 3rd ed., p. 284]:

"There would seem to be some advantage if the blades
and bend whilst revolving, especially in the
case of small vessels; and Messrs. Yarrow have recorded a
case within their e.xperience of torpedo boat propulsion

are elastic,

where, by submitting a thin elastic blade for a perfectly

rigid one, the speed

was

from

altered

It is unfortunate that

n\ knots to

19 knots."

no record has yet been

found of the shape and materials of these thin,

elastic blades, nor an explanation of their superior
performance.
To return to a consideration of modern wheels,
the propeller designer
so-called deformation

still

a problem, but one for metallurgists rather than

1.57

Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, Chap. 29.3, pp. 127-141

(d) Tingey, R. H., ME, 1942, Vol. I, pp. 281-291

the two surfaces hydrodynamically smooth,

The Conference

1934, pp. 113-114

1939, Vol. 11, p.

(c)

the full-scale propeller surface should actually

be smoother than that of its model.

In particular, no lifting holes should be drilled
through the blades, contrary to the design shown
by R. H. Tingey [ME, 1942, Vol. I, Fig. 1, p. 268],
nor should nicks and bent-over portions of the
edges be permitted to remain after the first
opportunity to repair them. It often happens that,
if the dock trials are run with the ship's own
propellers in place, pieces of wire rope and other
debris which have been dropped overboard at
a fitting-out dock may be picked up by the propellers, with damaging effects. If a ship's propellers
have been so menaced, it is wise to have all blade
edges examined by a diver after the vessel is in
clear water, before it is permitted to undertake
standardization and acceptance trials.
In this connection the following is quoted from
the Conclusions of the Sixth International Conference of Ship Tank Superintendents, 1951,
page 10:

Sec. 70.44

Rather complete procedures for determining

blade thicknesses adequate for strength and
rigidity, and for calculating stresses in the blade
material, are found in the following references:

in

is

advised to sketch a

diagram

of his propeller,

which the estimated deformations under thrust

load are greatly exaggerated for emphasis.

aim

is

The

to delineate the shape of the propeller

blade under load and to determine changes in

pitch at various radii. Procedures for constructing
these diagrams are as yet not well formulated
but a few hints may be helpful for guidance:
(a)

The

thrust forces are exerted roughly normal

to the line joining the nose

The drag

force

generally in line
(b)

At the

and

tail of

each section.

may

be neglected because it acts

with the chord of each section.

effective angles of attack

normally

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.45

encountered, and with hydrofoil or

airfoil section

may

increases the

G35

lift

on the outer elements, and

in-

be expected to act at a
point between 0.25c and 0.40c abaft the nose of

of attack ;

greater.

each section

vicious cycle continues until the vessel speeds

up

shapes, the

Tlie

(c)

force

lift

bending forward

(in

the direction of

thrust) of cantilevered screw-propeller blades

to thrust load

is

due

usually not diminished as the

designed thrust-load factor decreases because the

blades are

made

thinner in an effort to increase

creases the twist deformation.

down because

of

effective angle

still

thrust, the engine slows

the increased torque, or the

blade takes a permanent set in twist.

A sequence of events of this kind is encountered
when a heavily loaded propeller with swept-back
blades has

the efficiency

thereupon becomes

match the increased

to

The

direction of rotation reversed, as

its

taking deformation into account, the radii of

during a crash-back maneuver. The greatly disturbed condition of the water around it probably
saves the propeller but at least one case is on

the sections involved, and the rate of rotation

record where blades have been bent in a sudden

The

(d)

centrifugal forces acting on raked blades

amount

are functions only of the

CO

of actual rake,

high-power reversal.

(omega).

70.45

The deformation

of heavily loaded screw-pro-

peller blades is best counteracted,

not by thicken-

ing the blades but by using materials of the highest

practicable

modulus

of

elasticity.

The

nickel-

copper alloys and the corrosion-resisting chromium-iron alloys are considerably superior to the

materials

ment

obtain.

point

Screw-propeller blades which have long, thin

overhangs such as those of the weedproof

type shown in diagram 12 of Fig. 32. L and those
fitted on the liner Normandie in the early 1940's,
almost certainly suffer some bending of the
overhang in an ahead direction. This reduces the
geometric pitch angle 4>, straightens out the meanline,

and diminishes the blade camber

region.
local

The net

effect is to

but the overall

lift

in that

reduce not only the

of the blade sections at

A slight additional camber of the

overhung portions may well be introduced to
overcome this deformation and to make all the
those radii.

blade area work effectively.

On

a propeller which

is

loaded moderately or

One
now known

of the

and Coatings to
most satisfactory

for use in screw propellers

which must resist corrosion, erosion, and impact

from sand, ice, and the Uke is an alloy composed
of approximately 14 per cent chromium and 86
per cent iron. This alloy is capable of heat treat-

best bronzes in this respect, although accurate

data as to elastic moduluses are often difficult to

trailing

Propeller Materials

Resist Erosion.

to give yield points of the order of 70,000

As

lb per in^.

for other iron alloys,

is fairly definite;

bronzes and brasses containing large quantities

of copper.

The proper kinds

and

irons

ability

must work

of corrosion-resisting

have proved in practice their

to withstand severe usage on vessels which
steels

in the ice.

corrosion-resistant alloy of austenitic charac-

teristics

was employed by the Germans some

years ago for the propellers of destroyers and

similar naval vessels. This

22 per cent chromium and

most

of the

propellers

of

is

11

an alloy containing
per cent nickel, with

remainder composed of
this

speci^-l cutting tools, and tedious

machining procedures but once fabricated they

stand up well in service. Examples are the two

outer elements, lying near the forward quarter-

at Annapolis, Maryland.

or third-points of these elements,

of

would be much

the torsion axis in the root

sections of the blade than they are abaft that

axis in a blade

swept or skewed normally

aft.

This would mean a greater twisting moment

forward, and a greater increase in the geometric
pitch angle
than the reduction in that angle
when the blades are swept back. This increment

A0

increases the effective angle of attack /

Screw
casting

techniques,

corrosion-resisting steel propellers

farther ahead

iron.

alloy require special

skewed to an appreciable extent in the forward or ahead direction.

Were this done, the centers of pressure on the
heavily, the blades are never

the yield

this is not the case for the

German

the

destroyer

removed from
Z37 and now (1954) on

exhibition at the Engineering Experiment Station

Some comments on
means

of preventing

it

cavitation erosion and

on marine propellers and

appendages are given by S. F. Dorey

Inst. Metals, Great Britain, Jul 1954;
ASNE, Feb 1955, pp. 94-96]. On page 95 of the
other

[Jour.

latter reference appears the following,

modified

slightly for emphasis:

"A

reasonable assessment of the erosion-resistance of an

alloy

is

given by the product of

(1)

the suifaoe Brinell

HYDRODYNAMICS

636
hardness number and

(2)

the erosion-fatigue resistance

expressed in tons per in- for 50 million cyeles of reverse

bending.

The more

excess of SOO,

and

in

highly resistant alloys have values in

descending order of merit they include

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 70.46

Application and curing of a durable plastic

all the external surfaces except those

(4)

coating to

which have to be

in metal-to-metal contact with

the propeller shaft.

(a)

Austenitic stainless steels

(b)

Aluminum bronzes, with or without nickel additions

Low-nickel stainless steels

(h)

Manganese bronzes

(i)

Silicon bronzes

beheved that the blistering and other

with plastic and similar propeller
coatings in the past have arisen from the presence
of moisture and gases within the metal proper,
underneath the coating. The procedure outlined
in the foregoing is similar to that which was found
necessary and which has been employed successfully for many years in vacuum-impregnating the
wound coils of electric motors and other electric

(j)

Phosphor bronzes

devices.

(c)

(e)

monel
Monel metal

(f)

High-tensile bronze

(g)

Turbadium bronze.

(d) Silicon

"Below 800 are placed the normal:

(k)
(1)

It

Gun metals
Cast irons
Aluminum

(m)

is

difficulties

Prevention of Singing and Vibration.

70.46
It

alloj's.

is

assumed

in Sec. 23.7 that the singing of

is due to the alternating circulacomponent around a blade section, and the

periodic variation in lift, accompanying the shed-

propeller blades

"This does not imply that the manganese bronzes

which have given such good servide have poor resistance,
but they are used purely as a basis of comparison."

Designs and techniques have been evolved, and

are in use on the blades of propeller-type turbines
in hydroelectric plants

[ASNE, Nov

547-549; Maritime Reporter,

whereby a thin
is

form

of

pp.

1955, p. 17],

corrosion-resisting steel cladding

applied to a cast-steel blade

in the

Mar

1946,

by welding,

either

a multitude of welding beads from

corrosion-resistant rod or a thin sheet of rolled

corrosion-resisting metal.

ding of alternate vortexes in a vortex street or

trail.

It is possible

lateral

steel surfaces of

the

to relate the frequency of

vibration with

Strouhal number S

the

blade velocity,

the

and the Reynolds number

Rn provided the diameter or transverse dimension

of the vibrating (and eddy-creating) body is
known. This transverse dimension corresponds

generally
Anqle at

with

the

in

Tanqent at

Fig.

70. P,

E,

Point

deq or More,

18

thickness

Separation

E,

Should Be

some form of plastic

coating may be evolved which will protect a
blade from minor mechanical damage. This
coating might resist the action of sand and mud,
prevent corrosion, resist erosion by cavitation,
and serve as an insulating layer over a copper
alloy so that no galvanic-action protectors would
It is entirely possible that

be needed on the adjacent

tion

With Respect to
Ton

NOTE!

Points Ei.Eg, ond Ej Must 8e Shorp to be

Effective

Estimated General Direction of Flow

in

Edqe

Vicinity of Trailinq

and the appendages. To make such a coating

reliable and successful, however, will undoubtedly

hull

call for

a special application procedure, involving

the following operations:

(1)

Heating the entire propeller in an oven for a

considerable period, to drive out

in the interstices

all

the moisture

between the metallic crystals

(2) Subjecting the heated propeller to an almost

complete vacuum, to pull out not only all the
moisture but all the gases to be found within the

metallic structure
(3)

Application of a sealing

propeller
fill

up

all

Not Less Than 165

Fig. 70.P

heated and under a vacuum, to

the internal crevices and pockets where

is still

gases or moisture might otherwise collect

Sketch of Chisel Type of Trailing Edge

To eUminate

singing effectively

it is

most important that

the corners at Ei E2
and E3 be sharp, to create definite,
fixed separation points there.
,

average position of the

on one or both sides of the
blade. If the trailing edge of the section were
approximately semi-circular it would be easy to
estimate the value of /, but difficult to confirm it.
roughly

compound while the

abreast

separation points

the

SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

Sec. 70.46

For a complex shape

of trailing edge, as in the

figure, the eftective thickness is

tentative prediction

Kokai, Japan,

May

Notes and Data

both

difficult to

means of making a
given by F. Kito [Zosen

estimate and to confirm.

is

Eq.
lies

possible.

is

worked out
If singing is

Sec. 2.22 the Strouhal

= =^

Here /

is

or /

,S(|)

number

occurring,

is

10 per sec and below 10,000 or 12,000 per sec.

Practically, the highest audible frequency of a

The

velocity

is

about 700 to 1,200 cycles per

is

the blade velocity Feude

obtained by combining vectorially the rotational

velocity 2-KnR with the advance velocity

V a The

blade velocity varies with radius R, with rate

of propeller rotation n,

The maximum
combination of
limit

it

and with ship speed V.

occurs at or near the tip at

minimum

at

should be satisfactory to use

R =

0.4/?Ma:c

n = 0.5nMai and V = O.ST^Max

The blade-section Reynolds numbers R

no large slope well ahead of the trailing

where separation might begin, the two
corners thus formed comprise two definite and
fixed separation points at the upstream end of a
narrow separation zone between them. The eddy
pattern in this zone remains sensibly steady, to
the extent that any eddy pattern can do so. At
least, the circulation around the blade does not
vary periodically, with a frequency in the audible
range, nor does it fluctuate in magnitude at any
such frequency.
Other methods of providing fixed separation

calculated for these

are

two extremes, and from the

left in Fig. 46.

the corresponding

is

edge

points along the trailing edges of propeller blades,

to prevent singing, are

shown by

[European Shipbldg., 1955, Vol.

graph at the

full

some smaller
the three variables. As a low

designed speed; the

thought probable, or if it is actually

almost invariably prevented or

is

sketched in heavy Unes in Fig. 70. P. Provided

there

the vibration frequency, lying within the

singing propeller

it

illustrating this procedure

in Sec. 46.9.

eliminated by the use of the so-called chisel edge,

(70.XX)

audible range to produce singing, generally above

sec.

An example

is

1951, pp. 41-42

ICSTS,

(in English)].

From

(70. xx) the frequency / is calculated. If /

within the audible range, objectionable singing

1948, No. 277; also Abstract

for 6th

637

Hmiting values of S are found. The value of t

for the limiting radii is then estimated and from

F.

J.

A. van

Aken

4, Fig. 3, p. 31].

The singing propeller is discussed briefly by

M. Lewis [ME, 1944, Vol. II, p. 131]. A partial

list

of references relating to singing propellers is

given in Sec. 46.10.

CHAPTER

The Design
71

of Miscellaneous Propulsion Devices

.

638
038

038

General Considerations
Design Features of Paddletrack Propulsion
Notes on the Hydrodjoiamies of Paddlewheel
Design
Calculating the Blade and Wheel Proportions and Dimensions
Alternative IMethods of Determining Paddlewheel Blade Area
Relation of Paddlewheel Diameter and Propulsion to Ship Hull Design
Design Notes on Paddlewheel Details and

71.2
71 3
.

71.4
71 5
.

71 6
.

71.7

Mechanism
Normal Paddlewheel Design
Design Notes for Hydraulic-Jet and PumpVariations from

71.8
71.9

Jet Propulsion

The Design

71.11
71.12
71.13

Auxiliary Propulsion for Sailing Yachts

641

71 14

Vertical Drive for Screw Propellers; Under-

642

71 15

643

71.16

645

71.17

the-Bottom Propellers
Design of Devices to Produce Transverse and
Vertical Thrust
Design Features of Tandem and ContraRotating Propellers
Design Notes Relative to Rotating-Blade

71.18

Airscrew Propulsion

General Considerations. The screw pronow so widely employed for propulsion

in water that ahnost any other type of device
is unusual by comparison. Likewise, in a program of research, experiment, and development
that is in keeping with the total number of
propulsion devices employed, a very large proportion has been devoted to screw propellers.
types has suffered

rather severely. In fact, in most books of this

kind the discussions of other propulsion devices

aire hmited to brief mentions only. Design notes

and

rules

these

for

miscellaneous devices are

notable by their absence. This situation

not

hence the notes and

easily nor quickly remedied,

comments for
by no means

is

these devices, in this chapter, are

comprehensive,

as

and

definite,

helpful as they should be.

Although the

title

does not so indicate

it,

chapter treats also of certain design aspects

this

when

screw propellers and other propulsion devices are

tandem

The

are under-the-bottom screw propellers,

and contra-rotating

propellers,

propellers.

order of subjects in this chapter follows

in general those of Chaps. 15

Data

for predicting the

pulsion devices of

all

and 32

in

Volume

I.

performance of pro-

types, or references to those

data in the literature, are given in Chap. 59.

71.2 Design Features of Paddletrack Propul-

sion.

Paddletrack

briefly in Sec.

propulsion

is

mentioned
and

15.4, described in Sec. 32.2,

illustrated in Fig. 32. A.

051

....
.

651
652

053
654

655
656
658

Propellers

Very

little

analytic

work has been done on

paddletracks and there has been only a moderate

amount
and

of systematic experimentation

full scale.

Correlation of the large

on model

number

of

on both self-propelled models and

full-scale craft, made in the United States during
the period 1940-1955, is difficult and time
specific tests,

consuming, so much so that it may not be undertaken or completed for an indefinite period.
The hydrodynamic design requirements for
reasonably efficient paddletrack propulsion in the
water have been pushed rather far in the back-

ground by the need for closely spaced cleats which

will insure adequate traction and support on the
ground. It so happens that almost any kind of
deep cleat gives some measure of propulsion in
the water (or in liquid mud) but only certain
cleat designs provide substantial support and
withstand severe usage over any type of ground,
including submerged rocks, reefs, and concrete
roads.

intended to work in unusual positions. Examples

of this

of Surface Propellers

Asymmetric Propulsion
Feathering and Folding Propellers

648

71.1

result, the design of other

648
050

71 10

peller is

As a

71

For the reasons given, no attempt

is

made

here

to furnish design notes or criteria for paddletrack

propulsion.
71.3
Notes on the Hydrodynamics of Paddlewheel Design. It is reported that S. W. Barnabj',
in his treatise on propeller design of 1885, stated
that "As a propelling instrument the paddle is
not inferior to the screw and some of the best
recorded performances have been obtained with
it." Screw-propeller performances have improved
since then but so have those of the paddlewheel,
especially of the feathering type.

638

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 71.3

There are many

rivers in the so-called navigable

areas of the world in which the depth of water

of the order of 2 or 3 ft only,
logs,

and

all

manner

of debris,

and

is

which trees,
floating and waterin

logged, are constantly encountered.

Under these

conditions paddlewheel or sternwheel propulsion

is

almost a necessity [Hobson, C. A., "Sternwheel

Work," Ship and Boat Builder

Vessels for River

and Naval Architect, London,

May

1953,

pp.

The

geometry of the feathering

paddlewheel, a type which is almost universally
used when the propulsive efficiency

Paddlewheels are

still

to

be considered for

and

are described in Sec. 32.3

32. B.

The

text

of the various

terms.

is

important,

illustrated in Fig.

and drawings include definitions

hydrodynamical and .mechanical

Diagram 2

of Fig. 15.

indicates that the

effective thrust-producing area of

a pair of side

paddlewheels, equivalent to the disc area Aq oi

371-377].

639

action and

screw propeller,

equal

is

to

the

combined

(transverse) length 2s of the blades of both wheels

pleasure steamers, tugs, and other craft plying

times the

on the smooth, shallow waters of lakes, estuaries,

and rivers, where draft restrictions prevent the
use of screw propellers large enough to give high
or even moderate efficiencies. If the paddles are
separately driven, as on many European tugs, the
maneuverability can not be approached by any

edges,

maximum immersion

known

as the dip.

The

of their lower

dip ratio

is

the dip,

measured to the at-rest WL, divided by the blade

width or height h.
Based upon the principle that the most efficient
'

propulsion takes place

when

the least -|-A?7 value

other type of propulsion except multiple rotating-

imparted to the greatest mass of hquid, the

blades of an efficient paddlewheel should have

blade propellers diagrammed in Fig. 37. P.

the greatest area (transverse length times radial

The low

n of paddlewheels
does not match the high n of most modern propulsive machinery, but the current and future
developments in reduction gearing and flexible
couplings give promise of adequate means for
utilizing

rate of rotation

both,

while retaining their individual

advantages.

Although the paddlewheel does not retain the

prominence it once enjoyed, it is still reckoned
as one of the standard ship-propulsion devices,
for which design data should be available. For
this reason, and because the paddlewheel data
in the Uterature are rather scanty and widely
scattered, some space is devoted here to a moreor-less systematic presentation of them.
Judged on the basis of the rotating-blade
propeller and the screw propeller with a Kort
nozzle, both reasonably acceptable as shallowwater propulsion devices, the efficiency curves of
Figs. 34.
and 34.N reveal the paddlewheel as
a rather poor third. If, however, corresponding
curves were added for screw propellers working
under tunnel sterns, as alternatives for shallowwater propulsion, it would be found that they
too had low efficiencies. In fact, it is believed that
the latter will average about 0.4 at reasonable
thrust-load values, and that these efficiencies will
rarely approach or exceed 0.5 in actual service.

Provided, therefore, that the thrust-load factor

paddlewheel design can be kept between

and 0.5 or below, it need not suffer from the
handicap of low propulsive efficiency for its
of a
1.0

particular applications.

is

width or height)

consistent

with a balanced

wheel-and-ship design. Plunging the blade into

the water and lifting it out again constitutes
unwanted and undesirable motion and involves

wasted energy in the water. The blades are

therefore as long, parallel to the water surface,
as their positions and as operating requirements
permit. In other words, blade area is achieved
preferably with blade length measured transversely, rather than with radial width or height.
Theoretically, since the ships on which

modern

paddlewheels are fitted encounter waves only on

rare occasions, there are apparently

the

transverse

length

of

blade

no Umits to

except

those

imposed by mechanical and structural considerations. When the blade length becomes excessive,
with undue twisting of the blade on a feathering
wheel, two separate paddlewheels, side by side,
are mounted on each side of the vessel and keyed
to the port and starboard ends of a single shaft,
with a separate feathering mechanism for each of
the four assemblies. However, if the blades are
too large and the thrust loading is too small,
too great a proportion of the work is expended in
blade friction through vertical motion, and there
is too much churning through plunging each
blade into the water and Ufting it out again.
Like a screw propeller, the paddlewheel can
have too much blade area for its own good.
The volume swept through by an immersed
blade is partly boundary layer, with an average
U less than the ship speed V, and partly a potential-flow region where the average U is almost

HYDRODYNAMICS

640

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 71.3

than V. Since so little is known

of these velocities for the paddlewheel positions
on ships, especially as the wheels extend outward
from one-third to one-half the beam, it is cus-

larity of feathering blades as they

tomary to assume that the speed of advance V a

and the ship speed V are the same.
There has been in the past some difference of
opinion among commentators and designers with
regard to the radius at which the tangential

careful analysis of the path of the paddles at

certainl}' greater

the

and the presence

circle

of

swing around
external

rings

serving as guards and as ties between the arms.

"The

actual slips can only be determined

by

given speeds of boat and wheels" [Taylor,

SNAME,
SNAME,

1908,

E.

Stevens,

245;

p.

A.,

S.,
Jr.,

velocity of a paddlewheel blade

1908, p. 246]. It appears customary,

however, to measure the tangential blade velocity
at the midheights of the blades for a radial

for the

wheel, and at these positions or at the trunnion

is to be measured,
purpose of determining the slip ratios.

By some

measured at a radius
corresponding to the distance from the wheel
center to the bottom of a blade in its lowest
position. Twice this radius is roughly the overall
wheel diameter, leaving out of account the anguthis velocity is

centers for a feathering wheel

The

p. 187].

Fig. 32.

difference usually

the hlade

circle.

The

Normal

to

is

in this

book

represented by the symbol V (vee

of Fig. 71.

indicates

called

tangential velocity of this

The vector diagram

Blade Lent^th

1926,

not appreciable.

indicates that the circle corresponding

to these trunnion positions

circle is

FeQtherino

[SNAME,

is

in the
all

circle).

lower right corner

the velocities

known

to

Link and Blade

is

Paae

Foul

be acting in the case of a paddlewheel drive, with

Here

their

correct ahead or astern directions.

Their

diagram are, however, purely

schematic. The}^ will remain so until more data
magnitudes

are

made

in this

available, covering the flow across the

entire width of a paddlewheel (length of a blade),

its inboard to its outboard end. When the
curved paths of the blades and the waves on the

from

surface

the adjacent water are taken into

of

account, the velocities are not

all

horizontal, nor

do they remain the same in various parts of the

field swept by the blades. In the past, as previously
described, this situation has been simplified at one
stroke by assuming that V = V. The apparenta.

then

slip ratio is

of blade circle

V
_ V

of

blade circle

Positive Wave- Wake

Blade Dip-

WG

Speed

<?Ne(jQtive Potential-Flov

Woke

Biometer of Trunnion

Shtp Speed V-

Cirde-A|C2AC

u.auii

r*'<j^Speed V plus Induced UActual

Sli|

Velocity

sj^

H-n-n(AC)

Fig. 71. a

0.5

of ship

_ V V

of blade circle

["Binnenschiffahrt

to

Feathering Paddlewheels

Operation),"

midheights of the blades.

Va

For radial wheels the ratio Sa ranges from 0.2

to 0.3. For feathering wheels on ships of relatively
fine form it varies from 0.1 to 0.2, averaging about
0.15. E. M. Bragg gives values of Sa for nine
passenger ships, ranging from 0.146 to 0.223,
when reckoned on a basis of the tangential speed
of the midheight of the (feathering) blades
[SNAME, 1916, PL 90]. For paddlewheel tugs
O. Teubert gives a range of s^ values from 0.3

Definition and Design Sketch for

For the wheel shown here, the trunnions are placed at

of blade circle

1912,

p.

(Inland-Waters Ship

445].

For operation

in

shallow and restricted waters, Teubert adds 0.1

to

all

the apparent-slip ratios mentioned.

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 71.4

7L4

portions and Dimensions.

may

Wheel Pro-

Calculating the Blade and

Each

Rq
2p7(7

{s)h

side paddlewheel

641

7)

be assumed to act on a quantity of water

176,400

moving within the bounds of a horizontal stream

tube of rectangular cross section, corresponding
and the height h

to the length s

The water speed

may

tube

of one blade.

in the outflow portion of the

be assumed equal to the tangential

blade-circle speed

The volume

V.

acted upon per unit time

water so

of

is

163.4

ft'

2(1.9905)(41.2)(6.58)

For a check, consider the Long Island Sound

passenger steamer Commonwealth, for which

trial

data are given by E. M. Bragg [SNAME, 1916,

PI. 90]. This vessel is selected from among the
nine listed in the table because

has the greatest

it

engine power and a speed of 20 kt, close to the

Q =

sih){V of blade circle)

The mass

sih)V

(71. i)

water passing through the

p(rho) times the quantity
The increased velocity imparted

of the

tube in unit time

rate in Eq. (71. i).

is

(F of blade circle F of
ship) or (F
V). Assuming that all the blades
encountering water on each side can be replaced
by one effective blade on that side, the thrust
to

by the blade

it

is

exerted

is

then

r(per effective blade)

When
0.0,

p{s)hV{V

exerted

(71. ii)

Rt =

Er

The

effective area of a blade

length s and height

89,876

in

fraction

is 0.0,

ft,

ran 29.8

rpm

circle, is

of

(7

6.81 ft per sec.

40.59

The

7)

meanhne

lb,

and 66

V)

is

7 =

to be driven

(F

20.5 kt or 34.62 ft per

V)

is

6.81/

0.16,

0.167 and V

41.2

ft

to obtain the effec-

=
2p7(7

7)

by two

derived in Sec. 66.9 from the

= V - V =

(71.iii)

89,876

The

1.191

per sec.

81.67

ft'

blades on this vessel were actually 14.5 ft

long by 5.0

ft

wide, with an area of 72.5

ft'

per

blade. This gives a reasonable correlation with

the calculated value, considering the assumptions

that had to be made and the simplifications

involved in the formulas used, to be explained
presently.

3.981(40.59)(6.81)

The

thrust per unit area of each blade

works out at 89,876/[(2)72.5]

whence

33.78

rr
(s)7i

ABC

56.M. Assume also that the

apparent-shp ratio Sa is 0.16, and that the thrustdeduction fraction t is 0.0, so that Rt = T. Then
s^

apparent-slip ratio s^

tive area of a blade

Fig.

of

then 40.59

as

per sec.

ft

(71.iii)

assume that the

practical example,

176,400

is

moment

40.59

0.1677, which agrees closely with Bragg's

paddlewheels instead of by a single screw propeller. Also that the total hull resistance Rt for
is

x(26)0.497

h, is

2pV{V

sec

At full power the wheel

The tangential velocity

ft.

or 0.497 rps.

Substituting in Eq.

a given condition at

T is also 89,876 lb.

so that the thrust

the diameter measured to the midheights

The value
on each wheel, of

Rt is
unknown

third

The diameter over the blades of the Commonwealth wheel is 31.0 ft. With a blade width of

the blade

Rq

ship of Chaps. 64

lb.

at tne midheight circle, taken for the

V)

At 20 kt

tabulated value of 0.167.

{s)h

As a

also assumed,

by assuming that the thrust-deduction

is filled

of the blades is 26.0

2pis)hViV

5.0

2[r(per effective blade)]

5,520(550)/33.78

effective

Then

0.5,

5,520 horses.

is

or 33.78 ft per sec the total resistance

taken as

of the ship.

of

r)p

Pe

the effective power

is

blades of the two side paddlewheels equals the

total resistance

propulsive coefficient

by the two

the thrust-deduction fraction

the thrust

V)

ABC ship. With an indicated

power P, of 12,000 horses for the 20-kt speed,
and an assumed overall mechanical efficiency of
0.92, the shaft power Ps is 11,040 horses. With a
20.5-kt speed of the

To

619.8 lb per

ft'.

continue with the design example for the

proposed paddlewheels to drive the ABC ship,

necessary to decide whether the calculated effective area per blade of 163.4 ft' is to be
it is first

The
ft

so-called slip velocity

per sec.

Then

is

(F

7)

6.58

reduced by some factor which brings the simplified

IIYDROnYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

642
calculation of Eq.

into agreement with

(Tl.iii)

corresponding values calculated from observed

ship data. There are several difficulties here.

The

published data available to the analyst lack one

more

important values necessary for a

The simple formula of Eq.
(71.iii) takes no account of velocities induced by
adjacent blades, spillover around the edges of the
or

of the

calculation.

logical

motion
worked out

loop-shaped path

blades,

of the blades in a

as

in the early years of

paddlewheel

propulsion [S and P, 1943, Figs. 168 and 169,

p. 149],

and changes

of the. water surface in

the elevation and shape

way

of the blades.

Further-

assumes that not several but only one

blade at a time, on each paddlewheel, is acting
more,

it

upon the water. The rectangular area

stream tube in which
to the water,

when

the

of

momentum is being imparted

so derived,

is

larger than the rectangular area of

undoubtedly
one blade. It

may

be more nearly the area of the thrustproducing segment indicated by the hatched rectangles on each side of diagram 2 of Fig. 15.G.
Purely as a means of working out a numerical
example it is assumed here that a reduction
factor may be applied to the calculated blade
area, because of the conditions described in the
preceding paragraph. This factor is established
arbitrarily for the

moment

area per blade on the

only 163.4(0.9)
factor

tugs

may

it is

effective

paddlewheel

147.06 ft^

be taken when

The necessary

as 0.90.

ABC

it is

better reduction

no reduction
area should be made.

The next

step

is

then

found. For paddle

possible that

the blades.

is

in calculated

shallower they are,

The average
32.

B and

pitch

and paddlewheel length and overall beam

The deeper and shorter the blades,
the less can be the wheel width and the overall

beam but at

the expense of greater wheel diameter

and a slower rate

of rotation.

of rotation the larger

The slower the

and heavier

is

rate

the propelling

machinery.

The average value

of length-height ratio s/h

a blade in Bragg's referenced table is slightly
in excess of 3.0, with a maximum blade width

-of

for the nine vessels hsted of 5.0

blade width of 6.5

ft for

the

ABC

ft.

Taking 10 blades as a

ABC

of the

trunnion

diameter

its

is

and the length-height

This length

is

ratio is just

under

3.5.

within the limit given by D.

W.

illustrated

in

Fig.

9.75

ft.

starter, the circumference

circle is 9.75(10)

97.5/7r

31.03

97.5

ft;

ft.

The outside diameter of the paddlewheel,

assuming no circumferential rings external to the
blades, is approximately 31.03 -{ 6.5 = 37.53 ft,

giving a blade-height ratio of 6.5/37.53

This

somewhat

is

0.1733.

larger than the largest value of

0.168 (for the Tashnwo) in Bragg's table. It could

be reduced by using 11 blades instead of 10 but

with the selected pitch ratio of 1.5, this would
increase the overall wheel diameter to about
40.7

The blades could be narrowed

ft.

a blade-circle diameter of

giving

-I-

6.0)

0.16.

However,

increase the blade length to 147.06/0.6

still

ft,

would

this

24.5

of the order of one-third of the

of 73 ft for the
of

to 6.0

[11(6.0)1.5]/

31.5 ft and a blade- height ratio of only

6.0/(31.5

each blade

ABC
is

ft.

beam

ship, the length-height ratio

4.09,

which

is

considerably too

by one feathering crank

Methods

at

Determining
methods of
calculating the effective area per blade, such as
that described by D. W. Taylor [S and P, 1943,
p. 150], are based upon the same combination of
the engine power (possibly determined previously
by the owner or operator), the ship speed, the
slip ratio, the wheel diameter, and the rate of
rotation. Taking the formula given by Taylor
Alternative

71.5

Paddlewheel Blade Area.

A =

Assuming a

twice the power of the fastest vessel

tabulated there, the blade length is about 22.6
ft

ratio,

ship, developing

nearly

states that

the midheights of the blades, of 1.5(6.5)

one end.

of the vessel.

who

between adjacent trunnions of a feathering paddlewheel divided by the blade height, is of the order
of 1.5 for the most modern designs in the Bragg
table. This gives a circumferential spacing on the
trunnion circle, assumed for the moment as
equal in diameter to the circle passing through

higher
shaft

150],

defined as the circumferential distance

large for actuation

rate of rotation, but at the expense of

p.

good practice requii'es the blades for a seagoing

no longer than one-third the beam.
A blade length of O.iB is a good figure for any
type of smooth- water ship; a maximum value for
any design, except paddlewheel tugs, is 0.5B.

the smaller can be the wheel diameter and the

its

Sec. 71.5

and P, 1943,

[S

vessel to be

While

to select the proportions of

The narrower and

Taylor

where

is

of

Other

the area of two blades, in

(71. iv)

ft",

one on

each side of the ship

K
the

is

a coefficient depending primarily upon

apparent-slip

ratio

and secondarily upon

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 71.6

many

other

For

factors.

K=

ranging from 0.10 to 0.30,

P is the shaft

apparent-slip

[212.5

375(s^)]

Ct.

Q.bpAoV

or indicated power; unfortunately

89,876

a rather loose definition

Assuming for the bare-hull ABC ship an

power of 10,816 horses, from Sec. 66.9,
and a propulsive coefficient rjp of as high as 0.55
for a modern design, the value of P for Eq. (71.iv)
is about 19,660 horses. That of K, for an assumed
effective

apparent-slip ratio of 0.16,

A = Kyz =

152.5

[212.5

is

Eq.

152.5. Substituting in

0.3599, say 0.36

0.9953(219.82)1,141.1

the ship speed in kt.

is

643

ratios

Assuming the same value

Ctl

using the value of 72r

= T =

for the

ft

ABC

per sec, and

176,400 lb mentioned

earlier,

Equivalent area

375(0.16)]

(71. iv)

^^^

of

ship at a speed of 20.5 kt or 34.62

^0 =

T
C'rL(0.5p)F-

347.9 ii\

176,400

410.8

ft'

0.36(0.9953)1,198.5

The

on each side of the vessel

is half of this value or 173.9 ft^. This is a somewhat
larger area per blade than the value of 163.4 ft^
calculated by Eq. (71.iii) but the discrepancy is
perhaps not too large, considering the assumptions
made.
The additional formulas given by W. F. Durand
[RPS, 1903, pp. 198-201] and by 0. Teubert
effective blade area

["Binnenschiffahrt," 1912, p. 446] are dimensional,

as

the formula given by D.

is

require in

W.

Taylor.

addition an estimate of the wheel

Another method
if

of

approximating a suitable

complete and reliable reference data

were available,

make

to

is

use of the thrust-load

and to work backward to find the

equivalent thrust-producing area Ao by the
following formulas, assuming as before that
coefficient

Vj,

area of 147.06

derived previously in this section

factor of 0.9.

The

usefulness of the

Ctl method obviously

depends upon knowledge as to proper thrust-load

coefficients for design purposes. For instance, the
value of Ctl for the Tashmoo from Bragg's table,
using a mechanical efficiency of 0.9 and a propulsive efficiency of 0.55, is only 0.26 as compared to
the 0.36 of the Commonwealth. For a paddle tug,
pulling heavy loads at slow speeds of advance,
the thrust-load coefficient might reach or exceed
10 times these values.

V:

71.6

Cr

ft',

by using the momentum method, with a reduction

They

diameter and the rate of rotation, or both.

blade area,

This is the estimated thrust-producing area on

both sides of the vessel; on one side it is 205.4 ft'.
With a tentative dip ratio of 1.35, the estimated
area of one blade is 205.4/1.35 = 152.1 ft'. This
value is only slightly larger than the estimated

Q.bpAaVl

Equivalent area ^o

0.5p(equivalent ylo)F'
for

both

Relation of Paddlewheel Diameter and

Position to Ship Hull Design.

Taking account

of general design considerations, the selection of

paddlewheel diameter

is

one rather closely related

sides,

to the overall ship design, because

it

concerns the:

Space which can be allowed for the wheel

boxes or recesses
(b) Overall beam of the vessel, measured to the
guards outside of the wheels
(a)

CrL(0.5p)F'

For example, taking the total resistance Rt

oi

the Commonwealth, derived earlier in this section

as 89,876

lb,

and assuming that

(c)
it

equals the

T of both paddlewheels, with a thrustdeduction fraction t of 0.0, it is possible to derive

thrust

the thrust-load factor

speed

is

20

Ctl

33.78

kt, or

ft

for this vessel.

per sec.

The apparent

dip of the blades, so called by Bragg because

measured to the

at-rest

length of each blade

14.5

219.82

ft'.

is

WL,

14.5

Then

ft,

is

The

7.58 ft

so that

Ao

it is

and the

2(7.58)

(d)
(e)
(f)

Type

of engine, and of reduction gear if fitted

Rate of rotation n of the paddlewheel drive
Speed of the vessel
Probable values of wake fraction w and real-

slip ratio Sr

In general, the greater the wheel diameter the

more

efficient

is

its

propulsive action.

larger diameter the blades enter

With a

and leave the

water more nearlv tangential to the resultant-

HYDRODYNAMICS

644
Blodes, Trunnions,

Links

in

Drown

Crank Arms, and

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 71.6

Line Normal to Blode Face

Approximote /*"

Solid Lines ore^

C'

Sweep

for Trunnion'

Flonqes Stiffen

at Lower Cerrter

Lines

Ends

of

Blodes
I

of Blodes

Reduce

and

Water Spillover at
These Points
I

Center of Poddiewheei Shaft-

Broken Lines -Show Speciol

Blode Actuated

DK

el

ft

875

ft

3+5 fj

Trunnion Axis for Blade

Fig. 71. B

velocity vector, indicated in the left-hand diagram

of Fig. 32.
71. B, for

B and

in the layout elevation of Fig.

a greater part of their width. There are

more blades acting simultaneously, with a

lighter loading on each and smaller losses from
induced effects. Furthermore, the submerged
blades move more nearly parallel to the straightalso

aft direction in

which the water

is

to be accelerated

by them.

The

correct fore-and-aft

position

important for efficiency if

profile has marked crests and troughs,

paddle-

of

the
is

wave

governed

by the position of the wave crests along the ship

when running at the speed for which the best
propulsion performance

is

much more important

desired. This feature

for a vessel running in

water than in deep water. To take

advantage of the wave wake the wave crest
should be approximately under the wheel center.
This position can sometimes be estimated for a
shallow

new

design,

and

it

may

be predicted by com-

parison with an existing design

the same shape.

Wave

if

the hulls have

some paddle
steamers are shown in Sec. 52.2; references are
given there for other published profiles. The
wave profile is quickly and reliably determined,
however, from a model test.

From

Ship

Fig. 78. Ja, it appears that the best fore-and-aft

position for a pair of paddlewheels on that vessel

at about Sta. 11. This happens to coincide

very nearly with the position of maximum wateris

line

beam.

The next problem

position

of

is

to determine the vertical

the paddlewheel shaft center with

respect to the designed waterline.

The selection
how far the

of the dip ratio, or the decision as to

wheels,

is

ABC

Layout Accompanying Example of a Feathering Paddlewheel Design for the

the

wave

profiles for

profile of the

stern ship, given on the

ABC

SNAME RD

transomsheet in

bottom

of the deepest blade is to

at-rest

waterline

at

the

drop below the

designed

draft,

may

on practical rather than hydrodynamic

reasons. It depends upon the wheel diameter, how
many blades are to be in the water at any one
time, whether feathering is employed or not, and
hinge

the

maximum

variation in anticipated draft for

which propulsion is to be reasonably efficient.

For a shallow-water vessel, the greatest submergence depth of the bottom of a blade should be
slightly less than the draft. Consideration of these
and other factors, for vessels of various types,
results in blade immersions varying from only
some 0.7 of the height to immersions of 1.4, 1.5,
or more of the blade height. D. W. Taylor points

may reach 2.0 for a very

narrow blade on a large wheel, without
loss of efficiency [S and P, 1943, p. 150].
Another relationship between the wheel diameter and the blade dip involves the angular
out that the dip ratio

long,

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 7 J.

length of arc of the blade

circle,

the blade trunnions, which

is

passing through

immersed

the

in

designed-draft condition. For a paddlewheel to

run at a medium rate of rotation, or perhaps

above average, say not more than n

35

rpm

or 0.58 rps, this arc should extend for about 50

deg forward and aft of the lower center position,

or a total of 100 deg. For a fast-running paddlewheel of less than average diameter, with normal
dip, the arc on either side of lower center may be
55 deg or more, corresponding to a total of 110 deg.

For use in selecting a

ABC

the

in

ship,

final

dip ratio for the

condition

designed-load

at

645

mechanism is to be outside the wheel,

with the eccentric pin carried by a fore-and-aft
guard forming the lower edge of the paddlewheel

feathering

is an outer shaft bearing carried by

guard the feathering links must be pinned
to an eccentric strap around the shaft, and possibly
also around the bearing. The mechanism then
resembles that sketched in Figs. 32.B and 71.A.
Although the dip appears large when drawn in
the elevation from aft of Fig. 71. B, the markers

box. If there
this

WL

showing the

elevations at Sta.

two variable-load conditions

Fig.

66.T indicate that the dip

is

for the

11

66.32 and

of Sec.

actually too

which the paddlewheels are to give their best

performance, Bragg's table has values of apparent

small for those lighter displacements.

measured to the at-rest waterline,

varying from 1.27 to 1.52. The ABC value of
1.35, selected tentatively in Sec. 71.5, combined

the radial width or height and the radial position

dip

ratio,

with a blade height of 6.5

With a diameter of 37.53
ft,

the wheel center

lies

ft,

gives a dip of 8.76

ft

and a radius

18.77

8.76

ft.

water surface at an angle ahead

therefore

of the lower center of cos"'(10.01/15.52)

deg. This

may be

is

acceptable,

and the dip

is to change more-orpermanently during the life of the vessel.

It would be very much better, of course, if the
vertical position of the paddlewheel axis could

less

ft,

the draft at the wheel axis

strikes the at-rest

15.52

may be changed without too much

and expense after the ship is built.
certain measure of adjustment is desirable if

of the blades

difSculty

10.01 ft

radius of 18.77

are designed so that both

of 18.77

above the at-rest water level. The circle passing

through the midheights of the blades, with a
3.25

Some paddlewheels

49.8

ratio of 1.35

considered as fixed.

be changed as well.
71.7 Design Notes on Paddlewheel Details
and Mechanism. The next phase of the design
involves an analysis of the dimensions, ratios,
proportions, and other features to insure that

With an apparent-slip ratio of 0.16 the value

V = 41.2 ft per sec, from Sec. 71.4. Dividing
this value by the blade-circle circumference of
97.5 ft gives a rate of rotation n of 0.4225 rps or

those tentatively established in Sec.

of

produce a good overall mechanical and hydrodynamic design. This involves a more careful

25.35 rpm.

arbitrarily in Sees. 71.5

It is

now

possible to sketch a layout of the

paddlewheel alongside the transomstern ABC ship, about as indicated in Fig. 7 LB.
Rounding out the dimensions to get rid of the
small decimal fractions, the paddlewheel center
proposed

is

placed 10.0

WL. The

ft

DWL,

above the

or at the 36-ft

external wheel diameter

is

nominally

but for a wheel of the feathering type the

volume swept through by the outer edges of the
blades is not a true cyhnder. Nominally, the
outside wheel diameter is twice the distance from

37.5

ft,

the wheel axis to the bottom of the blade at the

lower center or 6 o'clock position, corresponding
to twice the distance

The maximum

AG

in Fig. 71.B.

waterline

beam

lies

very close

and a mechanical clearance of 0.4 ft

between the hull and the inner ends of the blades
to Sta. 11,

appears to be adequate. With blades 22.6 ft long,

their outer ends lie 23 ft from the widest portion of
the ship's side (including the shell plating).

The

consideration

of

the

features

and

71.6

selected

will

rather

71.6.

Clearance between inboard paddle ends and

the fixed hull

is

generally limited to the

minimum

permissible mechanical value, say from 0.2

ft

on

on large ones. The value of

0.4 ft indicated in Fig. 71.B is rather small but
not too small. Every fraction of a foot added
here adds to the overhang of the shaft.
small vessels to 0.5

The

ft

blade-spacing or pitch ratio, defined as

the circular-arc distance

FG

CJ over

the blade width

in Fig. 71. A, should preferably be

times

the

blade

depth,

to

avoid

about 2.0

interference

between blades. However, this calls for very

large wheel diameters. Practical limitations on
weight and space are usually such as to reduce
this ratio to as low as 1.6 or 1.5. If the dip ratio
WG/FG of that figure is made about 1.2 to 1.5
the combination of pitch ratio with dip ratio and
a reasonable blade-circle diameter gives a total
immersed-blade area of from 2.0 to 2.5 times the
area of one blade, irrespective of the angular

HYDRODYNAMICS

646
position of the wheel.

The

blade spacing of 9.75

the

ABC

pitch ratio of 1.5 and

previously adopted for

wheel appear not too small.

The average

CP

ft

on each moving blade, in the course of

is somewhat below

travel through the water,

have to
position

somewhat

in Fig. 71. A. This

PiQ on

However, on the

XjYi

XY

Furthermore,

if

trunnion to the

its

comply with

to

from tangent

The blade would

about

shift angularly

the forward

after side, the

far

is

or parallel to the vector QiPj

its

only 0.4 times the

blade width from the bottom. It is customary to

below the midheight point

to the resultant-velocity vector

side of the wheel.

its

possibly

place the blade trunnion at a point

Sec. 71.7

leaving edge of the blade

position of the center of pressure

geometric center,

IN SHIP DESIGN

one wishes to

hensive analysis, the position of

condition.

this

make a comprethe wave profile,

the direction of flow within the wave, and the

known component

71.A

Fig.

of

velocities

all

means that the blade-circle or trunnion-circle

diameter is somewhat greater than twice the

require to be taken into account.

radius to the midheights of the lowest blade, at

edge of an entering blade meet the water surface

the 6 o'clock position. For the nine vessels listed

with the blade tangent to the resultant velocity

in Bragg's table, reference (14) of Sec. 59.6, this

Curving the blade radially, with its

concave and +Ap side aft, helps to accomphsh
this. However, this very curvature can be said
to impart a greater upward component of velocity
when the blade leaves the water than would be
the case if its surface were flat. The major source

diameter ratio varies from 1.00 to 1.04. The

ratio of the height of trunnion above the lower
edge of the blade in the 6 o'clock position to the
blade height varies from 0.40 to 0.50. For the

ABC

ship of Fig. 71.B

Thus

it is

taken as 3.0/6.5

from starboard, at
the left of Fig. 71. B, GH is 3.0 ft and HF is
3.5 ft. The trunnion circle passing through
has a diameter of 2 (AH) = 2 (AG - GH) =
0.462.

in the elevation

2(18.75

3.0)

31.5

CJ in Fig. 71.B, to the nearest whole

number. There is no particular advantage in
using an odd or even number of blades but the
minimum practical number is about 6, preferably
not less than 7, although paddlewheels have been
spacing,

for the

ABC

The number

ship in Sec. 71.4,

is

10, selected

a good average

value from the Bragg table.

There

undoubtedly an advantage in mounting

the port and starboard paddlewheels on their
shafts at an offset or phase angle corresponding
to half the angular distance between adjacent
blade trunnions, so as to have the water entry
of the port blades taking place midway between
those of the starboard blades. This would depend,
however, on the torsional-vibration characteristics
of the paddlewheel shaft.
Even with feathering blades, it is almost never
possible to use a wheel diameter (or trunnioncircle diameter) large enough to cause the blade
edges to enter and leave the water in a direction
is

parallel to the resultant-velocity vectors at those

points.

For instance,

of the entering blade

LA the lower edge

almost exactly tangent

in Fig. 7

TS

is

practical solution

make the lower

to

is

vector.

of noise

and vibratory forces

a paddlewheel

in

drive appears to be the periodic impact of the

entering blades. This involves a sufficiently

blow,

for

example,

audible before

ft.

Having determined the trunnion-circle diameter, the blade width, and the blade spacing, the
number of blades becomes approximately ir times
the trunnion-circle diameter divided by the blade

built with only 5 blades.

The

it

to render

heavy

a paddle vessel

appears around a bend in a river.

It is important, therefore, to favor this condition

and to provide as nearly shock-free entrance as

possible at this point. It

is

the excessive lifting

water as the blade leaves the surface which

raises the high crest abaft most paddlewheels,
pictured in Fig. 73.J, and which makes it possible
to use a fixed contra-vane abaft the wheel to
of the

such good advantage.

There

is

no fixed value, nor are there very

definite limits, for the radius of curvature of the

blade faces. This

may

blade-circle radius,

be as large as 1.5 times the

AC

in Fig. 7 LA, or as small

as 1.0 times that radius.

The

in the layout of Fig. 71. B,

15.5

used
taken as

latter ratio is

where

it is

ft.

feathering wheels are fitted to a doubleended ferryboat or other craft which must run
If

equally well in either direction the blades are

made

flat

rather than curved.

The

feathering

mechanism can be so designed that they enter

and leave the water at about the same angles

when going

astern as

when going ahead.

To provide plenty of leverage for the unbalanced

on the entering and leaving blades
made from 0.5
to 0.7 times the blade width. This length is 4.0
ft, or 0.615 times the blade width of 6.5 ft, for
forces acting

the lengths of the crank arms are

the layout of Fig. 71. B.

>

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 71.7

Whereas most elementary diagrams of paddlewheels show the crank arms at right angles to
the base chord of the concave blades [S and P,
1943, Fig. 170, p. 150], these arms are sometimes
set as much as 15 deg or more, up or down, from
the normal positions. Using an up angle, as in
the ABC ship layout and as indicated at D, in
between the

Fig. 71. A, results in a larger angle

feathering link and the crank

when the lower

edge of the entering blade touches the water.

There is one fixed arm on the orthodox feathering hub or eccentric which serves to turn it as
the wheel rotates. The drag links connecting

hub

this

uniformly around

what

arms

or eccentric to the crank

blades are attached to the

known

is

its

of the

hub by pins spaced

periphery.

as the pin circle.

These

The

lie

on

result is

GF

base chord

top of the blade circle. Actually, for the wheel

shown, the base chord for the blade section at J
the base chord ST, when
passes through Ci
That through
extended, passes through Bi
X,Yi passes through still another point, and
these points would all change position for new
blades in corresponding positions if the wheel
;

rotated one blade space.

If

the pin-circle radius were zero, such as would

be the case if all the inner ends of the feathering

hnks were pivoted at the eccentric or hub center
B, the locus of the outer ends of these links, cor-

this simplified special case, the

the proper position for

that

when" each successive blade trunnion passes

through the lower center (the position C in Fig.
7 LA). In other words, if the wheel of Fig. 7 LA

have the proper

rotated by one blade space, the angular positions

than shown
there. This is because the eccentric strap does not
move by an angular amount of [360/ (number of
bla,des)] deg about its own center when the wheel
of the several blades will be different

proper rotates through this distance, due to the

arm on

angularity of the fixed

and the blade crank to which

the eccentric strap

it is

pinned. Thus,

in Fig. 7 LA,
and
responding to the points
circle with its center at B. For

would be a true

different angular positions of the several blades

is

647

of the lowest blade intersects the

the

selected

of finding

A) such

attitude

the

for

conditions

not easy, because of the curvature

is still

of the blades.

problem

(relative to

and leaving blades would

entering

When

many

there are as

the pin-circle radius

is finite,

solutions as there are

number

depending upon the position around

of blades,

the circle of the fixed

arm

KD

actuating the

feathering mechanism.

The problem is partly simplified by using the

arm to position the entering and leaving

fixed

blades,

7 LB.

as

is

Even

done in the left diagram

the problem remains one

so,

of Fig.
of trial

and leaves
the water at slightly different angles from all
the other blades. The smaller the pin circle on
the hub or eccentric, as shown in Fig. 7 LB, the

and error because the designer does not know

and the tangential-velocity
the radius APi

one of the reasons

other parameters involved. Having arrived at a

reasonable solution for the entering blade, the
position of the leaving blade is then sketched.

as the wheel rotates, each blade enters

smaller

the variation. It

is

is

mounting the feathering mechanism on the

outside of a paddlewheel which does not have an

for

[ATMA,

outboard bearing

and

tricity

VI].

The

1906,

other reason

and the

is

vertical offset

Vol.

17,

Pis.

that the eccen-

is

built

itself

In
it is

sketched in for a

be far out of proper position, farther than

A new

solution

is

worked

out, perhaps taking

enced table reveals that good designers by no

means arrive at the same answers, but it may
very well be that they are trying to achieve a

to shifting

many

is

for given values of the

the blade angles with

shift

large

strap, rotating on a fixed eccentric around the

inboard shaft bearing of the paddlewheel, involves more lubrication problems and does not

lend

may

and

indicated at the extreme left of Fig. 7 LB.

of the center

the at-rest water surface.

to

It

account this time of the wave profile in the

vicinity, omitted from Fig. 71.B. Bragg's refer-

found desirable to
respect

given position of

hub can be shifted readily after

and placed in service, in case it is

of the rotating

the ship

vector PiR, until the linkage

its

position at a later date.

elementary treatises on paddlewheels

stated that the use of a feathering

mechanism

wheel diameter. In other

move as though
they were part of a radial wheel having a center
at or near the point Ai in Fig. 7 LA, where the

effectively doubles the

words, the blades are supposed to

slightly different result each time.

There

is

undoubtedly a best geometric

relation-

ship between the eccentricity i? of a feathering

paddlewheel,
of

Fig.

the

trunnion-circle

diameter

AC

CD.
by M.

7 LB, and the blade-crank length

For the French paddlewheels illustrated

Hart [ATMA, 1906, PL V], E is 0.5 meter, D is
5.660 meters and the blade-crank length is 0.8
meter. For the Anatolian paddler of reference (8)

CM

HYDRODYNAMICS
E is 0.24

of Sec. 59.6,

meter,

L(blade-crank length)
tricity ratio is 0.5/0.8

and 6.24/0.36

0.625 in the

more recent

tricity ratios of the

paddlewheel in Fig. 71.B

It

by

possible,

is

above the

3.56 meters and

is

first

The

0.667 in the second.

table vary from 0.584 to 0.69.

i.s

0.36 meter. Tlie eccen-

is

case

eccen-

vessels of Bragg's

That

ABC

of the

2.625/4.0

0.656.

raising the eccentric center

level of the

wheel axis A,

to:

Help bring the leaving blade more nearly

tangent to the resultant-velocity vector on the
(1)

after side
(2) Avoid or reduce the mechanical interference
between a blade and the feathering link which
operates it, on the forward side of the wheel.
In diagram 1 of Fig. 32.B, the nearly horizontal
feathering link on the forward side just clears
the upper edge of its blade. The same is true in

Fig.

71.

but,

the ne.xt blade above,

for

the

is

met

of

rec-

similar situation in practice

by making the feathering

tangular section and bending them
either

to

clear

the

1906, Vol. 17, Pis.

With the usual

so as to clear

hnks [Hart, M.,

and VI].

ATM A,

feathering mechanism, having

an eccentric center forward

water

of the shaft center,

They impart

[Teubert,

useless

upward

motion to the

of

"Binnenschiffahrt,"

0.,

1912,

S and P, 1943, Figs. 168,

169, p. 149] and they leave a great deal of energy
in a series of short, steep waves trailing astern.
Wheels with fiat, smooth blades geared to a
shaft so as always to stand with their heights
truly vertical, and with annular support rings
always above the waterline, as devised by Georg
Fricke of Lembruch, Germany, have proved
excellent for propulsion in calm waters, grown
thick with grasses and weeds. The blades press
the weeds down vertically and do not become
Figs. 305, 306, p. 441;

foul [Deetjen, R., Schiff

German

pp. 80-81; this

May

SBSR, 8

partial

on

und Hafen, Mar

1952,

article is abstracted in

1952, p. 579].

list

model and

of

references in the technical

paddlewheels,

full-scale devices,

both

to

relating
is

to be found in

Sec. 59.6.
It

links

the blades [Teubert, 0., "Binnenschiffahrt," 1912,

p. 444], or by notching the inner edges of the
blades

ticularly efficient.

See. 71.S

and downward components

literature

feathering link actually fouls the inner edge of

the blade.

IN SHIP DESIGN

should be clear from the foregoing that,

its place in the scheme of things pro-

whatever

pulsive, the analysis

represents

and design

marvelous

of a

exercise

paddlewheel
practical

in

hydrodynamics and practical machine design.

Not only does the paddlewheel need an extension
of the motion analysis published by M. Hart
[ATMA, 1906, Vol. 17, Pis. II and III] but the
experience gained in such an analysis would be

when analyzing

the feathering links are in compression, especially

invaluable

when the blades are

The links can not,

entering or leaving the water.

propulsion devices and in preparing systematic

therefore, be too slender for

rules for their design.

their length without risk of buckling.

J.

Scott

Design Notes

71.9

Russell proposed a variation of the usual geometric arrangement whereby the eccentric center

Pump- Jet

(B in Fig. 71.A) Hes abaft the wheel axis. The

blade cranks are thus on the after or +Ap sides
of the blades, and the feathering Unks are, when
loaded heavily, always in tension.
71.8 Variations from Normal Paddlewheel
Design. Where damaging debris is frequently
encountered and repairs to blades must be made
on the spot or locally, often by the ship's force,

described in Sec.

radial blades are used, bolted to the wheel arms.

The

blades can be shifted in or out, radially, to

suit a more-or-less

trim.

permanent change

They can be

radially, to

in draft or

varied in width, or shifted

permit the wheel torque and speed

to be varied so as to obtain the

maximum

engine

power with the greatest ship speed or towline

tension. The radial blades are simple and cheap
and they produce thrust but they are not par-

what

Propulsion.

the action of other

for

Hydraulic-Jet and
of achieving

Methods

often termed hydraulic propulsion are

is

Sec. 32.5.

The

15.8

and elaborated upon

efficiencies of the principal

are discussed in Sec. 34.13. In Sec. 59.8 there

given a

list

of the principal references

on

and

Some

subject, both historical

them

is

this

of

are valuable in design as indicating the

pitfalls to

It

technical.

in

systems

is

be avoided.

pointed out in Sec. 15.8, and

it is

again

emphasized here that the air, gas, or water jet

employed for propulsion may, hke that from the
airscrew, be discharged into the atmosphere
above the water. An example of this is the Russian
shallow-draft river launch propelled by twin
water jets and pictured in The Illustrated London

News

[11

Dec

1954, p. 1070].

Hydraulic-jet propulsion lends

special duty,

where the outside

itself

to craft for

of the hull

must

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 71.9

be kept clear of protuberances or where some

similar characteristic is more important than the

downright

efficiency

lifeboat installations (those operating

saving stations ashore)

protrude beyond the

siderable

accepted.

If,

as

may

most

from hfe-

the jet ducts can not

fair hull hne,

in

sacrifice

In

propulsion.

of

propulsive

both the

inlet

649

and the outlet water, so that the

minimum

hydraulic losses will be a

Estimating or calculating the rating of the

(4)

pump
drive

and the power necessary to

or impeller
it.

and a conefficiency

be expected for these

is

craft,

good backing qualities are required, the pump

must be of the axial-flow or propeller type unless
flap valves in the ducts are employed.
ManeuverabiUty and steering as well as propulsion are achieved with a pivoted jet, arranged
to discharge water in any relative direction
desired. As with a steering propeller, however, it
is mandatory to incorporate a low-friction thrust
bearing in the swiveUng head, because all the
propulsive thrust is exerted through this swiveling
connection between the jet elbow and the boat,
indicated in Fig. 71.C. If the friction

is

large

There have been many recent successful developments of guide-vane assembUes by which the
flow of water can be changed in direction abruptly
yet

efficiently.

Relatively sharp turns can

worked into the ducts

now be

of the hydraulic propulsion

setup without excessive hydraulic losses. This

gives the designer considerable latitude in leading
a stream of water around inside a vessel. Prac-

modern

tically all

circulating-water channels

of

model propellers under cavitating conditions

embody

corner guide vanes of this type. Up-todate design rules and criteria have been worked
out by the St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Labora-

tory in Minneapolis, Minnesota. In fact,

possible
sSwivelina

Mechanism

Stern

Bottom

of

Water.from Pump

Boat

by employing a

the rated

output.

Swivelinq-Nozz-le Assembly
in

Solid Black

[FMTM,

Fig. 71. C

Schematic Arrangement of Reversible Jet-Propulsion Device for a Small Boat

in this large-diameter bearing, often incorporating

a watertight stuffing box as well, the craft can

not even be steered.

When working up the design of one of these

systems the procedure divides itself naturally into

The

and the amount

to be imparted to this mass

of increased velocity
of

water to produce

the thrust required

pump

the

The

method

whereby this
and led to the
to impart the augment

to be taken in
is

and velocity to

it

fashioning of the ducts and passages, for

built
craft

hull of a craft designed for reasonably

propulsion

special forming in

discharges,

bow

with

way

fixed

ducts

requires

of the jet intakes

and

whether these openings are at the

or stern or along the hull.

The

installation of importance should

or impeller which

of pressure
(3)

out

1950,

through the water. This is also used to help force

the required quantity of water through the duct
toward the pump, against the friction resistance

efficient

of the jet(s),

EH,

making use of the ram or dynamic pressure

up at the duct inlet by the motion of the

Determination of the quantity-rate or amount

of water per unit time to be handled, the area(s)
(1)

is

axial-flow

1947].

of the walls.

Working

or

fixed blades should

Supercharging of the pump, to increase the

ambient pressure and to delay or prevent cavitation of the blades, may be accomplished by

several steps:

(2)

Propeller-type

pumps with

least as well [Rouse, H.,

Jet

quantity-rate

is

do at
Chap. XIII].
Design and performance data on hydraulic
pumps of various kinds are given by J. W. Daily
in the reference cited and by G. F. WisUcenus

Propelling

Shown

it

large rotary valve with

vanes to "switch" the water from one duct to

another or to reverse its direction.
Centrifugal pumps of good design show efficiencies of well over 0.80 and reaching 0.90 at
impeller

Is

and

variable-pressure water tunnels for the testing

design of any

be checked at

by flow tests on a small model and preferably

by performance tests and pressure measurements
on a larger model.
The curved-vane diffusers and the various
other means adopted by hydraulic engineers to
least

HYDRODYNAMICS

650

raise the operating efficiencies of propeller-type

pumps can

be applied to the propulsion of

all

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 71.10

developed by hydraulic engineers for the design

of ducts and pump impellers rather than by

itself

those worked up by marine engineers for pro-

to the building in of the necessary ducts or jet

working in the open. Unfordata on hydraulic-jet

propulsion apparatus are relatively meager, particularly because there has been little in the way
of logical,
progressive,
modern development
except on classified projects for combatant
vessels and new weapons. It should be kept in
mind always, however, that efficient hydraulic- jet
propulsion requires the largest practicable diameter of jet and the smallest relative velocity of
jet water, reckoned with respect to the surround-

a ship,

the hull has a shape which lends

if

hardly to be expected that a

underwater hull which, over many

boundaries. It

form

of

is

decades, has evolved into one suited to the screw

propeller

be found readily adaptable for

will

the efficient use of fixed propeller shrouding, propeller-type pump-jets, or hydraulic jets. Experi-

ence with the Kort nozzle, described in Sec. 36.19,

indicates that

it is

not easily fitted to a vessel of

normal form.

The same

basic

hydrodynamic laws and

rela-

tionships are used for the design of axial-flow

impeller

pumps with
The

quite different.

the

design

ing undisturbed water.

It is

proposed in Sec. 34.13, and repeated here,

is

that the whole jet-propulsion system be designed

available engineering data

on an energy or work basis, rather than on a

pressure and force basis, as is customary for

are in such form as to apply only to the design

of

tunately,

casings as for open-stream

ship propellers but the attack on the problem

devices

pulsion

each class of devices by

itself.

For this disand propellers,

screw propellers.

inside the solid casing boundaries of cross-section

71.10 The Design of Surface Propellers.

There are no systematic data, so far as known,
for the design of surface screw propellers. These
are deliberately intended to run with only

A must remain the same from inlet to outlet,

partial immersion, either because of draft limita-

known

cussion they are

as impellers

respectively.

The quantity
area

rate of flow

Q =

= AUt,

hence

it is

pump

used as a basic quantity in the impeller-

design. If Af7

is

the increase in velocity

imparted by the impeller from the casing

to the casing outlet, the impeller thrust

from Newton's second law

inlet

is,

tions or because of the

obtained from them,

[ p{AU)
Jq

few references pertaining to

design phase are:

of

is

the same as Eq.

Eq. (34.xxix)

dQ = pQ(AU)

(71 .v)

(71.ii)

of Sec. 71.4

and
(c)

of Sec. 34.13.

Assuming that the inlet velocity is the difference between the ship speed V and the wake
speed V w at the inlet 'position, reckoned here the
same as the speed of advance V a at a propeller position,

then Finiet

this

33.11.

particular

of motion,

(b)

This

force that is to be

(a)

T =

lift

described in Sec.

= Fx = V Vw The

in velocity AC/ through the casing

increase

(d)

(e)

and impeller

taken as a fraction of the inlet velocity Va

Also Q = T/{pAU). The pressure or pumping

Smith-Keary, E. M., "The Effect of Immersion on

Propellers," NECI, 1931-1932, Vol. XLVIII, pp.
26-44 and D1-D17
Kempf, G., "Immersion of Propellers," NECI, 19331934, Vol. L, pp. 225-248 and D123-D138
Kempf, G., "The Influence of Viscosity on Thrust
and Torque of a Propeller Working Near the
Surface," INA, 1934, pp. 321-326 and PL XXXIV
De Santis, R., "The Effect of Inclination, Immersion,
and Scale on Propellers in Open Water," INA,
1934, pp. 380-385 and Pis. XXXVI-XXXVIII
Baker, G. S., "The Qualities of a Propeller Alone and
Behind a Ship," NECI, 1937-1938, Vol. LIV, pp.
239-250 and D135-D146.

is

head hp then required

of the impeller is equal to

General comments and design data on "ParImmersed Propellers" are given by W. P. A.

tially

the increase in kinetic energy of the water passing

van Lammeren,

through the pump, or

[RPSS, 1948, pp. 262-263].

hp

KVa

+ Avy -

Some
VI]

L.

Troost,

and

J.

G. Koning

practical pointers for the design of surface

propellers on high-speed racing motorboats are

published by E. C. B. Corlett in "Trends in

Very High Speed Craft" [The Motor Boat and
Yachting, Sep 1954, pp. 386-388].

From

here

The

on the design problem becomes

lengthy and complicated, to be solved by methods

is

thrust-load factor for a surface propeller

of course

based upon the fractional disc area

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 71.12

which

is

propeller

expected to be immersed when the

by diagram

operating, indicated

is

of Fig. 15.G.

The unbalanced blade-disc forces from the

immersed and working blades, depicted in diagram 1 of Fig. 33. K, are usually balanced by
introducing equal and opposite forces from a
second propeller rotating in the opposite direction.
If these forces are desired or needed to give the
craft angular acceleration

when

and

turning,

if

always in the same direction, as

in a motorboat which always makes left-hand
turns during a race, they are balanced by a
lateral force produced by a constant rudder
angle when straight running is desired.
Since there are certain to be air holes instead
of cavitation pockets on the forward or reducedthe turning

is

pressure sides of the partly immersed blades, the

available thrust
peller

is

low, as

the

is

maximum

Conservative design

efficiency.

calls

profor

the use of an efficiency not greater than half or

two-thirds that of the same propeller working
fully

to be expected in

and running condition

service, the hub of a surface
draft

propeller should be just clear of or just touching

its

angle.

As the mechanical propulsion is an auxiliary

the helm handicap can be

drive at the best,

accepted for larger benefits which

when

rather

comprehensive

article

is

under

side.

This

may

eliminate

asymmetric

This

114].

drives

and

article reveals that

auxiliary

latter discussed in Sec. 71.13,

same

serious

vicinity as

much

is

hub
is

surface.

almost a necessity over the

partly for

of a surface propeller,

and partly to keep down the showers of

spray and geysers of water which would otherwise
be thrown up at the stern.
71.11
Asymmetric Propulsion. It is often
safety

convenient to offset the propulsion device from

the centerplane of a vessel, especially in auxiliary
yachts where an aperture for a centerline pro-

adds to the sailing resistance and detracts

from the efficiency of the steering rudder [Baader,
J., "Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers and
Fast Launches)," Buenos Aires, 1951, Fig. 203,
p. 255 and Fig. 205, p. 256. The situation is similar
peller

to that of a crippled multiple-screw ship driven

by one wing

propeller, with all other propellers

missing.

Moment

calculations,

experience with
if

drives,

damaged

the rudder area

is

supported
vessels,

by

sufficiently large

offset of the thrust line

from the center

does not exceed 15 per cent of the

beam, the asymmetric moment

service

indicate that

and

if

the

of gravity

maximum

of thrust is only

the

both require the

consideration of flow in their

given to the propeller position on a

larger vessel.

71.12

and

Feathering

Folding

Propellers.

The proper design of all vessels with two or more

means of propulsion, such as the sailing yacht
with auxiliary power, requires that the propulsion
devices of one system be not a hindrance when

The

problem of the effect of screw-propeller resistance

on the sailing speed of a yacht is discussed by
K. S. M. Davidson and D. S. Connelly ["If We
Hadn't Been Dragging That Propeller," Yachting,
device to free-wheel or to coast,

cover or guard

"A

pubhshed by M. E. Williams [Yachting, Feb

1955, pp. 54-55,

May

upper blades

entitled

trations of asymmetric drives for sailing yachts,

shaft. It will certainly free the propeller of friction

be derived

Propeller for the Auxiliary," with several illus-

the necessity of a watertight stuffing box for the

resistance on the

may

sailing.

those of the other system are being used.

submerged.

At the average

the water on

651

secondary importance in steering and possibly

also in turning. For a saiHng yacht, this may
require carrying some small compensating rudder
of

1940,

p.

68].

Permitting one propulsion

if it will, is one

answer but not always the best one.

In the early days of steam as an auxiliary
power in saiUng ships this problem was usually
solved by fitting a 2-bladed propeller and placing
its blade axes vertical when it was stopped. The
sternposts on those ships were so wide that the

two blades, if not the hub, could lie neatly

"shadow" of the post, within the eddies

in the
of the

separation zone directly abaft the post. Other

solutions of this problem are to feather the pro-

done on modern aircraft, to

them, or to house the propeller in some
suitable manner. J. Scott Russell mentioned
feathering propeller blades nearly a century ago
peller blades, as is

fold

[MSNA,

1865, p. 474].

is defined as one whose

thrust-producing blades can be turned on their
own axes so that the blade sections are generally

feathering propeller

parallel to the direction of motion.

the-bottom

rotating-blade

feathered, for example,

propeller

An

under-

would

be

by rotating each blade

on its spindle axis so that all the leading edges

would face directly forward.
A folding propeller is one in which the thrust-

HYDRODYNAMICS

652

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 71.13

the direction of motion. In a 2-bladed folding

put a permanent propeller, to serve as auxiliary

propulsion on a sailing craft? There is no good
place. In almost any position the propeller is a

screw propeller each blade folds aft so that its

blade axis is sensibly parallel to the shaft axis,

To

with a frontal area considerably smaller than

able place. All locations have disadvantages, from

that of a feathered propeller. Both feathering and

the point of view of both saiUng and propulsive

producing blades are hinged so that their axes

swung

are

into positions generally parallel

by

to

Baader on
page 210 of his book "Cruceros y Lanchas
Veloces (Cruisers and Fast Launches)" [Buenos
folding propellers are illustrated

J.

nuisance for sailing and a misfit for propulsion.

is

not even a least objection-

Even the temporary outboard prohung over the stern or the side, has its

efficiency.
peller,

drawbacks.

The usual position and arrangement, embodying

Aires, 1951].

be honest, there

2-bIaded screw propeller with folding blades,

a centerline propeller working in an aperture cut

for sailing vessels with auxiliary power, arranged

partly from the sternpost or the after end of the

and form a continuation of the

propeller hub, was proposed and illustrated by
Henry Claughton in the early 1870's [INA, 1873,
pp. 52-55 and PI. IV]. The folding was accomplished by a rod which slid lenghwise within the
hollow propeller shaft. The inventor claimed,

and partly from the rudder, is depicted in

diagram 2 of Fig. 71.D. To be sure, the propeller
outflow jet impinges on the rudder but a sailing
craft has a rudder adequate for controllability at
low speeds, regardless of the method of propulsion. The propeller aperture, small compared to

and

the boat profile,

to swing aft

rightly so,

that the folding propeller was

keel

almost necessarily has thick

wood, the edges

superior to the feathering one because the blades

boundaries. If the craft

always have some objectionable

twist, no matter what the angle at which they
are feathered. At the time of writing (1955)
folding screw propellers are available in diameters

the opening are liable to be very thick compared

of

the

latter

of the order of

or 2

have a drag only

when

it is

and Naval

An

0.1

ft.

They

is

to the propeller diameter.

FISH-EYE

of

As much

fairing

of

as

VIEW

are reported to

that of a solid propeller

not rotating [Ship and Boat Builder

Architect, London,

May

1953, p. 378].

adaptation of the "shadowing" 2-bladed

propeller,

lying

sternpost,

is

in

the eddies

what may be

behind a wide
the housing

called

Schematic Lowut

and held snugly against the hull, was

proposed a half-century ago for large vessels
[Hamilton, J., INA, 1903, pp. 233-235 and Pis.
XXX, XXXI; De Eusett, E. W., INA, 1903,
p. 237]. In the 2-bladed form, and with the feather-

As-ymmetnc Screw Propeller with

of

Propeller

propeller. This device, pulled in axially with its

ond

All

Appendoqes
on One Side

shaft

ing feature developed in recent years,

possible

aft.

They

can then, when the propeller and shaft are pulled

inward, be drawn into a relatively narrow groove
left for this purpose in the end of a skeg supporting the shaft. Provided the mechanical
problems can be worked out, this affords one
solution for a 2-bladed bow propeller on an icebreaker, mentioned later in Sec. 76.26. Here
the propeller is either very useful if it can be run
or it is a nuisance if left extended, depending
71.13

There

upon the

ice conditions.

Auxiliary Propulsion for Sailing Yachts.

is only one answer to the question often

asked by yachtsmen: Where is a good place to

Woterline

^^--Jesioned

Shoft Line

Propeller

Rudder
Stock

it is

to swing the blades nearly fore and

entirely

Rudder Stock

Leodinij Edi^e of

Moment

Rudder

nto Keel, so that

is

Gap

Recessed
is

Smoll

Tronsmilted

Through Here to

Deep

Lower Portion

Keel

'-

Rudder Stock
..^^Jesiqned

Propeller
is

[/*

S\\c^ht\^/\

Offset so

\s

Rudder\\

ond Tube are

Hinge Gop

s Smoll for

Its

Entire Lenoth

^^

^^~^---__3^

Clear of Rudder Stock

Fig. 71.

\\

\^

that Shaft

Woterline

^^

Auxiliart Propulsion Arrangements

FOB Yachts

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 71.14

practicable on the forward and after edges

is

behind the
forward side of the aperture, to keep the wake
velocities from being irregular, and to minimize
indicated,

prevent

to

separation

the augmentation of resistance on the after side

A 2-bladed propeller lies generally

of the aperture.

when mechanical propulsion

within the aperture

is

not required, 'provided there

is

a blade-position

marking inside the vessel, and there is some way

to place and hold the shaft in the proper angular
position. The aperture detracts from the steering
and maneuvering characteristics of the vessel but
as the rudder is generally large enough for control
at speeds much less than that at which the
propeller drives the craft, it remains adequate
for the purpose.

249-256

(in Spanish)].

In this chapter he gives

three design graphs for the auxiliary powering of

these yachts.

71.14 Vertical Drive for Screw Propellers;

Under-the-Bottom Propellers. The combination
of a screw propeller mounted on a short horizontal
shaft and driven by bevel gears from a vertical
shaft is knowri everywhere in the form of the
familiar outboard-motor propulsion unit. However, design features which can be accepted for
units in which the power in horses rarely exceeds
one or two hundred are not always workable in
larger units, such as are hkely to be utilized in
the future.

On

all

the

modern portable

there

is

drive shaft from working

May

be' considerably larger

offset slightly

The

propeller shaft

from the centerline to

must be
clear the

installa-

a horizontal barrier or "anticavitation" plate to prevent air in the separation

tions

A propeller may be mounted above the top of the

rudder with a short exposed drive shaft and a
short single-arm strut [Rudder, Mar 1954, p. 37;
1954, p. 78].

653

zone abaft the casing which carries the vertical

down the after edge of

the casing into the propeller disc. This plate must

aft

and must extend farther

when a more powerful

propeller

used.

is

rudder stock.

Indeed, the vertical casing sections will them-

A somewhat more ship-shape installation, based

on both the mechanical and the hydrodynamic
features involved, is to drop the upper end of
the rudder and leave, in its stead, a fixed portion
of the after end of the fin keel under the hull. The
propeller shaft passes through this fixed portion
and the propeller is mounted abaft it. The
arrangement permits a reasonably sharp fin-keel
ending ahead of the propeller, with fillets between
keel and hull which taper to zero at the extreme
after end, about as indicated at 3 in Fig. 71.
[Yachting, May 1951, p. 62; Rudder, Apr 1954,
p. 37]. Again, however, the propeller and its
shaft must be offset slightly from the centerline,
to permit the shaft tube and the rudder-stock
casing to clear each other. The propeller bossing
in the fixed fin above the top of the rudder then
has an offset termination similar to those of certain bossings and multiple skegs in large ships
but with the disadvantage that in the smaller

selves require lengthening

craft the flow

may

cross the swelling for the

A
is

yacht in which the mechanical propulsion

same order of importance as the sail

of the

that

known

as the

motor

sailer.

most

useful

discussion of the propulsion and design problems

J.

and

water-excluding

fining.

and

devices and systems are called for

Efficient

lubrication

if

the vertical

drives are to transmit powers in thousands of

horses instead of hundreds, and

if

they are to

run continually for days on end.

Besides being retractable by hinging or swingcustomary outboard-motor assembly,

ing, as in the

vertical- drive propeller

systems lend themselves

to packaging in self-contained units. These

may

be installed in vertical recesses or wells and

removed when desired, similar to the Sea Otter
installations of

World War

II.

The

the lower ends of the assemblies

below the baseplane, or below a

propellers at

may

project

flat,

cut-up

portion of the vessel at the stern, similar to that

for

the usual type of rotating-blade propeller

Large-diameter 2-bladed propellers

be passed through small-diameter wells or
small openings by keeping the blades vertical. In

installation.

may

the early days of steam

it

was

possible to

lift

well in the hull at the stern.

A modern installation,

proposed for an oceanographic research

is

shown

vessel,

in Fig. 33. J.

partly sectioned isometric view of a

modern

given by D. Phillips-Birt [Rudder,

1955, pp. 12-15, 46-55].

outboard-propulsion unit in package form, de-

Baader devotes a whole chapter to the

ical

of this class

May

reliable

the 2-bladed propeller up on deck through a

shaft at a slightly greater angle.

is

and

is

upward by mechanshomi by A. C. Hardy ["Modern

signed to swing the propeller

means,

is

auxiliary propulsion of the sailing yacht ["Cruceros

Marine Engineering," London, 1955, Vol.

y Lanchas Veloces", Buenos

p. 154].

Aires,

1951,

pp.

II,

HYDRODYNAMICS

654

Flow to under-the-bottom propellers, working

below vertical wells which house retractable or
removable units, is practically axial but it may
suffer from non-uniformity because of the presence of the boundary layer. If the propellers
are actually below the baseplane, and in a region
where the ship bottom is sensibly flat, parallel to
the direction of motion, there should be little
augment of resistance due to the pressure fields
created by the propellers. Although thrustdeduction forces were observed on the Sea Otter
model, this is believed due to the fact that the
closures at the bottoms of the vertical wells in
the models were not watertight. The Ap and
-f-Ap fields set up by each propeller extended up
into the lower portion of each well, where small
forces acting aft,

and

opposite to the direction of

were developed on both the forward

motion,

after walls of the well.

Design of Devices to Produce TransFor docking, mooring,

and shifting berth, in areas where the port
facilities are not adequate, it frequently becomes
necessary for a ship to sidle or to change its
heading. This usually happens when it is not
possible to shift an appreciable distance either
ahead or astern, certainly not far enough to
create the offset or make the change in heading
by the ordinary operations of maneuvering. This
offset or change in heading requires the application of a more-or-less static force at one or both
ends of the vessel, in a direction approximately
perpendicular to its centerplane and in line with
71.15

verse and Vertical Thrust.

the shift in position desired.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 71.15

bevel-gear mechanism

if a different type of drive

employed. The problem here is keeping the
gears small enough so that the area occupied by

is

gear

the

casing

in

the

except

water

the

is

straight-

type

of this general

Canadian ferry Princess

that

not excessive.

is

through installation

moved

is

found

Vancouver,

of

transversely

through a duct of rectangular section by a

Voith-Schneider propeller [111. London News, 19

Mar

1955, p. 516;

If sufficient

MENA, Mar

beam

is

1955, p. 112].

available at the position

selected for the transverse propeller or thrust-

producing device
vertical-shaft

it

may

propeller

be advisable to use a
a Z-shaped passage

in

having offset openings to port and to starboard.

Fig. 71.F is a schematic arrangement for such an
installation. It removes from the water passage
the bevel-gear box which would be required for
a straight-through transverse duct, with a drive
shaft entering at right angles to

axis.

its

The

vanes are placed in the two

elliptical intersections of the circular ducts, where
the increased area compensates for the flow
restrictions imposed by the multiple vanes.

two

sets of corner

The
figure,

propeller

may

shaft,

shown

vertical

in

the

lead in any desired direction to the

drive motor, permitting the latter to be placed

in the

most convenient and protected position

in the ship.

The Z-shaped duct remains

transverse

plane through the

this plane

may

drive

in the

shaft

but

be either vertical or horizontal

may lie at any convenient angle.

To prevent separation of the inflowing water
at points such as E, and Ea in Fig. 71. F the
or

Normally these forces are applied by tugs

pushing and pulling or by ropes between fixed
objects and the ship, connected to capstans or
winches.

When

Alternative

Bevel-Gear Drive

neither the tugs nor the fixed

objects are available,

and when the

and

offsets

changes of heading are required to be performed

frequently as a routine part of a vessel's operation,
this may be accomplished by fitting separate
auxiliary

propellers

apply

which

transverse direction [SBSR,

20

thrust

Nov

in

1952,

pp.

659-660].

The

simplest installation of this kind

is

the

straight-through type illustrated schematically in

Fig. 7 I.E.

substantial shroud ring encircles the

propeller to carry the gear teeth.

in diameter

The

increase

and areaat the propeller position

enables a larger and more efficient wheel to be

used, and partly compensates for the area

occupied by the shaft and

its

bearings, or

by a

Not Shown Here Are

Method of Attaohin*
Means of Preventino
Thrust Beorinas, Stuffing Boxes, and the

Fig. 71. E

like

Schematic Arrangement of .Auxiliary

Propeller for Exerting Transverse Thrust

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Sec. 11.16

may

655

be short. They are well removed from the

so the

center of gravity of the ship,

moments

Any

turning

are large.

large transverse opening,

such as for a

transverse propeller, cut through the thin skeg

of
its

a ship just ahead of an unbalanced rudder at

after end, may or may not be detrimental to

turning.
built

The opening permits leakage

up by the rudder on the

of

+Ap

inside of a turn.

If the vessel is turning at a large drift angle,

there

Propeller

may

be cross flow through the duct from

Shaft

the outside to the inside of the turn. Further-

is

Shown

more,

Vertical

It

Con Be

/Placed

if

the propeller

is

not locked by nonit may wind-

overhauling drive gears or a brake,

Here But

under these conditions.

Design Features of Tandem and ContraRotating Propellers. Normally, it is not good
design to place propulsion devices of any kind
mill

71.16

in

/Any Desired
Position

Generally
/Porollel to the

enterplane

tandem, even when they are as far away as

bow and stern propellers of a double-ended
ferryboat. If, under unusual circumstances, it
becomes necessary or desirable to absorb a

in

the

Fig. 71. F Schematic Arrangement of VerticalDrive Screw Propeller for Exerting Transverse
Thrust

relatively large

amount

of

power by a propulsion-

entrances are rounded, say to a radius of 0.1 or

device combination occupying a limited disc or

thrust-producing area, it is possible to achieve

more of the duct diameter. There should be

enough hydrostatic head above the uppermost

devices separately. This enables each to run at a

duct to prevent drawing air from the surface.

The efficiency of a propeller-type device to
produce transverse thrust is measured, not by
the usual ratio of output to input but by whether

upon the

or not the device works. This depends

thrust

lateral

developed.

The

thrust

in

turn

depends first upon the diameter of the propeller

and the rate at which momentum is imparted to
the water in a transverse direction. It depends
also upon the length and shape of the transverse
duct, because of the friction and pumpingpressure losses in the water being forced through
it.

two openings of the transverse duct lie

where there is much slope to the waterthere is liable to be some slight but definite

If the

in regions

reasonable efficiency by driving the propulsion

proper advance coefficient

J = V a.I(iiiU),

de-

pending upon the speed of advance at its own

position. Still better is a type of drive which
adjusts its rate of rotation so
propulsion device absorbs a pre-deter-

automatically
that

its

mined power.
For tandem screw propellers, described
Sec. 32.20, a device which has possibilities
certain applications

interposed

in
for

a sort of contra-propeller

is

between the leading and following

units of a pair of

tandem

WRH,

propellers [Schmier-

Sep 1939, pp. 278-279;

HSPA, Vol. II, 1940, pp. 79-102, with English
summary on pp. 217-218]. This star-shaped set
of guide vanes, with or without a fixed shrouding
schalski,

H.,

not possible to close the

around the outside, is intended to recover the

rotational energy in the outflow jet of the leading
propeller and to impart enough pre-rotation to

when they are not in use so that when

the vessel yaws or turns there may be some

the inflow jet of the following propeller so that

the rotational energy in the final outflow jet is

lines,

effect of these discontinuities

underway.

It is generally

when

the vessel

is

openings

transverse

This

flow

may

unless

it is

The

of

cause

water

through

the

duct.

windmilling of the propeller

locked.

best

positions

for

propellers

producing

transverse thrust are in the forefoot and in the

aftfoot.

These are usually

thin,

so

the ducts

very

nearly

zero.

The mechanical problems

involved in placing a fixed appendage of this

kind between two tandem screw propellers on the
shaft have not, so far as known, been
tackled except on model scale.
It is customary, although not necessary, to

same

HYDRODYNAMICS

fifiG

the

place

discs

contra-rotating

of

propellers

them along the

close to each other, spacing

axis at only a small fraction

shaft

the propeller

of

diameter, just sufficient for the hubs and the

The

blades to clear each other.

peller

is

made

following pro-

slightly smaller in diameter

than

the leading propeller because of the contraction

from the latter.

both propellers of a pair rotate oppositely
at the same rate, the pitch of the after wheel is
made slightly greater to produce generally the
same thrust, torque, and power as the forward
one. There is no reason, however, why both
in the outflow jet
If

propellers need rotate at the

same

rate

if

IN SHIP DESIGN

tangential components of the induced velocities

are large. Normally, large

References to test results on propellers of this

type are given in Sec. 59.7. Additional references

in the technical literature are:

im Stromungsa Flo wing- Water

Channel)," Schiffbau, Sohiffahrt, und Hafenbau,
1936, Vol. 37, pp. 168-173, 206
Mueller, H., "Einfluss des Hohlsogs auf das Arbeiten
des Voith-Schneider-Propellers (Influence of Cavitation on the Working of the Voith-Schneider
Propeller)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 1938,
Vol. 82, pp. 566-568
Fuller, W. E., "A Radical Departure in the Conventional Tugboat Design, and a New Use for Cycloidal
Propulsion," ASNE, Aug 1953, pp. 639-645
"German Craft with Voith-Schneider Propellers,"
SBSR, 23 Sep 1954, pp. 409-413
Mueller, H., "Schiffsmodellversuche
gerinne

(2)

(3)

design of contra-rotating propellers poses

a problem discussed in Sec. 67.22 for the contra(4)

is

to find the exact direction

of the flow in the outflow jet

from the leading

Rotating-

functioning of the rotat-

is described and illustrated in

and Figs. 15.1, 15.J, and 15.K. Its use
for steering and maneuvering as well as propulsion is discussed in Sec. 37.22 and illustrated by
the diagrams of Figs. 33.H, 37.0, and 37.P.

it

guide skeg ending. It

to

accompany

ing-blade propeller

mounted on

The

ratios

Sec. 15.13

other

approaches the leading propeller,

both propellers of the group can be raked aft
to advantage, provided centrifugal-force and
other factors are properly taken care of.

The

Blade Propellers.

(1)

shaft axis as

P/D

small thrust-load factors Ctl

71.17 Design Notes Relative

rates or ratios are preferable.

For contra-rotating propellers such as those

the afterbody of a torpedo, where
the flow is definitely converging toward the

Ser. 71.17

(Ship

Model Tests

in

"Voith-Schneider Propulsion;" booklet of 23 pages

prepared and published by the J. M. Voith Com-

(5)

meets the leading edges of the

blades of the following propeller. This is a matter
partly of determining the direction at which the
flow leaves the trailing edges of the forward
wheel and partly of the amount of induced
velocity imparted to it by that wheel, at a distance astern represented by the forward sweep

can be employed to produce

thrust in any direction within any selected plane
of rotation, whether horizontal, vertical, or

line of the after wheel.

inclined.

propeller as

it

There are two published design procedures

available:
Lerbs, H. W., "Contra-Rotating Optimum Propellers
Operating in a Radially Non-Uniform Wake,"
Rep. 941, May 1955. On page 22 there is a
list of 6 references. In general, this method takes
account of the effects arising from the difference of
the wakes at the propeller discs and from the
contraction of the race between them. Tlie design
procedure is outlined by steps but no example is

(1)

pany
in

(2)

and Sentid, A., "Contra-Rotating

INA, Apr 1956; SBSR, 3 May 1956,

J. D.,

Propellers,"

pp. 302-303; SBMEB, Jul 1956, pp. 462-463; Int.

Shipbldg. Prog., Sep 1956, Vol. 3, No. 25, pp.
459-473. Eight references are given and a numerical
example is included.

H.
pairs

P/D

W. Lerbs

observes

of propellers are
ratios,

that

efficient

say more than

1.2;

contra-rotating

only for large

that

is,

when

the

(in English).

Copy

Ubrary.

It is desired again to

emphasize that this type

Diagram 2

of

Fig.

33.

illustrates

schematically a rotating-blade propeller fitted to

a submarine with its axis horizontal, or nearly so,

and its plane of rotation generally vertical and
parallel to the plane of

suitable

rotating-blade

T/{0.5pAoVa),
to

Ac which

the

is

maximum

known

Van Manen,

Heidenheim, Germany

of propulsion device

TMB

given.

of

TMB

symmetry.

thrust-load
propeller,
is

factor

expressed

Ctl for
by Ctl

based upon an area equivalent

rectangular in shape. It represents

transverse section through

as the basket or barrel formed

what is
by the

blades, having a height equal to the blade length

and a width equal to the diameter

of the pitch

This corresponds to the hatched area of

diagram 6 of Fig. 15. G. In practice, the proporcircle.

tions of this rectangle remain sensibly constant,

having a ratio of pitch-circle diameter to blade
length of about 1.5 to 1.75. W. Henschke gives a
sketch and a table of principal dimensions of
Voith-Schneider propellers, taken from "Schiff-

DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

Ser. 71.17

baukalender," 1935 ["Schifl'bautechnisches Iland-

buch (Ship Design and Shipbuilding Handbook),"

Berlin, 1952, p. 192]. For this series of sizes the
(basket

of

ratio

or

barrel

diameter) /(blade

nominal

thrust-producing

but the Ap's are usually of smaller intensity.

It is probable that, with a stern cut away sufficiently to provide easy flow to an under-thebottom propeller, in a direction generally normal
to the blade axes, the thrust-deduction fraction

length) has a constant value of 1.67.

The

057

area

of

rotating-blade propeller may, and generally does

occupy more area normal to the direction of

motion than a screw propeller; sometimes more
than twice as much. The thrust-load factor is

be lower than for a normal-form stern with a

screw propeller.
will

An

efficient design

blade propeller

and

calls for

installation of a rotating-

blades that are sufficiently

graphs of Fig. 34.N show that, below a Ctl

value of about 2.2, the efficiency of a VoithSchneider propeller may be expected to exceed

narrow to eliminate interference between them

sufficiently long to provide adequate area
for the thrust to be delivered. There must be
sufficient submersion of the whole assembly to
avoid harmful cavitation in way of the upper
ends of the blades. While the presence of the
large flat under surface of the hull above the

the 0.8-ideal-efEciency value of a screw propeller.

propeller

therefore,
less

like

that of the paddlewheel,

than for a screw propeller to do essentially

the same work.

Diagram 2

of Fig. 34.

The thrust-producing area

its

much

and the

adjoins the hull at

upper or inner end, without the tip clearance

with a screw propeller. The wake

associated
fraction

at

the propeller position

is

therefore

almost certain to be higher and more variable

than for a screw propeller in the same
position. There are no published formulas or
as well

and

regions,

minimizes
it

is

leakage

air

difficult

The arrangement shown

electric

reference data.

The area

orthodox

or

is

of the propeller inflow

jet is larger, because of the larger equivalent

Fig. 71. G

not

routine

Fig.

71.G

is

in

motorship Helgoland of 1939, at that

pp. 644-645]. This vessel

determined from

in

time "the largest seagoing vessel yet fitted with

Voith-Schneider propulsion" [SBSR, 21 Dec 1939,
perpendiculars of 328

Similarly, the thrust-deduction fraction

Ap

general similar to that of the stern of the turbo-

wake

readily

the

cavitation at high blade loadings.

systematic data available for a prediction of the

fraction.

to

prevent detrimental

to

and a speed

of 17 kt.

ft,

The

had a length between

beam of about 43.5 ft,

rotating-blade propellers

were each designed to absorb a shaft power of

2,000 horses, with electric driving motors mounted
directly on the propeller casings.

Areangbment of Twin Rotating-Bladb Propellers at the Stern

HYDRODYNAMICS

658

The

rot.ating-l)lade propeller lends itself par-

which must hold position

and other forces

ticularly well to craft

wind,

against

when

tidal-current,

stationary

nearly so.

or

[SBSR, 12 Mar 1953, p. 342],

"German Small Craft," that:

It

reported

is

an

in

article

on

"The Voith-Schneider propeller has proved of particular

value in applications where large athwartships thrusts
are required. It has therefore been fitted for buoy lifting
and laying

which have to be operated

vessels

difficult

waters."

The

article

sloping,

accompanied by the outboard

one well out on each

axes

with

set

upward and inward. The

pointing

blade tips are well above the baseplane. However,

the tops of the blades

come rather

close,

perhaps

The

large diameter of the rotating assembly of

a propeller of this type lends itself equally to a

high gear reduction from a high-speed engine or

motor or to a low-speed motor

speed of the propeller

drive.

The angular

usually not a major

is

and Fast Launches)," Buenos

the other hand, the rotating-blade propeller,

Propulsion by airscrew (s)

Weeds,

is

The

out of the question

and the engine are so high above the

water surface, as in a, hydrofoil-supported craft,
(b)

that

hull

it is

undesirable or inconvenient to transmit

the power to a propeller under water

(c)

It

is

necessary to eliminate the noise and other

made under water by mechanical

propulsion devices. This

complication and

internal mechanical gear.

more blades

Aoilnerability

With

of

the

half a dozen or

selected when:

grasses,

certain fishing operations.

relative

is

and other marine growths

are so profuse and thick that hydrodynamic propulsion by weedproof screw propellers, or by
sculling propellers, paddlewheels, and similar
(a)

whatever type, has been plagued from the

beginning of its development by the unavoidable
of

Aires,

1951, pp. 222-224].

disturbance

design problem.

clearly indicated, since

design instructions and data for the powering of

this type of craft ["Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces

devices

too close, to the water surface.

is

types of high-speed boats driven by airscrews are

shown by J. Baader, in a chapter in which he gives

with a long,

side,

Sec. 71. IS

air-rescue task

the wide, flat-bottomed craft was capable of a

speed of 50 miles per hour. A later type is shown
by D. Nicolson [NECI, 1937-1938, Vol. LIV,
Fig. 5, p. 117]. Sea sleds or inverted V-bottom
craft driven by airscrews are illustrated in Motor
Boating [New York, Jan 1946, p. 112]. Two

cut-up stern and two Voith-Schneider

propellers,

On

An

(Cruisers
is

profile of a small lighthouse tender

their

in particularly

IN SHIP DESIGN
538].

(d)

It is desired to
free

craft,

of

may

be mandatory for

measure the hull resistance of

hydrodynamic propulsion

all

efTects.

To compensate

to position, not only for straight-

for the down-pitch

moment

of

ahead steady running but for changing the pitch

and changing the direction of the resultant
thrust, the mechanical-design problem is difficult
at the best [Mueller, H. F., "Recent Developments in the Design and Application of the

above the line of action of the water-resistance

forces, any small boat carrjdng an airscrew must
have a large hydrodynamic moment resisting the

SNAME, 1955, pp. 4-30].

sled-type craft of rectangular cross section, re-

Vertical Axis Propeller,"

Simplifications have been effected to

make

parts more sturdy, but these changes have,

often than not, involved

hydrodynamic

efficiency.

some reduction

By

dint

of

the

more

of the

excellent

engineering the rotating-blade propeller continues

is possible that some of the developments
which have brought a greatly increased measure

to run. It

of rehability to the controllable propeller

do the same

for the

may

most useful rotating-blade

device.

71.18

Airscrew Propulsion.

An

early type of

"skimming boat" with airscrew propulsion, apparently intended for work in extremely shallow
water, was designed and built by Yarrow of
Glasgow about 1921 [Mar. Eng'g., Jul 1921, p.

the airscrew thrust, at a large relative height

thrust

moment. This

is

one reason for the use of

sembling the floats of early seaplanes.

Airscrew propulsion is exceedingly inefficient
indeed,

it

is

almost ineffective

when

the speed

advance is low, as it would be for even a small

swamp boat plowing through a heavy growth of
weeds. Air flow through the propeller then resembles that depicted in Figs. 16. K and 16. L,
when momentum is imparted to only a small mass
of "new" air in any given interval of time or given
distance of forward travel. The propulsive efficiency mounts rapidly as the speed of advance
of

increases in proportion to the velocity of the

outflow jet of the propeller. For this type of

drive, therefore, the resistance of the craft to be

driven should be low and the resulting speed high.

CHAPTER

72

Design Features Applicable

Shallow and

to

Restricted Waters
72.1
72.2

General

72.5

Economical and Practical Speeds in Shallow

and Restricted Waters
Design for Reduction of Confined- Water
Drag, Sinkage, and Squat
Transverse Dimensions and Section Shapes

72.6
72 7

Length, Longitudinal Curvature, and Wetted

72 8

Modifications to

72.3

72.4

for Shallow- Water

Running

General.

72.1

660

Normal Forms

The

to Shallow- Water Vessels

Slope and Curvature of Buttocks

of

the

for

predicting

or

72.16
72 17
.

flow

estimating

666
667
668

Shaping

Adequate Flow of Water to the Propulsion

Devices

72.13
72.14
72 15

The Design

Tunnel Stern
Hull Surfaces Abreast Screw Propellers
Powering of Tunnel-Stern Craft
Handling of the Vibration Problem in
Shallow Water
Partial Bibliography on Tunnel-Stem Vessels

than the

less

of a

average depth

about a body or ship in shallow and restricted

waters are discussed in Chap. 18; the behavior
of actual ships under the same conditions is
described in Chap. 35. Formulas, graphs, and
procedures

Bow

72.11
72 12

661

for Shallow-

elements

666

Design

of Straight-Element

72 10
.

660

665

Surface
.

The Adaptation

72.9

662
663

Typical Shallow- Water Vessels

Water Operation

659

Reference Data on River, Canal, and Channel Slopes and Currents

h.

668
669
672
672
673
673

The speed V^ may always be

critical

speed Cc for the shallowest

These craft usually carry

passengers and moderate amounts of freight.
(2) Self-propelled, full-bodied craft of moderate
speed, where V^ does not exceed about 0.7c ^
part

the

of

the

route.

behavior of ships in confined waters are set

Chap.

in

The

down

maximum amount

the carrying of the

for

of

cargo on a given set of limiting dimensions

61.

design comments, suggestions, and rules

(3)

Non-self-propelled barges, lighters, and scows

given here apply primarily and rather exclusively

(4)

Self-propelled pushboats

to craft which operate

in water that

is

more

shallow with reference to the

linear dimensions of the vessel.

One

rule of

depth is
one which is less than the beam of the vessel.
Perhaps a better one is that a shallow depth is
less than twice the draft. Another rule, for the
is that the depth is less
than the so-called square draft; in other words,
less than the square root of the maximum-section
area, or VAx. To be sure, many such shallowwater vessels are required to traverse deep spots
now and then but at some sacrifice in performance,
if need
be, to insure the best shallow-water

subcritical range only,

may

critical

speed Cc

Design notes and rules

for the latter

Volume

group, carrying capacity

is

III.

two groups

For the second

usually of far greater

importance

than efficiency of propulsion or

hydrodynamic performance. Bottoms are flat and
of large area,

Waterlines are
so,

lying at the limiting-draft level.

full

and

except perhaps in

sides are vertical or nearly

way

of the inflow jets to

screw propellers. The hydrodynamic design features in this chapter are therefore limited generally

to vessels in the

first

category preceding.

Design notes previously published for particular

For design and operational purposes,

craft

intended to run in shallow and restricted waters

types and for shallow-water vessels as a class

may

are divided into four categories:

(a)

Self-propelled, fine-lined craft having a shal-

low-water speed V^ that

than the

exceed the

are given in Part 5 of

behavior.

less

for

thumb

for all speed ranges is that a shallow

(1)

and towboats,

which the free-running shallow-water speed V^

or less continually

critical

but always
speed Cc for the nominal or
is

close to

659

be found in the following references:

Ward,

C,

SNAME,
(b)

"Shallow-Draught

River

Steamers,"

1909, Vol. 17, pp. 79-108

R. C, "Construction and Operation

Western River Steamers," SNAME, 1913, Vol.
59-65
pp.

Wilson,

of
21,

HYDRODYNAMICS

fifiO

"Ship Design, Resistance and Screw

Propulsion," 1933, Vol. I, pp. 209-212; Vol. II,
Chap. XXVI, pp. 136-142

Baker, G.

(c)

S.,

(d)

MitcheU, A. R., "Shallow Draught Ships," INA, Jul

1952, pp. 145-153

(e)

Mitchell, A. R.,

"Tunnel Tj-pe Vessels," lESS, 1952-

1953, Vol. 96, pp. 125-188.

Reference Data on River, Canal, and

Channel Slopes and Currents. The free surfaces
of all flowing ri\'ers, tidal estuaries,

open channels,

and canals in which horizontal currents flow,

have some slope with reference to the horizontal.
Data on the surface slopes of all the principal
rivers in the United States, subdivided into river
regions where the slopes change rapidly or where
there are reliable data, are given in both tabular
and graphic form in a paper by H. Gannett
entitled "Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers of
the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 44, Profiles of
Rivers in the United States," U. S. Geological
Survey, Washington, 1901.
Nothing in this paper indicates the slopes
which might occur during flood conditions, or
those which might obtain in short reaches of the
1

dams

many

in

The

mile in length.

construction of

of the rivers since

1901 has of

changed the situation materially. The

slopes cover a rather wide range, as indicated
course

Drop

Location

per

in ft

geographical

mile

of

6,280 ft

Sacramento River
Missouri River
Platte River
Colorado River

3.0,

maximum

1.0 average; varies

from

0.7 to 1.3

Two

steepest slopes are 22.0

and

31.2,
corresponding to natural
tangents of 0.00417 and 0.00591;

Nowka

European

S.O.

gives the surface slopes of

rivers as

about

in 1000

some
["New Knowl-

edge on Ship Propulsion," 1944, BuShips Transl.

411].

Here the slope thrust

is

sufficient to

produce

a speed which gives steerageway to a non-selfpropelled barge when drifting downstream. This
equivalent to a 5.28-ft drop per geographical
mile or a 6.08-ft drop per nautical mile.
is

The

steepest reaches in

any large navigable

Yangtze in China,

river of the world are in the

where the river rises some 600 ft in the 1000 miles

between its mouth and the city of Chungking.
Certain sections when in flood have free surfaces
so steep that the currents in the navigable channels reach velocities of 12 to 14 kt.

The method

body

of calculating the

drag and thrust

is

floating

is

upon which a

described in Sec. 57.10.

72.3
Economical and Practical Speeds in
Shallow and Restricted Waters. Decisions as to

the designed speeds for shallow-water vessels are

made

b)y the prospective

operators, on a basis of

many

owners and

factors other than

hydrodynamics. However, the designer may be

called upon to give information and advice on
this matter. He is therefore required to have
some knowledge of the factors involved and some
quantitative data for reference.
The first things to know about the shallowwater and restricted-water regions in which the
ship is to run are the depth, bottom contours,
channel dimensions, water-section outlines, current

current

directions,

velocities,

and

local

may

be greatly complicated by variations in these factors due to

flood and tidal conditions. These in turn depend
upon the weather as well as the seasons and the
current irregularities. This

rotation of the earth.

It is not adequate to

values

of

depend upon average

the water factors previously hsted,

either as averages of distance or of time. It

necessary to assume extremes as well,

if

is

ship

is to be maintained on schedule. Further,

may, and usually does lurk around the

operation

corner of the one operating situation that has

not been investigated properly and for which
preparations have not been made.

a reasonably uniform depth h

is

deter-

for a certain section of the route,

under

First,

mined

Averages 5.0 or 6.0

remainder are 6.0 to

G.

ship or

disaster

hereunder:

Sec. 72.2

to the declivity of the surface

properly

72.2

order of

IN SHIP DESIGN
due

The next
the solitary wave

given conditions.

speed of

step

is

to find the

in that depth,

so

a given shallow- water ship

speed Fj to the critical wave speed Cc may be
known. As an aid in relating contemplated ship
speeds to the solitary-wave speed for any depth.
Table 72. a gives the latter speed for a considerable range of depths to be encountered in practice.
that the

ratio

of

The values given in this table are for stillwater conditions, with no current. When the
water in an estuary, river, or channel is flowing
in one direction or the other, the solitary wave
speed of Table 72. a is still valid when reckoned
with reference to a point fixed in the water. When
a ship is overtaking a solitary wave, therefore,
it makes no essential difference whether the ship
is moving with the current or against it. The
important factors are the wave speed and the
ship speed, both reckoned through the water.
It is emphasized, however, that the critical

Sec.

DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS

12A

speed of the solitary wave or wave of translation

can and does change rapidly with the depth of

water and the configuration of the bed. Since

the wave itself is short, a change in depth that
is relatively short in the direction of motion
changes the speed of advance of the wave rather
suddenly. For instance, in passing over a narrow
rock ledge its speed is changed in proportion to
the clear depth over the ledge. It may be more
than disconcerting to the pilot of a ship moving
at just below the critical speed in the deeper
water to find the sohtary wave suddenly dropping
back and raising the bow of his vessel.
of Fig. 61. L indicate the regions

The contours

both the critical-speed ratio V J -sfgh and the

square-draft to depth ratio a/Aj/Zi, where the
total shallow- water resistance Rn is only slightly
greater than the total deep-water resistance Rt
as well as the regions where the ratio of these
of

two values mounts

to depth ratio

rapidly. If the square-draft

's/A^/h

is

low, the point where

the resistance begins to increase rapidly

about 0.8 Vgh or 0.8cc

This corresponds to a speed, in

ft

is

at

per sec, of

TABLE

Solitary-Wave Speeds for a Range

72. a
OF Uniform Shallow- Water Depths

The
g

wave or wave of translation

by the formula c = y/gh, where
is taken
gravity. In Enghsh units

celerity c of the soUtary

related to the depth h

is

is

as

the acceleration of

32J74 ft per

Water depth

sec*.

h,

For

<;

this table,

kt

is

1.6889 ft per sec.

661

HYDRODYNAMICS

662

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 72.5

diagonal bulges of the maximum section is one

means of reducing the effect of the second factor.

water

of the flow passes

3.0.

raising the floors or

corresponding to displacement-length quotients

A/(0.010L)' of from 40 to 43. If the overall

better one, because

most

the ship under the bottom,

is

decreasing the draft. This gives more flow area

between the ship and the stream bed.

Fortunately, these are equally good solutions

to the handicap imposed by lateral boundaries
close aboard. It is seldom that the beam or the
waterline width of the sections can be appreciably
reduced because of the need for deck space, for

large metacentric stability, or for lateral room

within the hull. In any case, the possible reductions in waterline

usually

they

may

beam

or overall hull width are

inconsequential

of

affect the

amount,

except as

behavior of the ship in a

tight-fitting lock.

known method
and squat found trouble-

best and, in fact, the only

The

of reducing the sinkage

ratio,

is

a factor,

is

one having a low fatness

F/(0.10L)^, of the order of not more than

Sometimes

this ratio is as

low as 1.4 or

1.5,

if power is cheap, and if useful

crowded on, the designer may have to
fill the waterway section with all the ship that
can be pushed through it, regardless of the
square-draft to depth ratio vX^/Zi.
One way to reduce the maximum-section area
Ax is to reduce the draft, but practical considerations may set a minimum limit. There must be
enough displacement volume to carry the weight
of the vessel and its useful load. There must also
be enough hull depth to give it structural strength
and rigidity. Too large a beam-draft ratio is not

size is limited,

load

is

advantageous for propulsion because

bow and

the waterline slopes at the

it

increases

stern for a

at high speeds is to increase the backflow

area and the bed clearance. On the basis that a
given restricted channel can not be made wider

given displacement volume. However, if propulsive efficiency is not a major factor, there is no

and deeper the solution is to make the vessel

shallower and the maximum-area section smaller.
There are no formulas or systematic data available
for predicting the sinkage and squat under
confined-water conditions but Sec. 58.4 contains
some sinkage and change-of-trim values for a

intended for restricted-channel operation. Obviously, it must be necessary for two such craft

few vessels in shallow water. Sec. 58.7 lists

references in which other data of this kind,
derived from model tests, may be found.
The importance of this feature is emphasized

displaced water,

from a letter of F. A. Munroe, Jr.,

Marine Director, Panama Canal Company (of
unknown date), published on page 74 of "Marine
Engineering" for January 1955:

has

some

in the extract

"A minimum

of 5 feet of

water under the keel

is

con-

sidered essential to guard against the squatting effect of a

large body moving in a restricted channel and the seiche
in the

Cut created by the drawing

Miguel Locks end

of the

of

water at the Pedro

Cut."

Transverse Dimensions and Section

Shapes for Shallow-Water Riuining. The combination of water depth h and speed V^ to be
72.5

achieved

is

almost invariably fixed before the

design of a shallow-water ship is undertaken.

This leaves the designer, if he has some freedom

with the length, the choice of the area Ax and

the shape of the maximum section and the
in relation to the water depth h.
overall draft

Within reasonable

limits,

the hull most easily

driven at the relatively high speeds often required

of these vessels, where wavemaking in shallow

hydrodynamic hmit to the beam

meet or pass each other

to

in the

of

craft

same channel,

or for a single vessel to pass through a lock. If

the craft

is

sufficiently shallow to afford

a sizable

clearance under the bottom for the passage of

it

may

well be that a vessel with

a large beam-draft ratio and a small draft is

actually easier to handle and less liable to run
foul of the banks or of other craft than one which
less beam but also
The most efficient

less

bed clearance.

solution,

considering

all

phases of the water flow around the hull, is to

embody a large rise of floor in the midship or the

maximum-area section, together with a large

bilge radius. The use of floor slopes as high as
10, 15, or

20 deg in the transverse sections acts

is more of a nominal

to increase the draft but this

than an actual increase because of the limited

width of the deep-keel portion. If the waterway
bed is soft or yielding, occasional encounter of
this deep-keel portion with that bed does nothing

more than rub off the paint.

The maximum draft may be limited severely
by some especially shallow part of the operating
area. The necessary displacement volume is
then achieved only by using a nearly flat floor
and a relatively large maximum-section coefficient

Cx

may

possibly 0.9 or more.

When

this occurs, it

be necessary to hold to the relatively flat

floor lines for only a limited length amidships.

DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 72.6

Bx' 37.6

ft

Hx-8.l4n

G63

of The Franklin Institute, July 1879, Vol. 78,

pages 18-27. A model of this vessel,
530,
was made and tested at the old Experimental
Model Basin at Washington. The results were
reported upon most favorably by D. W. Taylor.

</Hx -4.619

EMB

Detroit River excursion steamer

(b)

the body plan of which

[SNAME,
Rise of Floor/Bx - 0.0246

Bilqe

Podlus/Bx" 0.232, obout

1901,

is

Tashmoo,
reproduced in Fig. 72.A

1-12;

pp.

complete lines of both the

PI.

contains the

Tashmoo and the

SNAME, HT, 1943, pp. 383-386]

Erie steamer City of Erie, the
body plan of which is given in Fig. 72. B. It was,
City of Erie; also

Fig. 72. a

Body Plan of Detroit River Steamer

Tashmoo

Along the greater part of the ship length, there is

adequate room to pass the displaced water
underneath the bottom. This was done in the
design of the Hudson River paddlewheei steamer
Mary Powell, with a rather flat floor [Int. Mar.
Eng'g., May 1920, pp. 406-407], and in the
design of the large Lake Erie paddlewheei steamer
Greater Detroit, to be described presently.
72.6 Typical Shallow-Water Vessels.
It is
helpful here to examine the forms and other data
still

some

or

hulls,

Tashmoo, designed by Frank E. Kirby,

and river steamers. Its
famous race with that vessel in 1901, in the
like the

who

specialized in lake

relatively shallow waters of

remembered [SNAME,
(d)

Lake

Hudson River steamer New

plan of which

is

Erie,

is

still

1901, pp. 1-12].

York, the

reproduced in Fig. 72. C

body

[SNAME,

fast shallow-water vessels with slender

vessels which have given many decades of

splendid and even superior performance.

some

The

fact

were designed and built

nearly a century ago is supplemented by the
amazing realization that their performance is
still good by the standards of today
(1955).
Many of them, therefore, appear to be perfectly
valid bases for a modern, systematic analysis of
that

The Lake

(c)

of these craft

Bili5ef?adius/Bx=

Fig. 72. B

Body Plan of Lake Erie Steamer

City of Erie

design for a fast, shallow-water vessel.

Among

these vessels are mentioned:

and 15]. A model of

was made and tested at
the old Experimental Model Basin at Washington.
This and the two vessels preceding are listed in
the table of E. M. Bragg [SNAME, 1916, PL 90].
1906, pp. 31-40

The famous Hudson River steamer Mary

Powell, designed and built in 1861, when naval
(a)

in the United States was only

emerging from the practical stage. The designed
waterline of the run of this vessel is illustrated in
diagram B of Fig. 24. G. The complete lines are
to be found in "International Marine Engineering" for May 1920, pages 406 and 407; see
also a paper by B. F. Isherwood in the Journal

architecture

Afterbody

Rise of Floor/ Bx'0. 0224 !

0.121

this vessel,

(e)

and

EMB

Pis. 14

529,

Hudson River steamer Hendrik Hudson, deby J. W. Millard and Brothers, New York

signed

J., MESA, Feb 1930, pp. 100, 104]

Lake Erie steamer Greater Detroit (sister
vessel Greater Buffalo), designed by Frank E.

[Mason, C.
(f)

Fore body

/Mom

Hull

Extends Above This

Lin.

Frame Number

Frome Numbers

Fig. 72. C

Body Plan of Hudson River Steamer New York

HYDRODYNAMICS

664
Topmost

Porlion

Hull

,ol

Not Shown

24( WL

IN SHIP DESIGN
resembhng
Detroit

the

Sec. 72.6

general

[SNAME, HT,

design

of

the

Greater

1943, pp. 97-134].

How-

were of relatively shallow

draft, these vessels appear not to have been
designed to run in particularly shallow water.
They are not further described here as having
ever, although they

design features useful for shallow-water craft.

The
Fig. 72.D

Body Plan of Lake Erie Steamer

Greater Detroit

Kirby

in conjunction with

H. C. Sadler

design of shallow-water vessels for inland

waterways in Europe is discussed by G. Lauterbach in "Schiffbautechnisches Handbuch (Shipbuilding and Ship Design Handbook)," Berlin,

[SNAME,

1952, pages 613-635.

Possibly because high-speed vessels built for

adapted from the reference. Earlier vessels of this general type are

service in confined waters have been considered

1925, pp. 101-108

body plan

and

Pis. 64-83]. Fig.

72.D

is

of this vessel,

described and illustrated elsewhere

[SNAME, HT,

1943, pp. 377-378, 382].

Some dimensions and form data on

vessels, unfortunately

these

not complete and not too

rehable because of conflicting published figures,

are given in Table 72. b. Additional data on

some

of these vessels, pertaining principally to their

feathering paddlewheels,

[SNAME,

1916,

PL

is

given by E.

M. Bragg
in the

period from 1850 to 1910, resulted in the developof fast vessels driven

TABLE

72.b

by

side paddlewheels,

of Ship

least,

pages printed nearly a century ago contain

information than those of recent
outstanding article in the latter

much more
years. One

category treats largely of the machinery and

speaks only briefly of the hull [SNAME, HT,
1943, pp. 97-134]. Most of the published data
essential information

huU coefficients, or the

by which these data can

be calculated. If the length is given the displacement may not be, and vice versa.

Dimensions and Form Data for American River Steamers of the Period 1870-1940

All the vessels in this table were driven

Name

these and other ships are rather hard to find in

the technical hterature. For large vessels at

are lacking the customary

90].

Steam navigation on Long Island Sound,

ment

as specialized craft, factual data on the hulls of

by

side paddlewheels.

DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 72.7

TABLE

72.C

Dimensions, Ratios, and Proportions for American River Steamers

The dimensions marked by

ratios

and

L*, ft

6f)5

asterisks (*) are tliose listed

coefRcients are derived

by J. Scott Russell [MSNA,

from the published dimensions.

oi''

the Period 1850-1870

1865, Vol.

I,

p. 666]. Tlie

remaining

HYDRODYNAMICS

666

which acts to increase the friction resistance,

especiall}'- with a high backfiow velocity. However,
the gain from a small square-draft to water-depth
ratio yTAxlh is likely to be greater than the
loss from the increased wetted area. A ratio of
\/X^//i less than 1.05, as shown by the curve
of Fig. 61. G, produces a speed loss from augmented potential flow of less than 10 per cent,
while a ratio below 0.375 is responsible for a
speed loss of only 1 per cent.
If the length is limited, increase the beam but
hold a small draft. The additional bed clearance
provided for normal flow under the bottom

should more than compensate for the greater

waterUne slopes associated with the wide beam.
It is comforting to know that, in general, a
form of hull suitable for confined waters is found
to give good performance in water of any extent
and depth, especially for low values of Cp and
of fatness ratio F/(0.10L)l Thus a vessel designed to do well in the shallow portion of a
route of varying depth is by no means at a disadvantage when operating in the deep portion
of the route.

72.8

Modifications

to

Shallow-Water Operation.

Normal

Forms

for

For the vessel which

IN SHIP DESIGN

ABC

For the 10-kt

Amalo

canal, T,

Sec. 72.8

is

26

ft,

26

1.08.

From

as a basis, the estimated sinkage

the

bow and 0.004L

2.04

respectively.

ft,

It

and

necessary to extra-

is

polate the graphs to obtain these values.

For the 14-kt speed (through the wate r) in the

below Port Correo, T, is 14/^/510 = 0.62;

river

at a draft of 26.5

ft in

the fresh water, the value

hlU = 30/26.5 = 1.13. The estimated sinkage

at the bow is 0.0068L or 3.47 ft; at the stern it is
0.0062L, or 3.16 ft. A much greater extrapolation
of

is

required here, in Fig. 58. E, than for the Port

Amalo canal estimate.

The Cp value of the T-S tanker is 0.74 compared

ABC ship, and the fatness ratio

compared to 4.327. Despite the greater

to 0.62 for the

is

5.76

beam

ABC

appears that the

be reduced to about
0.8 of the values given. Even so, the nominal
2-ft bed clearance in the Port Amalo canal is
of

the

ship,

estimated sinkages could

it

all

reduced to only 2.0 1.75 = 0.25 ft; in the river

below Port Correo it is only 3.5 - 2.78 = 0.72 ft.
These are small but probably representative of

sign

of the latter the critical speed is 18.40 kt.

is

= 28/
T-2 tanker
0.0043L at

at the stern; or 2.19 ft

depend upon the relative importance of ship

performance in one and in the other. A good
example of this situation is the ABC ship, for
which the design requirements are set forth in
Chap. 64.

depth

0.443; at a draft

Fig. 58.E, using the

modern medium-speed

Port Correo, it is noted from Table 72. a that for

the 28-ft depth of the former the speed of the
wave of translation is 17.77 kt. For the 30-ft

the value of depth /i/draft

of

runs mostly in deep water but also has to perform well in shallow and confined waters the
concessions to the shallow-water requirements

Considering the features of this vessel as

regards its operation in the canal leading from
Port Amalo to the sea, and in the river below

speed in the Port

s hip

10/\/510

operations

shallow-

in

water areas.

The Adaptation

72.9

of Straight-Element

Shallow-Water Vessels.

to

vessel

Dere-

quired to operate in confined waters, with restric-

imposed by channel bed and bound-

tions to flow
aries,

should logically receive more than the usual

amount

of careful hull shaping. It needs every-

thing that can be done to improve the flow around

the hull. Nevertheless, the bed and side clearances
for

most

of these vessels

in

some

many

parts

approach zero

part of their operating areas; often in

of those areas.

The

practical impossibility of shaping the hull

to compensate for

more than a

fraction of these

Both

are well over the speeds contemplated in

those portions of the route, hence the ship will

handicaps makes it good design, as well as good

engineering, to take this opportunity of incor-

be running in the subcritical range in both cases.

The matter of providing room for the backflow
under and around the ship is handled in Sec.
66.13, when laying out the contour of the maxi-

porating straight-element features in the under-

mum-area

the Hillman

section.

power is almost always available

to overcome the augmented resistance in confined
waters, because the deep-water speed at any draft
and trim is in excess of that permitted by local
reserve of

regulations

when

traversing confined-water areas.

water form.

judicious use of chines, coves, and

developable surfaces affords a surprising degree

of flexibility to the designer, as is evidenced by
shallow-water pushboat.

body

plan of a craft of this type, 115 ft long by 27 ft

beam, is reproduced in Fig. 72. E. Its outboard
this vessel

drawn in Fig.
was designed primarily

for pushing, the general

shape should serve well

profile,

72. F.

less

While

numerous

details, is

DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS

Sec. 72.10

20 at Extreme After End

Station

-^

Ratio

any other type

running

reentrant angles in the forebody sections

of the

flare

its

from becom-

bow wave. At

same time they provide support

with

for a

the

wide deck

pushing pads (or for passenger accommo-

dations or cargo). Forward of and abaft Sta. 2.5

the section

lines

lie

Hul

.J-S

deq

Body Plan of Hillman Pushboat with Sthaight-Element Frame Sections

of shallow-water vessel

way

of

Rise of Floor ^

forward of Sta. 2.5 prevent the

ing excessive in

End

about

at moderate speed.

The

at Forward

Station

of

0.0432

Fig. 72. E

for

667

approximately normal to

decks in a vessel which must carry most of its

useful load above the main hull, produces the
large flares in the entrance

shown on the body

plans of Figs. 72.A through 72.E.

If

the length

is

not restricted, the designed

waterline slopes in the entrance and run can be

made acceptably

small, despite a large

maximum

beam. This helps greatly to counteract the effect

of heavy flare in the entrance sections. The

DWL

Mary

the lines of flow as the water from ahead passes

entrance slope of the

under the

was only about 6.5 deg; that of the New York

about 5 deg. The maximum run slopes were
13.8 deg and 15.5 deg, respectively.
A scow, sled, or spoon bow lets most of the
water flow easily under the bottom but when

vessel.

In the afterbody, the extension

of the nearly vertical side

down

to a long hori-

zontal knuckle, lying at an appreciable distance

below the

DWL,

prevents leakage of air to the

propeller region, well inboard from the side.

craft depicted

in

Figs.

72.

and

The

72. F

addition fitted with two Kort nozzles,

was
shown

in

the bed clearance

in

the

bow must

sides. Further,

of a vertical skeg

channel,

it

appears that the water flow along the

afterbody would likewise

move

easily

under the

Bow

with this type of entrance to provide a stabilizing

or fulcrum effect for assistance in steering

turning. This

is

Shaping the bow and

the entrance is a much more difficult operation on
a shallow-water craft with a B/H ratio of from
4 or 5 to 10 than on a deep-water vessel, with a
ratio of 2.5 to 3.5. The large beam-draft ratio,
coupled with the usual requirements for wide
Shaping.

Fig. 72. F

and

the reason for the V-shaped fore-

foot of the Hillman design of Fig. 72.E. A. R.

Mitchell recommends that on full-bodied

section lines shown.

72.10

reduced nearly to nothing,

it flow easily around the

something approaching the shape

is required forward on a vessel

outline only in the latter figure, which served as

was not possible to arrange for a flow test of a

model of this vessel in the TMB circulating-water

Powell

also let

additional shields against air leakage. Although

it

is

for the

of this type the slope of the

less

ci'aft

DWL forward be not

than 28 deg, because at a lesser angle more

of the

water flows around the sides and not under

the bottom [INA, Jul 1952, p. 148].

He further recommends that to facilitate this

under- the-bottom flow "... stem in profile should

Outboard Profile of Hillman Pushboat

Both Figs. 72.E and 72.F are adapted from drawings kindly furnished by the Hillman Barge and Construction Company
of Pittsburgh

HYDRODYNAMICS

fifiS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 72.11

be swept aft as gently as possible below the load

efficient propulsion.

waterline; the buttocks forward should be very

this feature are included in Sec. 71.6.

easy and the bilges rounded" [INA, Jul 1952,

p. 148]. This is done in the Hillman pushboat

When hmitations on overall beam prevent the

use of side wheels, the paddlewheels can always
be placed at the stern. Here they may be either in

previously referenced, as depicted in the profile

of Fig. 72. F.

The

forefoot

Mary

fashion on the

is

cut

away

Powell and the

in similar

New

York,

Further comments concerning

the form of a pair, one on each quarter with the

mechanism

drive

may

in between, or there

be

indicated by the lines drawings in the references

only a single wheel, extending

cited for those vessels.

the ship. In either case it is by no means easy to

provide the necessary displacement volume at
the stern and at the same time to embody the

Slope and Curvature of Buttocks.

72.11

In

the slow- and moderate-speed ranges, on a wide,

shallow craft, most if not very nearly all of the

The buttock
demand the same

all

the

way

across

reverse curvature in the buttocks under the run

flow passes under the bottom.

slopes

which

and curvatures therefore

atten-

wheels in a direction that

will project the inflow to the stern

is

paddleroughly horizontal.

tion as the waterlines near the surface in a deepwater ship design. This calls for easy transitions
where the forward buttocks or forelmes curve

against which the outflow

downward and

are going astern, can be reflected aft from the hull.

and under the bottom. Examples of these are found m the keel profile and
the chine line at the bow of the Hillman design
ofFig.72.F.
For drafts of the order of 8 to 6 ft or less, it is
well to hold the buttock slopes under the run to
a maximimi of 15 deg with the horizontal; a
aft

maximum

of 12 or 13 deg is better.
Apparently to save time and labor and to
facilitate fabrication and erection, the buttocks
under the run of small shallow-draft vessels often
have a sharp knuckle where they leave the baseplane. Abaft this knuckle they are straight, with
constant slope. If they are given reverse curvature,
so as to slope downward and aft behind the
propeller position, there is a second sharp knuckle
where this change is made. It is pointed out
1 and 2 of Volume I that
sudden change in direction,

repeatedly in Parts

water

resists

often

with

this

objectionable

consequences.

It

is

found, furthermore, that with some

planning and some alteration of the structural
usually
plans,

it is

just as easy to provide a

for the M'ater flow as to

Adequate Flow

make

good path

a poor one.

Water to the Propulsion Devices. The provision of means whereby

water may have free and easy entry to the propulsion devices is much more important in a
shallow-water than in a deep-water design. The
72.12

of

use of side paddlewheels eliminates the necessity

of shaping the hull locally to suit some particular

kind of device, especially to msure good flow

to it. In fact, this problem almost solves itself,
except for the proper fore-and-aft position of the
wheels along the hull to bring them in the crest
of a transverse

Velox wave for the speed of most

The

after termination of the hull, just

ahead

of the stern wheel (s), should not present a surface

an appreciable part

If

when

jet,

of it is so reflected,

engine order for astern rotation

followed

the wheels

by an ahead motion

is liable

an

to be

of the ship!

If rotating-blade propellers

with vertical axes

are fitted at the stern, or at both

bow and

stern,

one or both ends are cut up toward a flat bottom

region in the vicinity of each propeller. This
prevents the blade tips from extending below
the keel. The blades are approximately vertical
and the water coming from under the ship meets

them

in a nearly horizontal direction.

be found advisable to

fit

It

may

several of these propellers

abreast because the draft limitations are certain

to restrict the lengths of the blades.

shallow-water craft of normal form, to be

driven by screw propeUers, generally requires at

least two screws if the draft is limited and the

speed

is

high enough to

powers.
not manda-

call for large

In addition, twin screws are useful

if

overcome the sluggish maneuvering

any vessel under which the bed
clearance is small. To prevent any undue reduction in propeller diameter and disc area, with its
loss of efficiency and maneuvering power, designers
of years gone by resorted to arrangements which
are still used to advantage if the situation demands:
tory

to

quahties

(a)

of

Make

the tip submergence slightly negative,

with the tips normally out of water, on the basis

that they will have adequate submergence in the
stern-wave

This

only feasible

there

is

to be such a crest at the propefler position and

if

crest.

is

if

the propellers are to be lightly loaded.

(b)

Place the propellers under a wide torpedoboat

DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS

Scr. 72.13

with its lower surface lying very slightly

below the DWL, and with a small tip clearance
under this surface. N. G. Herreshoff and others
stern,

built

many

designer and builder of tliose craft, A. F.

Yarrow

["The Screw as a Means

Shallow

of Propulsion for

Draught Vessels," INA, 1903,

p.

107]:

successful craft to this design.

Use surface propellers

for extremely small

This scheme, of course, does not increase
the thrust-producing area in proportion to the
(c)

669

draftSi

"There
motion

be an increased resistance to the forward

due to the action of the screw in
reducing the pressure of water at the inclined part of
the tunnel forward of the propeller, and this increased
will

of the vessel,

is common, more or less, to all screw ships,

probably proportionately greater in this class
of vessel than in those where the propeller in in the usual

resistance

increase in diameter.
(d)

Employ a

tip

submergences ranging from a small positive

tunnel-stern design, with at-rest

to a large negative value.

but

it

is

There is also a loss of efficiency due to the resistance of the inclined surface of the tunnel aft of the proposition.

peller."

The Design

72.13

Tunnel Stern.

of a

The

tops or roofs of the tunnels described in Sec. 25.20

and diagrammed
designed

in Fig. 25.

waterline

M may

extend

or

below the

lie

above

it.

The

design rules given here apply generally to a tunnel

whose roof extends above the

DWL.

how much

region of

DWL,
Good

of the propeller disc

and the

maximum
is

slope, at

about half

usually not far below the

where the hydrostatic pressure

design

maximum

When laying out a tunnel stern, whether for

one or for multiple screw propellers, it is first
decided

The

height of the tunnel,

to

prevent

separation

is

calls

small.
for

roof slope, in a vertical plane through

the shaft, not exceeding 14 or 15 deg. A. R.

Mitchell recommends a limit of 12 deg in fast

and 15 deg

in slow ones [INA, Jul 1952,

on the basis of a negligible change
of trim when underway.
However, limiting the roof slope to avoid
separation is only part of the story, on the basis

vessels

This

upper blades can be out of water. It is believed

that a tunnel system can be designed to function
properly even if the shaft axis has above the DWL,
as for a surface propeller. This extreme may be
considered necessary to permit removing a
propeller through an access hatch above, provided
the vessel can not be trimmed by the bow for
this purpose. However, it is preferable to place
the axis at least O.IOD below the DWL, where D
is the propeller diameter. This keeps the propeller
bearing always lubricated (if this is a practical
item), keeps the tunnel entirely full of water,

p. 148].

and prevents cutting too much out of the

for the tunnel slopes forward and aft.

be of the order of 6 to 10 deg, instead of 12 or 15

to 18 deg. The Hillman design of Figs. 72.E
and 72. F achieves this and more. Moving the

The

hull

tip

clearances need

hull

be only large

enough to insure against mechanical rubbing

under all conceivable circumstances and to pass
any foreign material that may be in the water
without jamming it between the propeller tips
and the hull. A tip clearance of 0.04 times the
propeller diameter appears to be ample, both
mechanically and hydrodynamically. The small
tip clearances necessary to insure that the highest

part of the tunnel runs full of water

partial

insurance

losses, particularly

The next major

mum

against

when
step

is

excessive

the shp ratio

may

be a

tip-vortex
is

large.

to determine the maxi-

permissible fore-and-aft slope of the tunnel

Although described in
Sec. 25.20, it is well to emphasize here the effect
on propulsion of the roof slopes, both forward of
and abaft the wheel. In the words of a renowned

top, forward of the wheel.

is

that propulsive efficiency

sufficient

is

a design factor of

importance so that

regarded completely.

it can not be disvalue of i7p(eta) superior

to those achieved in the past, even though it is

not comparable to that of a large deep-water
vessel, is possible only by rather drastic levehng
of the tunnel-roof slopes,

both forward of and

may have to

abaft the propeller position. These

tunnel boundaries farther forward of and abaft

the propeller position reduces the displacement

volume aft so that the stern portion of the hull

becomes not much more than a cover over the
propeller inflow and outflow jets.
There are major structural problems involved in
stiffening and supporting a long stern overhang
with a buoyancy that is small compared with its
size and weight. One solution is to raise the deck
aft and increase the girder depth, as was done by
the Dravo Corporation for the 200-ft pushboats
A. D. Haynes II and Valley Transporter [Maritime Reporter, 15 Dec 1955, p. 11].
Another important reason for small fore-and-aft
slopes in the roof of a tunnel oyer a screw propeller is to provide as great

possible with a given shaft

an astern thrust as
power and a given

HYDRODYNAMICS

670
This

Portion Transverse and

Main Decki^..

|ii,e

Vertical,

Ironsom

IN SHIP DESIGN
the

ship

Sec. 72.13

centerline.

The

may,

tunnels

with

propeller shaft axes, even diverge slightly with

distance

aft.

often

It

on the other
extremely small,

happens,

hand, that the bed clearance

is

so small in fact that the propellers can not be

fed

adequately

One

solution

is

with
to

draw

water from underneath.

it in from the sides, from

the open regions abreast the hull, using oblique,

Afterbody Plan of Twin-Screw

Vessel with Oblique Tunnels

Fig. 72.

overall disc area of the propeller (s). All shallowdraft self-propelled vessels are required to do a

great deal of maneuvering.

Furthermore, they

maneuver under the handicap

of sluggish response

because of the limited bed clearance and the

obstructions to under-the-bottom flow within
that clearance. A configuration of the bottom of

converging recesses that are tunnels in

and 72. H, adapted from model fines

by A. R. Mitchell ["Tunnel Type

Figs. 72.

published

Vessels," lESS, 1952-1953, Vol. 96, Fig. 9, p. 141],

illustrate

screw

one form of oblique tunnel for a twinThis proved its

vessel.

shallow-draft

superiority in self-propelled

configuration providing good flow from ahead.

water. Fig.

The

slope of the roof abaft the wheel

to be reduced to the order of 5 deg,

if

may have

the backing

model

tests over a

when run in shallow

24 on page 165 of the lESS reference

vessel with parallel tunnels,

is

a photograph of half the afterbody of a model

built

to this design.

The same photograph

characteristics are sufficiently important.

reproduced in INA, July 1952, Fig.

Contraction of the inflow jet to the propeller

allowed for by flaring the sides and widening
the tunnel from aft forward, in much the same

page

is

the tunnel between twin skegs is

widened. The same effect is achieved by progressively increasing the radius of the tunnel

manner

as

only.

able to their use.

the hull and the tunnel roof which facilitates

is therefore almost as important as a

flow from aft

name

These oblique tunnels were developed at least

as early as 1938 and were said to have performed
well in service, when the conditions were favor-

Results

148.

of

rather fully on pages

the

tests

10,

are

is

facing

described

143 through 150 of the

Mitchell reference.

For

tunnel-stern

towboat,

built

without

oblique tunnels, on which the flow to the propellers

was inadequate because

of limited

bed

from aft forward.

customary to drop the elevated tunnel

clearance under the hull in shallow water, L. A.

the propeller position until at the

extreme stern it meets or falls just below the
at-rest water level. This prevents air from being

building a large-diameter duct through the hull

roof, also

It is

roof abaft

drawn
astern.

into the tunnel

when the

It also keeps debris

the tunnel from aft

when

rise to

length required

an easy slope abaft the propeller positions

may be as much as 0.15 or 0.18L; that for a
14-deg maximum slope forward as much as 0.23

for

to 0.25L.

For vessels having two or more screw propellers,

customary to provide a separate tunnel for
each propeller. If the vessels are to run in regions
where there is enough bed clearance to permit a

it is

water to the propellers fro7n under

appears best for the tunnel recesses
ahead of the propeller positions to be parallel to
of

the bottom, it

by

Fluid Mech., Univ. of Minn., Jun 1953, pp. 406,

is

an
added thrust-deduction force which detracts from
the propelling power, described in Sec. 25.20 and

good flow

effected a solution

at rest.

Unfortunately, this shape also gives

The

Ormondroyd

floating into

the vessel

earlier in the present section.

J.

for each propeller. This duct took in water forward, above the baseplane, and discharged it
downward and aft through the tunnel roof ahead
of the propeller [Third Midwestern Conf. on

propeller rotates

from

Baier and

411].

Waas shows

H.
river

craft

a twin-screw shallow-draft
with propellers far outboard, each

housed in a tunnel that fits the tip circles closely

but is of limited circumferential extent. A partly
underhung, balanced rudder is fitted abaft the
skeg endings just outboard of the wheels. The
propellers are carried by struts forward of them
[STG, 1952, Figs. 16, 17, p. 213].
If the exposed positions of the blade tips of
the propellers can be accepted, there is no reason
why the tunnel in which they work can not extend
abaft the propeller in a direction nearly horizontal.

The

elevated portion of the outflow

acted upon by gravity forces,

falls

jet,

at a certain

Line of Top of Roof or

Crown

of

Bottom
Outboard

Line, of

Tunnel

The Afterbody Plon

of

of

OUTBOARD

Hull

PROFILE

Tunnel

of

This Vessel

is

Shown on

72.&

Fio.

FISH-EYE VIEW, STARBOARD SIDE

L<,
10.5

II

Fig. 72.H

10

9.5

Stations

Outboard Profile and Fish-Eye View of Vessel with an Oblique Tunnel

The top
downward shghtly to

rate; in addition, the jet contracts aft.

when the

of the tunnel can be bent

the flap levels out;

take care of these two

propeller,

when

effects. It is

easy for the

rotating ahead and accelerating

propeller

the waterline.

is

starting.

its after

good tunnel

seal

is

The

conditions of loading.

in all

When underway

end usually

rises above
maintained

resistance

is

the vessel in that direction, to sweep the air out

lowered because of the reduced inclination of the

and to fill it completely with water.

However, keeping debris out of the propeller and

automatic

keeping air out of the disc when going astern, as

is

of the tunnel

mentioned previously, require a closure for the

if the after end is not closed
in some way the craft may not go astern at all.
Making this closure by dropping the tunnel roof
is not always the best solution, especially when
there are large changes of draft aft. This difficulty
is overcome by a simple yet effective hinged flap,
after end. Indeed,

tunnel roof abaft the propeller. Going astern, the

flap is forced

down onto

sill,

set at the lowest point of flap travel.

which
This

maintains the seal in the tunnel and the propeller

continues to work in solid water [Mitchell, A. R.,
lESS, 1952-1953, Vol. 96, p. 183].

When

the change in draft aft

small,

is

for

various service conditions, tunnel endings with

5tern

of

Vessel

introduced by A. F. Yarrow in the early 1900's,

which may be lowered to close the after end of
the tunnel. Fig. 72.1 shows schematically the
arrangement of a device of this kind.
The flap forms the upper part of the tunnel

-Flop

in

when Underway

Roise^-^Position, as

-Ap proximate

Lme

Woterline

of Hull,

ending, either close abaft the propeller or at a

it. The raising and lowering
be done mechanically or automatically; in

short distance from

may

Flop
03

in

is

Ootboard
of Tunnel

Lowered Position

when Stortinq or
Backinq

Vertical Curtoin Plates

on Each Side of
Tunnel,

by the outflow
the proper angle. The flap

the latter case the force exerted

jet holds the flap at

Between

which the Flop

F,ts Neatly

Propeller

'

sealed along

of a foot

its sides. Its lower edge is a fraction

below the at-rest waterline, with the

vessel in the light condition, so as to exclude air

Arrangement Sketch op a Hinged Flap

Closing the After End of a Propeller Tunnel

Fig. 72.1

HYDRODYNAMICS

672
small

down

slope give satisfactory performance

and avoid the added complications

IN SHIP DESIGN
an example

Sec. 72.14

what not

of

The

do.

to

hoisting

ago, that the design of a tunnel-stern craft should

can be of the recessed type, similar to

those illustrated in Fig. 75.F. The doublers can
be converted to thick, single-layer shell plate

be such as to enable the vessel to pivot longi-

and the strut-arm connections can be

tudinally about the fore-and-aft position of the

within the hull.

matic

flap.

Ward

C. E.

propeller(s)

as

of the auto-

pointed out,

many

the loading changes

years

[SNAME,

1909, p. 100]. In other words, the draft at the

propeller

position should

constant

with

volume and the

remain more or less

in the displacement

changes
trim.

If,

instead, the draft at the

stern can be kept nearly constant, the tunnel

remains closed at

its after

fittings

end to the same degree

and a tunnel flap is not necessary.

One problem in twin- or multiple-screw tunnel
sterns, where a propeller is mounted so close to

The
is

entirely

strake or ring of plating abreast the wheel

preferably

made

heavier than

the rest,

ship in Figs. 67.0 and 73.F. It

is

as

ABC

illustrated for the arch type of stern of the

to be held in

by substantial internal framing.

of any access hatch over the pro-

position securely

Careful fitting

peller is necessary to insure a flush surface in

the roof. Bolts, nuts, and other securing devices

the ship or tunnel side does not

hatch are to be kept clear of the tunnel

The curved under surfaces of all tunnels,
both ahead of and abaft the propeller positions,
are to be fair, with sufficient stiffness to remain so
and to avoid panting and vibration.
The Germans have proposed for small tunnel-

project far enough below the actual waterline to

stern craft that the portion of the tunnel roof

form an adequate pressure barrier, air is sucked

under and into the propeller. Large chunks of air
striking the propeller produce objectionable noise
and vibration. L. A. Baier and J. Ormondroyd
report that "vicious stern vibration" on a twinscrew towboat, resulting from air leakage of this
kind, was corrected by adding vertical streamlined fins outboard of the propellers [Third
Midwestern Conf. on Fluid Mech., Univ. of
Minn., Jun 1953, p. 406].

directly

the side that the hull plating forms virtually one

side of the tunnel,

is

that air

is

be drawn

liable to

into the inflow jet because of the reduced pressure

there.

When

The necessary thrust-producing

easily

area

ilo is

not

limited

is

by a shallow

draft.

Tunnel-stern craft are, therefore, usually designed

to be driven
is,

by two,

three, or four screw propellers.

however, the case of the tunnel-stern

tugs built for

six

Yukon River

service in 1898, with

screw propellers, each 3.33

beam
ASNE, Aug
a total
C. E.,

diameter, on

ft in

Jun 1898;
1898, Vol. X, pp. 740-745; Ward,

of only 32 ft [Mar. Eng'g.,

SNAME,

72.14

The

1909, pp. 105-106].

Hull Surfaces Abreast Screw Propellers.

hull surface in

way

of the small tip clearance

provided under the roof of a tunnel should be

flush, free of

without

seam

laps

projecting

and

rivet

rubber rather than

7,

by A.

[STG, 1952, Figs. 6 and

a structural advantage,

steel

pp. 207-208]. There

is

and possibly a lessening of the vibratory forces

the hull boundary in way of the propeller tips

if

yields with the pressure variations in the blade

The

fields.

effect of a yielding

boundary on the

continuity and other characteristics of the water

is not known well enough to justify the use of
a resiUent boundary as more than an experiment.

flow

Powering of Tunnel-Stem

72.15

self-propelled

propellers

shallow-draft

must

vessel

R.

Mitchell

finished

screw

any appreciable sector

state of the art, enclosing

of the tip circle within a tunnel recess reduces

both the propulsive coefficient

propeller thrust T{\

t)

-qp

and the

effective

at low speed. This

is

undoubtedly because of excessive thrust-deduction

forces on the tunnel roof(s) for relatively long
distances ahead of and abaft the disc positions.
In any case, available published data, principally
those of A. R. Mitchell [lESS, 1952-1953, Vol.

employ a value

of

-qp

if

for speed

ever

is it

and power

predictions greater than 0.50. Indeed, Mitchell

goes so far as to state that:

[lESS,

1952-1953, Vol. 96, Fig. 15 on p. 155; INA, Jul

1952, Fig. 6 opp. p. 147], with its protruding
strut-arm pads, doublers, and hoisting eyes, is

with

face the fact that, in the present

safe to

The

The

Craft.

naval architect and marine engineer designing a

96, pp. 125-188], reveal that rarely

it.

of

In other words,

points

good workmanship can make

illustrated

and preferably
and welding
and smooth as

made

over the screw propeller be

resilient instead of stiff material.

butts,

heads; in other words, as fair

tunnel

surface.

obtained with a single screw propeller

whose diameter

There

for this

it is most unmse to guarantee

speed when the depth of water under the keel
than the draught of the vessel" [INA, Jul 1952,

"Generally speaking,

specific

is less

p. 152].

DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS

See. 72.17

In this connection

Twin screws

to be noted from Figs.

it is

72.E and 72.F that whereas the Hillman boat

depicted there carries a pair of screw propellers
having a diameter large in proportion to the
draft, there is only a vestige of a tunnel in the
afterbody plan. Further, the down slope abaft
the propeller position is rather small. This craft
reported to perform excellently in all respects,
and the principal reason given is the free flow of
water to the wheels [E. W. Easter, unpubl. Itr.
of 2 Feb 1951 to HES].
72.16 Handling of the Vibration Problem in
Shallow Water. Sees. 35.13 and 35.14 describe
the manner in which vibration of the ship hull
and its many smaller elements is manifested in
motion of the water and is magnified in a shallowwater region. The only known method of avoiding

tunnel recesses.
(4)

these objectionable effects

The

by the blades

forces generated

pulsion

reduced,

are

devices

periodic

(5)

(6)

explained

means be provided whereby

from another

This

direction.

it

(8)

(9)

man-made

attractive they

72.17
Vessels.

may

paths,

(11) "Mississippi- Warrior

There

is

shallow-water

sterns but unfortunately

and

descriptive.

section lists

and most

The

some

of the

craft

much

of

tunnels, with a tip emergence at rest of

0.37D.

(12)

tunnel

superficial

partial bibliography of this

ones, omitting

many

Thomycroft,
Rivers,"

(2)

(3)

Sir

"Steamers for Shallow

Magazine, Marine Number,

Cassier's

Jul-Aug 1897, Vol. XII

The twin-screw river gunboat H.M.S. Sheikh is
described briefly in ASNE, Feb 1898, Vol. X, p. 230
Notes concerning the "Ught^draught gunboats"
Heron and Jackdaw, built for the British Navy,
are to be found in ASNE, Feb 1898, Vol. X, pp.
227-228 and May 1898, pp. 556-559. These
vessels are 100 ft long by 20 ft wide by 2 ft draft.

Each

9.33 ft

propeller

has

P =

ft.

and

8.5

four

blades,

about
with

"Experimental Towboats," House (of Representatives), 63rd Congress, 2nd Session, Document 857,
1914, Vol. 27. This is the full report of a most
comprehensive investigation, both in America and
abroad, to determine the best type of shallow-water

towboat and towed barges

for inland waters. It

and screw-propeUer
comparative tests on models of radial

vessel forms for paddlewheel

of

John,

ft

gives the results of a multitude of model tests on

drive

those containing general descriptions only:

(1)

and

200

long by 40 ft beam by 10 ft depth, with a draft of

6.5 to 7 ft. There are two propellers operating in

of the older technical references

modern

article describes

illustrates the vessels of the Natchez class,

D =

with

it is

I,

different

River Towboats," Mar. Eng'g.,

Jun 1921, pp. 432-437. This

appear to the eye.

on Tunnel-Stem
a vast technical literature on

much

R. C, "Construction and Operation of

Western River Steamers," SNAME, 1913, pp.
59-66

no matter how

Partial Bibliography

self-propelled

Teubert, O., "Die Biuuenschiffahrt (Ship Operation

(10) -Wilson

geometrically similar boundaries, that the water

follow

1903,

Yarrow, A. F., "The Screw as a Means of Propulsion

for Shallow Draught Vessels," INA, 1903, pp.
106-117
Ward, C. E., "Shallow-Draught River Steamers,"
SNAME, 1909, pp. 79-106 and Pis. 23-86;
especially pp. 96-101

pp. 476-481. A second edition, not

from the first, appeared in 1932.

behind the oblique tunnels described in Sec.

72.13. However, it can not always be assumed,
without the confirmation of flow tests with
will

Navigation

and Inspec-

ATMA,

on Inland Waterways)," Leipzig, 1912, Vol.

can come in

the reasoning

is

la

h.

ships.
(7)

such as those of high wake.

When water can not flow freely to a propulsiondevice position from one direction, because of
confined-water limitations, good design dictates

also

Vol. 14, pp. 298-300. This paper contains drawings

of eight types of tunnel sterns for shallow-draft

in certain regions,

that

or 9.13 kt.

Int^rieure (Note on the Construction

tion of Ships for Inland Waters),"

in

by reducing the thrust loading,

using larger thrust-producing areas and lower
slip ratios; then by cutting down the high loading
Sec. 33.15, first

mph

Ward, C. E., "Speed and Power Trials of a LightDraught Steam Launch," ASNE, Feb 1898, Vol. X,
pp. 183-192. This was a tunnel-stern, single-screw
craft, 60.5 ft by 10.5 ft by 4 ft depth, with a draft
of 1.83 to 2.0 ft and a weight of 12.03 tons. The
propeller had a diameter of 2.5 ft. The art of
designing these craft would have advanced much
more rapidly than it did if all trial results had
been published in as complete a form as given here.
De Berlhe, B., "Note sur la Construction et I'fichantillonnage des Navires Destines

of various pro-

as

10.5

is

ASNE, May 1898, Vol. X, pp. 509-510;

ASNE, Aug 1898, Vol. X, pp. 783-785

eliminate the

to

is

The speed

Brief notes on "light-draught steamers," specifically

the Melik and the Sullan, are to be found in

is

vibratory forces at their source.

ri73

3.41 ft in diameter are fitted in twin

and

of

and feathering paddlewheels.

(13)

"Experimental Towboats," House (of Representatives) 67th Congress, 1st Session, Document 108,
1922, Vol. 9. This report, of 194 pages, describes
the full-scale trials made as a result of the recom-

mendations in House Document 857. Since so many

different experiments were tried by modifying at
least three different existing craft, the results were
inconclusive, as could

have been expected before

they were begun.

(14)

McEntee,

W.,

"Model

Experiments

with

River

HYDRODYNAMICS

674

Stern-Wheel

and

"Der Dreischrauben-

carrying 4 flanking rudders, 2 steering rudders, a

schlepper Direktor Schiiiter (The Triple-Screw Tug

Direclor Schluler)," WRH, 22 Feb 1929, pp. 59-61.

and a single propeller inside a

Kort nozzle.
Dawson, A. J., "The Development and Economic
Potential of Inland Waterways Transportation,"
First Pan-Amer. Eng. Conf., Rio de Janeiro, 15-24

Towboats
Pis.

and

SNAME,

Tunnel

Propeller

1925, pp. 63-66

(21)

44 through 60; also pp. 83-90

Foerster, E.,

and

Shows a tug

Stapcl, G.,

for inland waters with three screws

single-tunnel stern,

(22)

abreast in three tunnels.

(16) Hinz, M.,

and Lang, H., "Der Dreischrauben-Motor-

schlepper Amsterdam (The Triple-Screw Motor Tug

Amslerdam)," WRH, 7 Feb 1930, pp. 43-48. Shows

body plan and stern lines of a shallow-water tug

having three screws abreast in three tunnels.
(17) Brodie, J. S., "Modern River Towboats," SNAME,
1936, pp. 350-388
(18) Dawson, A. J., "Power of Shallow-Draft River
Towboats," SNAME, 1937, pp. 145-159
(19) Tunnel-stern

towboat

1939, p. 172.

St.

Louis Socony,

profile of this craft

MESR, Apr

shows a 10-deg

slope to the tunnel roof forward of the propeller

(20)

Sec. 72.17

"Standardized River Towboats," AM, Oct 1948,

pp. 36-39. This article shows stern and bow
photographs and an outboard profile on a vessel

Tj^pes Compared,"

(15)

IN SHIP DESIGN

and an I1.2-deg slope in the after portion. The

tunnel roof embodies sharp transverse knuckles
with no rounding.
Edwards, V. B., and Cole, F. C, "Water Transportation on Inland Rivers," SNAME, HT, 1943, pp.
400-422, esp. p. 412

(23)

Jul 1949, esp. pp. 5-21

Alaskan river boat. Rudder, Aug 1951, p. 41. This
vessel has a length of 64.5 ft, a beam of 17.33 ft,
and a draft of only 1.0 ft, with a tunnel stern.
With a brake power of 165 horses it is designed to

make

11 kt.

(24) Mitchell,

A. R.,

"Shallow Draught Ships," INA,

Jul 1952, pp. 142-153

(25) Mitchell, A. R., "Tunnel Type Vessels," lESS,
1952-1953, Vol. 96, pp. 125-188. This is a compre-

and informative paper, well

and ship-test data and
generously illustrated with drawings and photohensive, instructive,

supplied

with

model-

"Ein Neuer Schiffstyp mit Grossraum(A New Ship Type with an Enlarged
Tunnel)," STG, 1954, Vol. 48, pp. 154-164.

(26) Jastram, H.,

tunnel

CHAPTER

The Design
73.1

of the Fixed Appendages

General Rules for Design of Fixed Objects

a Stream
The Design of Leading and Trailing Edges
in

73.2
73.3
73.4
73.5
73.6

The Stem Cutwater

Selection of Struts or Bossings

Strut Design for E.\-posed Rotating Shafts

Strut- Arm

Speeds

Appendages for the Arch-Stern ABC Design

Layout of Contra-Struts Abaft Propellers
The Design of Bossings Around Propeller

73 10

Design Rules for Defiection-Type or ContraGuide Bossings

Vertical Bossings as Docking Keels ....
Design Notes on Fixed Screw-Propeller
Shrouding; The Kort Nozzle
Shaping and Positioning of Contra- Vanes
Abaft Paddlewheels
Design Features of Supporting Horns for
Rudders; Partial Skegs

Shafts

73.11

73 12
.

73 13
.

73.14

73.15
675
675
676
677
678

Section Shapes for Ultra-High

73.7
73.8
73.9

73

680
681
682
682

686
686
687
688

690

73

HYDRODYNyVMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

676
is

it

so constant in service that cavitation or

separation does not occur on one side or the

other of the nose

(b)

Lengthening the long nose or entrance inand the friction drag

Thinning the entrance or nose renders it

creases the wetted area

(c)

vulnerable to

There
the
(d)

damage and
the

also

is

susceptible to corrosion.

cavitation

of

possibility

if

body runs at an appreciable yaw angle.

A Umber entrance is easily set in vibration by

periodic external disturbances.

At a

free-water surface, a leading edge can

rarely be too thin to reduce resistance, spray,

feather,

provided

random

side loads

it

is

and

strong enough to resist

and has enough

lateral stiffness

to hold itself firm against lateral vibration.

A thin

leading edge projecting through the surface

vulnerable to

damage by

is

floating debris.

As the depth below the

free surface increases,

the leading edge can be thickened,

if

there are

advantages to be gained thereby. However, this

is to be done with caution, having in mind the
following:
(1)

There

is

ample

pressure available to

hydrostatic

make

or

pumping

the liquid close in

around the body abaft the nose

(2)

Section

semi-circular leading edge joined to the

Proposed by

NACA Symmetricol

P Mandel,

Ip
Abscissa

ID'S fi

5NAME,

Section, t/c-l/e

EM^^^NovySt'd. Strut Section

in

per cent

ip
>!

1953

of

TMB

EPH

/Section

o
"^ip

W^

,^'V__
Nose Radius 0.015

Chord c

c.

Sec. 73.3

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.4

Waterline slope at the stem nearly to zero

677

and
I

smooths out

local discontinuities at the

same time.

Ur

In fact, shell plating may be applied to the outside

of a stem without a rabbet if faired by such a

The

device.

4;o

Q545->]]-

FP

Saction

Plan

at 26 Designed

Waterline

slope of a cutwater, in a horizontal

plane, need rarely average less than 5 deg, or

about
about

in 12. Usually, a slope of 6 or 7 deg, or

in 10 or

in 8,

is

small enough.

may

radius at the extreme leading end

or

The

less.

nose

is elliptic

rather than circular.

itself to

modern

methods, and adaptable to a bulb bow,

ABC

ft

waterline section at the extreme

design lending

for the

The

be 0.04

ship in Fig. 73. B.

the false stem or cutwater

fabricating
is

sketched

The space

is filled

inside

with a light-

weight, water-excluding, and rust-resisting material such as a foamed-in-place resin. This prevents

the nearly flat sides from panting under the

pressure variations they are likely to encounter
at high speed

an

and takes care

of

maintenance for

The sharp, "soft" cutwater is obviously not

adaptable to a vessel which must, during a
turn-around, have its nose pushed up against a
pier or quay. For a ship with bower anchors in
the cutwater

enough to withstand the

the bow.

The wetted

is

made sturdy

pull of a chain crossing

surface of a stem cutwater

73. a

is

is

there-

Design of Cutwater fob the

added to the
taken

account

Since

leading edge,

where the

resistance coefficient

the

it

ABC

Ship

an appendage and

latter as

into

friction drag.

when

its

calculating

directly behind the

lies

local

Clf has

specific

its

be

cutwater surface should

friction

highest value,
exceptionally

smooth.
73.4

designer

continuation of that of the main hull. It

TABLE

fore

surface

indefinite period.

side hawsepipes,

Fig. 73. B

Selection of Struts or

may

find useful a

Bossings.

summary

The

of the ad-

vantages and disadvantages of both struts and

bossings, so that all phases of the selection problem

Comparison of Design, Construction, and Operation Features of SuArr Struts and

Bossings

ADVANTAGES
Bossings

Struts

Access to more shafting and shaft bearings without docking

Protection of shafting and bearings (except propeller

Lighter overall weight

Less volume and weight displacement

More precise alignment with flow

bearing) from foreign matter, wear, corrosion, incidental

Smaller shadowing effect of appendages projecting from

hull

Less overall first cost

Less liability of vibration due to periodic forces exerted

on hull by propeller

damage, and major damage from striking piles, buoys,

and chains
Some degree of pitch damping and steadying effect in
a following sea
Appreciable reduction in shaft power due to deflection or
contra-guide features, if employed
Greater average wake fraction at propeller positions

DISADVANTAGES
Struts

Inadequate protection of exposed shafting from corrosion

or from damage to corrosion-resisting coating or
Less protection of shaft and propeller bearings from
foreign matter, wear, and striking large objects such
as buoys and their mooring chains
Greater liability of cavitation ahead of propeller, with

and corrosion

Probably greater overall

first

cost

Greater hability of irregular flow abaft bossing termi-

covering

erosion

Greater overall weight

of strut

arms

nations
Greater periodic vibratory

forces

exerted

on hull by

propeller

Reduction of maneuverabihty and turning characteristics

HYDRODYNAMICS

G78

may

may

be studied and the merits of each

new

assessed for every

design as

Whatever the advantages

to be closed

is

up

The workmen who

completely from the outside.

have to get inside

any

of these bossings for fabrication,

erection, riveting, or welding are of more-or-less

who must take

fixed size, as are those

and maintenance

repairs

care of

for the life of the vessel.

For these reasons bossings are

little

used on small

vessels.

Table 73. a summarizes the advantages and

disadvantages inherent in the great majority of

and bossing

strut

The comments

installations.

apply to single-screw and triple-screw ships as

well as to the arrangements customary on twin-

and quadruple-screw
It

to

is difficult

vessels.

make any

general statements

power to be
achieved by the use of either shaft struts or
bossings in any particular case, assuming that
concerning

reductions

in

shaft

alternative designs benefit from the

to

other

causes,

indicate

the wisdom

of

the limit given.

a low limit to a

is

bossing size unless the latter

and

Sec. 73.5

avoiding them unless the arms are shorter than

it arises.

of bossings for

particular application, there

be

IN SHIP DESIGN

The proper

or

best shape of the strut-arm

section has been the subject of long

study, based

upon structural as

dynamic considerations. The

between the various shapes

and careful

well as hydro-

differences in drag
of long-established

usage are small, even in proportion to the total

appendage resistance. It is probably more

important that the strut arm as installed conform

closely to some specified shape, worked out by a
long development process, than that the shape be
of a particular kind or have special characteristics.
The section delineated by D. W. Taylor, used in
U. S. Naval vessels for many decades past, could
have been shorter for the same thickness, with a
c/tx ratio of 6.0 instead of 7.5. This would have
involved cutting off only the tail; in fact, this
portion often disappeared anyway as a result of
erosion, pitting, or rusting in service.

Excellent replacements are the:

same amount

native strut and bossing designs through to the

(a) EPH or Ellipse-Parabola-Hyperbola section

developed by the David Taylor Model Basin
during World War II. This has a trailing edge
sufficiently blunt to get rid of the previous
difficulties with fabrication and corrosion of the
slim Navy Standard strut. It is not so blunt as

model stage at

to

[Mandel,

and

experimentation,

study,

of

SNAME,

P.,

development

1953, pp. 466-468].

The

designer of a large or important vessel, or one

which

to serve as the lead ship for quantity

is

production,

is

least.

Design

Strut

73.5

Shafts.

If

weight

the

bulky bossings
left

believed justified in carrying alter-

is

for

Exposed

Rotating

displacement

of

large

undesirable, propeller shafts are

exposed, carried by water-lubricated bearings

supported from the hull by double arms set in

the form of a Vee. For certain applications, single

arms have been employed, especially when they

are short and can be given adequate rigidity.
Parsons used a number of them successfully on
the three shafts of the Turbinia in the 1890's

[SNAME,
modern
shaft

1947, Fig. 10, p. 105].

However, more

experience, \vith larger sizes and higher

powers,

indicates

that

when

the

single

arms are longer than the maximum strut-hub

diameter they suffer from:

Lack

(b)

PossibiUty of resonant lateral vibration as a

flow

Excessive lateral loading by

when

separation

Magnus

lift

Effect

due to cross

turning, or both. Fractures of

modern

single-arm struts in service, due to transverse

lift

produced by cross flow when turning, to vibration,

eddy

and

sizes
(b)

normally used for shaft

Section proposed

by

P.

struts.

Mandel [SNAME,

1953, pp. 468-469], with a c/tx ratio of 4.3.

The comparative proportions and shapes

of the

NACA

symshown graphically in Fig.

73. C. The abscissas and ordinates for constructing
the section outlines accurately are tabulated by
Mandel [SNAME, 1953, Fig. 3, p. 468]. Many
other characteristics are described by him,
three sections mentioned, plus an

metrical section, are

with design considerations involving

both structural and hydrodynamic features.
Of far more importance than the shape of the
together

is

the placing of this sectiori in

the local direction of flow so that in service

of lateral stiffness

cantilever weighted at the outboard end

(c)

objectionable

strut-arm section

(a)

on the shaft, or hydrodynamic

cause

buffeting of the trailing portion in the absolute

yaw

it

runs

is

true

that the local direction of flow changes with

yaw

with no

angle or angle of attack. It

during steering, with rate of swing during turning,

and with ship position during wavegoing. It may

change with displacement, draft, and trim.

it probably remains constant within
a degree or so at all normal operating speeds in
also

Nevertheless,

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73
"15

5cQ e
l

of

Ordin ates

Chord C

x-Distonce from Leodinq

Fig. 73.C

Edqe

straight-ahead motion on a given course.

seems reasonable to assume that the ship
running in this fashion for about 98 per cent of

It
is

its

operating time.

The proper

angle can be estimated after a

around the stern as

Nevertheless, good
design requires an experimental determination on
a model with special apparatus. It is preferred,
because of the influence of induced velocity in
the water passing into a propeller disc, that the
strut-arm section angles be determined while the
adjacent propeller is delivering normal thrust.
This can be done, along the lengths of the two
struts of a pair, by apparatus described and
illustrated by H. F. Nordstrom [SSPA Rep. 32,
1954, Figs. 22 and 23, pp. 30-31].
Twisting the strut arms to suit the angle of
flow is usually an inconvenience when the struts
are built, but failure to align the strut sections
with the flow, especially ahead of a propeller
disc, only invites trouble by setting up disturbfashion, using data for flow

given in various chapters.

ances in the inflow

Whether a

jet.

two or more arms lies

ahead of or abaft a screw propeller, it is well to
avoid a strut-vee angle (see Fig. 36. B) which is
nearly or exactly the same as the angle between
two blades which may be passing the arms simultaneously. A convenient example in this respect
is

strut with

the four-arm strut abaft the 4-bladed propeller

of the arch-stern

ABC

ship, described in Sees.

73.7 and 73.8 and illustrated in Fig.

Sec. 73.8.

When

73.F of

looking forward on this vessel,

consider the radial position of the lower port

strut arm as zero angle. With spacings
and 75 deg between the three pairs

of 75, 60,

of arms,
reckoned in a clockwise direction, the angular

positions are tabulated as follows:

Lit

Arms

in

Per

Cent of Chord c

Half-Sections of Five Strut Shapes

679

HYDRODYNAMICS

680

IN SHIP DESIGN

A
Circle Tbni^ent to the

Both Dioqrams are

Inner Sides of Both

Strut Arms and to
the. Strut Hub
Should Hove a
Radius Not Less
Than That of the Outside
of the Hub

Projected Forward on

Transverse Plane

hole in the water

Sec. 73.6
is

certain to form at the free

surface abaft the strut, because of the low hydro-

pressure there.

static

separation abaft the

The minutest degree

the section

tail of

is

of

almost

certain to provide a reduced-pressure passage for

extending from the hole at the surface all

to the propeller hub. Here the air

air,

way down

the

the manner
by Fig. 2.3. D, reduces the thrust, and
creates noise and vibration.
If it ever becomes necessary to carry or to rig
a strut section which must come to the surface,
passes into the propeller disc in
illustrated

subsurface plate resembling those in Figs.

flat

7.E and 36.0

is

attached to

it

just below the

surface and in the line of flow. This plate prevents

air
Strut VeeAn(5le Should Be

Greater Than 50 dea

Good

Flow and

for

from leaking down through the bottom

of the

An

extra-

hole in the water, just abaft the strut.

long fairing
strut

Fig. 73.

Hydrodynamic Requirements for Strut-

these go through into the hull, no fairing

if

When

is

neces-

they stand normal to the shell or nearly so.

the transverse reentrant angle at the shell

becomes 70 deg or less, a fillet

some convenient method. The

introduced by

is

fillet

radius in-

becomes smaller.
bend the strut arm and have
it enter the hull nearly normal to the shell.
Struts are attached to the hull by external
palms only when no other method can be used.
The palm endings are sloped and faired so that a
creases as the reentrant angle
It is often possible to

section through them, in the direction of flow,

approximates that of one side of a standard (or

acceptable) strut section.

Normally

it is

not necessary, for hydrodynamic

reasons only, to mcrease the length or the fineness

of a strut-arm section

strut

hub

where

attaches to the

it

or to the shell. If fairing

is

required on

the sides of the section, for structural or other

a longer termination

reasons,

necessary

if

is

the section fineness

the surface or to throw inordinate amounts of

that surface

is

It

may

is,

square to the baseplane.

tilt them out

often be better to rake or

if they can be shortened thereby,

can be placed more nearly normal to
the direction of water flow, or if better attachments can be made to the hull structure. The angle
of rake or sweep-back can be as large as 30 deg

of these planes
if

their axes

If piercing

with the transverse plane.

the free

unavoidable it is best to rake the strut

down and forward. This creates less separation
than when raked down and aft, as explained in
surface

Sec.

is

36.17 and illustrated at 5 in Fig.

36.0.

Strut-Arm Section Shapes for UltraHigh Speeds. For planing craft which operate
73.6

at high speeds

and

for ultra-high-speed racing

motorboats the exposed propeller shafts are invariably carried by single-arm or V-type struts.
The submergence of these struts is small because
hence the cavitation
At the high speeds
impossible to make a

of the relatively small draft,

index

is

correspondingly low.

at which they travel

it is

strut section sufficiently long to be free of cavita-

tion over its after portion.

It

is

the practice

to be main-

these sections, making the entrances fine and

narrow, and terminating them in square or boattail endings in the manner illustrated in Fig. 73. E.

is

propulsion performance at a displace-

ment and trim corresponding

customary to place the strut-arm axes in

transverse planes, that

therefore to utilize only the forward portions of

Under no circumstances should an upper strut

arm join the hull at a point above the free-water
if

the

automatically

tained.

surface

if

not to create excessively large waves at

is

It is

with the strut hub are lengthened with largeradius fillets forward and aft, principally to give
stability of position to the strut hub.
At the hull ends of the strut arms, provided
sary

necessary above this plate

spray.

Hub

AjiM Positions at the Strut

is

Ricjidit'y

to the position of

considered of major importance.

They then resemble

the transom stern on a fast

motorboat. Single struts having blunt ends may

be placed forward of the propeller provided there
is an exposed sloping shaft ahead of the strut.

FIXEID-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 1^.1

681

built-up propeller

Direction of Motion

Not More Thon

About

more simple and sturdy, with

a smaller hub diameter.

As an

(e)

alternative

to

(c)

or

separate

(d),

blades of alloy or corrosion-resisting

steel.

These

be solid or, as in an Italian proposal, may

be of hollow cellular construction, with welded

may
Fig.

73.

Boat-Tail Strut-Arm Section for High

Speed

ditch made by the shaft may be large

enough so that the water clears the strut arm

The open

altogether.
It

often possible to place a fixed single-arm

is

strut abaft the propeller

and to use

it

as the

forward or fixed portion of a compound rudder.

The forward edge of the rudder blade is close
behind or is mounted inside the after edge of the
strut arm.

Appendages

73.7

Design.

for

the

Arch-Stem

67.16 describes the

Sec.

general

ABC
con-

siderations governing the design of appendages at

the after end of the

ABC

ship with the arch-type

some of the details. A few addinotes are added here to cover certain

stern, as well as

tional

features illustrated subsequently in the following

parts of steel plate [SBSR,

or the blades

p. 459].

may

be welded to short stubs, made

ruple-arm strut hub in Fig. 73. F.

(f)

propeller-bearing sleeve which

is

mounted

in its housing at an angle approximating that of

the slope of the propeller journal

when

all

parts

are in place

A propeller-bearing sleeve which is

(g)

aft

from

its

withdrawn

housing, to afford ample clearance for

the propeller journal

when

installing the propeller

from the ship

(h) A propeller journal surface of heavy chrome
plating with a ground finish, thus eliminating a
bronze sleeve which might cause corrosion of the
propeller journal and the hub
assembly or removing

(i)

Contra-struts abaft propellers, Fig. 73. F of

Oct 1953,

integral with the hub, illustrated for the quad-

drawings:
(1)

Each blade may have its own root palm or flange,

welded to the steel hub and to the adjacent palms,

it

A strut hub of cast steel with the usual internal

circumferential

lands

bearing sleeve.

To

for

the

carrying

shaft-

the outside of this hub are

(3)

cast four short arms, curved in contra-fashion to

permit the inner or shaft ends of the strut arms,
fabricated from heavy rolled plate, to be buttwelded to them. The fillets at the forward and

flange connections to shaft,

after ends of the strut-arm connections at the

Sec. 73.8
(2)

Short bossings for propeller shafts. Fig. 73.

of Sec. 73.9

Large propeller, built up by welding, with

and twin rudders
abaft twin skegs. Fig. 74.L of Sec. 74.15.

The arrangement developed

for the first pre-

nuts,

all

and the

An

taper

fits,

keys, threads, propeller

after shaft or propeller journal

and nuts

in the orthodox fashion for a

As an

alternative to

attached by bolted flanges to the

hub at its after end and to the

flanged stern-tube shaft at

(k)

(c),

its

forward end

rotating shell forward of the propeller to

cover the bolted flange and to serve as a fairing

(1)

A fixed

hub

conical cap of suitable shape

and pro-

portions abaft the propeller-bearing housing or

strut hub, forming the after

end

of the stream-

lined assembly comprising the rotating shell, the

propeller hub, the strut hub,

(m)

suitable

means

and the

tail fairing

of inducing adequate

water

flow through the propeller bearing for lubrication

flared rope guard at the forward
and cooling.

built-up adjustable propeller

(d)

readily removable exposed rotating pro-

into the propeller

like

(c) Separate propeller blades, bolted to the shafthub-journal combination with circular flanges,

studs,

flanged propeller

which is
short and of large diameter, with adequate stiffness to prevent bending and to insure reasonably
uniform loading of the bearing surface
(b)

(j)

peller shaft,

and 74.L embodies:

(a) An integral forward bolting flange, propeller

hub, and after shaft or propeller journal of steel,

eliminating

entirely in the short arms,

cast integral with the hub.

liminary design and indicated schematically in

Figs. 73. F

hub are incorporated

separate propeller

blades which are removable but not adjustable.

Eliminating the pitch-changing feature and the

necessity for circular blade flanges

may make

the

end

of the strut-bearing

hub and a

large hole in

the after end of the fixed fairing cap, opening into

what would be a separation zone or a swirl core

abaft the hole, should be sufficient for this purpose,

HYDRODYNAMICS

682

Layout

73.8

are both

Abaft

Contra-Struts

of

If the propeller

pellers.

Pro-

bearing and the barrel

mounted abaft the

carrying

it

as in the

ABC arch-stern design,

propeller,

the procedure for

laying out contra-struts to hold the bearing barrel

or strut

hub

follows in general that described in

Sec. 74.16 for a contra-rudder.

much

struts

as

There

is,

however,

smaller background of experience for

to

acceptable limits for median-line

angles, twist offsets,

and the

In the design of the

was evident at an

ABC
ft,

it

a reference value of

large, in that the median-line slopes

at the leading edges of the struts

Falling back

upon the

must often be done,

basic offset
ft,

is

became excessive.

designer's judgment, as

this ratio

was halved. The

therefore (0.85/2) 2.25 ft or 0.9562

listed at the

bottom

Arch Section at Midlength

Rodlol

of

of the table
Strut Arms,

S'.'ib

73. F.

the median-line slope of the leading

mined by using the

relationship described

sin'

in Sec. 07.22. Details of the resulting design of

contra-strut and

hub assembly, with a heavy belt

and strut

plate in the shell abreast the propeller

arms, are drawn in Fig. 73. F.

considerable

number

of references relating to

contra-propellers and guide vanes, both forward

and abaft a screw propeller, are listed by

P. A. van Lammeren [RPSS, 1948, References
136 and 137 on pp. 299-300].
73.9 The Design of Bossings Around Pro-

of

W.

peller Shafts.

The

first

step in the design of

any bossing, whether long

or short, or of the

straight (fairing) or deflection type,

is

to position

the screw propellers to be carried by

matter

is

it.

covered in Sees. 67.23 and 69.3.

/^boft Propeller Ceni

PositI

Double Extra-Heavy Shell Plateond

in WQv of strut Arms
Pr opeller

on Fig.

so,

Sec. 7B.S

edge at 0.2Ru^ is 32.5 deg, although this could

be reduced somewhat by changing the shape of
the median line. The remaining offsets are deter-

arch-stern struts,

0.85 times this radius at O.liZMai of the propeller

was much too

Even

like.

early stage that, because of the

large barrel radius, 2.25

IN SHIP DESIGN

tOR

This

When

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.9

the rate of propeller rotation

propeller

power

is

known and

is

the

within rather narrow

fixed

and other
by the bossings

limits, the size of shafting, bearings,

naechanical parts to be housed

are determined within equally close limits. In

combination with the room needed for internal

these features

access,

minimum

the

fix

size

of

certain parts.

The second

step

is

to settle

upon the exact

nature and function of the bossing. Is

the short or the long type? Is

and

it

it

to be of

solely for fau'ing

for protection of the shafting

and bearings?

Is it to be of the deflection type, possibly

mth

an auxihary support strut for the propeller bearing, as in diagram 3 of Fig. 36. H? It may be that,
under a broad, flat stern, the bossing is to be called
upon to serve as a docking keel as well as a bossing.

The
at

third step

is

to find the direction of flow

and near the hull surface

occupied by the bossing.

bossing

is

in reahty

tight hull. It

is

can be modified

in the region to

be

the long type, the

If of

an extension of the water-

not an external appendage which

and when

later, if

desired.

Because of the length and the appreciable

volume of a long-type bossing, the flow around it
when in place may be significantly different than
that indicated around the bare model when the
initial flow tests are made. For instance, suppose
that the principal plane of the bossing has been
placed over the trace of a flowline observed on
the model hull without the bossing. The water
which formerly flowed easily along the hull
surface is now displaced by the bossing volume.
It has to flow somewhere else, and in so doing it
may take a route that is not conducive to good
flow or good propulsion. A second flow check on
the model is therefore indicated, to be followed

by

wake

observations

in

the

propeller-disc

position abaft the bossing, including records of

the directions of the velocity vectors.

further

683

have even revealed an extensive uncovering

upper surface of the bossing, exposing parts
of the upper blades of a propeller carried by it.
That portion of a bossing of any type which
encloses a propeller shaft is fixed at its after end
by the position of the propeller bearing. At its
forward end some latitude in position with respect
to the emerging shaft is permissible. This depends
upon the size of the bossing at that end, the
position of the propelling machinery, and other
tions

of the

internal arrangements. If the bossing

is

for fairing

and shaft protection only the bossing termination

slope /3(beta) and the traces of the bossing body
along the hull are established in such manner that
flow takes place around it with the least possible
interference. It

is

hull.

often difficult to estimate the

and traces

of this flow along the

Lines of flow taken on a model, especially

local directions

with a temporary rod in place to represent the

bare propeller shaft, are most helpful at this stage.
Better

still

are flow directions, indicated

by

flags

or vanes at a distance from the hull equal to the

mean

projection of the bossing at each station.

customary first to sketch the bossing shape

on the body plan by stations, sections, or frames.
These are supplemented by the traces of bossing
flowplanes, flat or slightly curved, passed through
the bossing at varying distances from the adjacent
It is

main

The

hull.

traces correspond generally to

bound-

intersections of the stream surfaces in the

ary and adjacent layers, diagrammed in Figs.

36.

D and 36. H.

The

transverse slope of a bossing,

only, is approximately
normal to the slopes of the section lines in the
vicinity. This reduces the wetted area to a minimum and avoids reentrant angles less than 90 deg.
Proposals have been made in the past, requiring

intended

for

fairing

such rigid adherence to this rule that the bossing

plane is curved in transversely, so as to remain

normal to the section

lines as the latter

become

on the uniformity of flow as it

leaves the upper and lower surfaces of the bossing.
If a long bossing is not properly shaped and
positioned, the flow around it may contain large
corkscrew vortexes. It may develop a combination of longitudinal and transverse eddies which

steeper with distance aft, toward the propeller

cause the flow at a given point abaft the bossing

from vibration

check

is

called for

to fluctuate with time.

An

unsteady flow of this

detected on a model only with instruments

kind is
which are sensitive to these variations.
On high-speed vessels, especially those of light
draft, where the head of water over the bossmg is
necessarily small,

model

tests of

proposed installa-

[Volker,

to

WRH,

Jun 1934, pp. 131-132].

When

selecting the transverse slope it

make

sure that no part of the bossing

to the free surface of the water in

condition,

efficient

if

is

propulsion

is

well

lies close

any operating
and freedom

desired.

Section shapes for the bossings of twin-screw

vessels are to be
(a) Sadler,

found in the following:

H. C, "The Effect

of Bossing

Upon Re-

sistance," lESS, 1908-1909, Vol. LII, pp. 147-159

and

PI.

IX. Discusses

termination angle

/3.

effect

of large

and small

HYDRODYNAMICS

684

Simpson, G., "The Naval Constructor," New York

and London, 4th ed., 1919, p. 59
(c) Baker, G. S., SD, 1933, Vol. I, Fig. 7, p. 14
(d) Hughes, G., "Model Experiments on Twin-Screw
Propulsion, Part I", INA, 1936, pp. 145-158 and
Pis. XVI-XX.
Four bossings with very small
termination angles
are shown on PI. XVII.
(b)

Eggert, E. F.,

(e)

SNAME,

the bossing sections of

model 3383, stern

S-Sj

(g)

bossing symmetrical about the bossing plane, with

a termination slope angle of 21 deg.

(h)

De

Rooij,

G.,

and satisfactory

1953,

p. 241; Figs.

Fig.

562 and

large apertures, small slopes in the bossing flow-

planes,

and sharp

with strength,

The

trailing edges are

and ease

rigidity,

cantilever

rigidity

be

adequate.

blunt

dynamic

the

crowded out the hydro-

designer

must decide whether the

cylin-

which houses the shaft and

the propeller bearing should attach to the bossing

tangentially or radially. It
structural, mechanical,

rigidity of the bossing structure.

is

is

possible to favor

and other considerations

provided the flow over the entire bossing surface

free

from

termination

much

Figs.

crossovers,

eddies,

changes. For example,

portion around the propeller bearing, deserves as

attention with respect to fining as the

in

design.

be afforded ahead of it, consistent with proper

support of the propeller bearing and adequate
actual termination, inboard of the barrel

have

ships

terminations

past which spoke only too eloquently of a struc-

propeller deserves all the edge clearance which can

The

the heavy frame

some

Nevertheless,

excessively

carried

The

shaping the bossing termination, the

of

compatible

of fabrication.

carrying the propeller shaft bearing must certainly

drical or conical barrel

When

two decades of successful

adequate proof that

service. It is

tural design that almost

"Practical Shipbuilding,"

252b on p. 105; Fig. 561 on

563 on p. 242.

Sec. 73.9

are fitted have given over

1939, Fig. 52, p. 329, shows

EMB

Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,

J. G., RPSS, 1948, Fig. 54, p. 99
Baker, G. S., INA, 1952, Fig. 13, p. 109. This shows a

(f)

IN SHIP DESIGN

surprising that the vessels to which these bossings

is

36.D and

offset

if

and

abrupt

the plane of the bossing

from the shaft

axis,

as in

73. G, the reentrant angle at the

much more,

bearing hub should be not less than 90 deg.

incidentally, than has often been accorded it in

sections through the bossing term-

Further, the bossing surface on the "full" side

need not project much beyond the bearing hub.

by the Newport
Dry Dock Company for

long, straight bossings at the stern apply also to

termination of a shaft strut. This

the past.

The

is

ination in Fig. 73. G, developed

News

Shipbuilding and

S. Talamanca and class, indicate what can

and should be done in this respect. They afford

the S.

the propeller full opportunity for doing

its

in the water trailing abaft the bossing. It

Shell

is

best

not

The

design rules set

down

in the foregoing for

those which might be fitted for twin

PiQt

Fig. 73, G

bow

pro-

on an icebreaker, or for bow and stern

propellers on a ferryboat.
Short bossings are used primarily to fair an
pellers

Twjn-Sorew Bossing Tisbmination Casting fob

S.

S,

Talaimnca and CijAss

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.9

Shape of Short Bossing for

73.H

Fig.

exposed propeller shaft where

it

the hull, described in Sec. 75.10.

are essentially the

same

emerges from

The

design rules

as for long bossings,

ABC

685

Arch-Stern Ship

not necessarily parallel to those marked by flow

indicators directly on the hull. This modification

adds shghtly to the

except that deflection or contra-guide endings are

effect is small.

never incorporated in them because the endings

are too far from the propellers. A short bossing is

somewhat

An

example

stabilizing-fin area

but the

appendage producing

of a fixed

coupling or flange which connects the section

a bar of pointed or
arch shape, mounted in an inclined position under
the exposed rotating shaft of a high-speed motor-

an exposed propeller shaft to the stern-tube

boat. It creates an air- or vapor-filled separation

Were

zone in the form of an inclined ditch, within

which the propeller shaft revolves with negligible
liquid friction [H. B. Greening patent apphcation].
On most short bossings the flow crosses the
bossing barrel around the shaft bearing at a

often required

of

provide a fairing around a

to

shaft just ahead of

it.

it

not for

this,

the

be limited to a projection from

the main hull on the inboard side only, filling in
the space where eddies would otherwise form and
leaving only mechanical clearance next to the
fairing could well

shaft.

On

similar effects

considerable angle.
either long or short bossings

some pressure

drag can be saved, for an insignificant increase in

wetted surface, by "pointing" the outer or upstream surface of the bossing upon which the
flow impinges.

To

the customary circular trans-

is

fining of the trailing ends

of the bossing flowplane traces is achieved

continuing

the

bossing

termination

by

along the

leeward or downstream side of the barrel. This

modification,

along with the pointed arch,

incorporated in the short bossing of the

is

ABC arch

verse shape or section of the outer barrel of such

stern,

added a triangular or Gothicarch portion, about as shown in the two end

To

propeller shafts are sometimes run through the

views of Fig. 73. H, depicting the short-bossing

shell plating

a bossing there

is

design for the arch-stern

amount

ABC

of pointing results in

moderate

marked

fining of

ship.

drawn

in Fig. 73. H.

save weight

and displacement, exposed

simply by cutting a clearance opening

The stern-tube bearing and the

in the plating.

fittings pertaining to it are

then installed entirely

the leading ends of the traces of the bossing

within the fair lines of the hull.

flowplanes lying generally parallel to the hull in

that vicinity, indicated by Sections B-B, C-C,

presented,

and

D-D

of the figure.

The

locus of the "points"

added triangle or arch, when projected on

the body plan, lies parallel to the flowlines in that
region. At a distance from the hull these lines are
of the

filled

as

partly inert water,

ference to the flow.

it is

The

recess thus

with the shaft and with

presents no sensible inter-

small fairing

may

be

fitted

and astern of the protruding shaft,

mentioned in a preceding paragraph of this section
and illustrated in Fig. 75.1 of Sec. 75.10. Separainboard

HYDRODYNAMICS

686

IN SHIP DESIGN
side

expense of an insignificant increase in volume

displacement, weight, and wetted surface.
73.10 Design Rules for Deflection-Type or
Contra-Guide Bossings. Ship designers have

sufficient potential

been reluctant to use deflection-type or contraguide bossings on vessels with wing propellers

Sec. 73.10

some kinetic energy into

energy and pressure, with an

by the conversion

tion and eddying at this point are avoided at the

of

adequate pressure gradient, to accelerate it

inward toward the bossing surface, at right
angles to the latter.

In the present state of knowledge,

it is

perhaps

well to hmit the angle between the convex side

because of the uncertainty as to just how much

twist can be used and just how it can be worked
into them. They fear that this twist may cause

of a deflection-type bossing

eddying, introduce vibration, and do more ultimate harm than good to the propulsion charac-

well to limit the reentrant angle at the after

teristics

and behavior of the vessel as a whole.

a deflection-type bossing, even though
designed only to reduce the unfavorable component of flow as it enters the propeller disc, requires

60 or 65 deg, reckoned from the adjacent hull

True,

surface.

much

so developed

greater care in shaping than the fairing type

of long bossing. Further,

it calls

for

more thorough

checking by model tests. Separation of flow may

occur with careless or improper design,
leading to ensuing vibration and other troubles.
well

As wdth a contra-guide skeg ending the

twist

and the corresponding

same ship design

side of a fairing bossing for the

to a

maximum

of

about 8 or 10 deg.

of a deflection-type bossing to a

he

It is also

minimum

of

end
some

When the designer has done his best on paper

may try his hand in modeling clay. The bossing
is

added to the model and run for

may be in a model basin but,

flow directions. This

if

at

the flow should be observed in a

all possible,

circulating-water channel.

A flow

test

and a wake

survey, including measurements of velocity

mag-

nitude and direction in the propeller disc, are

is

imparted in a direction contrary to the rotation

when running ahead. If
the wing propellers are definitely to turn outward,
and the stern is of normal form, the bossing
termination lies at a small slope fi with the
horizontal. With inward-turning propellers the
slope is larger than for a bossing of the fairing
type. Indeed, the termination may approach a
vertical position, with a slope of 70 or 80 deg or

much more

of the propeller blades

than for one of the fairing type.

more.

power at

The

necessary for a deflection-type bossing

designer

who

is

looking

and hopingfor

a real reduction in shaft power, of the order of 5

or 10 per cent, such as that achieved on the
U.S.S. Warden, should not be discouraged when
a

first

attempt at laying out a deflection-type

bossing produces erratic flow around the propeller

may

illustrates

produce no reduction in shaft

the design knowledge
relating to this type of bossing is still so limited
that only by accident could a designer expect
to arrive at the proper shape and proportions on
the first trial. Modified bossings are rather easily
applied to a model and more easily checked for

these features as applied successfully to the U. S.

flow in a tuft test in a circulating-water channel.

The amount of twist which can be imparted is

a function of the fore-and-aft length of the bossing
and of the smallness of the reentrant angle against
the shell, on the reduced-pressure side of the
bossing, convex to the flow. Fig. 36.

destroyer Warden

(DD

352),

where the reentrant

angle on top of the bossing was

than normal.

much

smaller

It is true that separation generally

occurs alongside a surface

when

the slope of that

surface with the direction of motion exceeds a

limiting angle. However, a twist imparted to the

water by a long bossing with easy curves

may

possibly act to diminish this critical slope

changing the general direction of flow at

by

its after

designing a contra-guide bossing

it

is

kept constantly in mind that the water is being

forcibly deflected on the straight or concave side
and must follow the bossing-flowplane curvature
there. It is only constrained to follow the convex

all.

Indeed,

In fact, it can be stated as an inflexible rule that

no contra-guide bossing should be incorporated
in a ship design and in the construction drawings
without the most complete flow investigation on
a model, both with and without the propeller
working. This involves measuring on the model,
if

it

is

practicable, the transient variations in

torque and thrust as each propeller blade passes

through a complete revolution. At some time in
the future

end.

When

position. It

it

should involve measurements of the

periodic pressure fluctuations

on the bossing and adjacent

and force variations

hull.

Vertical Bossings as Docking Keels.

73.11
For vessels which are wide aft in proportion to
their immersed depth, with rather flat stern

FIXED-APPENnACE DESIGN

Sec. 7).12

sections and cut-up

profiles,

the angle

/?

bossing termination often works out as close to

90 deg. In other words, the bossing stands nearly

vertical. It is usually difficult to provide adequate
docking support for the sterns of these vessels.
A logical procedure is to use the vertical bossing
as a support keel, since a high degree of strength
and rigidity is required in it to support the shaft

and

propeller. Fig. 36.

little

E of Sec.

36.7 indicates that

or nothing need be sacrificed in the

way

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

of

form to provide the necessary flat surface on the

bottom of such an appendage. A bossing designed
to act also as a docking keel should have a slope

(9)

such that the line of action of the support force

from the docking blocks, at midwidth of the flat

under surface
bossing until

The

remains

of the bossing,
it

enters the

main

ivithin the
(10)

hull.

fact that the propeller blades project

below

the docking support surface and that the blocks

under the bossing (s) have to be built up higher

than the remainder may be taken care of by
modern (1955) drydocking procedures.
73.12 Design Notes on Fixed Screw-Propeller
Shrouding; The Kort Nozzle. Certain screwpropeller installations involving fixed shrouding
are described in Sec. 32.5 and illustrated in Figs.

(11)

it

can not be described adequately in the

number

of recent references

which contain the

An

summary of these two papers is given

German) and a most workable design procedure, with examples, is found in "Handbuch der
Werften (Construction Handbook)," published by
Hansa in Hamburg, 1952, pp. 67-88. On page 88
excellent

a bibliography of 14 items.
4415 section is recommended for a Kort
F. Horn and H. Amtsberg; it is shown
by W. Henschke, in "Schiffbau Technisches
Handbuch (Shipbuilding and Ship Design Handthere

(12)

D and 32. E. Propeller nozzles in general and

Kort nozzles in particular are described in Sec.
36.19 and diagrammed in Fig. 36. P.
The detail design of Kort and other fixed
nozzles is intricate and specialized, so much so
space available here. Instead, there are given

Importance of Shrouded
Ship Propellers)," STG, 1939, pp. 150-167
Dickraann, H. E., "Grundlagen zur Theorie Ringformiger Tragfliigel (Fundamentals of the Theory
of Ring-Shaped Airfoils)," Ing.-Archiv, 1940, p. 36
Riddell, A. M., "The Theory and Practice of the
Kort Nozzle System of Propulsion," INA, 1942,
pp. 87-114
Some design notes given by W. P. A. van Lammeren,
RPSS, 1948, p. 267
Amtsberg, H., "Entwurfs- und Berechnungsverfahren
fiir Kortdusen (Design and Calculation Methods
for Kort Nozzles)," Arbeitsblatt 5/1950/01 der
KdT, Berlin, 1950
Horn, F., "Teil A (Part A)," "Thooretische Grundlagen und grundsatzlicher Aufbau des Entwurfsverfahrens (Basic Theory and Design Fundamentals),"
STG, 1950, Vol. 44, pp. 141-169, with a list of 8
references on p. 169 (in German)
Amtsberg, H., "Teil B (Part B)," "Praktisches
Auswahlverfahren fiir Optimale Diisensysteme
Selection
Method to Determine
(Practical
Optimum Nozzle Systems)," STG, 1950, Vol. 44,
pp. 170-206 (in German)
Scientific

(in

is

An NACA
nozzle

32.

that

687

(Economic and

of the

by

book)," 1952, pp. 165-166. The nozzle section and

the sketch of Fig. 73.1 is adapted from Fig. 44 on
p. 167 of the Henschke reference.
(13)

"Triple-Screw Ohio River Tugboat John J. Rowe,"

SBSR,

17

Nov

1955, p. 641.

The

three propellers of

this craft, 7.67 ft in diameter, are

in

Kort

each enclosed
each

nozzles, with a steering rudder abaft

best description of this procedure available in

the Hterature:
(1)

Gutsche, F., "Fortschritte in der Entwicklung des

Binnensohiffs mit

Development
Waters),"

Eigenem Antrieb (Progress

in the

Inland
Deutsch. Ing., 1935, p.

of Self-Propelled Ships for

Zeit. des Ver.

1155
(2)

BiJohi,

G., "Possibility di

Reoupero Delia Scia ed

Esperienze sul Mantello d'Elica

Exploiting
Propeller

(Possibility

of

Wake and Experiments with

Shrouding)," Ann. Rep. Rome Model
the

TMB

(3)

Basin (in
library), 1936, Vol. VI, pp. 91-98
Gutsche, F., "Einflusz der Gitterstellung auf die
Eigenschaften der in Schiffsschraubenentwurf
benutzten Blattsohnitte (Influence of the Cascade
Position

on

the

Characteristics

the

Blade
Direction of Inflow

Mitteilungen der Preuzisohen Versuchsanstalt

When

Wasserbau und Schiffbau,

see also
(4)

of

Sections Used in the Design of Ship Screws),"

STG,

Berlin, 1938,

Bedeutung

unmantelter

Goinqj

Ahead

No. 34;

1938, p. 125

Roscher, E. K., "WirtachaftUche

liche

fiir

Plane of Propeller Disc

und

wissenschaft-

Schiffaschrauben

Fig. 73.1

Definition-Design Sketch for Kort Nozzle

HYDRODYNAMICS

688
propeller.

The

reference embodies a stern view of

the vessel on the ways, showing the propellers,

nozzles,

and rudders. There are

si.x

of

44

ft,

The

craft

a depth of

I,

p.

84

tural anchorage

ff;

of rigid struc-

available at or near the top

is

Although a distance equal to

of the shrouding.

the fore-and-aft length of the shrouding

is

able for this attachment, the real need

ft,

Shipbuilding, 1955, Vol.

(15)

beam

and a draft of 6.5 ft.

Roscher, E. K., "Kort Nozzle Propulsion
10

(14)

ft,

Sec. 73.13

Here a reasonable amount

sterns.

flanking rudders

in addition to the three steering rudders.

has a length of 164

IN SHIP DESIGN

of Ships,"

abstracted in

IME, Apr 1956, Vol. LXVIII, pp. 105-106

Van Manen, J. D., "Recent Research on Propellers in
Nozzles," SNAME, New York Sect., 30 Oct 1956.

the bottom of a large ship skeg carrying a nozzle-

not mandatory,

is

greatly

it is

to be preferred. It can not be very deep, otherwise

it
it

would extend below the baseplane. Likewise,

it would interfere with

can not be very wide or

the contraction of the inflow jet to the lower part

the advisability of using fixed shroudings with

of the propeller disc. Nevertheless,

screw propellers will require reference to the

paper "Open-Water Test Series with Propellers

relatively rigid portion of the ship structure

D. van Manen [Inter. Shipbldg.

Prog., 1954, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 83-108].
D. S. Simpson has the following to say concerning this type of installation:
in Nozzles,"

"The Kort

by

J.

nozzle,

now almost

universally used on the

river towboats, has (made) a definite contribution to all

vessels used principally for
little

change

in

route

free

indicate that the hull

it shows
Experiments

towing, although

performance.

must be designed

for it as nozzles

added to existing (hull) designs have not given the expected improvement in towing power" [SNAME, 1951, p.

for

width of anchorage, to hold the shrouding concentric with the propeller-tip circle.
While a horizontal strut connection or tie to
enclosed propeller

For design purposes the Horn and Amtsberg

references of 1950 are the most useful and valuable.
Although it does not contain design rules as
such the marine architect who sets out to study

availis

it is

tie to

and

should be utilized to the utmost.

Shaping and Positioning of ContraVanes Abaft Paddlewheels. The action of
contra-vanes forward of and abaft paddlewheels
as such

it

73.13

and sternwheels

is

described in Sec. 32.4 and

These vanes are fixed

improve the efficiency

illustrated in Fig.

32. C.

appendages applied

solely to

of propulsion.

So far as known, the only model experiments on

and full-scale trials of either leading or trailing
contra-vanes were those made under the supervision of F. Siiberkriib ["Vergleichende Modell-

560].

versuche mit Siiberkriib Leitflachen an einem

very real problem associated with the provision of fixed shrouding is building the necessary
rigidity into it

and attaching

it

firmly to the hull.

This appUes equally to the design of shrouding

intended for mechanical protection only and to
that installed for improving the efficiency of
propulsion. The shape of the shrouding is so
foreign to that of a normal ship that when added
as an appendage

freifahrenden Schaufelrad, Teil II (Comparative

Model Experiments with Siiberkrub Guide Plates

On

Free-Running Paddlewheel, Part 2),"

Rep. 321, 3 Mar 1936 (in German), copy
library; "Neue Verbesserungen in der
in
Hydromechanik des Radantriebs (New Improvements in the Hydromechanics of Paddlewheel
a

HSVA

TMB

WRH,

Propulsion),"

15 Sep 1941, pp. 269-271].

never appears to belong to

the ship. To obtain an integrated design it may
eventually be necessary to design a whole new

The notes

type of afterbody.
If the shrouding or nozzle is part of the initial
design, a stern with a shallow transverse arch
and gently sloping buttocks over the propeller
is indicated. The under side of the arch then
forms the top of the nozzle opening. The nozzle
proper benefits by two hull attachments, each as
long as the nozzle, and spread laterally by the
width of the arch.

first the forward or leading vane,

pointed out in Sec. 71.6 that a side paddlewheel is best positioned so that a wave crest lies

it

The application of a nozzle-shaped fixed

shrouding or enclosing duct to an existing ship
best limited to propeller positions abaft large
skegs or to those underneath wide, rather flat

is

in this section are based partly

on

these data and partly on the general hydrodynamic

knowledge

set forth elsewhere in the book.

Considering

it is

about opposite the point where the blades enter

the water on the forward side of the wheel. If the
leading contra-vane is placed under this crest,
the water flows to it in a direction nearly horizontal. As a hydrofoil, cambered to deflect the
water sUghtly downward, its lift is exerted in a
direction close to the vertical. There is very little
or no thrust
lift is

component

of this

otherwise not useful

minimum. The entrance

it

lift

force; as the

should be kept to a

of the

contra-vane

is

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.13

therefore placed so that the

is

meanhne

at the nose

parallel to the streamlines of the incident flow.

For a leading contra-vane ahead

as in diagram 2 of Fig. 32. C,

of a stern wheel,

it is

necessary to

determine the flow direction at the nose position

by some kind of ship or model test.
M. Hart has published two diagrams which

show the

resultant-velocity vectors, with reference

mentioned

689

earlier in the section.

The contra-vane

best placed where the flow vector at the subsurface level of the vane has its steepest slope.
is

In the layout of the figure

it is

possible to keep

the vane above the at-rest waterline, although a

position under other wave-slope conditions might
be as low as the lowest trunnion level of the blades.
The lower surface of the run portion of the trailing

to a stream of undisturbed water flowing past

contra-vane,

the side of the ship, of the upper and lower edges

should conform generally to the flow within the

wave crest at that position and level.

of the blades in a series of

[ATMA,

immersion positions
and Pis. II, III].

1906, Vol. 17, p. 179

These do not take account of the velocities induced by the blades, for which no comprehensive,
reliable data can be found. It is considered,
therefore, that the run or after portion of the
leading vane can best be shaped with its upper
surface parallel to a tangent to the sweep circle
of the outer blade edges at that point. There
should be enough clearance between this upper
surface and the outer blade edges to pass any
floating debris that may be drawn down below
the surface.

The

lie

edge of the forward contra-vane

at about the level of the blade trunnions,

perhaps slightly below the midwidths of the blades

in their lowest positions.

and

As

for chord length fore

can be of the order of 1.5 to 2.0

times the blade width on the paddlewheel or
aft,

this

sternwheel, for both leading and trailing vanes.

For the after or trailing vane, the predominant

flow is that which forms the high, steep wave
just abaft the wheel. This is indicated in Fig.
73. J, adapted from the Siiberkriib reference

Outline

of Section

lift

ahead of the

of the after

of

Cbntro-Vone,

Entire Lanqth of Paddle

Incident- Velocity
site

edge,

vane has a forward

thrust component, this curved-section hydrofoil

lift and a low drag. The meanboth leading and trailing vanes will have
a rather large camber for their chord lengths.

should have a high

lines of

The contra-vanes may be made reasonably

thin

supported at say two intermediate transverse

points as well as at the ends. Their curved section
shape gives them inherent stiffness, as for a blade

if

of the wheel itself.

Were a

vessel fitted with contra-vanes to run

waves these devices would be subject to impact
or slamming. They would have to be designed to
withstand an impact load much larger than the
lift load. The equivalent static load would prob-

ably be of the order of 2,000 lb per sq ft or more.

This is about 4 times the uniform propelling load
applied to the blades of a paddlewheel.

Side paddlewheels are in themselves

effective roll-quenching devices.

are

much more

may

Lyinq Abaft

or

Vector is Generolly Porollel to the Wave Surface

Bock Of the HydrodynatrKc Center of the Foil

Fig. 73.J

Proposed Contra-Vanb Aerangement of

F.

Suberkbub

but even

require support for

vertical forces far greater than those

Blade

rather

The contra-vanes

effective for this purpose,

without impact they

The Ahead Thrust Force Exerted by the Contra-Vane

Under the Conditions Pictured is T

The

trailing

in

trailing

should

Since the

just

imposed

690

HYDRODYNAMICS

upon them when acting ouly

to change the direc-

pressure

hydrostatic

surfaces of the guide vanes

separation,
tion

and

on the upper

makes

cavitation,

a problem. The situabecause the considerable

air leakage

aggravated

is

transverse length of the contra-vanes requires

for their support a series of vertical plates

up

project

Despite

all

through
that

may

the

free-water

which

surface.

be said to their advantage,

contra-vanes are in the category of the short

vanes of the contra-propeller described in Sec.
36.9,

with most of the disadvantages enumerated

there.

the friction drag of both sets of contra-vanes

If
is

considered too

much

a handicap, the forward

set can be omitted, since

it is

probably the least

effective of the two.

The

these bearings

Sec. 73.14

become

Such a

excessively large.

distorted design requires, as a rule, long (high)

tion of flow.

Limited

IN SHIP DESIGN

smaller the wheel diameter, the greater

the dip, the greater the immersion arc of the

trunnion circle, and the greater the angle (with

bearings, having length/diameter ratios so large

that

it

is

almost impossible to obtain uniform

pressure over the whole bearing length because

bending or deformation of the parts. As a

the bearings wear unevenly and
excessively, leaving the rudder free to vibrate.
Since the rudder is already in a region of disturbed
flow the resulting slackness may cause pounding,
with more wear and still more vibration.
Partial skegs intended as restoring-moment
stabilizers benefit from large aspect ratios and
relatively narrow tips. Those intended as dampingmoment stabilizers have a moderate to large area
in combination with the attached movable rudder.
Skegs intended to be self-clearing when encountering ropes, cables, and nets, such as those on submarines, require their leading edges to be set at
of

consequence,

rather small angles to the direction of ship motion.

the horizontal) which the blades enter and leave

These are not necessarily small with respect to

the direction of local water flow. The outer or

the waves, the more useful should be the contra-

lower ends of horns or partial skegs, especially

vane

if

installation.

Design Features of Supporting Horns

Rudders of the
for Rudders; Partial Skegs.
balanced, partly underhung, compound or flap
type require a fixed support in the form of a
horn or partial skeg ahead of the hinge or stock
axis. This support may take a great variety of
shapes, depending upon the single or multiple
functions for which it is designed. It may be a
structural support only, it may be intended to
73.14

exert large lateral forces

from a movable

tail,

vertical stabilizing

features built

by pressures induced

may have to serve as a

and it may have contra-

it

fin,

in. Profiles of

representative shapes

are sketched or illustrated in Figs. 21. B, 24. C,

26.E, 28.A, 33.B, 37.A, 37.D and 37.J of

Volume

I,

they are long in a fore-and-aft direction, should

generally parallel to the adjacent flow except

lie

appendages of this nature as are utilized

docking or resting purposes.

for such
for

Structural skegs intended only for docking or

resting can be integral parts of the hull or addi-

on the bottom. If the latter, it is simpler to

omit the fairings along the edges where the skeg

tions

sides join the hull; this

is

acceptable

if

the con-

mentioned in Sec. 75.5 are satisfied. It is

generally the case for a partial centerline skeg.
ditions

If the skegs are built as integral parts of the hull

it is

simpler and better to fair

them

easily into

the hull surfaces and to provide generous means

of

access

from the

inside.

Incidentally,

it

is

by no means necessary that

desirable although

and 75. E of this volume.

horn or partial skeg is determined by the structural support it is intended to
give, the location of internal members to which it
can be anchored, and the amount of vertical
projected area desired in it. Few rules can be
given for laying out these profiles. It can only be
pointed out that structural skegs or horns usually
require a long base on the hull or a long extension

However, to save displacement, wetted surface,

and vertical fin area in the lateral plane, they can
be cut up from the keel plane by the heights of

into the hull.

or projecting skeg

and

in Figs. 74.K, 74. N,

The

profile of a

skegs

which

have

docking

functions

should

terminate with their lower surfaces on the baseplane or at the level of the bottom of the keel.

one, two, or three tiers of docking blocks, generally 14, 28,

The

and 42

inches, respectively.

Hydrodynamic considerations should never be

permitted to squeeze the upper and the lower
bearings of any rudder-and-horn assembly so

on any horn
determined by the range of
du'ections from which the local flow may impinge
upon it under normal operating conditions. In
other words, the horizontal section has sufficient

on

thickness abaft the leading edge so that separation

close together vertically that the lateral forces

fineness of the leading edge

is

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 13.15

and cavitation are not

liable to occur alongside

stern runs normally at angles of attack varying

is,

axis. If

the

forward edge of the movable tail of the rudder is

finished to form a surface concentric with the
axis, the mechanical clearance between this sur-

and the fixed

manner in which

from zero to a few degrees on either side. However,

when the stern swings around and skids over the
water in a turn, the angle of attack on this fixed
appendage may rise initially to 15 or 20 deg. The
angle of attack

forward of the stock

recess, directly

except for short periods. For example, the horn

supporting the rudder under a ship with a broad,
it

fiat

691

face

lug
this

may
may

be quite small. The

be accomplished

is

illustrated in Fig. 73. K.

Selecting

73.15

Number

as explained in Sec. 36.10,

the

Position,

Type,

The

of the Roll-Resisting Keels.

and
first

applied in the wrong direction to facilitate the

step in the design of roll-resisting keels

turn.

mine whether or not they are actually needed. If

required, what are the operating conditions, and
what are the keels called upon to do? It is pointed

Separation

is

almost certain to occur on the

may occur as well,

inside of the turn. Cavitation

if

the top of the horn

is

sufficiently close to the

water surface. By making the leading edge of the

horn reasonably blunt this separation or cavitation
is at least confined to a limited region. It would
otherwise, on a thin section with a sharp entrance,
extend all the way forward to the leading edge.
The skeg section is usually combined with the
rudder section to make a streamlined whole.
Section shapes found satisfactory on high-speed
vessels

are

grammed

similar

in

Fig.

given by P. Mandel

to
73. C.

the

strut

sections

dia-

Their coordinates are

[SNAME,

is

to deter-

out in Sec. 36.13 that the discontinuous or multiadvantageous only when the

fin t3Tpe of keel is

vessel

is

moving through the water.

or sohd type

is

indicated

teristics are required at

when

if

continuous

roll-quenching charac-

low or creeping speeds or

at anchor.

Assuming that the continuous type

selected, the next step is to

determine

of keel
its

is

general

and location on the hull.

some extent governed by the
damping expected or demanded and

proportions, dimensions,

The

total area is to

degree of

roll

3, p. 468].

the inherent roll-quenching characteristics of the

and forming

portions, for the reasons stated in Sec. 37.3. It

underwater form. A hull shape approaching a

circular form, as on some submarines, requires a
high degree of quenching from the keels, compared
to the rolling moments apphed by surface waves.
A hull with nearly square sections in the middlebody calls for a smaller degree of quenching

and simply achieved by providing one

fixed lugs on the inside of the rudder

moment. Practically all roll-resisting keels involve

some increase in appendage resistance.

Horns supporting rudder

1953, Fig.
tails

compound or flap-type combinations require

special shapmg and recessing for the tail. This is
to give the minimum clearance and pressureleakage

is

easily

or

more

area

between the fixed and movable

The

best transverse location for the keels

is

on the corners of the bulge between side and

bottom or at positions having the greatest radius
from the rolling axis. The position must insure
practically if not definitely continuous submergence under all operating conditions. If the rolling
axis is not known from model or full-scale tests,

may be assumed at the intersection of the centerplane and the waterplane, or at a parallel line
through the center of gravity CG for the particular
it

weight distribution assumed.

A. Caldwell ["Steam Tug Design," 1946, p. 42]
states that "the bilge keels will answer their
purpose most effectively if placed at that point
on the shell which is farthest from the metacenter." He does not explain his reasoning in

Rudder Post or
Fixed

Portion of

2.

Compound Rudder
Fig.

73.K

Hrr^GE-GAP Closures fob two Types

Rudder

of

this matter.

A first approximation to the midsection position

obtained by drawing on the body plan a diagonal
from the rolling axis to the point where the
is

HYDRODYNAMICS

692

diagonal offset on the midsection

There
should

is

maximum.

make an

80 dog. The angle that counts

the shell, not with the horizontal.
least

is

is

at

forms in

effect

diagonal stream surface, parallel to the lines of

flow at the ship hull

and

for the entire

clearance

away from the

especially

influence

of

the surface-wave profile.

that the flow

corner

bilge

diagonal

it

may

the

for

ofl^set is

region

0.9 or

more

of the

bilge-diagonal intercept amidships. It

excrescences that can be applied to

it,

motor

roll-resisting

lifeboat, it is possible to

fit

two

made

at least 6 times the

each keel to insure

bilge-

its

proper functioning.

was

vastly

row of such
was added below the main row [WRH, 15

keels

Jan 1939,

Occasionally it happens that when laying out

a trace from the optimum position amidships,

the keel leads up too close to the free-water surface

or down too close to the floor line or the baseplane.

One portion of the keel may then be terminated

when it moves out of optimum position and
another portion started in an offset position,
reckoned girthwise, where it may be placed to
better advantage for performing its function. The

Be- of

radius

1.5

is

less

increased.

Having determined the girthwise position

the roll-resisting keel, a point

is

to 2,0

Times

the Bilge-Keel

Width Near the Gap

k^After Section Offset Upward Here;

^^^ It Can Be Offset

I

Jownword
Fig. 73. L

Bilge-Keel Arrangements With Gap and Offset Amidships

of

selected on the

exterior portion of the diagonal, indicated at

in fact, overlap

the Order of

The

transverse spacing was, with

than that prescribed in the
foregoing for solid bUge keels abreast.
73.16 Bilge-Keel Extent, Area, and Other
Features. Because of its greater lever arm,
and possibly also because of its width with reference to the thickness of the boundary layer, a
keel on a sharp bulge, designed to give a certain
degree of roll-quenching, may be relatively
narrow. It must be wider, however, as the bulge
p. 21].

justification,

the hull.

"Offset Should

On

built with discontinuous bilge keels of the

with surface lines of flow on a model. It is still

better to double-check the position with tufts or
flags mounted on pins and extending for at least
0.9 the maximum width of the bilge keel from

x^A\^^

is

of

the Dutch liner Oranje of the late 1930's, which

picket-fence type, a second partial

may,

such as a

maximum width

preferable, however, to check a proposed trace

keel endings at this offset

upper

layout the spread between the adjacent keels

maximum
is

illustrated in the

keels abreast on each side of the hull. In such a

be assumed

where the

is

midsection,

approximately parallel to the

is

of the

For a vessel with a large but exceptionally slack

and a limit to the width of the

is

speed or the highest speed at which the ship is

to run for the greater part of its time in service.
For slow-speed vessels with nearly square
sections in the middlebody,

way

profile of Fig. 73. L.

generally the service

is

not available for keels in

is

adequate. Such a design

trace

conforming to the flow at one particular speed

therefore selected. This

on each

preferred,

midship bulge, the roll-resisting keel may be

omitted there. Separate shorter keels are then
laid out, forward and aft, where the clearance is

width of

hull. These lines of flow,

on a fast or a high-speed ship, change
position and shape with speed because of the

the keel

is

between them. In general, the girthwise offset

should be at least 1.5 times and preferably 2
times the full width of each keel near the gap,
shown by the middle diagram of Fig. 73. L.
For ships of such full sections that working

the one at

For negligible pressure resistance and minimum

It

of the taper

shown in the
lower profile of Fig. 73. L. There may, of course,
be a fore-and-aft gap of any desired length

friction resistance, the keel should lie along the

lines of flow in its region.

Sec. 73.16

by the length

keel but no overlap

angle with, the tangent to the

at the diagonal intersection which

shell

longitudinally

a further condition that the diagonal

is

IN SHIP DESIGN

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.16

on Fig.

73. M,

where the included angle between

the two adjacent tangents to the hull

The

120 degrees.

100 to

is

distance between the point

/Assumed

Position of Rolling Axis

and the hull gives an acceptable hydrodynamic as

For a persquare-cornered

bilge

should, a width of zero.

this

gives,

as

The maximum width

for a semi-circular midsection,

where

it is

is

0.302

120-deg angle.
length of the keel

is

^\

it

(B/2) for a 100-deg angle and 0.154(5/2) for a

The

Between Rodiol Line OB^

and Tanqent to Shell
Qt Inner Edge of Bilge
Keel Should Lie ^^
"^X\\
\Betwean 80 ond IOO^eg\

An(^le

well as practical width for the keel.

fectly

cm

determined partly by

Distance KE Should Be Such

That the Angle Between the
Vertical MNE and the Tangent KN,
f>
More Than 3 dea

the area required, assuming that the average

width has already been determined, and partly by

the length of that portion of the ship for which an
adequate lever arm for the keel can be obtained.
When the transverse sections have narrowed or
contracted so that the lever arm, i^^ as measured by the distance OB on Fig. 73. M, becomes less than a certain fraction of the lever

-Lines

Through K
Tangent to5hell-

arm

at the

keel

is

maximum

>

Diagram at

downward

bilge-block

0.90,

toward the centerline of the dock. In some cases

it may be necessary to provide this clearance
above the floor line rather than above the baseplane. In fact, this requirement may be expected
for all vessels which are to have bilge blocks
hauled under them when drydocking. To obtain

may

shave

0.90, this fraction

For vessels

may

this point (0.8)^

full

midsection, say

be kept larger than

of slack section,

minimum value of
The midplane of

where Cx

<

0.75 might be justified.

the roll-resisting keel

efficiftnt

keel

is

obtained by making

it

as

wide as possible amidships and keeping it of

approximately constant width. This is because
the additional width amidships has a much
greater lever arm than at the ends of the keel.
All too frequently the maximum width or the
amidships width of a roll-resisting keel is limited
by working clearances around the keel edges.
This prevents damage when lying alongside quay
walls and when entering graving docks. The
clearances are expressed generally as (1) a distance
inboard of the point of extreme beam at any
section and (2) a clearance above the baseplane
throughout the length. The latter is desirable

when hauling

bilge blocks, especially

bearers

slope

the required clearance

change angle with the horizontal, at a gradual and

moderate rate from amidships to either end, as
may seem appropriate when considering the flow
of water in its vicinity, at a distance from the
shell. Use of the "tangent rule" set down at the
beginning of this section produces a narrow keel
alongside the sharp-bulged sections of a form and
a very wide keel alongside the narrow or slack
sections. For the same total area, however, a

more

Bilge-Keel Design
Midsection

Rk there is little to be
by making the minimum Rk less than

about 0.8 the maximum. At

For vessels of rather

Cx

bilge-diagonal offset, the

0.512.

0.85.

73.

terminated. Since the effectiveness of the

keel varies about as

gained

FiG.

when the

off

it

slightly

is

often necessary to

the bilge-keel width amidships.

The forward and

after ends of the keels are

tapered gradually to practically zero width.

gradual taper occupies a length at least 3 times

the keel width, with a

maximum

slope of about

40 deg. For any leading edge lying forward of

about 0.5L from the FP, the taper should occupy

maximum

at least 5 times the keel width, with a

slope of 20 deg for medium-speed

and 10 deg

for

high-speed ships. This taper avoids fouling or

catching ropes and cables on the ends and
ehminates sharp structural discontinuities where
the keels terminate.
It is possible that ships with sections projecting

beyond the

Cx

>

A flat,

1-0,

limits

of

waterline

where

beam,

hardly need roll-resisting keels at

all'

shallow raft with a deep fixed keel, having

a Cx approaching 0.0, likewise needs no additional

appendage because of the powerful roll-damping
effect of the keel. Yachts, with deep fixed keels,

no bilge keels, and values of Cx

behave much like the raft, except

less

than 0.5

for the addi-

tional steadying effect of their sails.

Of

all

the

intermediate forms, the craft which needs the

maximum

roll

damping

is

one having a

B/H

HYDRODYNAMICS

694
ratio of 2.0,

a Cx of

7r/4 or 0.785,

waterplane,

maximum

a semi-circular
at

the

and a

center

rolling axis in the

the

of

circular-arc

design curve or lane to give suitable values

of the roll-resisting keel area

some other
a

The

Sec. 73.17

roll-resisting keels are in effect principal

longitudinal

sembhng

members of the ship structure, reAs such they must diminish

stringers.

gradually in section so that the shell connection

section.

IN SHIP DESIGN

section,

Ak

with relation to

have
about 0.785, cor-

suitable term should therefore

maximum

at a

Cx value

of

any point may carry the increment

at

keel

and the

together.

The

must

hull

stretch

to the shell should project well

minimums

1.0

of the keel proper,

Mandel has given such a design lane

Cx from 0.7 to 1.0 [SNAME, 1953,
492], based upon the ratio 10A^:/(LH),

7.3.N of Sec. 73.18.

and

Cx approximating

0.0. P.

for the range of

Fig. 25, p.

and compress

securing angles attaching the keel

responding to a semi-circular midsection, and two

at values of

of shear

load appUed at that point. In other words, the

beyond the end

about as diagrammed in Fig.

If the roll-resisting keels

extend forward to the

vicinity of the quarter point,

and

if

they

rise to

where

Ak

the bilge-keel area on one side of the

points above the baseline greater than about 0.3

vessel.

The graph should in fact diminish toward

Cx values of 0.4 or less, corresponding to

the draft in any operating condition, the forward

zero at

is

73.17

The pubhshed

related to

literature

Some

of bilge-keel design.

of these are closely

hydrodynamics and are accordingly

discussed briefly here.

The

Structural Considerations in Bilge-Keel

and reference
books on the structural design and construction
of ships overlook many of the important features

Design.

ends require strengthening against wave slap

and water impact.

those of deep-keel yachts.

Roll- Resisting

U-:

is

Coniinuous

transverse shape of a roll-resisting keel

should remain relatively sharp and pointed at

its

outer edge. If

it

needs lateral stiffening, such

by a half-round bar, this is

by an outer-edge flange such as
that on an I-beam with the outer flange trimmed
down. This construction gives increased damping
as

is

often afforded

best provided

Keel
in

[-e

This Interval
|

End of Toper Cul at

Toes of Shell Angles

o'2_5^

hl.'O^J

Terminal Plate Forward

Riveted to Shell Plating

^-^^

U-r
I

0.75

Rivets as Close
to Heel of Anqle

QS Practicable

Fio. 73.

Section B-B

Structural Layout for Roll-Resisting Keels for the

ABC

Ship

Section A-A

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.19

some

with

in

increase

resistance.

friction

It

(i'J5

keel width of 3.5

ft,

or about 0.0477i?.v

still

requires a rather careful preliminary flow study-

leaves a clearance of about a foot above the floor

on a model, to insure that not only the keel

proper but the outer flange lie in the streamlines.
A flange on the free edge should not carry around
the tapered portion at the ends but should itself

line

be tapered to zero where the width-tapering of

as

the keel begins.

triangular keel section affords immeasurably

greater structural rigidity than a thick flat section.

It

and displacement

preferred where weight

is

considerations permit.

The

section can take the

form of an acute-angled triangle with a peak

15 deg, without any

angle of not more than

sacrifice of

damping quahties. On

expected to

roll

heavily the base of the triangular

section of a roll-resisting keel

0.4 or

more

large vessels

may

be as great as

of the keel width.

Bilge keels are heavily loaded in an alternating

The extreme forward end

is partly unsupbrought to a rather long, sharp

point. All in all, the normal bilge keel requires a
special structural attachment to render it secure
for long periods of hard service. Indeed, the
forward sections of roll-resisting keels on fast
and high-speed vessels could well be built of
heavier scantlings than the rest.
The attachment of the base of the keel to the
hull should be stronger than that of the sides or
projecting portions of the keel to the base. This
insures that if the keel is overloaded in any way,
the shell connections will remain intact.
73.18 Design of Roll-Resisting Keels for the

cycle.

ported unless

ABC

Ship.

ABC

ship,

it is

The

roll-resisting keel traces for the

shown on

Fig. 66.P,

were determined

by flow tests on the model, using pivoted flags

which projected from the hull for a distance corresponding to some 3 ft on the ship. From the
straightness of the traces as projected on the
midsection plane it might appear that they were
simply drawn as diagonals on the body plan. It
so happens that the flow on either side of the bilgekeel positions straightens

as

itself,

it

were, in

these regions. This does not always occur, as

evidenced by the
class,

wavy

keel traces on the Mariner

reported by V. L. Russo and E. K. Sullivan

[SNAME,

1953, Fig. 18, p. 127].

Were the

crests

of the Velox waves more pronounced

along the side of the ABC ship, the bilge-keel
trace might well be affected by them.

and troughs

The

slack bilge of this ship

was

laid

out to

permit the attachment of wide roll-resisting keels,

for the reasons given in Sec. 66.13.

The maximum

and a foot

The

inside the side of the ship.

bilge-keel area

was governed

in this case

only by the rules in the sections preceding and

by the endeavor

to obtain as

much

bilge-keel area

without sacrificing other features.

The keels were carried forward and aft, as
shown in Fig. 66. P, to points where they were
considered as no longer paying their way. The
possible

effective

length

is

some 7

stations (Sta. 7 to Sta.

14); this is equivalent to 178.5 ft or 0.35 times the

waterline length.

The

taper at the forward ends was

18 ft long,

shown

made about

in Fig. 73. N, or over 5 times

the depth, exclusive of the structural terminal

plate

and

fairing bar.

That at the

after

end was

made some 10 ft long, or about 3 times the depth.

The width of the triangular keel at the base is
1.5 ft, or 0.43 times its maximum depth. The
hydrodynamic loads imposed

in

quenching

roll

are transferred to the hull as a combination of

The

shear loads and normal loads.

and out on the

shell in line

the triangular structure.

this structure,

riveted

latter pull in

with the side plates of

Any

offset

members

in

such as side plates of the keel

to shell angles,

are almost certain to

develop high bending moments and eventually

to become loose. It is for this reason that the
shell

angle should be very heavy.

which hold

The

rivets

this angle to the shell are placed as

close as possible to the force-application lines in

the side plates. This means as close as they can

be driven to the bosom of the bar.

73.19 Design of Docking, Drift-Resisting,
and Resting Keels. The best design procedure

heavy ship where

is mandatory, is
to make them unnecessary by working the desired
flat supporting surface into the bottom of the
ship itself. In regions where direct support is
required and the normal faired lines lie somewhat
above the blocking level at the baseplane, the
bottom of the ship is brought down deliberately
for docking keels,

on a

large,

considerable off-center support

to the level of the tops of the docking blocks.

Figs.

67. L

and 67.M

for

the arch-stern

ABC

design indicate, in the regions near the baseplane

at Stas. 14 and 15, how this is done. Although in
this ship the hull terminates at the after quarter-

point in a

flat

surface coinciding with the floor

the shape would be essentially the same if

brought down to the baseplane. In many ships
line,

this

modification

involves

only a surprisingly

HYDRODYNAMICS

696
small change in form, even

support

is

from

offset

when

the

the docking

centerplane.

The

resulting discontinuities are moderate, distorting

the flow only slightly and involving

little or no
added drag. Obviously, at the ends of a ship with
the usual deep forefoot and aftfoot the major
support area is under the centerline keel. Such

a keel

kept down to baseplane level for as

is

a proportion of the length as possible,

great

consistent with good flow

and drag and with the

required maneuvering characteristics. In a normal

design the

keel should

flat

in the baseplane

lie

for at least 0.8 of the waterline length, although

in special cases this ratio
0.6,

or less

[Clark,

may

diminish to

ATMA,

L.,

ABC

For the transom-stern

1900,

hull

this

p.

0.7,

361].

ratio

is

66.Q and 66.T, even

though the aftfoot is cut away. For the archstern ABC design, centerline support is provided
for 0.75 times the length plus two rows of side
support, under the skegs, each for about 0.15L,rL
If the hull proper can not be brought down to
the level of the baseplane for docking support,
the next best procedure is to raise part of the
docking-keel level above the flat-keel level. In
any one area this can be done by adding standard
layers of material, say 4 in or 14 in thick, to the
tops of the regular docking blocks. A ship of
moderate draft usually has ample clearance over
the raised blocking in a dock, even when some
0.925, indicated in Figs.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 73.19

circular pressure hull through their

upper flanges

and a heavy horizontal closing plate was bolted

to their lower flanges. The bosoms of the two
channels, on the outside, were

filled

with blocks of

lead bolted in place as more-or-less permanent

ballast. These centerline box keels were rugged
enough to serve as resting keels when the ship
lay on the bottom or as support keels when it
was docked.
There is no practicable limit to the depth of a

drift-resisting

keel

provided

it

sufficiently

is

sturdy to take its share of the load when docking.

The keel is designed to be of watertight construction, with one

bottom plate and two

If

the keel

is

long relative to the vessel

becomes
members.

it

in effect one of the longitudinal strength

As such the side plates are attached to the hull

in a manner to prevent transverse cracking of
both the side plates and the adjacent shell plates.
A flanged plate or a channel is used for the bottom

member

so as to bring the fore-and-aft welds

above the lower outboard corners and

relieve

them of concentrated loads during docking.

Not only the knuckles or lower corners of the
keel but the upper corners should be as sharp as
practicable, with reentrant angles not less than

90 or 100 deg. The junction of the drift-resisting

and the hull should not be filleted as is the

keel

The

case of the keep keel on a sailing yacht.

compartments are damaged and flooded. The

designer may cut out the unwanted or undesirable

ately introduced to offer the

portion of a deep keel or skeg without sacrificing

resistance on the advancing side of the keel

blocking support by raising the bottom or support

the

by a multiple of the block67.

and 67.0 show that

surface parallel to itself

ing thickness. Figs.

under the two

offset skegs of the

design, the level

by

is

keel and skegs

ABC

raised 28 in, or 2.33

is

arch-stern
ft.

Support

thus provided over 0.913 of

Blocking-support areas in a small ship should

preferably be at least 6 in wide. In a large ship
ft is

An

the

minimum, but

3 or 4 ft

is

preferred.

excellent drift-resisting keel for metal-hulled

vessels

is

a centerline box keel placed underneath

the main hull.

An appendage

fitted to the single-hull

outside and inside corners mentioned are deliber-

maximum

tion

maximum

of pressure resistance

on the retreating side

of

of

dynamic
and

due to separa-

when

the keel

drifting or sidling.

The

inside of the keel

may

be

filled

with

of this kind

was

type of submarines built

(3)

an inert

The

gas.

deep sections of some fishing vessels,

resembling those of a deep-keel yacht, have
fine,

excellent inherent drift-resisting as well as roll-

damping characteristics. Body plans and lines

shown in an article reporting NPL tests with

are

models,

entitled

"Experiments

with

Herring

Boat Company during the period

1900-1925. This keel was used as a duct for

Drifters" [SBSR, 28 Jul 1938, pp. 103-106].

pumping out water tanks along the length of the

hull, as well as a means of holding fixed ballast.
It was made of two heavy channels with their
flanges facing outward. They were riveted to the

provides sufficient

by the

(1)

some lightweight water-excluding material blown

into place, with (2) some inert ballast which will
not accelerate corrosion of the metal, or with

the waterline length.

side

plates, the latter attached to the flat keel plate.

Electric

Whether any

centerline

drift-resisting

keel

quenching to permit elimination of the roll-resisting keels is open toquestion.

This depends upon the shape of the transverse
section

roll

and the length

of the lever

arm

of the

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.20

centerline keel from the rolling axis. It appears

well established, however,

downward
beam-

that any

projection on the centerplane, for a normal

draft ratio, has a beneficial effect in quenching

roll.

For vessels of nearly rectangular section and

two drift-

697

to take vessels of large horizontal area which

have these
of

floor

keels.

may have

may

ship with a rather large rise

well-curved

flowlines;

the

docking or resting keels preferably follow them.

The direction of flow toward and away from

known

large beam-draft ratio, say 4 or more,

docking and resting keels

resisting keels fitted at the lower corners of the

and remains fixed for all

steady-state straight-line travel. For this reason
the ends are invariably fined on both sides of the
keel. The bottom surface is carried out to a

and as docking

hull serve also as roll-resisting

In this case, the lateral spread is made

large, at least 8 times the keel depth, to avoid
interference and to make both keels fully effective

keels.

when subjected

Resting keels on a submarine

may

or

may

not

upon the design

They need not even be

requirements.

flat

on the

an advantage in a special shape.

and resting keels flare
outward above the support surface, and they
meet the hull so that the reentrant angle is greater
than 90 deg. This feature is illustrated in Figs.
36.N and 73.0.
Docking and resting keels offer the minimum
of resistance when they follow the flowlines under
the bottom. This means that under a flat-bottomed
ship they should diverge slightly from forward aft,

bottom,

The

there

if

point,

then

to transverse flow.

project below the keel, depending

rately from

is

sides of docking

by the directions of the under-thebottom flowlines of Fig. 52.V. This divergence is

of no particular consequence in a dock equipped

indicated

One

(or Two)

tMo'y Be

<^

Vertical on Outsid;

give the

to

may

Keel to

rather accu-

maximum

support surface,

be cut up rather sharply, as .shown at 6

Notches, deep and wide enough to permit

making their boundaries securely watertight, may
be worked into the upper portions of deep keels.
These help in the venting of air bubbles which
find their way under and inside the keels and
which might work their way up into injection
openings. The venting openings are necessary in
submarines which have main-ballast flood valves
or flooding openings below them. Excess air from
the blowing of these tanks can not be trapped

below the
73.20
or Fins.

keels.

The Design of Fixed Stabilizing Skegs

The design of fixed skegs or fins intended

primarily to act as stabilizing surfaces, excluding

in this case stabilization against roll,

The damping

forces

is

based upon:

and moments required to

be exerted by them in the angular motions of

pitch and yaw. Damping of the translatory
motions of heaving, surging, and sidling is seldom
necessary and
(2)

Shallow Dockintj

is

tests

in Fig. 73.0.

(1)
l>=Heiqht of

model

is

excluded here.

The hydrodynamic

lift

exerted

by these

and the corresponding restoring moments

developed by them, when the ship axis departs
from the normal straight-ahead motion axis and

Reduce

surfaces,

Resistance

Alternative

Method

of

and
Docking
Keel Altogether

Knucklina Hull

Eliminating

the surfaces run at a finite angle of attack. This

be an angle of either yaw or pitch. Good

may
Upper Levels
of Dock.ing
in
Blocks
locks

Omitted

Cutup Equal to the Total Height of a

Whole Number of Docking- Block
Heights, such as 14, 28, or42 inches,
to be Cribbed^ Up in This Region

LL

Wq>1 of
WqvJ
,

NormaT^Level

of

Tops of Blocks

design requires that the fins or skegs be placed in

a region of relatively smooth flow, as distinguished

from a region of eddying in a separation zone. In

general, the lift force developed by them should be
zero for the normal attitude and normal operating
condition of the vessel.

In airplanes the disposable weights usually are

Side Elevotion o^ a Docking or
Resting Keel, Showing
Notch or Passage.

Large- Scale Section

Venting

Bilge Keel

Hull

Vent^

May Be Similar

Fig. 73.0

Design Sketches for Docking Keels

too small to permit achieving equilibrium by

moving them forward and aft. Stabihzer surfaces

with adjustable angle of attack are often provided

in the tail to produce compensating moments for
maintaining trim balance. In submarines provision

is

made

in the liquid

trimming system for

HYDRODYNAMICS

698

changing quickly the longitudinal compensating

moments. It is not feasible in these vessels to
proAdde hydrodynamic moment compensation
because of the increased drag, weight, and
mechanical complication of an adjustable stabilizer. There is the further important fact that
the submarine

may

be running slowly or be

stopped when trim compensation is required.

The trailing end of a ship hull, together with
such rudders or planes as may be attached to it,
possesses

definite

property. Actually,

unknown

but

damping

stabilizing

and yaw

in pitch

both ends of the hull

about the corresponding axis, but restoring
moments are expected only from the after part.
results

from the swinging

of

For angular damping the area of all movable

rudders, planes, and fins mounted normal to
the direction of local motion is added to the area
of the fixed portions. For the most effective
dynamic damping from these surfaces they are
mounted as close as possible to the hull, to prevent
unnecessary leakage from the +Ap to the

Ap sides.
Just
surface

how much fixed and movable stabilizing

is demanded for stability of route is not

a matter for ready calculation or reUable prediction, especially if the hull under design is of

from that of a hull

which has been satisfactorily stabilized in the
past. This matter is discussed further under
Maneuvering in Part 5 of Volume III.
To insure zero restoring force or moment on
fixed stabilizers when none is desired, they must
be placed exactly in the lines of flow. For a surface
essentially different shape

vessel these fines are only

by accident

or coinci-

dence parallel to the axis of the ship or its direction

of motion. For a stabilizing fin or skeg placed in
the outflow jet of a screw propeller, the water

when the

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 73.20

pattern does not change materially for small

variations from the normal running attitude.

Considering only the restoring forces and moments produced by hydrofoil lift at an angle of
attack, stabilizing fins and skegs act more efficiently as their aspect ratio is increased. However,
there are practical limits to the distances which
these appendages may project beyond the hull or
to which they may approach certain other

boundaries such as the baseplane or the planes

defining extreme half-beams. A reduction in the
aspect ratio must be accepted
area

is

large.

This

is

if

the stabilizer

not a disadvantage because

a surface short in the direction of motion and

long in a direction normal to it has low dynamic
damping. Taking all factors into account, the
best fore-and-aft length for such a skeg or fin

appears to be approximately equal to its extension

hull. If the hull is relatively large in area
at the point of attachment, compared to the size

from the

of the stabilizer, the effective aspect ratio

is

of

the order of 2.0, for the reasons given in Sec. 14.11.

It is difficult to formulate design rules for the

but common form of stabilizing or

"fulcrum fin" required on any flat-bottomed boat
to provide a pivot point for the rudder moment.
On a small centerboard sailboat, the board is
raised or lowered to give the required area. For

different

the balsa rafts of the Incas, exemplified by the

of T. Heyerdahl, thin planks pushed

Kon-Tiki

down

vertically

between the fore-and-aft logs

at selected positions served as multiple stabilizers.

This gave the "rafters" a great freedom for adjust-

ment and

relieved the builder of the burden of

and proper set of positions

was put together.
On a high-speed motorboat carrying a fulcrum

selecting a fixed

when the
fin,

raft

a trial-and-error process of positioning

is

is

indicated, at gradually increasing speeds, or else

rather than the direction of the

propeller axis. If the stabilizers are near the surface

a miniature centerboard may be used, mechanically operated from the driver's seat. J. Baader

the flow directions almost certainly change with

shows the shape, relative

speed because of the change in profile of the Velox

wave system. This calls for the selection of a

this

follows the hull-flow pattern

self-propelled

vessel

given speed at which the lines of flow are to be

which must
perform well on the surface as well as below it
this procedure is further complicated by the
paralleled. In the case of submersibles

possible existence of different lines of flow for

the surface and submerged conditions. Usually,

which fixed
stabilizers are required occur during submerged
running. When well below the surface the flow

however, the

critical conditions for

size,

and position

of

forward or fulcrum fin for a number of

successful motorboats ["Cruceros y Lanchas
Veloces (Cruisers and Fast Launches)," Buenos
Aires, 1951, pp. 115, 119, 322-325, 341].
Fixed stabilizers and skegs, especially on submarines, may often be called upon for complementary functions such as propeller guards and
docking supports for the stern. In this case their
outer edges may be reinforced with shallow
flanges simflar to those described for the rollresisting keels in Sec. 73.17.

These flanges must

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.22

699

be placed in the lines of flow, but the proper

as

determined from a tuft test.

Design of Torque-Compensating Fins.
73.21
So far as known, there are no finished designs or
working shipboard installations of devices in-

resultant velocity at

increasing propeller torque throughout the ship

tended to counteract the effect of the unsym-

speed range.

position

metrical

is

easily

propelling-plant

torque,

described

in

Sec. 33.19.

The approximate heel angle resulting from

unbalanced propeller torque is readily determined by entering the righting-moment curve of
the ship with the propeller torque Q. In this case
it is assumed that the righting moments are not
altered due to forward motion of the vessel. Any
such effect is usually of the second order of mag-

the propeller

torque

is

a function of the

an average blade element.

The counterbalancing torque thus

ship speed

and rate

increases with

of rotation, to

match the

To provide the necessary compensating torque

from one diametral fin, the contra-effect could be
somewhat larger than is customary for a contrarudder. Methods of developing the twisted shape
for the latter are described in Sec. 74.16.

set of torque-compensating fins, each

that this be accomplished by fitting abaft the

having
symmetrical with
respect to the shaft axis, could be used if convenient in place of the single fin with two arms.
The problem here, as with the two-arm assembly,
is to support the contra-fins in their proper
positions without increasing the appendage resist-

screw propeller a fixed fin traversing some convenient diameter of the outflow jet. This fin,

ance by a disproportionate amount. Fig. 73. P is a

sketch of such a device, with a vertical fin worked

well-known contra-rudder described in

is twisted on opposite sides of the
shaft axis to develop thrust while extracting
rotational energy from the outflow jet. It thus
combines a torque-compensating device with a
means of improving the propulsive efficiency. The
counterbalancing torque produced by this device
is a function of the velocity of flow over it, just

compoimd-type contra-rudder assembly.

is supported at the center by the
rudder post and at its outer ends by two vertical
struts. An upward component of flow abaft the
single propeller might require a tilting of the
horizontal arm, downward and forward.
Sec. 69.13 describes a method of using imsymmetric spray strips on a high-speed planing craft
to achieve a measure of dynamic reaction to

nitude.

As the

first

stage in such a study

it is

proposed

like the

Sec. 37.16,

Heelini^

Moment Due

to Engine.

Lateral

Forces

Exerted on
Contra- Fins
In

three

or

more

radial

arms,

into a

horizontal fin

unbalanced engine torque.

73.22 Fixed
Guards and Fenders. Projections from the fair surface of the hull in the
form of fixed guards or fenders are of two types,
those primarily vertical and those which lie
generally parallel to the direction of motion. Of
the first type are guards for external scupper

Rotating

Water

of

Propeller

-Outflow Jet

and drainage leads or, occasionally, for operating

gear which must be external to the shell. Of the
second type are fenders and projecting fender
strakes, extending over considerable portions of

the length but covering limited portions of a

transverse section.

PLAN VIEW FROM ABOVE

The vertical projections are an abomination

from every point of view and are to be avoided
wherever practicable. They throw spray at all
except the lowest speeds and they cause pressure
resistance and separation drag, with holes in the
water behind them. They cover up shell surfaces
hable to heavy corrosion and they are vulnerable
to damage from other craft or heavy objects
lying alongside.

Fig. 73. P

Proposed Scheme for Counteracting

Unsymmetric Engine Torque

Longitudinal fenders,
section or construction,

regardless

of

type

of

must often be placed at

HYDRODYNAMICS

700

maximum waterline or extreme

positions may vary vertically, or

IN SHIP DESIGN

73.23

Sec.

the positions of

1946, Fig. 14, p. 332].

beam. Tiiese
girthwise, from station to station on a ship, so
the fenders can seldom be led along the Unes of
flow to insure minimum drag. Perhaps this is just
as well, because most of them lie near the freewater surface. Here the lines of flow under the
waves of the Velox system change with speed and
with position along the length. Moderate amounts
of roUing and pitching also change the direction

schematic sketch of a similar fender strake.

of the resultant flow accordingly.

first-cost,

and maintenance factors, as well as hydrodynamics, nothing can equal or surpass the
heavy fender strake which forms an integral part
of the shell plating.

It involves practically
all

no

discontinuities

its

grammed

at

in Fig. 73. Q. It

is

dia-

adequate, never-

it,

in

[(now

bow rudder

close-fitting guard, designed for a cross-

SBMEB)

Another one

is

is

published in

The Shipbuilder

Jan-Jun 1914, Vol. X, p. 36].

given by G. de Rooij ["Practical

Shipbuilding," 1953, Fig. 495, p. 203]. Twin weed

skegs outboard of the twin propellers of a 63-ft

motorboat are shown

in

(American) Motorship,

April 1948, page 34.

in

stiffness,

necessary

profile aft, plus the

rather large-scale drawing of a

and

some transverse

for

throw spray.

parts of the

curvature

it is

is

the deepest draft-aft condition, to insure that

these guards remain out of water and do not

form of the hull except the strake

care of all problems of leaky
connections, unseen corrosion, spray throwing,
and the like. It serves best when acting as the
outer boundary of an irregular hull section, with
It takes

wave

73.Q

the usual disturbed-surface layer covering

in the fair

edges.

of Fig.

placing propeller guards

to take account of the

channel steamer,

Considering structural, fabrication,

increase in drag. It eliminates

When

Diagram 2

Design

73.23
ages.

Means

to

Avoid Vibration of Append-

predicting

of

and avoiding the

singing of screw propellers are outlined in Sees.

23.7

and

70.46. It

is

equally important that those

main ship

and those appendages

hull

the vicinity of the propulsion device (s)

be
designed to have certain natural periods of vibration in water.

These

.should

be different from the

exciting frequency of the blades or other principal

parts

the

of

propulsion

device (s).

There are

techniques available, similar to those described

TMB

in

Report R-22 of April 1940, whereby the

natural frequencies of the parts of appendages in

Sinole- Thickness

may be determined on existing ships, or

on new ships -prior to the first sea trial. This involves
the local attachment of small vibration generators
question

Fender Stroke

Transverse Curvature
Gives This Plate

Inherent Stiffness

in watertight casings,

appendages

or the excitation of the

in their natural

modes, also in water,

by connecting the generators and the appendages

^

Fender 5tral<e

with long struts.

Long, slender, and well-streamlined appendages

Uke strut arms nevertheless require checking for
their susceptibility to resonant vibration. Under

Structure is Schematic
and ExQoaeroted for Emphasis

operating conditions they

Fig. 73.Q

Forms of Heavy Fender Steakes

vortex street or

trail.

may

be followed by a

Existing data (1955) are far

from adequate as to the eddymaking charactheless,

with possibly some slight increase in

teristics of

weight, for vertical ship sides against vertical

yawed

walls, sketched at 2 in the figure.

wavegoing.

heavy fender strake

made an

of this type

is

always

outside strake. If the seams are riveted

elongated sections, especially in the

attitudes to be found during turning

few general rules

may

be laid

(1)

fender strake of this kind, standing vertical at

any

section,

are

opposite separation points,

the

maximum beam
J.

L. Bates

of an underwater bulge, is
and I. J. Wanless [SNAME,

as a

help to the designer in this respect:

or if they are welded a strake is easily removed

from the outside for repair or replacement. A

shown by

down

and

vortex street or

yawed

trail

may

be shed from

or otherwise, on which there

these separation points

may

shift

and on which
forward or aft

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.24

along the section outline without encountering

abrupt discontinuities. One such section is a
thin ellipse; another

is

a strut section with an

The probable

angle of non-axial flow for any

may

appendage section

The nominal

(a)

be estimated from:

The
The

(c)

non-axiality of the flow, con-

flow-obstructing or flow-straightening

For example, an appendage far removed from the

estimated position of the pivoting point in a
tight turn has a nominal degree of non-axial flow

than the average drift angle

measured at the CG. On the other
hand, if the appendage is in a tunnel, or directly
abaft a long skeg, it is protected, in a way, from
is

far greater

of the ship,

this cross flow.

An example

of the

method

of estimating the

vibratory characteristics of a typical streamlined

appendage

in the

form of a long strut arm

is

given in Sec. 46.9.

73.24 Design of Water Inlet and Discharge
Openings Through the Shell. This section treats
only of the design of inlet and discharge openings
for circulating water to the main propelling
machinery or to pumping plants large in comparison to that machinery, such as in a fireboat.
The design of secondary openings for taking
water into and discharging it from the hull of a
ship represents no particular problem that does
not occur with the major openings. The comments
and illustrations of Sees. 8.6, 8.7, and 36.20 apply
to all these openings in a general way. For the
discussion of the present section
to

assume axes

it is

convenient

of reference fixed in the ship.

surrounding Avater

is

The

then considered as a stream

flowing past a stationary opening in the hull.

The

kinetic energy in the

main injection
narrow limits by the position
of the internal heat exchangers. There is some

The

longitudinal position of the

fixed within rather

latitude

position of the appendage on the ship

features in the vicinity.

that

mining figure appears not to be the speed-length

quotient or the Froude number but the absolute

is

sidering the type of ship motion

(b)

exceeds 20 kt in service. In this case the deter-

speed of the ship.

elliptic trailing edge.

(2)

701

boundary layer may

be utilized for forcing water through internal

piping and heat exchangers of one kind or another
whenever there is sufficient velocity head for
conversion into the requisite pressure head. In
this case the available velocity head is that corresponding to flow in the boundary layer along
the shell. This may be taken as 0.5 the nominal
ship speed for prehminary estimates, less the head
corresponding to the desired velocity through the
internal system. In practice, it is found that there
is no particular advantage in using the scoop type
of injection unless the speed of the ship equals or

in

transverse position to suit service

conditions, with the proviso that the injection

must always remain submerged under the most

severe kinds of wavegoing. For an icebreaker the
logical position for the injection is under the
bottom, clear of as much ice as possible. For a
vessel to operate in shallow water it should not
be too near the bottom, otherwise it may be in
the mud. For vessels which may be required to
operate in waves in a relatively light condition,
especially at light or shallow draft forward, there

problems other than that of picking up

water with the scoop. Air bubbles are entrained
by wave action or impacts under the forefoot,
but it is probable that they follow fairly definite
paths under the bottom.
Water injections are to be kept clear of these
paths, using model tests to determine the airare

bubble routes. Particularly, injections should not

be instaUed close below roll-resisting keels,
docking and resting keels, or other longitudinal
appendages beneath which air is liable to be
trapped.

When

considering the use of a condenser-scoop

installation, or

when

selecting the type, the price

and

to be paid in resistance

effective

power

always involves a combination of the scoop inlet

and the discharge. Since it is the discharge which
often creates the hydraulic (suction) head necessary to draw water through the condensers, this
is the element of the pair which may be expected
to develop the greater resistance.

Regardless of the merits of any one hydrodyof inlet scoop or discharge outlet

namic design
there

is

always the problem of finding room for

these fittings in the bottom or the lower corners

under or alongside the machinery

is assigned there is the matter
of cutting into main structural members. Finally,
the large piping has to be led to and from the
condenser(s), and space must be made available
of the ship

spaces.

When room

for a stand-by power-driven circulating

pump

for

maneuvering.
In Sir Charles Parsons' Turbinia of 1897 there
were two condensers with circulating water fed
to them in series from two scoops, one on each

HYDRODYNAMICS

702

Each scoop was fitted with a

one could act as a discharge while the
other was acting as an inlet. By thromng over
both flaps, the water direction was reversed and
side of the vessel.
flap so that

any

was drawn

foreign matter choking the tubes

overboard.

At a

later stage in the life of the vessel

an overboard discharge was fitted in the crossover

between the after ends of the condensers so that
both scoops could take in water simultaneously
and pass it through the condensers in parallel
[INA, 1897, p. 233; ASNE, May 1897, p. 376].
In the flush-lip inlets of the Schmidt type, in
which there is no scoop or external projection as
such, it is no small matter to guard against the
entrance of large fish and foreign objects into the
heat exchangers. Longitudinal bars must be
fitted across the scoop entrance, spaced perhaps
0.3 ft apart. They need rigidity to serve as guards
and to prevent lateral vibration. They must have
bolted end connections for ready removal.

flow must be maintained around

desired quantity.

The bars and

them

their

The

must make so Uttle disturbance that air is

not pulled out of solution in the water and passed
along to the heat exchanger. For all types of
inlet it seems best to mount the guard bars or
in a single, integral streamlined
assembly which can be held in place by recessed
bolts and removed as a unit.
There is great merit in a type of inlet and
discharge, hydrodynamically efficient, which can
lead into and out of the machinery spaces in a
transverse plane, making a rather sharp angle

guide vanes

shell,

oped in

Italy,

up

to 90 deg.

Such a design, devel-

employs a generally rectangular

Partial Afterbody; Plan

of

Tronsom- Stern

ABC

blocks of ice, and other foreign objects.

Besides having an efficiency and a resistance

fish,

apparently comparable to scoops of the Schmidt

design, the Italian arrangement of Lattanzi and
Bellante [Italian patent 404,551 of 18 Jun 1943;

Bureau

of Ships,

Vol.

especially

Fig. 73.11

is

Basin, 1940,

superior

of

flow,

the absence of vortexes within the

Although it has not, so far as known,

been tested as a discharge outlet there is no reason
inlet diffuser.

why

it

should not work equally well in either

and discharges

direction, as did the similar scoops

in

destroyers and other vessels of the

War

World

I period.

Despite the
scoops there

is

known workability of flush inlet

much to be said for a scoop

also

which project

and a discharge

sufficiently

from

the ship's side to take advantage of the greater

the boundary layer at a small distance
velocity

from the shell. The right-hand upper diagram of

Fig. 73.R is an attempt to sketch a device which
may produce the desired result. In an orthodox
form of flush scoop the slowly moving water
entering on the forward side, combined with the
faster moving water entering on the after side,
often creates an eddy with backflow just abaft
the forward surface of the diffuser.

The guide-vane

arrangement should be such as to pick up an

appreciable "belt" of water at the inside of the

Ship, from

Outlet

Dept., Transl. 529. Also

Rep Rome Model

X] has the advantage

Fig. 66.

The Purpose

of the

to Obtain the
in

Navy

Orlando, M., Ann.

is

^-'^^j

Sec. 73.24

opening with a moderately projecting Hp. A set

of sharply curved guide vanes, as used ui aU
modern water tunnels and channels, changes the
direction of the water. The guide vanes serve
also as strainer bars to prevent the entry of large

in the

end connec-

tions

with the

IN SHIP DESIGN

Unequal Guide-Vane SpQcint]

Moximum Uniform

the Diffuser

on Starboard Side

Main-Injection and Discharge Layout for Transom-Stern

ABC

Ship

Velocity

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.25

boundary layer and accelerate

The

it

inside the scoop.

vanes should pick up a smaller

quantity of water in the more rapidly moving
after guide

intermediate layers and slow

it

down

pended

diffuser the

is

(4)

speed craft as well, the roll-resisting keels along

the bilge corners act to collect the air bubbles
passing under the ship and to shoot them out

two streams from the after inboard sides of

phenomenon is particularly

the bilge keels. This

when

air

with the water. The

regions in the vicinity of the flowlines emanating
from the trailing edges of the bilge keels should
therefore be kept clear of injection or inlet
openings through the shell, to prevent accumulations of air in the water sides or cooling jackets of
heat-exchanger systems.
The position shown in the left diagram of
bubbles

Fig.

are

73.R

main condenser

of the

ABC

this air-collecting region

ship

is

on the port

if

fitted,

the

(5)

and involves too

large a

Bibliography

on

of

the

flow

into

inlet

F.,

"Some Notes on E.H.P.

Characteristics,"

Calculations

ASNE, Nov

1933,

XLV,

dicted
(6)

by

tests of a self-propelled model.

Schade, H. A.,
Calculations,"

534-535. This

"Discussion of Notes on E.H.P.

ASNE, Nov
is

1933, Vol.

XLV,

pp.

a discussion of the preceding

reference (5).

(8)

(9)

Schmidt, H. F., "Further Discussions on Notes on

EHP Calculations," ASNE, Feb 1934, Vol. XL VI,
pp. 107-109. This is in turn a reply to reference (6).
Schade, H. A., "Discussion of Mr. Schmidt's Reply,"
ASNE, Feb 1934, Vol. XL VI, pp. 110-111
Schmidt, H. F., "Reply to Discussion by Lt. H. A.

Schade," ASNE, May 1934, Vol. XL VI, pp. 251253. This article contains a photograph showing
flowlines into an inclined inlet without lip.
(10) Schmidt, H. F., "A Criterion for Scoop Cavitation,"
ASNE, Aug 1934, Vol. XLVI, pp. 352-356.
Facing p. 353 of this reference there is a photograph

Condenser

Ap-

the six

in

densers through inlet scoops, utilizing the forward

motion of the ship. The author points out that this
increment has to be added to the power pre-

Scoops.

rapidly for the past half-century or more.

191-213. Discusses dis-

drive the ship, of taking in cooling water for con-

(11)

Research on inlets of the scoop type,

for taking water into condensers and other large
heat exchangers, has continued steadily if not

14 inches out

pp. 528-533. This brief paper discusses

the influence, on the effective power required to

corresponding to those in the referenced

Partial

features

Schmidt, H.
Vol.

(7)

sketches.

73.25

practical

and Propeller

hole in the shell, fairing pieces can always be

first

scoops for internal heat exchangers:

it,

sidered too elaborate,

1939, Vol. 51, pp.

the

The arguments and explanations

structural, mechanical, or space considera-

demand

7), for

references which follow afford a useful insight into

side.

water can be discharged into

the boundary layer at any angle up to 90 deg
with the flow, diagrammed in Figs. 8.G and 8.H.
Rarely, however, is there not sufficient room to
provide a short elbow with multiple turning
vanes for changing the flow direction mechanically
instead of producing a hydrodynamic disturbance in the boundary layer. If the elbow is contions

May

(CL

charge as well as inlet performance.

well clear of

Openings in the hull for the discharge of water

from internal machinery may be located with
relative freedom to suit the internal arrangements.
In fact, they need not even be below the water
surface under all conditions of operation. It is
logical to lead water out through the hull in the
same manner as it was brought in, by inverting
the scoop section and directing it into the boundary layer at a small angle to the flow there. To be
sure,

Schmidt,

U.S.S. Raleigh

circulating

for the circulating-water inlet to the

partial

from the shell, in way of the inlet-scoop position.

Weske, J. R., "Investigation of the Action of Condenser Scoops Based upon Model Tests," ASNE,

by the
(2)

noticeable in a circulating-water channel

giving

wishes to pursue

(3)

water shall be moving regularly at

On high-speed vessels, and probably on medium-

in

who

H. F., "Theoretical and Experimental

Study of Condenser Scoops," ASNE, Feb. 1930,
Vol. XLII, pp. 1-38. Comprises a basic treatment,
beginning with hydrodynamic fundamentals.
Hanzlik, H. J., "Condenser Scoops in Marine Installations," ASNE, May 1931, pp. 250-264
Schmidt, H. F., and Cox, O. L., "Test on a OneQuarter Scale Model Scoop on the U.S.S. Welborn
C. Wood and Preparatory Laboratory Experiments," ASNE, Aug 1931, Vol. XLIII, pp. 435-466.
Fig. 5 opposite p. 437 shows the inlet flow in the
plane of the shell. Fig. 13 on p. 445 gives variations
in pressure and velocity, as measured on the

that at the entrance to the

four velocity vectors of Fig. 73. R.

of

this subject further:

inside the

more-or-less uniform velocity, indicated

is

references

coverage for the reader

(1)

The aim

scoop.

703

a Hst

(12)

showing the lines of flow into the model of a lipless

inlet scoop of the Schmidt type.
"Comparative Tests of Condenser Scoops," EMB
Rep. 384, Jul 1934. Describes tests run on EMB
model 3293, representing the DD 364-379 class of
destroyers of the U.S. Navy.
Rabbeno, G., "Appunti Prelimineari sulle Variazioni
per Reciprooa Influenza nelle Potenze Assorbita
dalla Circolazione Refrigerante e dalla Propulsione

HYDRODYNAMICS

70-1

Turbonavi Veloci (Preliminary Notes on

Variations, due to Reciprocal Influence, in the
Power Absorbed by the Cooling (Condensing)
Water and by the Propulsion Plant in High-Speed
Turbine-Driven Ships), Ann. Rep. Rome Model
Basin (in TMB library), 1936, Vol. VI, pp. 67-76
velle

"La

(13) Orlando, M.,

Circolazione ai Condensatori nel

(The Circulation

Naviglio Veloce

in

the

densers of High-Speed Ships)," Ann. Rep.

Model Basin

(in

TMB

library),

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 73.26

a measure of design and construccomparable to that devoted to the

bossing, strut, and propeller design. The use of

should

call for

tion effort

partly

recessed

zinc

socket-head

plates,

cap

and similar devices is one

step toward improvement, indicated in Fig. 73. S.
bolts, shoulder nuts,

Con-

Rome

1936, Vol. VI,

pp. 76-90

and Hewins, E. F., "Condenser Scoop

Design," SNAME, 1940, pp. 277-293; 301-304.
This is an excellent, comprehensive, detailed dis-

(14) Reilly, J. R.,

cussion of the problem of designing inlet and dis-

charge scoops, with a great deal of e.\perimental

and design data and an example worked out for a

and outlet scoops. The text is supplemented by numerous flow diagrams.

TMB Report R-43 of September 1941 entitled "The
Effect of the Flow of Water Through Condenser
Scoops on the Resistance of a Destroyer Model."

Limit Line for Wastage Before (?eplacement

pair of inlet

(15)

(16)

Chamfer Outside Edaes

All

Around Reaordlcss of
Flow Direction

Elastic

Stop Nut

y'inch Stud
Nf45dei]

theoretical discussion of the water flow into scoops

of various shapes, in which flow nets have been

prepared by conformal and Schwartz-Christoffel
transformations, is given by C. Igonet in ATMA,
1945, Vol. 44, pp. 447-466. So far as known no
translation
(17)

is

MQ>y

available.

Be End-Welded Studs With

BuShips Translation 529, of article entitled "Esperienze Aerodinamiche su Modelli di Booohe di

Presa per I'Acqua di Raffreddamento dei Condensatori Marini (Aerodynamic Tests on Models of
Intake Scoops for Cooling Water of Marine
Condensers)," by Dr. B. Lattanzi and Dr. E.
Bellante, Aerodynamic Laboratory of Guidonia,

^45 (^q

All

Arc-Initiating

Material

Dimensions ore

in

Inches

26 Jul 1941
C. W., Davis, W. F., Randall, L. M., and
Mossman, E. A., "Experimental Investigation of
NACA Submerged Duct Entrances," NACA Rep.

(18) Frick,

ACR

Fig.

73. S

Proposed Fairing and Attachment

Galvanic-Action Protectors

of

A5I20, Oct 1945

and Ellsworth, W. M., Jr., "Progress

Report: Research on Main Injection Scoops and
Overboard Discharges,"
Rep. 793, Sep 1951
(20) Spannhake, W., "Comments and Calculations on the
Problem of the Condenser Scoop,"
Rep 790,

(19) Breshn, J. P.,

TMB

TMB

Certainly there appears

which prides
ments,

for

itself

the

protectors on

proportion of

Oct 1951.

on

little

its

addition

excuse, in

an age

technologic achieveof

fully

protruding

any ship which spends a reasonable

its life

underway.

In areas of the waters of the world where

Pertinent design notes on discharge openings
are given

by E.

P. Worthen, with a drawing of the

device used on the

[SNAME,

Manner

class of the 1950's

1953, Fig. 43, p. 201].

Design and Installation of GalvanicAction Protectors. It can not be expected that

carefully shaped bossing and skeg terminations,
strut arms and hubs, rudder posts, and other
fixed appendages will give creditable hydrodynamic performance if cluttered up with
excrescences in the form of galvanic-action protectors, studs, nuts, and what not. It appears
probable that these protectors will have to be
fitted for some time to come. Their installation
73.26

corrosion of the steel hull plating

is

exceptionally

severe, this corrosion is often reduced to small

proportions by bolting rows of plates or blocks of

anodic materials directly to the shell plating

[Kurr, G. W., "Check Costly Hull Corrosion,"
Mar. Eng'g., Nov 1954, pp. 57-60, also p. 12].
The added drag of these excrescences is undoubtedly large. However, it might well be less
than the added friction drag of the loose bottom
paint and the severely pitted plating surfaces
which would be encountered without the anodic
protectors.

Other methods involving external devices

in

the form of appendages, temporary or permanent,

FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 73.27

are described

Streever

by H.

[SNAME,

F.

Harvey

Jr.,

and 0.

1953, pp. 431-403]; also

J.

by

D. P. Graham, F. E. Cook, and H. S. Preiser in

paper "Cathodic Protection in the U. S.
Navy; Research-Development-Design" [SNAME,
their

Nov

Design Notes for Locating Echo-Ranging and Sound Gear on Merchant Vessels.
A
good underwater sound installation for transmitting and receiving, whether of the fixed or
retractable type, involves a neat combination of
acoustic and mechanical engineering, hydrodynamics, and naval architecture. Aside from the
purely acoustic features involved, the most
important single factor in an efficient design is
to shape the sound head or sound dome so that it
is free from cavitation and separation. It must
also be placed under the ship in a position where
it is clear of air entrained in the streams which
73.27

it.

sound head

lined

body

form

of a

of

may

be in the form of a streamresembling the hull

revolution,

stubby true submarine vessel or an

carried by a post or strut, it forms
an assembly which is usually retractable. Such
a form is reasonably free from flow noises but it
does not lend itself to swinging bodily in azimuth
for horizontal search. Furthermore, when yawed
slightly it is no longer a streamlined body. A
airship.

with the

sound head rotating inside it, can rarely be made

long enough to be entirely free of separation, air
bubbles, and possible cavitation along its after
or trailing portion.

1956].

flow past

705

vertical, streamlined 2-diml enclosure,

When

fore-and-aft location of the sound gear at a

distance abaft the stem of about 0.15F^, where V
is

in kt

and the

.r-distance is in

as satisfactory as any.

ft,

appears to be

More important, however,

than both shape and fore-and-aft position may

be the sound-head distance below the hull. A
deep projection keeps the sound head always
under water when the vessel is pitching. Further,
it is below the boundary layer and beneath the
streams of air bubbles entrained at the bow, near
the free surface, and flowing aft under the hull.
This usually requires that the head be extensible

and retractable.
For the ABC ship at say 20 kt, the distance
abaft the stem would be 0.15(20)^ or 60 ft, corresponding to about Sta. 2.35. At a distance of
4 ft below the keel the head should be well below
the most disturbed portion of the boundary
layer. For a fishing trawler traveling at say 10 kt,
the head could be at a distance of 0.15(10)'^ or
15 ft from the bow. If also placed 4 ft below the
keel it should be in a good listening position and
should remain submerged unless the vessel is
pitching deeply.

CHAPTER

The Design

74

of the Movable Appendages and

Control Surfaces
74.1
74.2
74 3
74.4
.

General

706
706
708

Positioning Rudders and Planes

Single or Multiple Rudders?

74.7

the Rudder and the Adjacent

Portion of the Ship
Design Procedure for Conflicting Steering
Requirements
First Approximation
to Control-Surface
Area
Determining the Proper Areas of Various

74.8

Positioning the Stock Axis Relative to the

74.9

Selection

74.5
74.6

Shaping

Control Surfaces

Structural
fected

74.11
74.12

713

720
of

Chordwise

Sections

74.10

713

715

Blade; Degree of Balance

and Proportioning

709

722
Control-Surface Design as Af-

by Hydrodynamics

.......

Design Notes for Motorboat Rudders

Design of Close-Coupled and Compound
Rudders
.

723

724

726

74

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.2
Twin

Rudders

down

707

to the lower corner, air

may "jump"

to the

reduced-pressure side of the rudder. This occurs

when the gap between the transom corner and

rudder

is

small enough or the pressure differential

large enough.

The

resulting air leakage greatly

For the

reduces the rudder force on a turn.

V

Schemotic Inflow"

rudders described in Sec. 37.18, air

leakage of this kind is necessary to the success
of the arrangement, but for a ship not carrying
"lifting"

Jet Diometer
Less Thon

'

D But

Velocity Greater

Relotiv

Velocity

Fig. 74. a

VftOt

Disc Position

Thon VX

them,

Diagram Illusteating Augment op

OtJTPLOW-jET Velocity at a

air finding its

way

to a rudder

detrimental. Testing techniques are

Rudder Position

definitely

is

now

available

matically an installation of this kind. This rule

model basins whereby this air

leakage can be photographed and detected on a
free-running model during a turn. The air leakage

a
two

could be prevented in a transom-stern design by

extending the bottom beyond the transom plane

in

also applies to the fore-and-aft positioning of

single rudder

between the outflow

jets of

screw propellers, provided the jets are close

enough so that they impinge upon it at reasonable
rudder angles, say 20 deg or more. Indeed, for
single-screw ships, where rudder effect alone
considered,

it is

is

well to keep the leading edge of

the rudder well abaft the propeller

if

this can

conveniently be done.

Some

useful information relative to flow at the

the larger

as a thin horizontal

introduce

lip.

However,

when backing

difficulties

running in an overtaking

this

might

or

when

sea.

Rudders and planes hung wholly or partly on

fins, and keels are
most effective as lateral-force-producing devices
when coupled closely to those fixed members. This
the after ends of horns, skegs,

mean that they give rapid

when angled quickly, as discussed in

does not necessarily

on a model, as affected
by the boundary layer, by the outflow jets from
adjacent screw propellers, and by the lateral
motion of the stern during a turn, is given by
W. G. Surber, Jr. ["An Investigation of the Flow
in the Region of the Rudder of a Free-Turning
Model of a Multiple-Screw Ship," TMB Rep.
998, Oct 1955]. It has not been possible to unearth
corresponding data from tests of single- and

response

twin-screw models.

This usually forms abaft the hub or fairing cap

of a screw propeller on a fast or high-speed ship
but there are evidences that it may appear at a

centerline rudder position

On

where maneuverability and rudder

an important requirement, the movable
blades of rudders are placed well below the surface
or their upper portions are protected in some other
effective way from partial breakdown due to
leakage of air from the surface. The blade lengths
at the top, near the surface, may be made shorter
than at the bottom. The upper after corner of a
rudder may be cut back, as was done for the
vessels

effect is

transom-stern

ABC

ship; see Fig. 74.

of Sec.

Sec.

74.18.

Special devices to prevent leakage

pressure through the hinge are

of differential

very

much worth

some of them are deand 74.14 and illustrated

while;

scribed in Sees. 73.14

in Fig. 73.K.

A rudder or plane should definitely be kept clear

of a swirl core or hub-vortex cavity, described in

and

Sec. 23.14

illustrated in Figs.

23.K and 23.L.

moderate speed. The cavity is likely to be so

large that the portion of a rudder against which
it

strikes is totally ineffective.

The rudder

struc-

subject to pitting, erosion, and

hammering, which may result in fracture of the
parts and tearing off of the portion under attack.
ture in its

wake

is

rudder on a fast but not high-speed ship,

subject to

damage

of

this kind,

is

shown by

change of
trim, and other factors which obtain during
turning are not to be lost sight of in checking for

V. L. Russo and E. K. Sullivan [SNAME, 1953,

pp. 124-125]. Another such rudder, on a slower

possible air leakage to the reduced-pressure side

York, October 1954, page 44. It is known that in

some cases, such as following a sharp turn, the
swirl core or hub vortex shifts around on the
fairing cap. In other words, it does not always trail

74.15.

of the

The

effects of heel,

wave

action,

rudder during that maneuver.

The

trailing edge of a steering rudder should

not be placed too near the lower corner of an
immersed transom. When the speed is high enough

to expose the whole after surface of the transom,

ship, is illustrated in

Marine Engineering,

New

from the exact point or tail of the cap. A good rule,

therefore, is to keep clear of a possible swirl core

HYDRODYNAMICS

708

having a diameter as large as that

of the hub,

and

following the direction of the streamlines for the

ship flow in the \'icinity.

Wherever practicable, it should be possible to

remove propellers, dismantle propeller shafts, and
examine propeller bearings without disturbing or
removing rudders or diving planes mounted near
them.
It is not necessary that the axes of offset rudders
be exactly vertical or that those of multiple
rudders be parallel, if their hydrodynamic performance can be improved thereby. Mechanical

simplicity in the steering gear need not be a

determining factor in cases of this kind.

With regard to the placing of rudders in regions

Projected Rudder Area at

Full

Sec. 74.3

good flow, where they can do what is e.xpected

of them, the design rule embodied by W. J. M.
Rankine on page 95 of his 1866 treatise on
"Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Practical" is as
applicable today as the day it was written:
"It is also necessary that the rudder should be immersed, not in a mass of eddies dragging behind the ship,
but amongst particles of water whose motion, relatively
to the ship, consists in a steady flow astern. Hence the

same

and fineness of the water-lines and buttockafterbody which are essential to speed and

fairness

lines of the

economy

of

power are

good steering also."

essential to

Single or Multiple Rudders?

74.3
In a
normal form of twin-screw stern a single rudder
hung between two propellers usually angles far
enough so that a considerable portion of the
trailing area of its blade swings into the projected

DWL

Anole

IN SHIP DESIGN
of

disc area of one or the other of the propellers.

On a Stern of
Normal Form the
Flow

is

Aft, Upward,

ond Inward. The

Propeller Outflow

Marked b'y
Broken Lines, Follow
Jets,

Propeller- Disc Positions

\
Propeller Outflow- Jet Section

Opposite the

Tail

of

This Flow

is true even though account

customary inward and upward

This

twin-screw propeller outflow

taken of the

is

shifts

the

general

and

to the contraction in those jets.

direction

of

of

the

conforming to

jets,

the vicinity,

flow in

Diagram

of Fig. 74. B illustrates schematically the situa-

tion described.

the Rudder

single rudder

is

sometimes placed between

two screw propellers which

lie

so far apart trans-

versely that the rudder blade does not swing

appreciably into the outflow jet of either at

Broken Lines
Represent SchemoticQlly the Sec-

tions of the Propeller Outflow Jets

Opposite the

Rudder Positions
Rudders May Be
Positive Cleorance from

Hub

'as

5hown

Desiroble But Not Necessary

Inboard or Outboard
of the

Shafts

Schematic Outlines of_-

Propeller Jets,

Neqiectinq

For on Original Installation of this kind,

Presence of Ship

It is possible that the single rudder,

lying in

The same rudder, Ij'ing in a

"weak" flow, with a large positive wake velocity
and a small speed of advance, is inadequate to
maneuver the ship. Smaller twin rudders, lying
desired lateral force.

close to or within the outflow jets, are indicated

for situations of this kind.

Separated
b^ Greater

if

a "strong" flow having a small positive or a

slight negative wake velocity, produces the

Propeller and Rudder

.Should

its

extreme range of angle. Although not always

lacking in steering and turning action, such a
rudder is liable not to function adequately, no
matter what its area.

by diagram 2
whatever

Here again, depicted

of Fig. 74. B,

lateral

or

account

is

taken of

displacement,

vertical

or

both, results from the fact that the propeller

outflow jot contracts and that

it

follows

the

direction of flow under the hull.

Rudder Ancjle

Efforts to achieve the

same

biplane or triplane rudders,

is

found

inadequate,

may

with so-called

efi^ect

when a
be

single blade

disappointing.

Multi-blade rudders, operated by a single stock

FiG.|^74.B

of Multiple Rudders
Respect to Outflow Jets

Positions

'

with

and steering

gear, are usually used.

These repre-

sent a simpler alteration than fitting twin rudders

Sec. 74

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

abaft the propellers. In the event multiple blades

are used, the wmg or offset blades should lie
abaft the stock axis of the main blade, so that

when swung
farther

from the centerplane, indicated

away from the outflow

they are supposed to

utilize.

merchant or combatant,

jets

one-quarter of the beam, should have a rudder

behind it. Every propulsion device on a submarine

should have a diving plane in its outflow jet.
A multiple-skeg stern logically embodies a
rudder behind every skeg carrying a screw propeller, whether a high degree of maneuverability
specifically called for or not.

ABC

arch stern of the

On

the alternative

ship, Avith its single large

two skegs, it is logical to hang

a rudder on the after end of each skeg. Fig. 74.
of Sec. 74.15 shows how this is done.
When shifting from a single rudder to twin
rudders in a design, without other major changes
in the hull, it is good practice to give each twin
rudder a blade area of about 0.6 to 0.7 the area
of the single rudder. This is justified by the
propeller between

increase in turning effort achieved with the larger

total area. It is realized that the total weight of
twin rudders, supports, and steering gear, based
on only 0.5 the area of a single rudder, is almost
certainly greater than for a single rudder. In
other words, if the increased weight of double
is accepted, it is good design to make it
worth while by increasing the rudder effect
at the same time. However, this should not be

rudders
really

carried so far that the turns

made by the

vessel

are excessively sharp and the ship speed in the

turn

is

so greatly reduced that its

maneuvering

characteristics are impaired.

The minimum

transverse distance between the

stock axes of the blades of multiple rudders

practicable,

maximum
fore

and

made

is, if

equal to or greater than the

blade length of each rudder, measured

aft, so

that the pressure field of one will

not interfere too

much with

when_^they are fully angled.

requires multiple

traveling in swift, turbulent currents, the craft

requires multiple rudders for itself alone, to say

nothing of the need for maneuvering when other

craft are being pushed.

may

be required to dodge aboveAvater and underwater

missiles in a future emergency. For a ship requiring
a high degree of maneuverability every offset
screw propeller whose axis lies within a reasonable
distance of the centerline, say not more than

is

itself,

and turning moments. For maneuvering in extremely shallow water, when the bed clearance is
measured in inches rather than in feet, and when

the wing blades back

ships,

the entire puish as well as

in dia-

elements are swung to achieve large angles of

they move toward the centerline by
(1 cos 8) times their offset distance. In effect,

modern

depth, and with need for steering and maneuvering

rudders to achieve the necessary lateral forces

attack

All

709

shallow-draft pushboat, with limited rudder

move

at an angle the wing blades

3 of Fig. 74. B. Otherwise, as the Aving rudder

gram

that of the other,

In

many

by sternwheels,

river craft propelled

the rudders are placed ahead of rather than abaft

the propulsion devices. Here they do not

an outflow

in

jet of

augmented

the equivalent effect

work

velocity, so that

achieved only by fitting

is

multiple rudders of larger total area.

The

limited

Sometimes the multiplication of rudder area ahead of the sternwheels on

these vessels is not sufficient. To make up for it,
one or two "monkey rudders" are hung on a
frame abaft the wheels, to take advantage of the
draft

is

also a factor here.

increased velocity in the outflow

jet.

Shaping the Rudder and the Adjacent

74.4

Portion of the Ship.

Fortunately, the designer

often has considerable freedom in shaping the

and

stern profile of a ship,

in the contour

position of the rudder(s). Further, he

is

and

often

permitted to work up alternative stern arrangements; in these he can forget tradition and strive
for maximum performance. For example, in a

somewhat from the

normal form it may be found possible to work in
a sort of flat or shallow-V shelf, well submerged at
load draft, over the top of a spade-type rudder.
single-screw stern departing

If so,

the vessel benefits from:

(a)

An

increase in the rudder aspect ratio

the

lift

coefficient for

and

a limited range of rudder

fit and the negligible

between the hull and
the top of the rudder. To keep the horizontal gap
small, at the top of the rudder, bolted palms for
connecting the blade to the stock may be placed
somewhat below the extreme top of the rudder.
The recesses for assembling the bolts may be

angle. This

is

due to the

close

differential-pressure leakage

closed

by cover

plates.

Providing the equivalent of a surface plate

to prevent undue air leakage from the surface and
breakdown of the rudder action when the Ap's
(b)

are large
(c)

Providing an excellent internal support for

the thrust bearing,

tiller,

and steering

gear.

HYDRODYNAMICS

710
111

case the V-shape of the stern

ately shallow,

and the

sides rise at

angle from the edges of the

there

is

flat

is only moderan appreciable

over the rudder,

an opportunity to derive some lateral

swingmg moment directly

pressure on and some

from

the hull itself.

This

because the hull

is

is

near the top of the rudder and because of the

close fit there. At the designed speed, the crest
of the stern

wave

is

expected to cover a sizable

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 74.4

are thus decreased. Nevertheless, such a

gear,

is logical only when the vessel is intended

almost exclusively for ahead operation, as in
saihng craft. It is an advantage if backing is
only incidental and if there are no specific requirements about handling the rudder during backing

design

or

when moving astern.

The horn or compound-type

at 5 in Fig. 37.D,

area of the hull above the rudder, as projected

Actually,

on the centerplane, in addition to that which lies

below the at-rest waterline. This increases the
area over which Ap's are exerted.
A spade rudder may be tapered (reduced in
fore-and-aft length) toward the bottom to:

rather small.

its

is

rudder, illustrated

not in the foregoing category.

effective

aspect

ratio

is

usually

For an isolated rudder, not attached to a deep

skeg or keel, or to a horn, too high an aspect ratio
is to be avoided because of the breakdown in
hydrofoil flow

and in

lift

which occurs at

rela-

Lammeren, W. P.
A., RPSS, 1948, p. 323]. High nominal aspect
ratios in single rudders, say up to 3.5 or 4.0, can be
tively small rudder angles [van

(1)

Increase the aspect ratio

(2) Reduce the strength of the tip vortex at the

bottom when exertmg heavy lifts and lateral forces
(3) Thin the lower part and reduce its drag
(4) Diminish the bending moment at the head

of the rudder.

accepted

rudder

is

velocity

Sometimes the

possibility of air leakage to the

top of a spade rudder can not be prevented. It is

then wise to reduce rudder area at the top,
shortening the rudder and moving

its

contour line

farther from the adjacent water surface.

The area

if

the rudder

as any. This

change

two decades ago

like this

in

was found

successful

the design of the U.S.S.

Farragut, a destroyer of the

DD348

produces

when

it

the

greatest

lateral

forces

follows as closely as possible the contour

of the stern.

There should be the minimum leakage

area between the rudder and the adjacent portions

upon which the rudder pressure fields

act. The lower the horizontal joint between hull
and rudder, the greater the hull areas above it,
projected upon the centerplane, which are acted
upon by these pressure fields. Whether this
enables the use of a smaller rudder depends upon
of the ship

many

in

combination

use rudder angles

(rather than for steering only) a control surface

point
lift

approximately square is as serviceable

is because the breakdown or stalling

is

is

deferred to larger angles.

greater total

or lateral force can be achieved, greater maxi-

control-sui'face angles can be used, and the

bending and torque moments in the stock are

more nearly balanced.

Wherever practicable, a rudder deUberately
placed in an outflow jet to take advaiitage of the
induced velocity should span the whole jet close
to a diameter. Excessive underhang in spade
rudders, clearances to withdraw propeller shafts,

and the presence

of swirl-core

cavitation

may

In this case spanning a portion of the

of course much better than missing it

interfere.
jet

is

altogether.

When

other factors.

rudder hung from a skeg along

ratios, to

mum

class.

A centerline rudder on a twin- or multiple-screw

stern

fact that the

beyond the stalhng value of 20 or 25 deg.

Long experience with spade and horn-type
rudders and horizontal diving planes, on bodies as
well as on ships, indicates that for maneuvering

making the rudder longer

the top.

The

augmented outflow

may make it unnecessary,

with these high aspect

which

bottom than at

partly or wholly within

benefiting from the

thus removed from the top of the blade is shifted

to the bottom, well below the surface, possibly
at the

lies

the outflow jet of a propeller.

one or more operative conditions

of

entire

vessel involve large changes in draft in the vicinity

and preferably fitting the huU

advantage that it is
developing the maximum turning moment on
the hull. While it is completely unbalanced it can

of the rudder, the actual immersed rudder area

must be proved satisfactory for all conditions.
As a rule, both hull and rudder come out of the
water simultaneously so that the smaller immersed
area of the rudder suffices to control what is left
of the hull in the water. However, adequate
performance in such a situation can by no means

leading

its

edge,

closely along its top, has the

be made smaller (shorter or narrower) than a

rudder not so closely fitted. The torques upon its
stock,

and those to be exerted by the steering

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.4

be taken for granted.

model

test

is

separate calculation or

called for to cover

tliis

condition.

An

L-shaped or J-shaped rudder hung behind

a thin hull or skeg should not have an excessively
long forward balance portion, indicated in diagrams 1 and 2 of Fig. 74. Ca. When such a rudder is
swung hard-over, say to the right, the forward
end of the balance portion savings to the left or
to port.

The

region of 4-Ap on the ahead or

starboard side of the balance then

lies

under the

port side of the skeg. In normal circumstances a

large

Ap

is

being developed here to augment

the transverse force to port. Although, so far as

known, no

specific studies

have been made on

this point it appears that the presence of the

-|-Ap

and

Ap

regions so near each other

is

detrimental to maneuvering.

R. E. Barry reports a situation similar to this

on a French cruiser, as indicating a rudder shape
and position to be avoided in practice ["Random
Notes by an Old Seaman," Mar. Eng.'g., Feb
1921, p. 137 and Figs. 8, 9]. This vessel had a
Negative Differential

Pressure

-6p\

+Ap an Rudder,

on This 5idc of Leodino Edqe

of

Balance Portion

in

This Region, Especially

When 6alonce

Portion

Excessively
Elevation of Toil of

When Swung
j^\.o Near Side
Blade,

Situotio

+Ap

is

Lono

Field on For Side of Skcq,

Opposing the Desired Turn

711

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

712

mL

rudders

_pwL/^"|gr~
Aperture

Wide Hinqe Slot

flow

Abreast Propeller

Permits Excessive

all

Blode Tips Permits

^p Leakage

Ap Leokoqe
From One Side
of Skeg to the

from

One Side of
Rudder

Other

Sec. 74.4

by no means a

necessity, provided fair

reasonably certain around the rudder at

all operating condi-

is

rudder angles and under

tions.

For practical reasons, such as to provide bottom

to

the Other

is

clearance Avhen docking,

it is often necessary to
terminate the bottom of a rudder in a horizontal
plane parallel to and just above the baseplane.
When such a rudder is mounted under the stern
of a ship, it may Lie in a region of flow having an

appreciable

upward component of velocity, indiThe after ends of the lower

cated in Fig. 25.K.

Large Aperture Forward

of

o Stern Ruddei

of Adequate Area Provides Room

For o Short Horiiontal
Circulation

Path and

ffesponse

Rapid

Insures

to Angling

Rudder

rudder sections then project into the flow lines, as

does the af tfoot in that figure. If a reduction of area

bottom can be made up by an increase

elsewhere on the blade, the after lower edge of
the rudder may be cut up or the bottom of it may
at the

be sloped to conform to the flow hues in this

These changes should save some pressure
drag during the greater portion of the time, when
the rudder is serviiig only to steer the vessel.
It is good design to shape a close-coupled rudder
(at either bow or stern) as a continuation of the
adjacent hull surface. Nevertheless, this procedure
can become detrimental if the adjacent hull is
full and the thickness ratio of the rudder becomes
large or if the sides of the rudder have much slope
[Denny, M. E., lESS, 1934-1935, Vol. 78, p. 411].
In any case, the free or swinging edge of the
rudder, the one that is do^vnstream when the
rudder is steering, should generally be tapered
to a reasonable thickness and not terminated
region.

Gap Length

Fore-and-Aft

Should
0.3

ond

Be at Least
Preferobly

0.4 of Greatest Fore-

bluntly.

Wherever and whenever practicable the leading

edge of a rudder

is recessed into a groove in the

edge of the horn, the skeg, or the keel
supporting it. This is partly for fairing but mostly

trailing

Apertures and Gaps Ahead op Ship

Rudders

Fig. 74.D

for

closing the hinge

gap against detrimental

leakage. Further steps to close the gap are de-

good circulation path for the water. It is too large

as a leakage gap. It probably does more harm in
steering than the benefit it affords in reducing

scribed in Sec. 74.14

propeller vibration.

baseline for the foot of the rudder

Diagram
rather

of Fig. 74.

common

in years

illustrates

a design,

gone by, in which the

provision of working clearances for removal of the

pintles and their bearings, and for lifting out the
whole rudder, was apparently more important
than ease of steering. The large leakage gap
detracts from the usefulness of the rudder and

diminishes the lateral force built up on the adjacent hull by the angled rudder.

Rounding the

outline

or

profile

corners

of

and

illustrated in Fig. 73.

of Sec. 73.14.

The

fact

that positive clearance above the

is

often

man-

datory should never deter the naval architect

from extending it below the baseluie if the needs
of the situation require it. The rudders of many
Chinese junks slide along a diagonal axis, parallel
to that of the stock, so that they extend well
below the baseplane when at sea. The portable
rudders of small sailboats almost invariably
project below the baseplane when they are
shipped. The successful use of fixed rudders projecting below the baseplane on many vessels,

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Rec. It. 6

adjacent

damage, as might be supposed. Furthermore,

provided these operations are planned in advance,

as

they do not represent serious inconveniences when

drydocking or hauhng out.
A variety of types and shapes of rudder, hull,
and aperture are shown by K. E. Schoenherr

[PNA, 1939,

Vol.

II,

pp.

224-226].

and W. P. A. van Lammeren show a

larger

and shape [RPSS, 1948, pp. 331338]. G. de Verdiere and V. Audren describe the
results of model tests on still other rudder shapes
and arrangements [ATM A, 1951, Vol. 50, pp.
Design Procedure for Conflicting Steering Requirements. It is as necessary to know
the range of speeds for which optimum steering
74.5

required as

it is

to

know

the speed for

optimum

performance of the hull or the propulsion device(s)

In this respect the saihng craft poses the most
design problem. It must steer and maneuver well throughout the entire range, from the
greatest speed of which it is capable down to
difficult

practically zero speed.

It is interesting to note the

manner

this is achieved, especially for vessels

in

which

with flap-

type rudders hung directly on the main hull. If

the vessel is relatively small, say less than 100 ft
in waterhne length, the underwater hull is cut
away sharply at both ends and the remaining
portion

is

the vessel.
it is

short

The

compared to the

overall size of

horizontal circulation path around

short, so that the response to rudder angle is

good at any speed. The rudder is hung directly

on the skeg or deep keel, so that steering is
adequate and reliable even at slow speeds.
For the large sailing ship the slow-speed
steering is equally good, but the underwater hull
is much longer in comparison, and the response
slower. In this case, however, the response
should be more dehberate. It gives the crew the

is

extra time necessary to trim the sails and perform

other duties connected with the sailing evolutions.

It

would be dangerous,

in

many

cases, to

permit

the vessel to swing too rapidly.

The mechanically propelled vessel poses a

The shape and position of a

different problem.

rudder,

the vessel

and

its

relation

with respect to the

is

called

upon

often included, and understandably

tion in such a case appears to

to steer well,

the solu-

so,

embody two sepa-

rate features:
(1)

large tail section of the rudder blade lying

directly abaft a sizable portion of the hull, or

abaft a horn or skeg of appreciable area compared

to that of the

tail,

with the smallest practicable

hinge gap
(2)

A sizable foil portion having ample clearances

and abaft it, to provide room for the

up of the circulation needed to
produce immediate steering response.
ahead

of

rapid setting

The designs

491-514].

is

when

it is

variety, including the screw-propeller position(s)

for each type

hull, is

with the propulsion device rotating very slowly

or actually stopped. Since both requirements are

Of these,

however, the single-plate rudder of his Fig. 15 is

practically obsolete, except for inexpensive installations on small vessels. L. Troost, J. G. Konmg,

7J3

not necessarily the same when

quick response at moderate power is required

operating in shallow as well as deep waters,

proves that they do not suffer frequent or serious

stern

of the rudders for

and arch-stern

both the transomABC ship were

hulls of the

carried out with these features in mind.

better

probably to use one or more

spade rudders of generous area, provided these
can be accommodated in the design.
74.6 First Approximation to Control-Surface
all-around solution

The

Area.

is

discussion in this section

mounted

to rudders

in

is

limited

the vertical plane,

or

Diving planes of submarines and other

control surfaces are omitted because of the widely
varying requirements for different types of service.
Although the rudders of mechanically driven
vessels have developed through the years in
the almost complete absence of specific steering
or maneuvering requirements, the resulting rudder
nearly

so.

parameters and hull-rudder proportions lie within

not too wide a range.
Based solely upon the ratio of the rudder area

Ar

to the lateral area

product of the length

relative

size

gradually

of

^l of the ship, or to
L and the draft B.,

the
the

steering rudders has increased

but steadily during the past halfmany ships built in the 1900's

century. In fact

had to have their rudders increased in

by as much as 20 or 30 per cent,
indicated by the listing in Table 74. a. A rudder of
or 1910's

area,

often

given area, working in a propeller-outflow

jet,

gives greater lateral forces as the propeller power

is increased, and may even provide better man-

euverability at a higher speed.

The

shift to pro-

portionately larger rudders appears to be a sign

of unconscious but actual stepping-up of maneu-

verabUity requirements. It

may

be expected that
and that

this intensifying process will continue,

HYDRODYNAMICS

714

TABLE

74. a

All the vessels listed

IN SHIP DESIGN

Original and Increased Rudder-Area Data on U.

THE 1900-1920 Period

had

single rudders.

So

far as

S.

Sec. 74.6

Naval Auxiliaries of

known, the areas apply to the movable rudder blades only.

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.7

somewhat shielded from

715

flow by the ship ahead of them, those on the

on "Steam Tug Design" [London, Jul

still used by aeronautical engineers

outside of the turn are exposed to a greater degree

tioning the rudders of dirigibles.

of the turn are

One may say that,

of cross flow.

cross

for a first approxi-

mation, an average of these effects forms a good

estimate.

The

total absence

rudder

and the

files,

of

diagrams showing the

the ship or large-appendage pro-

profiles,

movable

relative positions of the

uJ
11
rudder blades and the adjacent ship
render all
irujjj.
f
published
data of the kind shown -iu
the references
,

,.

,,

J.

fiuiju

.,

xu-

ii-something
less
,,
f
T f
i
than useml.
In tact, it appears j-u
that only by taking
n
P
.1
account ot these features, which govern the
,.
J.U
r
ii,
proportion otc fi\
(1) the transverse force on the
jj
i
^o\ xu i
X
r
xi_
J
rudder
to (2) the total transverse torce on the end
,,
,,
r X,
ot the ship, can the major inconsistencies of the
,

i-

cited previously in this section as

1

-J.

J.

J.

J.

i.

J.

t-T

J X ui

1,

published tables be cleared up.

.

,.,,

...

J.

.1111

,,

architecture, ot proportionmg the movable-blade

r XIjj
X
xi.
-J
Xf xi
area ot the rudder to the midsection area of the
,.
-^
Xr
-vTr
T
HT Ti
-innr^

ship.

J.

M. Rankine
1

Quotmg from W.

1866

ran^Tii
u- u -u
xi_
x
A,r
[SIP: itrru
Thatx eminentx shipbuilder,
the late Mr.
T u
ITT
J
J
XTu
jxi.
xi
11
John
Wood,
made
the breadth of the rudder
, /oxu
X
r XI.
I.ji mi.X xi
-ii
l/8th otr xithat ot the ship.
1 his meant that, with

J?

JJ

xi.

I.

XI

i-j

J^

a depth ot rudder about equal to the draft, the

,1
,,
u
X r. inr Xxi_
-i
rudder length was about
0.125 times the mid,m,
xu J f
Xxi
section beam, i lus method of selecting the proper
J,
rudder
area is given by A. Caldwell
his book
,

..

iA/~.iJii-i-ii
m

TABLE

74.b-RATios of Rudder-Blade Area Aj, to

Length-Draft Product (LH) for Merchant-Type
Vessels

Liners, large, fast and high-speed

Passenger and cargo ships, large, medium-speed
Tankers, large, fast and medium-speed ...
Passenger and cargo ships, small, slow-speed
.

formulated for use in the preliminary design

stage of a ship:

w
,

r,

>

,.

is

must

,.

tree of greatly
,
n

lie
a
reduced

and reversed flow

velocity, eddies,
,,

r^

^,

rudder, to be fully effective,

region of flow which

JNo mechanically propelled vessel, regardless

t,t

(b)

,,

^ ,
.
,,
,.
,,,
should have a ratio ot rudder area Ar to
,
^.^rs

V
rectangular underwater area L(H) smaller than
-,
,.,
,^
l.D per cent. A minimum of 1.7 per cent might
^ -r.
,;
,,
,^
,,
better;
be
the 1953 table of r. Mandel shows a
,

minimum ot 1.9
per cent,
/,

'

01 type,

,..

,.

rr,,

,.

(c) I he percentage ot rudder-blade area over,

,
f
,,
,,
lapping the propeller outflow let at the ruader
.

.,

,,

,-

rr^,

,^ is
,
especially true tor vessels operating at a i value

,
,,,
,,.
ii,-,
less than 1.0 and lor flows past the rudder which
position should be as large as practicable. I his
,

,.

r,

are suspectcd ot being

,

.,.

wake

velocities
,,

,i

Weak,

,,

With large positive

^
,i
ot rudder ad^

...

and small speeds

.,

vance. It is possible, as stated previously in

-,.

.,,,
,,
n
strong
Sec. 74.3, that a
flow, with a large
, ,
i
,

,
spced ot ruddcr advancB aud a Small overlap, has
,.

r^

,,

more benencial effect than large overlap of the

,,
n
same rudder m a weak flow,
,s
rr^,
,,
(d) ihe percentage ot cutaway area and the
^^^^^ ^f cutaway length to ship length he within
rather narrow limits for the average vessel. If
.

,,

,.

cutaways are adequate,

the

appear not to be major factors in

exact
its

ratios

maneuver-

ability.
fp^jj-^

rudders.

a g

Based upon the data in the references listed

and upon the ratios given
in Tables 74. a and 74. b, a few general rules are

the

The rudder area is considered to be that of the movable

blade only. The proportions given are for ships with single

is

in propor-

earlier in this section

Ml XI, X r xv,
1
XX
1
1
11
It is possible that further analytic study should
1
,,
J ,.,,,
J
be given to a method, little-used
modern naval1
Tx

1946]. It

ps,

as

River steamers, fast

Cargo ships, normal, medium-speed

Cross-channel ships, required to maneuver in

harbors
Sailing ships, large

w'^kh^t''^^

....

11

Inland waterways

2.0-2.2
2.0-2.5
2.5-4.0
4.

craft, for

"
7-2 .0

1.7-2.5
1.9-2.4

o
2.0-2.3

Auxiliary vessels for national defense

/.
^
coasters
^
Cargo ships, small;

Ferryboats for harbors, fishing vessels

1.6-1.8
1.6-2.0
1.7-2.1
1.7-2.3

confined waters

'.

'.

r\\ n

4^0-8.0

^^-j
rudfjgj-g fgr large ships may have a
combined blade area as great as 0.03L{H). A
baseplane clearance of 0.5 ft appears to be adequate for any deep-water vessel, regardless of size.
(f )
When adequate draft is available and multiple

rudders are used, the aspect ratio

jarge,

is

made

rather

to give the greatest coverage across an

outflow jet or the

maximum

pressure abaft a skeg.

74.7

Determining the Proper Areas of Various

j
o
_i;
t^u
xixuSurfaces. There is outhned m this
section a new procedure for determimng, as a
second or third approximation, the required area
of the movable blade of a control surface. The
method as described here apphes to a steermg
rudder in a vertical plane but it is essentially the
^^me for a control surface mounted on a surface
ship or submarine in any other plane.
/^

Control
.

.....

HYDRODYNAMICS

716

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 74.7

and adequate rudder-design method

course in the shortest possible time and distance

should produce, to meet a given set of steering

and maneuvering requirements, the proper type

than for guiding it precisely around a steady turn

with a large change of course. The situation is

of rudder, the rudder-blade area, the proportions

somewhat

suitable

and shape
angle.

of the blade,

and the maximum rudder

To meet unusual

operating conditions

it

Table

similar to that specified in item (32) of

64. e where, to

make

a canal turn properly,

must accomphsh an

the vessel

offset of

400

ft

from

should also produce the rate of angUng or laying

the rudder and other design features. Looking

the approach path extended in a curved arc of

at the rudder-design problem in

is

its

larger aspects,

should also be coordinated with what might be

termed the maneuvering design of the hull as a

it

whole.

Because the project

is

description which follows

incomplete,

still

the

simply a statement

is

some comments
on each. The project has not been carried through
to the point where a numerical answer, acceptable
by engineering standards, can be obtained by it
for a given situation. Presenting an outline only
is considered justified because of the need for
thought and study on this design problem along
new and logical lines.
of the various steps involved, \\ith

The

a careful analysis of the

steering and maneuvering requirements of the
starting point

is

vessel for which the rudder

are

preferably

somewhat more

specific

ship in Table

64. e,

to be designed.

is

expressed

in

numerical

than those for the

(27) through

upon

his

own

to

amount very

full

its

rapidly and a certain

maximum swmging moment

A'',

to be discussed

must be applied by it to the ship.

The sheering maneuver at the beginning

presently,

which to guide the rudder design because:

by the designer

experience in the

other gear required for maneu-

dition. It is usually the case, although it may not

be taken for granted, that the lesser requirements
are then satisfied as a matter of course.

Just what constitutes the most severe maneu-

the one calling for

opthnum or specified
can by no means be determined by

the largest rudder area at the

steady speed on a straight approach path when

is ordered, the rudder must be angled

a sharp turn

Avith

(41),

and the propelling machinery

necessary for propulsion, must as a rule be designed to meet the most severe operatmg con-

rudder angle

and to follow a tortuous path, but there is reason

to believe that the initial sheering maneuver is
the most demanding and the most important.
This means that, vnth the vessel proceeding at

ABC

vering, like the hull

vering requirement for a ship

tance from the dive or "execute" point.

To be sure, every ship must be able to change
its course at will, to reverse its direction of swing,

is

operation of similar types and sizes of ships.

The rudder and

at a specified speed

turn

especially items (28), (30) to (32), and (34). If

requirements for maneuvering have not been
laid down by the owner or operator they are pre-

himself, based

ft,

exactly the

These
terms

items

scribed for the ship under study

and rudder angle. It

same as that faced by a diving
submarine. In an emergency, the submarine must
get under the water surface and point its nose
downward in the shortest possible time and dis2,100

The

and moments exerted on a ship

few seconds of this transient stage
largely determine how rapidly, and in what ahead
distance, the vessel can clear its approach path
extended, change its heading, and sheer off to
one side or the other
(a)

forces

in the first

(b)

For an analytic solution, the velocity mag-

nitude and direction of the water flowing toward

when beginning a turn may be assumed

same as it was a few
before, when the ship was proceeding

the rudder

to be substantially the
instants

along the approach path with zero rudder angle,

in a steady-state condition.
tion,

With

this simplifica-

only the effect of the angled rudder need

be evaluated just after the

initial

point of the

turn.
(c)

Once the

ship

is

m the turn, the determination

moment produced by the rudder

moment produced by the ship itself,

inspection of the oAvner's and operator's specifica-

of the swinging

For the average vessel, however, it is more

important to change direction quickly and decisively in an emergency maneuver, to avoid
colhsion with obstructions or with another ship,
than it is to make a subsequent turn at a given
radius or speed. In other words, the rudder is

and the

more valuable for sheering the vessel off its origmal

many model

tions.

of

a logical as well as a practical assumption

acting as a hydrofoil -with an angle of attack,

becomes exceedingly complex. This

is

true for an

experimental as well as an analytical attack on

the design problem.
(d)

As an

incidental argument,

it is

possible in

basins to measure the transverse

MOVABLE APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 7-f.7

model

force exerted on a ship

position

when

the rudder

move

constrained to

is

rudder
angled and the model

is

what amounts

in

to a

straight continuation of the approach path. This

serves as

some

sort of check for a particular pre-

liminary design of rudder rather than as an aid

in the course of the design.

The sheermg maneuver must be

terms

specific

vering specifications of a ship or

as the

controlling

defined in

maneu-

to form part of the

if it is

factor

in

if it is

to serve

a rudder design.

These terms should include the rate of change of

heading followmg an order to turn and the shift
of position of the CG laterally from the approach
path, in the positive or negative direction of the
2/o-motion axis. All these should be on a basis

time and of advance in the

of

The complete
involves too

many

answers to render

itself
is

designer then determines, by estimate from

by

ISiter

calculation,

the proportion of this lateral force F^ which he

may reasonably expect to be exerted on the hull

and the

fixed appendages. This portion

is

indicated

Fu in the figure. The remainder of the transverse

as

force

that to be exerted on the movable rudder

fully angled. This is normal to the

is

blade

when

F^

ship axis, mdicated as

maximum

With an assumed
an effective angle
the rudder equal to it, an assumed

rudder angle

of attack of

(delta),

aspect ratio, and an average value of

lift

for hydrofoils suitable as rudders, the

coefficient

problem

is

worked backward and the hydrofoil or blade area

is

approximated. The calculation

as

many different

is

listed

may

repeated for

many different

ship speeds, or as

assumptions, as

Of the data

first

be desired.

under

(1)

determination

through

(5)

pre-

maximum

ceding,

the

work-

swinging

neces-

problem.

moment N poses by far the most difficult

The method of finding it for any

sentence of the second paragraph of this section

able with present techniques (1955). It

717

empirical data and possibly

initial

.ro-direction.

outlined in the

solution

The

aljreast a

sary at this stage to assume reasonable, tentative

values or conditions for some of the answers,

namely:

of

the

is not yet worked out

but the following factors require consideration:

particular design situation

The maneuvering

(i)

characteristics of the hull

and shape of the

its maneuvering

without the rudder (s). Carried to the

limit with respect to rapid change of heading, a
ship in the form of a circular tub would require

(2) The fore-and-aft position of the rudder and

rudder stock along the hull axis. The assumed
swinging axis of the vessel may be taken at its CG.

only enough tangential force at its surface to

overcome the polar inertia and the friction

The

(1)

general dimensions,

size,

ship hull, as well as certain of

characteristics

The

distance from the

position
force,

the

is

CG

moment arm

to the rudder-stock
of the lateral

rudder

although, strictly speaking, this distance

should be measured to the instantaneous center of

pressure
(3)

CP

of the rudder blade.

The type

(or types) of

may

rudder to be worked

be required for alternative rudder

types (and shapes).

(4)

and

Some

hull or the
(5)

with respect to the adjacent

nearby fixed appendages

The maximum swinging moment

A'^

to be

applied to the hull under the most severe

change in position, a long slender craft

requires rather extreme measures in the

applied forces and

offset

The

situation

is

as

sketched in Fig.

moment

A'^

the ship at

of

(ii)

the

The

polar

vertical

moment

of inertia of the ship

swinging axis

for

the

about

particular

loading condition specified

The added

inertia of the entrained water for

swmging mode of motion,

when the ship starts to turn
(iv) The steady speed of the ship along the apthe superposition of the

proach path

manLever

Arm

for Reauired

Rudder Moment on 5hip

'
]

74. E.

by the moment

arm a of the rudder gives the transverse

Fl required to be exerted on both the rudder
and

way

to accomplish the

from the extended approach path which

euvering requirement. This is a major feature,

which should be derived rather than assumed, by
a process to be discussed shortly.

Dividing the swinging

moments

required for a sheering maneuver,

(iii)

idea of the shape of the rudder blade

of its position

resistance. Carried to the opposite limit for rapid

lateral

is

into the design problem. Alternative preliminary

designs

proper,

and near the rudder-stock

force
blade

position.

Fig. 74. E

Diagram of Rudder and Ship Forces and

Moments

HYDRODYNAMICS

718
(v)

The

water,

if

possible effect of shallow or restricted

operation in confined areas

involved.

is

The

may

process of deriving the swinging moment

be largely empirical untU the method is

further developed. Eventually it should be

determined by a relation analytically derived.

On

the basis that the sheering maneuver de-

scribed previously in this section calls for the

swmgmg moment and

greatest

rudder

effect,

the analytic method appears to involve:

1.

Laying out a

series of successive positions, at

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 74.7

If a dynamometer is available to carry a model

rudder and to measure the lateral force on its
stock, the rudder-force fraction F r/F ^ may be
determined during the test of a constrained ship
model, run straight ahead with angled rudder
under a towing carriage in a model basin. The

model can and should be

self-propelled during

this test.

Following a determination or an estimate of

F g, on the rudder,
the designer proceeds to apply the laws of the
the transverse force component
hydrofoil and to calculate

how much area 4i/ is

equal to this force. As

equidifferent time intervals, with respect to the

required to produce a

point where the emergency turn order is given,

known as the "execute" point, and the approach
path extended. There is a considerable backlog
of this information, pubhshed and unpublished,
with which to approximate or to bracket the

previously mentioned, the problem

required data for a

2.

Finding

the

number

positions while

angular

initial

a(alpha) required to

make

By

it is

possible that the

moment

swuiging motion,
including the added inertia of the water, the
required swinging moment
is given by

The value

of

N may

Jscc

(74.i)

well be found to vary with

approach speed so that the designer

upon
range

to

work out a

5.

However,

it is still

necessary to

know

especially as this speed enters the lift-force

formula to the second power. The potential-,

the initial

in

of the ship for

angle

responding to the rudder's speed of advance,

may

the effective angle of attack / of the rudder

as a hydrofoil is equal to the mechanical rudder

acceleration

calculating or estimating the polar

Js

simplified

is

by assuming that

the relative water speed past the rudder, cor-

be obtained on board ship

from simultaneous course and rudder-angle measurements, made by recorders now available.

of inertia

for the case being described

the ship occupy these

moving forward

portion of a turn. In fact,

necessary data

of ship types.

lift

series of solutions

if

is

called

the speed

is large.

On

the basis that the total lateral force Fl of

Fig. 74. E is determined, and that the sheering

maneuver occupies the predominant

role, the
next step is to determine, in terms of numbers,
the fractional part of this force that is exerted on

the hull. In the present state of the art the fraction

Fh/Fl alluded to previously and called here the

friction-,

taken

and wave-wake

velocities

account,

the

into

velocity due to the

-plus

must all be
negative-wake

augmented velocity

in the

outflow jet of any propulsion device lying ahead

of the rudder.

A two-part rudder composed of a tail and an

underhung foil is illustrated for the general case
in diagram 5 of Fig. 37. D and for the transom
stern of the ABC ship in Fig. 74.K of Sec. 74.15.
For such a rudder it is undoubtedly not valid to
assume that each part (tail and foil) generates its
own lift independently, by its own set of rules or
by its physical action alone. Nevertheless, this
approximate procedure must be used until
something better is developed.
In addition to the assumed kinds and nominal
aspect ratios of the various hydrofoil elements of

the rudder blade, the effective angle of attack,

and the speed

of advance,

the section, the designer

mentioned

now knows

earlier in

or has esti-

can at best only be estimated.

A correct estimate must be based upon knowledge
of the pressure field exerted by the angled rudder

mated the total lift force F r required of the rudder.

Assuming a sort of standard type of hydrofoil or
flap section for each part, it is possible for him to
estimate the lift coefficients and to determine with

in its vicinity. Available data

reasonable accuracy the area necessary to exert

hull-force fraction,

on

this feature are

they are neither analyzed nor published.

It might be more realistic, therefore, to say that
rare;

for the present the hull-force fraction

guessed. It

may be of the order of

is

only

1/4, 1/3, or 1/2,

leaving 3/4, 2/3, or 1/2 of the total lateral force

Fl

to be developed

by the rudder

blade.

the required hft force on each part. Graphs giving

some

of the necessary data are found in Figs.

44.A through 44.D. Other data are to be found
in the references listed in Sees. 44.3, 44.4, and
44.5.

The sum

of the areas thus derived

may

be equal

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.7

from the total movable

area tentatively assumed when the blade was
first sketched. Adjustments are made to the area
or shape or aspect ratio, one or all, and a second
hydrofoil calculation is made, similar to the first.
For the case of the compound or flap-type
but

to,

rudder the exact value of the ratio of the movableblade lateral force F^ to the hull lateral force F,f

and the exact value

of the lift coefficients

calculate the movable-blade force,

used to

depend upon

the tightness assumed for the hinge closure. Unfortunately the effect of actual hinge gaps and

hinge leakage

is

not yet assessed in the

full scale.

Data from aeronautical tests require some analysis

before they are applicable to the ship problem.
Similar

comment

applies to the assessment of

the effects of horizontal gaps between parts of the

rudder and the hull, and a determination of the

proper effective aspect ratio for each part of the
rudder. Certain useful data derived from tests of
low-aspect-ratio hydrofoils are included in Sec.
44.3.

In the event that the maximum turning

719

The model was run with

will usually differ

post of rectangular section ahead of the rudder,

then with four fixed fins of uniform thickness

added abaft the post (and ahead

representing full-scale lengths of

and 6.25

ft.

The combined

of the rudder),
0,

2.08,

full-scale

4.16,

fin-and-

rudder area was always 144 ft^ indicated in

Fig. 1 of the reference. The area of a fairing of
varied width added ahead of the rudder post, as
well as the area of the post itself, was not included
in the

nominal fin-and-rudder area.

On

the basis of these test data Bottomley then

calculated the fore-and-aft length of four hy-

when placed behind the

four fins mentioned, would give the same initial
ship-turning moment at small rudder angles
pothetical rudders which,

(5 deg) as the original rudder (called R4) when

mounted abaft the rectangular-section rudder
post. If four rudders of these lengths had been
mounted abaft the four fins mentioned, horizontal

sections through the assemblies would have

appeared as sketched in Fig. 74. F. Assuming that

moment

required in a steady turn, to meet certain

is

the usual fixed rudd('r

^^ ^
\rn

operational needs, the physical action on both

Behind Rudder
Post Only

rudder and ship is no longer simple or well known.

The design procedure is not yet outlined and may
not be for some time to come.

As an indication of the absolute magnitude of

moments required to maneuver a ship there

the

are available the results of model tests in which

the rudder was angled by various amounts while

the model was constrained to travel in steady,
straight-ahead motion. This corresponds, as pre-

moments after a
given but before a ship has time

viously described, to the few

signal to turn

is

Fig. 74.F

to change direction from its straight approach

Among

path.

these tests are

some conducted by

H. Bottomley at the NPL, Teddington

["Maneuvering of Single-Screw Ships: The Effect
of Rudder Proportions on Maneuvering and Propulsive Efficiency," Inst. Civ. Engrs., London,
1935, No. 175]. The model represented a ship
having the following characteristics:
G.

By

Ruddeb-Fin Assemblies of G. H.
Bottomley

calculation, all five of these assemblies give the

initial

ship-turning

moment

of the order of 5 deg.

Bottomley's calculations were correct, and that

the scale effects in the model tests were insignificant, each of the five assemblies appearing in
the figure would give an initial turning

Lpp

400

B, 52

ft

0.70

V, 14 kt

Pe

2,200 horses

Ps

3,160 horses

assumed at midlength
between perpendiculars
CG to rudder stock, about
200 ft
Area A of standard rudder,
144

ft^

An/[L{H)]

moment

on the ship used as the basis of

the tests, reckoned about the CG.
The values of this moment at rudder angles of
15 and 35 deg are given in Table 74. c, copied from
the Bottomley reference, together with the torques
that would have been required to hold the rudders
in those positions. Considered as a design referof 2,400 ft-tons

CG

ft

H, 23 ft
A, 9,400

Cp

same

for small rudder angles

0.016.

ence,

the tabulated ship-turning

moments

are

HYDRODYNAMICS

720

TABLE

74.C,

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 74.8

Ship-Turning Moments and Rudder Torques for a 400-ft Ship

Adapted from G. H. Bottomley, "Maneuvering of Single-Screw Ships," ICE, London, 1935, No. 175, Appx.
fins listed in the two left-hand columns are illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 74.F.

The rudders and

I,

p. 19.

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 7-f.S

non-overhauling the effort or the time required to

take

may

rudder angle in an emergency

off

too great to justify letting the

be
ahead
the rudder

CP move

721

Designed to run for long periods with

small rudder angle, with a premium on steering
effort and power, and wear and tear on the steering
(a)

of the stock axis under any condition. If

torque becomes excessively large, the fore-and-aft
length of the blade and the actuathig moment
required to turn it must be decreased and the

mechanism
(b) Where a reduced rudder-angle

aspect ratio increased, as was done on the large

in the event of a casualty to the

hand-steered sailing ships. This can, of course,

also be done on ships which are mechanically

gear which leaves the rudder free to swing.

With

certain types of hydraulic steering gears

possible for an overbalanced rudder to take

it is

charge in an emergency and swing rapidly to its

hard-over position, causing the ship to circle out
of control as long as it

The

is

moving ahead.

Which may have

(c)

(3)

steered.

rate

may

be

accepted for astern operation

The rudder may be

to maintain speed ahead

power steering

slightly overbalanced at

small angles for ahead operation at service speed:

When

(a)

the friction in the mechanical or

emergency gear is enough to prevent the rudder

from taking charge if power is lost and from
swinging to the hard-over position.

necessity for going astern on mechanically

and for much backing and

maneuvering on special-service vessels, often calls

(4) The rudder may be overbalanced for angles

not more than one-third of the maximum and

for the least practicable steering rudder torque,

appreciably overbalanced for the small angles used

propelled vessels,

whether the

craft are steered

by power

or

by hand.

This generally requires that the center of pressure

CP when going ahead be forward of the stock
axis so that the CP when going astern mil not

be too far from that axis. Shifting the stock axis

on the blade takes care of this situation but
involves the additional disadvantage of possible
rudder instability and chatter at zero angle,
especially with slackness in the gear, and a
aft

tiresome job of steering

hauling type.

The

Lf

the gear

is

of the over-

relative position of the

for steering:
(a) On special-service vessels called upon for
much backing and maneuvering, or for hard-over
rudder shifts at the maximum rate, when it is an

advantage to have the ahead and astern rudder

torques equahzed as far as practicable, with
neither of them very large

On

(b)

ing gears.

two
Non-uniform flow over the control-surface
whose general effects are described in Sec.

therefore

CP's and the axis, for all service conditions, is

determined by the most important

blade,

service operating requirements.

37.7,

The

vessels provided with reasonably reli-

able power-operated auxiliary or emergency steer-

following design rules govern the degree of

balance on rudders for steering and turning. They

upon reasonably uniform flow over

may

influence the balance situation; at least

the possibility or probability of this flow requires

consideration in the design stage.

may

The nature

of

control the distribution of balance

are predicated

the flow

the whole rudder blade:

area along the stock axis, generally normal to

the adjacent hull, and the position of this area

(1)

The rudder

on any
(a)

definitely should trail at all angles

craft:

Designed

relative to the retarded water

m boundary layers

or to the accelerated water in propeller-outflow

for

hand

steering,

and

for pleasure

jets.

For example, a spade rudder blade

only

Designed for hand steering, and where, for

efficiency and safety, the rudder effort must be
"felt." Examples are racing sailboats and motor(b)

boats.
(c)

Steered by one

man who must

also attend

to other duties, such as a lone fisherman.

made

is

often

shorter (in the direction of flow) at the

bottom, well below the hull, than close to the

hull, in order to reduce the stock bending moment.
This means that the balance portion is longer
(fore and aft) near the hull than below it. In fact,
the length of the balance portion compared to
the blade length, defined as the length-balance

(2)

The rudder

is

best

made

slightly

under-

balanced at small angles for ahead operation at

service speed on

any

vessel:

may be greater near the hull

than the area-balance ratio. At the bottom of the
rudder it may be less. With the long portion of
ratio in Sec. 37.2,

HYDRODYNAMICS

722

the blade working in the boundary layer and the

short portion in a propeller outflow jet, the
balance ratios mthin the jet largely determine the
actual rudder balance and are the ones to be
given primary consideration in the design.

a partly underhung rudder is laid out with

a balance portion so long that, at or near the
hard-over position, the forward end of this
portion swings into a propeller-outflow jet, the

IN SHIP DESIGN
(e)

TMB

Additional design data are given in Part 5 of

Volume

If

negative torque thus created appreciably affects

the balance situation as determined on a uniformflow basis.

In some cases a balance portion hes only in

of a scrcAV-propeller outflow jet, or
mostly in that jet. It is then acted upon by water
one-half

having a tangential component of velocity due

to rotation imparted by the propeller, primarily
in one direction. A balance performance predicted
for

uniform or for axial flow

may

require appre-

Sec. 74.9

Hagen, G. R., "Effects of Variations in ThicknessChord Ratio of Rudders in a Slipstream,"

Rep. C-487, Jan 1952.

III.

Selection and Proportion of Chordwise

74.9

development
unpredictable for which

Considering solely

Sections.

the

of lift or lateral force, there are situations

fortunately not yet fully

a thick, flat-plate blade attached at the ship or

hull end to a cylindrical stock is the best rudder
section to use. Certainly nothing much more
elaborate than such a plate, rounded at the leading

edge and fined at the trailing edge, is justified for

many small boats.
A rudder on a large ship, however, gets a free
ride, as it were, for

the ship

a good part of the time that

in operation, since steering rarely in-

is

ciable modification because of this tangential or

volves a contmuous rudder motion. In this case

high lift is only one of several factors; easy flow

rotary flow, quite apart from any consideration

of the neutral angle of the rudder. Special studies

and low resistance carry considerable weight

when a rudder-blade section is chosen. As a

model

or

design.

tests

are required

to insure proper

The same may apply

to the design of

rudders encountering inward-and-aft flow

offset

at the stern.

consequence, the overall advantages of fitting

rudders are so outstanding that

streamlined
then- use

is

taken for granted wherever this type

of construction

Numerical balance ratios, either of area or of

length, have meaning only when apphed to control
surfaces of given section and shape in a given
type of flow. They can be distinctly misleading
when comparisons are made between dissimilar
rudders. It is the position of the CP with respect
to the axis for each condition which counts.
In other words, the degree of balance is determined by the actual rudder torque and not by the
balance ratio.
determination

The CP position requires careful

when the torques are large or when

definite over- or underbalance

is

being sought.

foregoing general design procedure apphes

also to the positioning of the stock axes for diving
planes, active fins, and other control surfaces.

The

Data for estimating control-surface torques for

a degree of balance and for a blade shape tentatively selected are given by:

is

at

all feasible.

The exact

section

not too important provided certain basic

principles are borne in mind:

shape

(a)

is

The

leading edge

is

to be neither too sharp,

produces discontinuous flow when the

angle of attack is large, nor too blunt, so as to
develop excessively high dynamic pressures at
the nose
(b) The section at the leading edge is made
so that

it

elliptical

in

shape,

not

semicircular,

for

the

reasons given in Sees. 36.3 and 67.5. If cavitation

not expected at zero or neutral angle, it should

be deferred, at least for the small angles encountered when steering.
(c) The curvature in the entrance or leading
portion is easy, diminishing gradually from the
nose to the region of maximum thickness, complying with instructions in the last paragraph of Sec.

is

49.8
R. C, "Hydrodynamic Characteristics of
Rep. 341,
Twelve Symmetrical Hydrofoils,"
Nov 1932

(a) Darnell,

EMB

(b)

Schoenherr, K. E., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 204-210.

Chap. 44 of the present volume gives adaptations
of

(c)

(d)

some

of Schoenherr's diagrams.

Van Lammeren, W.

P. A.,

RPSS,

(d)

Hagen, G. R., "Rudder Design Data

from Tests on Five Model Rudders,"
C-125, Jun 1948
.

Obtained

TMB^Rep.

section

creases

is fair,

outhne or contour along any

without jogs, buckles, welding

and upset Unes, or other discontinuities

across the streamlines

trailing portion is no thicker
need be for structural purposes. It is well
tapered, terminating in an edge that is only
thick enough to withstand nicking and corrosion.
(e)

1948, pp. 319-332

The

streamline

The extreme

than

it

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.10

For a ship on which the rudder is required to

produce good steering and maneuvering but
behmd which the rudder region is filled with
slowly moving water, the usual symmetrical
hydrofoil section, tapering in the run, is not
adequate to give prompt rudder response. The
rudder section may then be carried aft from the
stock axis at full thickness, with a square ending,
or the sides may even be splayed outward toward
the trailing edge. This section shape gives the
necessary lift forces at small rudder angles for
adequate steering in the manner described in
Sec. 37.17

and

There appear to be no design rules, or even

thumb, to use for guidance in the selection
delineation

splayed

of

or

fish-tail

rudder

most cases these sections are employed

to compensate for extreme eddying or backflow.

sections. In

As the poor
first

flow conditions should not exist in the

place there

is

little

point in conducting

systematic research to find out

how

to correct

them by using unusual rudder sections rather than

by reshaping the run of the hull.
Whatever the shape of the trailing edge of a
rudder (or diving plane) section, whether inside
a propulsion-device outflow jet or not, it should
be such that there is never any doubt in the mind
of the water as to just where it is going to separate
from the section. If the trailing edge can not be
fine, narrow enough so that the eddies abaft it
are insignificant, it should be cut off square, or
even splayed like the split tail of a weathervane.
It is never to be rounded enough to permit the
separation points on either side to shift backward
and forward, with consequent eddy buffeting,
rattling, vibration, and perhaps even more serious

one reason for not using a

rounded section at
edge. This section can, if desired, be

consequences. This

TMB EPH
the trailing

is

section, vnth. its

terminated in a double-chisel shape, depicted in

diagram 2
It

is

of Fig. 70. P.

doubtful whether any rudder section

suitable for practical use can be kept free of

separation
effective

A nose shape is selected for which the lift coefficient

CL

is still

increasing at this attack angle.

The maximum

thickness of a rudder section,

occurring almost invariably abreast the stock

and the variation

depth of the rudder,
axis,

of this thickness along the

generally a matter of

is

As such

structural design.

it is

not covered here.

When

the blades of rudders and planes are made

removable from the stock it may be necessary
to increase the thickness ratio tx/c at the support

ends of spade rudders and cantilevered diving

planes to a

maximum

and cavitation at extremely

large

angles of attack, of the order of 30 to

35 deg. These are always encountered when a

rudder is swung rapidly to a hard-over position

However,

of 0.25.

large thickness should not be

illustrated in Fig. 37.L.

rules of

or

723

carried

this

too far

along the blade. Normally, the thickness ratio

tx/c does not exceed 0.20 or 0.167 at the stock

Toward the free, unsupported

a cantilevered rudder or plane, where the
required section modulus is diminishing rapidly,
end
end

of the rudder.
of

the thickness ratio can be reduced considerably.

The value

of tx/c is usually only

about 1/6 of

that at the stock end.

The sections of a close-coupled simple rudder,
or of the close-coupled portion of a

compound

rudder, form a continuation of the hull, skeg, or

fin to which it is attached. There should be no
enlargement and no more discontinuity at the
hinged joint than is required to give the rudder
clearance to swing from one side to the other.
Tests of various rudder sections at the David
Taylor Model Basin indicate that a simple section
shape composed of a semi-circular nose and per-

fectly straight sides, tapering to zero thickness at

the

edge,

trailing

possesses

superior to those of the

for rudders.

and
is

less.

The

NACA

hit-drag

ratios

sections suitable

thickness ratios tx/c were 0.15

Further, the breakdown or stalling point

delayed to a greater angle and the maximum

is increased. So far as known, no confirmation

hft

of these features in full scale is available at the

time of writing (1955). It is possible that the use

of a short elliptic nose to prevent cavitation there
would not detract from the advantages of the
section.

The

straight-sided shape of these sections, or of

sections smiilar to them,

may

be found valuable

dynamic stabihty of route, disdetail in Part 5 of Volume III. The

in a study of

cussed in

straight course or

convex side of a rudder, exposed to the angled

perhaps is swinging in the opposite direction.

The probable maximum effective angle of attack
after the ship has started swinging, at a rate
approximately half of that in a steady turn, has

flow on the "outside" of a ship in a yaw, may set

up undesirable Ap's acting to increase the yaw.

while the ship

is

moving on a

to be estimated, using the best

known

procedure.

Straight rudder sides of the proper shape would

develop +Ap's, acting to reduce the yaw angle.
74.10 Structural Control-Surface Design as

HYDRODYNAMICS

724

IN SHIP DESIGN
illustrated

effect,

Sec. 74.11

schematically

the

in

lowest

diagram of Fig. 74. G. The boundary plates of a

rudder or a diving plane should be attached
primarily to internal structural members which
run fore and aft, parallel to the streamlines of the
liquid flowing over it, as in the topmost diagram
This

of Fig. 74. G.

surface

is

especially true

if

the conti'ol

within the outflow jet of a screw

lies

propeller or other propulsion device.

If

practicable,

anywhere

Transverse Members Should

Not Be

^^^ Wrapper Plate

'^'l

Welded to Side Plotinq

'"

"^

^'^^^

should

there

welding beads, or the

like,

no

be

joints,

transverse to the

floAV,

in the entrance of the control surface.

This is achieved by wrapping a single plate

around the nose and both sides of the entrance,
and attaching it to the frame only by fastenings
parallel to the flow. These fastenings are spaced
as closely as practicable, normal to the flow, so
as to make the plating relatively rigid, with little
likelihood of panting or bending between supports
and of failure through fatigue.
Design Notes for Motorboat Rudders.
74.11

The general principles for the design of

the rudders

TABLE

74.d Ratio op Rudder Area to LateralPlane Abba for Motorboats and Similar Craft

Rudder Structure with One System of

Welds Parallel to the Flow

Fig. 74.G

Affected by Hydrodynamics.

Any

control sur-

on a high-speed vessel, requires a

structural design and a fabrication procedure
which Avill insure that the selected control-surface
section, along the Ime of flow, is achieved m the
building of the ship and is maintained in service.
The finished boundary plating on a structure
that is hollow, as are most control surfaces, must
be fair and smooth, Avithout wrmkles or bulges.
Further, it must be so stiffened that it maintains
its fairness and shape while subjected to many
face, especially

different kinds of loading,

steady, intermittent,

The data listed here are translated from the book of J.

Baader entitled "Cruoeros y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers
and Fast Launches)," Buenos Aires, 1951, pages 333 and
335. The percentages of Group III include, for each case,
the total projected area of the two rudders.
On pages 334 and 337 of the reference Baader gives
profiles of thirteen launches, motorboats, and motor
yachts, showing the relative positions and comparative
sizes of screw propellers and rudders for these craft.
I.

Normal

II.

is

completed. Internal stiffening members

weld metal when cooling. If the internal

stiffeners are placed generally normal to the flow,
welding gives the boundary plates a washboard
of the

and

steering

2.5

Ideal surface for steering and

man-

euvering
Best surface for going astern

...

Maximum surface for special cases

Boats with Two Screw Propellers and

4 to 5
10

One Rudder (between them)

Minimum
Normal

surface for steering

surface

for

...

2,5

and

steering

maneuvering

Best surface for maneuvering con-

Indeed, the process of welding a rudder assembly

attached to the boundary plates by inside welds

produce ridges in those plates because of shrinkage

surface

for

direction of flow.

the ship

surface for good steering

maneuvering

is

may introduce discontinuities in the surface before

{W')Ar/L{H)

One Rudder

Minimum

one reason why the thin

coverings of airplane wings and control surfaces
are attached to ribs or stiffeners which lie in the

and alternating. This

Boats with One Screw Propeller and

4 to 5

ditions
III.

Two

Screw Propellers and

Rudders

Boats with

Two
Minimum
Minimum

surface for steering

...

surface for steering

and
2.5

maneuvering
Advisable surface for steering and

maneuvering
Best surface for going astern

....

4 to 5

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.11

of

mechanically powered small boats

725

embody

those of Sec. 74.8 relative to balance and trailing,

plus the increased relative rudder area indicated
for small craft in Tables 74. b

many

and

74. d.

Whereas

were operated
by hand, some of them now have power gear, and
a few of them automatic steering.
For craft which run at speed-length or Taylor
quotients T^ of 3 or more, F > 0.89, the rudder
formerly

of these rudders

and moments are large compared to other

and moments. This applies to heeling as
well as swinging moments, so that whether or
not a boat banks properly (inward) on a turn may
depend as much on the rudder as on the hull.
As the Tj and the absolute speeds reach higher
forces
forces

it is increasmgly important that the rudder

be of the proper size and shape.

values

Moximuir Rudder

Fig.

Blunt-Ended Parallel-Sided Motorboat

74.1

Rudder
The numerals may

represent any units of measurement

or serve as relative proportions.

or tail portion

and a wide, square

trailing edge.

It is cut

away

at the after upper corner because:

The

+Ap

built

(a)

upper after corner

up on the ahead side of the

an angled rudder with a

of

horizontal top, indicated in Fig. 74. H, exerts a

lift

and depresses the bow.

an advantage in straight-away

force under the stern

While

this

is

running, it is liable to cause the bow to trip in

a turn [Grenfell, T., "Some Notes on Steering of
High Speed Planing Hulls," SNAME, Pac.

Northwest

27 Sep 1952; abstracted in

Jan 1953, p. 35].
(b) The portion removed permits a more-or-less
solid stream of water to pass over the angled
rudder, close under the hull. This acts as a shield

SNAME

Fig.

74.H

Motoeboat Rudder with

Streamlined

Sections

Sect.,

Bull.,

to prevent air leakage to the astern or

of the rudder.

Fig.

74.H indicates the outline and prmcipal

dimensions

of

type

of

streamlined

rudder

developed by Elliott Gardner for a 45.5-ft air

boat, based upon systematic full-scale

rescue

and experience extending back to 1925. It

is reported to be suitable for all speeds from 5 to
50 mph, or 4.3 to 43.4 kt.
Fig. 74.1 is a more modern rudder of somewhat
similar design, intended for use on a 52-ft air
rescue boat, but having parallel sides in the run
tests

Whether cut away or

Ap

side

not, it is

preferable to place the rudder so that

it

lies

completely under the hull at any angle, to obtain

the

maximum

shielding effect from air leakage.

The nominal

aspect ratio of the horizontal-top

rudder of Fig. 74.H

is

1.247 whereas that of the

more modern design in Fig. 74.1 is 1.224.

The design of rudders for high-speed motorboats
of the planing type, especially those which travel
at values of the Taylor quotient T,
in excess of 5, is

= V/'vL

based largely upon experiment

HYDRODYNAMICS

726

and experience.

made

to

available

generous portion of both is

the profession in a paper

"Some Notes on Steeling on High-Speed

Planing Hulls," by T. Grenfell, previously
referenced in this section. Grenfell recommends
entitled

that the aspect ratio of rudders for these ultrahigh-speed craft be of the order of 2, making
them twice as deep as they are long.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 74.12

s\vinging or steering propellers can not be used,

one or more tubular or box rudders or swinging

Kort nozzles may be employed, arranged so as to

change the direction of the whole propeller-outflow

Fig. 74. J illu.strates an experimental rudder

jet.

of this type.

Design of Close-Coupled and Comsimple

close-coupled
Rudders. Any
rudder is in reality a compound rudder, but its
effect is not easy to predict because the greater
74.12

pound

part of the quantitative data in existence are for

flap-type hydrofoils of rather different proportions.
However, sufficient information has been obtained

from special model tests [Abell, T. B., INA, 1936,

pp. 137-144 and PI. XV; van Lammeren, W. P. A.,

RPSS,

1948,

pp.

327-328] to enable a fairly

be made of the part of the

reliable estunate to

total transverse force exerted

by the movable

rudder and the part exerted on the fixed or ship

structure adjacent to the rudder. Part 5 of Volume
III contains a series of diagrams from which these
fractional parts can be estimated for any probable
rudder arrangement. From that point on the
design follows the procedure described in the
Fig.

sections preceding.

The

indications from a series of rudder

and corresponding graphs of ship

P. A. van Lammeren
[RPSS, 1948, Fig. 221, p. 331] are that none of
the fixed fins or posts shown there contribute
much additional force to that exerted by the
movable rudder blade.
When designing a compound-type control
surface, or one with a movable blade carrying a
flap, it is well to limit the angle of the movable
stern profiles

turning

moment given by W.

portion, or the flap, to the order of 20 deg either

way, especially if the length of the movable portion

or flap is less than 0.4 of the chord length of the
whole section [NACA Rep. WRL-419, Jan 1944].
This eliminates any possibility of stall. However,
if the whole control surface is of low aspect ratio,
or if the movable portion is very large compared
to the whole, it is possible that the movable
portion or flap may remain effective up to angles
of 35 deg either way.
74.13 Conditions Calling for Tubular Rudders.

When

steering in shallow,

prompt rudder action at

may mean
and

or

moment

the difTerence between a safe passage

disaster.

blade

flowing rivers,

fast

just the right

For

this type of service

multi-blade

rudder

is

no

74.J

Pair op Tubular, Swiveling Rudders

and

single-

adequate.

If

For proper mechanical clearance the stock axis

close to or through the plane of the
propeller disc. Even then a constant small tip
clearance is not possible unless the tubular rudder
has a shape abreast the propeller that is approximately spherical. Against the efficacy of a proper
design of tubular rudder must be balanced the
liability of bending the tube on rocks or debris in
the stream bed and jamming the propeller inside it.
74.14 Closures for Rudder Hinge
Gaps.
Sec. 37.3 and diagram 9 of Fig. 37. D illustrate
the manner in which differential-pressure leakage
can take place between the +Ap and Ap sides
of a rudder-and-support assembly, even when the

must pass

clearances are reasonably small.

ships

it

as easy

was customary

movement

On

old sailing

to keep this gap as small

of the

wooden parts would

permit. Clearance spaces left for lifting the rudders

enough to get the pintles out of the gudgeons

were covered by filhng plates [Barry, R. E., Mar.
Eng'g., Sep 1921, p. 689]. In general, plates or
other closures should be fitted on the fixed portion
of the post-and-blade assembly. This is the reason
for the fixed lugs on the sternpost shown by Fig.
far

73.

of Sec. 73.14.

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.15

For an excellent discussion of the hydrodynamic

and other problems associated with the closing
(or narrowing) of vertical and horizontal gaps the
reader
p.

referred to P.

is

Break"].

S.

Mandel [SNAME,

1953,

"Rudders Gap and Horizontal

F. Hoerner gives useful information

489, under

concerning the relative drag of various across-theflow gap configurations between a symmetrical-

and

section airfoil

trailing-edge flap, together

its

with notes on the effect of the airfoil thickness

and flap thickness at the hinge [AD, 1951, pp.
57-58]. These data apply directly, for straightahead running, to ship rudders hung abaft thin
skegs or rudder horns.
74.15
of

ABC

Rudder Designs for Alternative Stems

The estimates of area for the

Ship.

rudder designs of the ABC ship, described in this

section, are based only on the first approximation
of Sec. 74.6, and not upon the more logical procedure outlined in Sec. 74.7. Furthermore, the
designs of the rudders themselves are carried

only far enough in this section to produce control

devices which would have about the same resistance (certainly

no

less)

than could be expected

of the final refined rudder designs for the

alternative

When

ABC

two

ship sterns.

roughing in the stern profile of the ABC

first part of

727

transom submergence
clearance of 0.5

ft for

of 2 ft

and a baseplane

the foot of the rudder, the

portion of the blade abaft the stock axis could

be at least 22

ft

high by 10

ft long,

with a pro-

Adding say 25 per

cent for the balance portion of the foil ahead of
the stock gave a tentative total area of 220 -|- 55 =
275 ft', which appeared ample. With the balance
portion extending from 0.5 ft above the baseplane
to about 1.5 ft below the shaft axis (at the 10.5-ft
WL), its height was 8.5 ft, giving a tentative
jected area of about 220

ft'.

fore-and-aft length of 55/8.5

6.5

ft.

The length

balance was then 6.5/(10 -|- 6.5) = 0.394. This

value seemed rather large but not too large for a
rudder which must be angled without requiring

an excessive torque when going astern.

With a clear-water skeg ending and a baseplane
clearance of 0.5

the propeller, the baseplane

ft for

the rudder appeared someowner and operator. It was

therefore increased to 1.0 ft. The upper after
corner of the tail of the blade was also cut away to
provide a greater gap and more protection against
air leakage below the edge of the transom. The
three lower corners were left square. The shape
and dimensions of the blade when sketched at
clearance of 0.5

what small

ft for

to the

the conclusion of the preliminary design of the

Sec. 66.25, a first approximation for the area of

transom-stern huU appear in Fig. 74.K. It has a

total area of 273 ft', or 0.0206 of the product

the movable blade of a single centerline rudder was

L{H)

ship with transom, described in the

0.02(L)F, or 265.2

ft'.

From Table

74.b this

is

The

510(26) at the designed draft.

horn as sketched

lateral area of the fixed

about 89

or roughly 24 per

high-hmit value for large, medium-speed passenger

ships. The selection of the maximum

in the figure

and cargo

cent of the combined area of blade and horn.

value in the table was based upon the need for

excellent steering and turning qualities in the

Because

Port Amalo canal and when maneuvering out of

the harbor at Port Bacine, indicated in Figs.
64.A and 64.B.
Based upon the use of a clear-water aftfoot and
no rudder shoe, the rudder had to be partly or
completely underhung. To avoid placing the

horn wUl add materially to the

single rudder in the paths of the hub vortexes

from the single propeller ahead, it was decided to
embody a partly underhung rudder and to carry
it by a horn which extended far enough below
the hull to include a fixed fairing abaft the propeller hub. A foil of generous area placed below
the horn, with a short circulation path and plenty
of clearance for the circulatory flow, would

is

ft',

of its closeness to the blade it

appears

that the differential pressures set up on the fixed

exerted by the blade

For the arch-stern

when the

ABC

lateral

force

latter is angled.

hull described in Sec.

67.16 and illustrated in Figs. 67.L and 67.M,

there was little in the way of design data for
guidance, by which to select a ratio of rudderblade area to the product of the waterhne length
draft. The stern was laid out so that, at a
reasonably small rudder angle, either the port
or the starboard blade would swing into the

and

projection of the propeller disc. Fig. 67. P indicates

that the traihng edges of both rudders, at zero

angle, lie close to this projection. The contraction
in the outflow jet is

assumed small because the

only about 0.33D abaft the disc

provide the quick response necessary for steering

the ship in the Port Amalo canal and in the river

stock axes

below Port Correo.

It was estimated that an increase of at least 25

per cent over the blade area of a rudder lying

Small-scale

sketches indicated

that,

with a

lie

position.

HYDRODYNAMICS
-ae.'O

Fbrward Edqe of Horn,

c
u/ ij
Forging
or Weldment

2:0Centerline

Fig. 74.K

Bultock-

characteristics as the alternative transom-stern

The adverse

effect of the increased lateral

area of the twin skegs would,

by the increased

it

was

believed, be

which the
twin rudders would, acting as flaps, generate on
the portions of the fixed skegs just ahead of them.
Further, the addition of an underhung foil on
each rudder would provide the quick steering
and turnmg response needed for running in the
confined waters at each end of the ship route.

When

Sec. 74.15

,,'

'

5.5 Trp
1

"^

oubmerqence
=
,

Details of Aftfoot, Propeller Aperture, Rudder Support, and Rudder for

Transom-Stern Ship

give the arch-stern ship as good maneuvering

offset

if

abaft a single propeller would be required to

ship.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Designed Woterhne

lateral force

finally sketched, as in Fig. 74. L, the total

movable-blade area of both rudders was 346.74 ft^.

This was 346.74/13,260 or 0.0261 of the product
L{H), an increase of 26 per cent over the same

ABC

of the inside skeg waterUnes close to the anticipated flowlines in the tunnel. The convergence of
the outside waterUnes is such as to terminate the
skegs and rudders in trailing edges that he as

close as possible to the outflow jet of the propeller.

The

and unsymmetrical sections

some uncertainty as to the hydrodynamic
behavior of the hinged tail portions, when acting
as flaps hinged to the main skegs. In view of the
lack of information about them, a series of maneuvering tests with a model is definitely indicated
before the arch-stern design is carried beyond this
resulting thick

leave

preUminary stage.

The

selection of the proper thickness ratios

and

ratio for the single, centerline-rudder design of

shapes for the single,

streamhned rudder of the transom-stern ship
involves no .such hmitations as those just de-

the transom-stern ship.

scribed for the arch-stern design.

These twin rudders are in effect only the

trailing edges of the two arch-stern skegs. Each
is arranged to swing about a vertical axis 8 ft
fonvard of what would be the skeg ending and
each carries an underhung foil extending below
the bottom of the skeg termination. The rather

thickness ratio for the single rudder

unusual horizontal sections of the

tail

portions of

these rudders arise from a deliberate continuation

the

horizontal

section

To be
is

sure, the

to

some

extent governed by the thickness of the fixed

horn

which

is

necessary

to

afford

rigidity to the lower rudder bearing.

adequate
This is a

matter of structural analysis and calculation and

it is outside the scope of the book. The
thicknesses indicated on Fig. 74. N of Sec. 74.17

as such

are estimates only, based

upon

similar installa-

MOVABLE APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.16
26'

Fig. 74.L

Designed

Vertical Centerplane Section Through Shaft, Propeller, and Strut-Bearing

Support of ABC Arch-Stern Design

tions with fixed horns of

somewhat

less relative

depth.

Before the tinie came to sketch the streamlined

rudder for the transom-stern ABC ship it was
decided to use a form of contra-rudder. A fairform rudder with a flat meanline plane, even when
designed as a unit with the fixed horn, involves
design problems which are adequately covered

by P. Mandel [SNAME, 1953, pp. 474-490] and

by others listed at the end of Sec. 74.8. They are
not further discussed here. The layouts of the
contra-rudder and the contra-guide horn, as
applying to the

ABC

transom-stern design, are

described in Sees. 74.16 and 74.17 which follow.

Centra-Rudder.
Strictly speaking, the contra-flow feature on a
rudder is not a functional part of the rudder as a
74.16

729

Woterlii

thrust-producmg device. In fact, it need not be

movable, as is the rudder. Typical horizontal
sections for a compound rudder with contrafeatures in the fixed portion only, and in both the
fixed and movable portions, are shown by W. P. A.
van Lammeren [RPSS, 1948, Fig. 55, diagrams
e and f respectively, p. 100]. However, as a rudder
,

required with normal screw propulsion, the

friction drag of a separate fixed surface is elimin-

is

ated by incorporating the contra-flow feature in

the rudder. For the design of this feature, the

rudder

is

considered to remain at

its

zero or

neutral angle.

The

design problem consists

of:

Design Notes for a

control surface but

is

an energy-recovering and a

(a)

Establishing

series

of

above and below the propeller

horizontal
axis,

planes

described for

the contra-guide skeg ending in Sec. 67.22, for

HYDRODYNAMICS

730
1<2U[

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 74.16

0060

AUi-^h-

^ t Q n"' r'<2UiSini;(-UASin9s1
Ec^.(74.l)

Fig. 74.

Vector Diagram for Design of Contra-Rudder

which separate velocity diagrams and rudder

sections are to be drawn
(b) Estimating the magnitude of the mduced
velocity Uj at each propeller radius, as well as
k^
and fcj in Fig. 74.M. These
the factors fci
data are required to determine the resultant
velocity vector Urs for the given radius at the
,

fore-and-aft

location

selected

for

the

leading

edge of the contra-rudder. The latter position is

usually determined by the aperture clearance
provided abaft the wheel.
(c) Drawing velocity diagrams smiUar to those

74.M, assuming that a contra-guide skeg

ending, if one is to be used, is already designed
(d) Estimating the magnitude of the induced
velocity to be set up by the contra-rudder hydrofoil section itself, of which half may be expected
to develop ahead of the leading edge of the contrarudder. It is of interest to note that the flow due to
cii'culation through the aperture between a
in Fig.

and a contra-rudder blade is in

the same direction for both, namely forward in
the direction of motion of the propeller blade. In
many cases the velocities induced by the rudder
are small and may be neglected in the design.
propeller blade

(e)

Selecting a curve for the leading edges of the

transverse plane.

then laid

off

in detail in a
(f)

The

edges are

offsets of these

at each level. This matter

is

discussed

paragraph following.

Calculating

(or

estimating)

minimum

thickness for the contra-rudder. This involves the

calculated diameter of the stock or

main

vertical

member

necessary to carry the side

loads expected. These in turn have to be estimated
rather roughly until more of the rudder is laid out.
structural

If

is to be of the compound
with a fixed forward portion, a certain

the contra-rudder

type,

stiffness is required for this latter

(g)

member.

Selecting a hydrofoil section thick enough to

meet the needs

of

combmed with proper

maximum thickness tx

(f),

fore-and-aft position of the

(h) Calculating the lift on the selected section

at the nominal angle of attack indicated by the
velocity diagram for the propeller radius in

question.

From these data a second approximation

to the loading curve on the stock

is

found, by

which the stock scantlmgs are checked. Although

the lateral thrust loads are

opposite directions

above and below the shaft axis the bending

moments and shear loads are heavy in the vicinity
of that axis.
(i)

Adjusting the several hydrofoil shapes and

body based upon them

hydrofoil sections of the rudder blade at the

positions so that a S-dunl

various levels or propeller radii, as projected on a

is

fair

with respect to

its

traces in a series of

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.16

vertical transverse planes

and the

trailing edges of the rudder.

steps listed in the foregoing require

through

some

given here in the same order as

(i).

The velocity diagrams of Fig. 37. K, for a contrarudder installation only, are supplemented by
those of Fig. 74. M, for an installation of both
contra-guide skeg ending and contra-rudder. In

the latter diagrams the incident flows on the pro-

shown

two adjacent blade sections,

unrolled into the flat. This is an aid in visualizing
the flow leaving the skeg endmg, represented by
the vector U a
and that forming one of the
components of incident flow on a blade section at
the same level.
It is customary to show the flow meeting a
peller are

for

moving-blade element with reference to axes in

The vector Ua is therefore combined
with the rotational vector 2irrii2 and with the
induced-velocity vector fcj Uj to give the incidentthat element.

velocity vector Uri

When

moving blade along Ur2

to axes fixed in the ship

it is

is

it

with the

equivalent to combining the inflow vector

?7jj3

cidence with respect to the ship

centerplane,

smooth flow around the rudder

with a reasonable lift force and forward-thrust
component. What is wanted first is the value of
the angle Br which the vector U r^ makes with
will insure

the ship axis. Second, the

amount

of offset of the

leading edge of the contra-rudder section

determined.
If the fraction

fej

is

is

to be

estimated (or determined in

some manner)

it is possible to derive Br by a
graphic construction such as that in diagram 2

The

by the hydroshown as /cjC// in the

velocity induced

section of the rudder,

corner of the figure.

For a contra-guide skeg ending designed as

in Sec. 67.22, the angle ds is known for any blade
radius or level. If the skeg ending

is

symmetrical,

as in Fig. 37. K, the expression for Br reduces to

that of Eq. (74. ii), alongside the large-scale

diagram 3 of Fig. 74.M. The value of Ui is always

small with respect to U a
and /cj is always less
than 1.00, because the full value of Ui is developed
only far astern. Eq. (74.ii) therefore reduces to
Br = tan~^ (C sin 0). Here C, representing
kiUi/U A is a small fraction, say 0.15. For any
normal propeller the geometric blade angle 4>
seldom exceeds 65 deg at the hub surface, hence
C sin
has a maxunum value of about 0.135.
The angle 9r then has a maximum value of about
8 deg, where Br = sin Br = tan Br approximately.
,

Actually,

it is

possible to derive the average

Ua

only from model tests

or very special ship tests. Further,

the same for

at

It is now required to select a section shape for

the contra-rudder, and a nominal angle of in-

of Fig. 74. M.

RH

U a is almost
never constant along the upper or the lower
blade radii, either in magnitude or direction, nor
does the mean upper value of U a equal the mean
lower one. As a consequence, and because of the
varying circulation at different blade radii, the
maximum induced velocity Uj is almost never

by combining

foil

The

nominal value of the obliquity 6r of the velocity

vector U R3 incident on the rudder section, may
be calculated by Eq. (74.i), set down in the upper

value and direction of

edge of the blade element, the latter equal to

k^Uj The flow meeting the hydrofoil section of
the rudder is then represented nominally by the

which

the diagram.

again referred back

U A with the induced-velocity vector at the trailing

vector

in

the flow leaves the

rotational vector 2imR, but in a reverse direction.

This

731

marked

blade angles

The

explanation,
(a)

between the leading

/ci

all radii,

nor

is it

known

precisely

any radius. To cap all the foregoing, the factors

and ^2 are not well known. While values reason-

ably close to the actual ones could undoubtedly

be substituted in the expressions for Br in Fig.

74. M, there are practical factors which require a
more realistic approach to this design problem.
It is recalled that for the design of a contraguide skeg ending discussed in Sec. 67.22 the
value of Br derived analytically for points opposite
the outer propeller radii are small but they are
still

too large for practical use. Employed here,

they would produce a rudder which had no straight

or symmetrical sections whatever. Whether this
much of a departure from the orthodox stream-

Imed rudder would be the best device for steering

a straight course for long periods could only be
determined by successive full-scale installations
on the same vessel. The doubt expressed in the

small-scale diagram 1 of the figure, is omitted

from the large-scale diagram 1 to avoid confusion.
It is also assumed, for the sake of simplicity but
without appreciable error, that the induced-

rarely possible to use hydrofoil sections

fci Ui and fca Uj he normal to the

base chord of the blade section, at the geometric

at zero angle.

velocity vectors

foregoing

is

heightened by the fact that

deliver the water directly astern

The

large

mth

it is

also

which

the rudder

camber necessary to

HYDRODYNAMICS

732

accomplish this imposes

the thickness ratio and

loads which increase

lift

make

it

more

difficult to

lay out hydrofoil sections of suitable shape.

solution employing a leading-edge offset on the
-v'aryiug as sin^

<^,

utUized previously for

the design of the contra-guide skeg ending discussed in Sec. 67.22, is employed here for the

The offset taken as a

be based, as before, on a value of
about 0.85 times the propeller hub radius d/2
opposite the 0.1 propeller radius. A graph for
contra-rudder as well.

reference

may

selecting the angle

which the median

luie at the

a fixed contra-propeUer blade is to

make with the fore-and-aft plane is given by
R. Wagner [STG, 1929, Fig. 44, p. 224]. This

leadmg edge

of

graph could be used as well for the leading edge

of a contra-rudder, whether this edge were the
fixed portion of a compound rudder or the leading
edge of a balanced rudder. It calls for an angle
of 45 deg at O.lSfi (of the propeller), 19 deg at

and 9 deg at O.SOi?.

Whatever rule is used, some asymmetry in
the form of leading-edge angle does and should
0.48fi,

remain abaft the propeller-blade tips, as for the

contra-guide skeg endmg, at vertical distances
above and below the shaft axis equal to the propeller radius R^^^
A transition is necessary from the maximum
twist toward the trailing edge of the propeller
.

blades at the 12 o'clock position to the maximum

twist in the opposite direction (but also toward

may

mean plane

of the

rudder blade. All

require that, not only

must the leading

edge be directed and offset one way from this

plane, but the trailing edge must be offset the
other way. The transition takes the form of a
crossover from one side to the other, abaft the
propeller hub, in both the leading and trailing
edges, but in opposite directions.

rudder as

tinuities in the

offset

structure abaft the

of this

method

is

to

this

means

the rudder

hub are avoided. A variation

work a bulb into the rudder

at the transition pomt, extending well aft on the

rudder [Maritime Reporter,

If all

the rotation

propeller-outflow

jet,

is

Feb

1954, p. 23].

to be taken out of the

the median lines of the

In one of the earliest descriptions of the contrapropeller, for installation abaft a screw, R.

blades eccentrically to the hub center" [transl.

of Schiifbau, 14

Feb

1912, pp. 365-366].

statement.

The diagram accompanying the

may

possibly be better

refer-

this

offset

somewhat more

gives the designer

freedom in shaping the vane or blade which is to

convert some of the rotational energy into thrust,
and places the base chord at a greater angle to
the ship axis. If other conditions are right, a

somewhat greater forward-thrust component

derived from a given lift force.
For the single rudder

of the

ABC

is

transom-

decided not to incorporate any

offset in that part of the blade lying abaft the
it

is

its

trailing edge.

When,

as

described in Sec. 74.17, a contra-shape is incorporated in the fixed horn ahead of the rudder
stock,

there will be an

appreciable

lift

force

acting to starboard on the unsymmetrical hydro-

assembly composed of this horn and the tail

Combined with the Hovgaard
Effect, described in Sec. 33.17, there wA\ be a
continual lateral force acting to push the stern
to starboard when the ship is going ahead. This
foil

of

the rudder.

swinging effect can be counteracted only by giving

a hydrofoil

zero or neutral position. It

does

ence has the trailing-edge offset marked by a

symbol, not mentioned in the text. Incorporating

be parallel to the mean plane

its

He

not, unfortunately, give specific reasons for this

a contra-shape to the underhung

rudder in

Wagner

mentions that: "A particularly good result is

obtained by shaping the trailing edges of the

trailing edges of the contra-rudder sections should

of the

are

called for

rudder stock or in

an easy transition

well,

when the trailing edges

from the mean plane of the blade.

also

is

the "shadow" of the propeller hub. In fact, one

good way to make it is to use a cylindrical propeller hub and to Avork a large hub fairmg into

By

of

the water must flow, and of structural discon-

stern ship

the contra-rudder in this region.

As a means

avoiding sharp corners and coves along which

the trailing edges) at the 6 o'clock position. This

should be made gradually, not abruptly, across

abrupt and harmful discontinuities

Sec. 74.16

rudder sections at an appreciable

of each of the

angle to the
this

With these considerations m mind a compromise

rudder

IN SHIP DESIGN

lift

force to port.

of force to starboard

may

still

more than the usual amount

foil

and exerting

The preponderance
require carrying

lateral force

rudder to
maintain a straight course. This is another reason
for not working a contra-guide ending into the
upper portion only of the centerline skeg ending.

thrust,

It too

to

make

the face, on the -|-Ap side of the trailing

edge, parallel to this

appreciable forward

it is

mean

plane.

component

of

Also,

the

if

an

lift

or

on the rudder is to be realized as

advantageous to place the base chord

would exert a

of right

lateral force to starboard

and

MOVABLE-APPENDy\GE DESIGN

Sec. 74.11

augment the right rudder

to be carried to inaintaiii

a straight course.

The

design of the contra-shaped movable

733

speed ship in bending the leading edge of a rudder,

contra-fashion, instead of using a simple stream-

foil

lined affair, with the base chords of all sections

follows the design of the contra-shaped fixed horn

parallel to each other. In the rotary cross flow

or skeg above

it,

described in Sec. 74.17. Normally,

the thickness ratio of the

foil

sections in a partly

underhung rudder diminish rather rapidly from

the lower bearing to the bottom of the rudder,
until at the lower edge this ratio

order of 0.03.

The high value

the section at the 2-ft

74.N

Fig.
(1)

The

WL

of Sec. 7-4.17 is

of

may be of the
about 0.115 for

for the foil

due

is

in

because

foil,

extended below the propeller

shaft axis
(2)

The uncertainty involved

in drastic thinning

of a contra-section, expecially in a rudder of this

type.

Thinning the lower-edge sections represents no

problems, provided it is determined that the
contra-performance can be maintamed. If the
lower sections are left thick, a flow test might
indicate the advisability of sloping the lower edge
of the foil down and forward, with a baseplane
clearance of say 0.5 ft at the forward end and

The compensating

by the

force exerted to port

is

at a greater effective angle of attack

the out-

water which, below the shaft axis, is

directed aft and to port behind a right-hand
wheel. Rather than to offset only the trailing edge
of the tail, above the shaft axis, and to introduce
a discontinuity in the rudder structure, the entire
flow-jet

portion of the blade abaft the stock axis

is

made

symmetrical.

when

is designed, and a
checked in a circulatingwater channel with tufts attached to various

Finally,

model

is built,

the rudder

the flow

buffeting,

and noise. An example- of a severely

pitted Mariner class rudder, not so shaped, is
given by W. G. Allen and E. K. Sullivan [SNAME,

W. Bunyan

1954, Fig. 25, p. 541]. T.

illustrates

the pitting which occurred on a combination of

abaft

it,

and a rudder hung directly

lying in the outflow jet of a single,

centerline propeller. Both were streamlined but

were entirely symmetrical about the vertical
plane through the propeller axis [IME, Apr
1955, Vol. LXVII, No. 4, p. 105].
74.17 Design of a Contra-Horn for the ABC
Transom-Stem Ship. For the transom-stern
ABC ship whose stern profile is shown in Fig.
74. K, the rudder horn or small skeg abaft the
propeller extends below the shaft axis so that a
fixed

dummy

fairing for the propeller

hub may

be carried by it. For ease in removing the shaft

nut and the propeller on the actual ship, this
fairing is

made removable.

In view of the appreciable fore-and-aft length

probably augmented by
holding the trailmg edge of the foil on the centerplane; that is, by not offsetting it to port, as is
customary in contra-rudders. The foil then works
foil

shape acts to

erosion,

pitting,

vibration,

1.5 ft at the after end.

contra-shaped

cavitation,

thin rudder post

to:

short vertical height of the

the fixed horn

shown

of the outflow jet the contra-flow

reduce

is

parts of the rudder. One test should be made

with the propeller working, and another with
the rudder at an angle. Unfortunately, it was
not possible to do this with the model of the
transom-stern ABC design.
Entirely aside from the increase in propulsive
coefficient which may be achieved by a contrarudder on any ship, which should be from 4 to
6 per cent under average conditions, there is a
decided advantage on a high-powered, moderate-

of the fixed

rudder horn

incorporate

all

of the

contra-guide device in
propeller axis.

found possible to
and camber of a
the portion above the
it

is

twist

As explained

in Sec. 74.16, this

leaves the tail sections of the movable blade

entirely symmetrical.
all

Below the propeller

the twist and camber

is

axis,

incorporated in the

balance portion of the rudder

foil,

forward of the

rudder-stock axis, also described in that section.

In the original layout of the propeller-hub

end of the rudder horn it
appeared that the diameter of this fairing at its
juncture with the horn would be 3.0 ft, with a
radius of 1.5 ft. As a basis for calculating the
fairing at the lower

offsets for the twist at the leading

edge of this

horn, the offset at O.lflMas above the propeller

axis was taken as 0.85 times 1.5 ft or 1.275 ft.

The remaming

offsets,

rule described in Sec.

calculated
67.22,

by the

sin^

<^

are tabulated on

The offsets below the shaft axis, to be

embodied in the leading edge of the foil, are the
same as those above that axis, for the same radii.
When TMB model propeller 2294 was selected
from stock to drive the transom-stern model, it
was necessary to reduce the hub-fairing diameter
at its junction with the horn from 3.0 ft to 2.67
Fig. 74. N.

HYDRODYNAMICS

734

Elevotion, Looking
6'

:.N

Aft

20

However, the leading-edge offsets of the horn

above the shaft axis and the balance portion of
the rudder foil below it were left unchanged. This
necessitated a short length of reverse curvature

(inward) just above the hub fairing, shown in the

end elevation at the left of Fig. 74. N.
The maximum median-lme slope at the leading
edge of the contra-fairing on the horn, just above
the hub fairing, is 22.5 deg. This is considered
acceptable because of the large angle djt Avith
which the water leaves the propeller-blade
elements in this region. Separation is not a problem
here provided the mcident flow from the blade
elements at the root strikes the leading edge of
the horn at about this angle.
The fixed horn and the tail of the rudder (when
at zero angle) are considered as a smgle assembly

by

laying

The

(1)

out the section outlines for the

thickness ratio at each level

is

governed

the profiles of the rudder and horn, which

establish the

chord length

necessary

thickness

for

structural

stiffness.

The

c,

and

(2)

by the

the horn, to give it

latter determines the

No section designations or sets of

value of tx
coordinates are specified or recommended here
.

19.33

19.5

Arrangement and Details of a Contha-Hokn and Rudder for

ft.

horn.

Sec. 74.17

DWb^

Stations

when

IN SHIP DESIGN

ABC

Transom-Stern Ship

because there are a considerable number of good

ones from which the designer may choose [Mandel,
P.,

SNAME,

1953, pp. 486-488].

An

important feature of section outlines for

compound rudders, similar to the one shown in
Fig. 74.N, is the shape of the extreme nose. This
statement holds even though contra-guide sections are worked into the forward or fixed portion.

shape too nearly circular leads to cavitation or

separation along the sides of the section, a

abaft the nose, especially

nose that

is

too pointed

if

the radius

may

is

little

large.

also be subject to

cavitation or separation on the "lee" side,

when

no contra-shape and when the angled

flow from a propeller ahead strikes the leading

there

is

edge of the rudder at a large angle with the

meanline plane through the rudder. A practical
example of this is described in the last paragraph
of Sec. 74.16.

M. Kinoshita and S. Okada show the results of

measurements on models made by M. Yamagata,
in which the flow just below the propeller hub
makes an angle of over 50 deg with the meanline
plane of the rudder
Vol.

2,

No.

[Int.

Shipbldg. Prog., 1955,

9, Fig. 8, p. 238]. It is

clear that, as

MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.20

these Japanese authors

pomt

out,

much more

needed concernmg the details of

flow abaft an actual screw propeller before the
designer is able to shape properly the leading
edge of a rudder horn or a balanced rudder.
74.18 Design for Rapid Response to Rudder
Action. The development of a given lift or
normal force when angled is only one of the things
which a rudder or other control surface is called
upon to do. It must also do this rapidly, so as to
provide quick response on the part of the ship.
An excellent example is the control surface in
the form of an active roll-resisting fin. This has
only 10 sec at the most in which to shift its
position from hard over one way to hard over
the other and to produce a useful force and rolUng
moment before it has to shift position back again.
Another example is the rudder of a ship traversing
a canal, for which rapid response is much more
important than the simple ability to steer or to
turn one way or the other.
The shorter the circulation path around a
rudder the smaller is the mass of water to be set
in motion and the sooner are the circulation and
lift estabhshed. A hydrofoil which is called upon
to exert a normal force rapidly should be short in
the direction of motion and have reasonably large
clearances or apertures both ahead and astern.
A short, high spade rudder is the best answer to
this design problem. A balanced rudder hung on
a small horn, short in the fore-and-aft direction,

knowledge

is

is

the next best.

driven by side paddlewheels), the clearance for

circulation in a horizontal plane

around the rudder

provided by an aperture forward of the rudder.

This resembles the aperture in which a propeller
would be fitted if the ship had only a single screw.
is

Two

such apertures are sketched in diagrams 3

of Fig. 74. D. An equivalent aperture of
large area hes ahead of the underhung foil portion
of the rudder in diagram 5 of Fig. 37. D.
74.19 Utilization of
Automatic Flap-Type
Rudders and Diving Planes. There appears
to be a definite application in the field of control
surfaces for the hinged hydrofoil with automatic
flap, depicted in diagram 2 of Fig. 14. U. This
device is called here, for want of a better name,
the automatic flap-type rudder or divmg plane.

and 4

is

incorporated in

or equivalent

angle as the main control surface is angled.

Both the control-surface angle and the flap or
tab angle are in the same direction, whether the

rudder

right or

or the plane is at rise or

always increases the lift of,
and the lateral force on the control surface.
This device has been utihzed successfully for
a number of years on the active fins of the Dennyis

The

dive.

left,

flap action

Brown roll-stabilization gear, referenced in Sec.

The linkage for applying flap angle auto-

37.9.

matically

outside the watertight hull of the

is

vessel but in view of its extreme simplicity

it

it

some simple leverage

mechanism to apply

positive flap

has

operated well in service.

Although no designs have been prepared, or

made, so far as known, it should be

installations

possible to substitute this device for almost

any

rudder or diving-plane installation which fits

closely against a fixed portion of the hull. The
simple Denny-Brown linkage or its equivalent

may

be used for operating the flap.

For a control surface subject to severe pounding
or slamming when in waves, the flap may have
to be restricted to only a portion of the rudder
height

the

or

diving-plane

width.

The

total

impact forces on the flap may then be small

enough to be withstood by the automatic angling
mechanism.
74.20 Design
Notes for Bow Rudders;
Rudders for Maneuvering Astern. It is pointed
out in Sec. 37.11, supplemented by Fig. 37. G,
that a bow rudder produces decidedly inferior
steering action with the ship going ahead.

For a simple, balanced rudder or a flap-type,

unbalanced rudder at the stern of a twin- or
multiple-screw ship (or at the stern of a ship

There

735

rudders are

required to back for appreciable distances.

these conditions, the

Bow

primarily on vessels

fitted, therefore,

Under

bow rudder becomes a

stern

steermg rudder, in the normal sense of the term.

If it were suflBciently important to pay for the

and the added steersman,

on a long, fast,
slender craft, operating m shallow and restricted
waters. With such a rudder it might be possible
additional complication

to

bow rudder might

move

wmd

justify itself

the ship sideways, or to hold

and other

it

against

would act in this case

much as the bow planes on a submarine; in other
words, not as a turning mechanism but as a
effects. It

transverse-force-producing device.

The bow
velocity to

rudder, as a rule, has no induced

augment

its effect,

from a reduced speed

friction wake.

suffer

of

The
that

fitting of

is

There

rather

is little

but neither does it

advance because

of

bow rudder

requires a forefoot

and thin in section.

to be gamed by mounting the stock
full in profile

HYDRODYNAMICS

736

the forwaid portion of the rudder. Usually

in

there

is

not adequate room for the stock and

bearings

if

this

is

The

done.

the after end of the aperture that

its

is

so thick at

it is

not possible

hull

to take advantage of a balance portion abaft the

stock,

where the flow would be

The customary

solution

is

to

ver}' disturbed.

mount the

stock at

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 14.21

requirement could be imposed on rudder mstallations in Avhich any part of the rudder rises above
the water surface during wavegoing.
74.22

Centra-Features

Whether placed

for

Diving

Planes.

in the outflow jets of propellers

or not the diving planes of submarines rarely

work

in flows that are

symmetrical about the

the extreme after end, with or without a pintle

mean plane

and bearing at the keel level. A rudder of this

type is sho^\^l by G. de Rooij ["Practical Ship-

vertical plane

building," 1953, Fig. 495, p. 203].

to locate the diving planes in symmetrical posi-

74.21

Bow and

General Design Rules for

Stem Diving

Planes.

Bow and

stern

diving

of the blades. First, the flow in

any

rarely symmetrical ^\dth respect

is

to the submarine axis. Second,

it is

The

rarely possible

any plane
component of
The neutral plane angle must be ad-

tions relative to that axis.

position usually has

some

flow at

vertical

planes on submarines suffer from certain design

velocity.

limitations which should be but are not yet over-

justed accordingly or the leading edge of the

plane must be bent or twisted to point into the

come:
(a)

The bow

planes, almost invariably required

to rig in or house within the fair hull lines, are not

easily supported

when given

great span and a

large aspect ratio. Furthermore, their inner ends

can rarely

lie

mth

close against the hull,

gap throughout the complete range

the leading edge of a contra-rudder, prevents the

center of pressure from lying too far forward of
the plane axis.

A pair of diving planes,

a small

and

of rise

position

The port and starboard

stern planes, placed

Recover rotational energy

(1)

across the propeller-outflow jet(s),

can almost
never he with their inner ends close against the
hull, or close to each other, principally because
of the triangular gap necessary to s\ving the
steering rudder between them.

withm
(c)

It,

too,

must

To produce

the

maximum

compromise to meet all these

conditions calls for an aspect ratio of approximately 1.0, with no cantilever or image effect.
In other words, the diving planes are made
effective

roughly square in planform. It is assumed that

they do not benefit in lift by being close to the

some

diving planes of a submarine

are so near the surface,

when the

vessel

Setting Neutral Control-Surface Angles.

rudders are offset from the vertical plane

When
of

symmetry, either as parts

is

not

or submerged, that in a

never flows past them in a direction parallel to

that plane, with the ship moving straight ahead

To achieve equal turnmg effects,

with equal amounts of right and

at a steady speed.
right
left

and

left,

rudder angle, each rudder must be placed

carefully at zero angle in its neutral position.

This adjustment

is

made

for the condition

The

when
other

determined with relative

by any one of
several methods. However, if there is a possibility
either of laminar flow or of separation on the
rudder, due to its form or to the shape of the hull
the vicinity, there may be some scale effect,
because of unexpected shifts in the transition or
neutral position

separation points. If

entire horizontal area.

are uncertain

similar but possibly less drastic

all

conditions are assumed to be normal.

heavy sea they

are subject to severe impact in the form of wave
slap. This applies to both bow and stern planes.
A good design requirement, admittedly formulated on a not-too-scientific basis, is that these
planes shall withstand as a working load an
impact pressure of 1,000 lb per ft" over their

A somewhat

of single-rudder or

multiple-rudder installations, the water almost

the propulsion de\'ices are working;

large vertical surface.

The non-housing

to useful thrust

Compensate partly for the unbalanced reaction exerted by the submarine propelling plant,
in the manner described by Sec. 73.21.
(2)

74.23

possible vertical

breakdo"wn range of a symmetrical hydrofoil.

hull or to

it

to:

in the outflow jet

lie

and size of installation

the planes are often worked far beyond the normal

awash

and convert

or close to the outflow jet(s).

forces for a given weight

An

placed in a symmetrical

abaft the propeller of a single-screw

submarine and twisted, contra-fashion, serves

dive angles.
(b)

direction of flow. This bending, similar to that at

is

ease in a self-propelled model test

so,

the model predictions

when applied

It is diflScult

if

to the ship.

not impossible to determine

MOVy\BLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN

Sec. 74.24

neutral rudder positions on a full-scale vessel.

The

and rudder
proportion to the hydrodynamic

friction forces in the steering gear

stock are large in

737

when

the propeller

steering

or

turning

not

is

desired.

combined with the swing-

Efficient propulsion,

torque on the stock at small rudder angles. The

torques due to friction may even exceed those

ing motion of the horizontal shaft and the pro-

due to water flow around the rudder. Furthermore,

angled propeller does not encounter undue interference from parts of the hull ahead of it. Unless

unless

it is

known

definitely that the rudder

-will

one is reluctant to disconnect

the tiller or bypass the steering gear with the
vessel traveling at the speed for which the correct
trail if left to itself,

neutral position

is

required.

happens that a neutral position which

gives zero torque on the stock of an offset rudder
is not the one which results in minimum resistance
It oftens

or shaft power. Either the ship designer or the

owner and operator must then decide whether

the neutral setting

to be for

is

minimum rudder

torque or minimum overall resistance.

For multiple rudders operated by a single
steering gear, with tillers connected by drag hnks,

sometimes possible to fit a temporary link

for the early sea trials and to replace it by a
permanent link having the proper length.
74.24 Selection of Swinging Propellers for
Swinging propellers,
Steering and Maneuvering.
described in Sec. 37.22, form perhaps the simplest
and most efficient of steering and maneuvering
it is

devices. In fact,

any

driven through the

propeller, large or small,

medium

approximately vertical,
to this
thrust,

means

lends

itself

is

admirably

The complete

propeller

somewhat modified by a large

non-axial flow when the propeller is

albeit

degree of
first

of steermg.

of a shaft that

swung to a

an oblique

force.

large angle, remains available as

A large

force

component normal

peller, reciuire that

the inflow jet of water to the

the speed of advance

jet follows the

small the axis of the inflow

is

predominant flow

in the vicinity

instead of the angled propeller axis.

If the vertical drive shaft and its housing do
not project from underneath a portion of the

stern which

is

continually submerged, a horizontal

subsurface plate

is

required on the housing at

some point below the water surface to prevent

leakage of air from the atmosphere to the propeller.

so-called "anti-cavitation" plate of this

kind, although usually

much

is

em-

all

out-

below the

keel,

too small,

bodied in the vertical-shaft housings of

board-motor
If

installations.

the propeller disc

lies entirely

a steering propeller lends

propeller at the bow. It

itself to

may

operate either singly

or in combination with one or

propellers at the stern.

however,

wake

is

use as a tractor

more other

A bow

steering

steering propeller,

rarely able to take advantage of

any

velocity due either to viscous or potential

and upward, like

an outboard motor installation when shallow
water is suddenly encountered, it must usually
swing outward and upward.
For auxiliary propulsion as well as steering
flow. Instead of swinging aft

available the so-called "active" or

is
Pleuger rudder developed in the early 1950's in

there

Germany

[Hansa, 16 Jul 1952, Vol. 89,

to the ship axis serves as the equivalent of the

also p. 921]. This device, comprising a

transverse force which would otherwise be exerted

sible electric

p.

918;

submer-

mechanism
high-powered installation must be

motor driving an auxiliary propeller

and swinging about a vertical axis like a rudder,
is described at some length in Sec. 37.22. At the

from the vertical shaft takes charge and swings

time of writing (1955) it is available in limited

powers only, not exceeding several hundred horses.

by a rudder. The mechanical

steering

for a large or
non-overhauling, otherwise the torque reaction

CHAPTER

The Problem

of Hull Smoothness arid Fairing

General Considerations; Definitions

75.1
75. 2
75.3

....

The Importance
Specific

of Smoothness and Fairing

Smoothness Problems on the Shell
.

The

Utilization

of

Inside

The

The

75

The Termination

742
742
742

743

Comers Requiring

Negligible Fillets

Fairing of Appendages in General

75.1
General
Considerations;
Definitions.
Smoothness as related to hydrodynamics is a physical characteristic of the underwater surfaces

and Bossings
Precautions Against Air Entrainment
Design Notes for Shallow Recesses ....
Practical Problems in Achieving Underwater Smoothness and Fairness on a Ship
of Skegs

due to excess
effect in

friction

resistance.

reducing underwater noise

746
747
747
748
749

Its

possible

is

not dis-

fillers,

almost every case the occurrence of high Ap's,

appendages, hence

is

properly considered as a

general item applicable to

elements. Fairing,

fillets,

all

consider

them here

the external ship

transition pieces,

external ship elements, hence

it is

appropriate to

as a class.

absence of small irregularities of the kind associated with rough or fiaked paint coatings, rust,
pits, rivet points,

and welding beads.

It indicates

also that a surface has the proper curvature

it is

cussed here, although that

in fishing

separation,

or cavitation increases the drag of

the appendage. It

Smoothness, as used in this chapter, denotes the

that

75.12
75.13
75 14

745

Fairing of Exposed Shafts at Emergence

Points

their equivalents likewise apply to all the

or location of those surfaces. It applies to the hull,

the propulsion devices, the control surfaces, and

and

11

of

may become a factor

and other operations of the future.
Fairings, fillets, and fillers are applied primarily
to avoid high dynamic pressures, cavitation, or
separation. In some cases these discontinuities
in the flow create undesirable disturbances ahead
of propulsion devices and control surfaces. In

of a vessel, regardless of the size, configuration,

all

744

Hubs in Front
Compound Rudders

Fairing of Propeller

Simple or

Casting or Welding

Recessed Lifting and Mooring Fittings

Fairing the Enlargements Around Exposed

Propeller Shafts

The

75.9
75 10

Fillets

75 5
75.6
75.7
75 8

738
738
739

Plating

75.4

75

and

free of waviness such as is often en-

is

pointed out elsewhere that

added drag at each appendage may be

insignificant compared to the total drag of the
ship. Nevertheless, the cumulative effect may be
considerable, sufficient to neutraUze the improvement gained from some special design of hull or
the

propulsion device.

countered at and between internal frames or

The

structural discontinuities inherent in the use of

as

dynamic pressure,
and separation are pressure effects and
such vary as the square of the relative velocity

lapped seams and butts, raised strakes, doublers,

and other irregularities involved in applying the

of

water flow. The

and

shell plating in relatively small pieces. Fairing,

speed of the vessel.

aside from its frequent use as a general term,

negUgible increment of pressure drag on a slow

applies principally to portions of generous radius,

medium-speed cargo vessel for the sake of

of construction becomes a matter of
inefficient propulsion on a high-speed finer,
where an increment of first cost is easily justified
by a saving in fuel over many years of operation.
75.2
The Importance of Smoothness and
Fairing.
Nature goes to considerable pains to
work fairings into many of her creatures. Man
can hardly do less if he is far-sighted and looking
for improvements. A close study of many natural

stiffening

members.

It

takes

for

granted

the

expressed in multiples of the shell-plating thickness,

worked into or apphed to various parts to

insure easy water fiow around them. Fillets are

defined as the roundings worked into coves or

internal corners or castings, weldments, and other

members, as well as the transition

added to bridge gaps and discontinuities in
the hull and its appendages.
In general, smoothness is sought and required
in an effort to avoid unnecessary power losses
structural
pieces

increased drags due to

cavitation,

effects of

inadequate fairing

filleting therefore increase

rapidly with the

What may be

accepted as a

or

economy

structures reveals the hitherto little-recognized

738

HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAIRING

Sec. 75.3

fact that

many fairings are indeed not excrescences

but parts
at that.

of the structure

A tree is so shaped

and important parts

above its point of

just

attachment to the ground that the stresses in the

wood of its trunk are very nearly constant with
height when the tree bends with the wind as a
cantilever beam. This is almost identical with
the most modern type of fairing at the roots of
screw-propeller blades, employing a constantstress transition shape where the blades join the
hub. The fairing of the afterbody of a whale or a
porpoise into its horizontal flukes is an admirable
combination of hydrodynamic streamlining, rapid
and effective change of cross-section area and
shape, arrangement of muscles for manipulating
the flukes as propulsion devices, and muscular

739

the relative liquid velocities in the inner portions

of the

boundary layers

will

be high. This applies

to a belt about 2 or 3 times the inlet width

perhaps 10 times

The

(3)

its

afterbody, say from about 0.6 to 0.7L to

the extreme stern. Fig.

7.5.

an adaptation of

is

Rouqhness Consisted of V- Grooves

Runninq Tronsverselij Around Model

cr-

of Model, from FP
to Fore-ond-Aft Position Indicated,
in Per Cent of Totol Wetted Surfoce

Rouqhened Surfoce

I
"

and

length.

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

a)

fe

10

IZO^

flexing of the flukes as control surfaces.

Plates bounding the ship hull are intended to

be

flat

or gently curved, as the case

when they

may

are incorporated in the design

delineated on the drawings. Only rarely

unfairness

allowed

for

when

is

calculating

strength or the rigidity of a ship structure.

be,

20

and
any

18

FP

AP

Variation of Friction Drag Due to

Roughness Along the Ship Length

Fig. 75. a

the

Why,

then, does the ship not deserve equally honest

treatment when

it is

built?

realize instinctively that the

vessel

must be

Even

the uninitiated

underwater hull of a

fair to insure efficient propulsion.

Why then should the vessel be penalized

through-

because of unfairness resulting from

a few days of improper work during its construction? Increases in friction resistance due to roughout

its life

ness, of the order of 30, 40, 50,

and up to 100

are being
per cent of the smooth, flat-plate Rp
encountered on large, fast, modern vessels. This
fact should be adequate proof that something
drastic needs to be done. Fairness and smooth,

ness are essential parts of a ship.

the part of

An

attitude on

concerned which recognizes that

all

these are not something to be applied, like a

coat of paint, just prior to launching will go far

toward solving
75.3

problem for the designer.

Smoothness Problems on the

this

Specific

Shell Plating.

In the matter of the

greatest

practicable smoothness of the shell in the finished

ship, at least four areas deserve attention:

model-test data pubhshed by G.

Kempf [HSPA,

1932, Fig. 7, p. 81], indicating the variation of

friction-resistance augment, up to 140 per cent

when a model was

roughened by cutting V-grooves around it for
of the smooth, flat-plate total,

various percentages of
(4)

The

its

length.

region immediately ahead (within

diameters) of a propulsion device,

or 2

when the water

leaving this surface flows directly into the device

(5)

The examples

of Sec. 45.15 indicate that the

greater the absolute speed of the ship, the smaller

the permissible roughness to achieve a hydrodynamically smooth surface.

is

The

foregoing states, in effect, that the only

part of the hull which need not be smooth is that

around amidships. However, if any favoring is

know where
smoothing is most worth while.
These comments apply equally, if not primarily,
to structural roughnesses, many of which can be
prevented or eliminated in the design and drafting
possible, or practicable, it is well to

attention

to

stage.
(1)

The extreme bow, and a

belt abaft

say 0.2 or 0.31/ from the FP. This

it,

up to

because the
local specific friction resistance Clf is very high
for the small ^-distance and the low R^, in this
region, indicated
(2)

The

by

is

Fig. 45.E.

region directly in front of inlet scoops for

condensers and other heat exchangers, so that

The rounded

or peaked points of countersunk

rivets should project

of the shell

from the

by not more than

cated in diagrams

and 2

fair

of Fig. 75.B. This

sufficient to insure tight rivets

reasonable

corrosion

of

the

Welding beads, regardless

outer surface

the amounts indi-

of

and to allow

point
their

in

is

for

service.

orientation

HYDRODYNAMICS

740

CASE 1. WORKING LIMITS ON STRUCTURAL ROUGHNESS

FOR FLOW IN ANY DIRECTION PARALLEL TO THE
SURFACE, FOR CRAFT TRAVELING AT Tq<I.O, Fn<0.5
or less

In d
JlO

If riveted butts

lapped,

Sec. 75.3

normal to the flow are to be

exposed

plate edges should face

forward on slow-speed ships. Here the separation

the

or les

to

drag abaft plate edges facing aft

.'^J

DESIGN

IN SHIP

greater than

is

the dynamic-pressure drag against edges facing

Lorqe

Rivets/
I

forward.

Mediom

(-U*(

When

faced forward the exposed plate

edges are to be chamfered as indicated at

Rivets |<-|dH

in

Fig. 75.C.

Be Rounded, and

InGenerol, Finished Rivet Points Are To

Not Pointed

CASE

WORKING

2.

LIMITS

ON STRUCTURAL ROUGHNESS
NORMAL TO THE

APPLYING TO EDGES GENERALLY

DIRECTION OF FLOW, FOR SHIP SPEED

Direction

-*

'i Inch Mox. for Plate

Thicknesst=|-lnch
or More

of

RANGES OF

Tq<I.O

Water Flow

^"'^*'

This Slope Preferred

in

Reqion

TrQilino-Edqe Lap

of

Designed Waterline
I

Maximum Abrupt Joo

'*

'

To

When

.Up to -^ But Not More Than

tj)>t2^,

^-

jg-

Flow

'

Minimum

Transition Slope

^1

Direction of Water

Inch in

is

in

Any Cose

T'^// /V

Wooden^

z:j:pian>i^Nll|vlMT[
-(Outer

LQ<^er)\

Diacjrams and
Are to Apply
I

rZWhen

Edges

Are Within,

Working Limits on Structural Roughness,

Flow Parallel to the Surface, Case 1

Fig. 75.B

with respect to the prevailing flow, should not

project from the fair surface
limits indicated in

diagrams

by more than the

4, and 5 of Fig.

3,

75.B.

When

Fig. 75. C

Working Limits on Structural Roughness,

Case 2

prefabricated

sections

of

ship

are

welded together, they are found sometimes not

to fit properly. The alignment at the shell, considering smoothness only and not structural
continuity, should conform to the limits indicated
in diagram 7 of the figure. When the abutting
plates are of unequal thickness, and the excess
is on the outside, the length of the transition
taper is to be not less than 4 and preferably 6
times the difference in thickness; see diagram 6 of
Fig. 75. B. Corresponding smoothness and offset
hmits for the adjacent planks and the calking of
wooden boats are depicted in diagrams 8 and 9.

For ships

of higher speed, with

lurdetermined,

the

pressure

drag

Hmits as yet
on forward

edges exceeds the separation drag on after surfaces.

In this case, the exposed edges are best faced

aft. If

a reasonable degree of smoothness

required,

a cement

filler

or a rivet

is

also

cement

is

applied in the region abaft the exposed trailing

edge,

diagrammed at 2

An
verse"

in Fig. 75. C.

exposed plate edge

if it

lies

is

considered "trans-

within 30 deg of a line normal to

the adjacent water flow, indicated at 3 in the

figure.

In some quarters, however, chamfering

HULL SMOOrriNESS AND FAIRING

See.

T53

and

filling of

exposed edges

is

called for

if

they

within 70 deg of the normal to the flow.

lie

In fact,

it is

711

be a more important factor than easy water

and where expense is usually not an item

flow,

good design, and probably worth

to

be considered, the outer surfaces of metal

while from the point of view of fuel saving during

hulls

chamfer exposed corners

or to add filler along exposed edges, indicated in
Fig. 75. D, even though these edges lie generally

hand grinding. The depressions are then

the

of a vessel, to

life

CASE 3. WORKING LIMITS ON STRUCTURAL ROUGHNESS

FOR EDGES GENERALLY PARALLEL TO THE FLOW
APPLYING TO SHIP SPEED RANGES OF Tq <I.O
Direction of Flow

to Paae, Within

is

Normal

s-Q

30 deg Each Wo^

are

freed

often

Case

The exact flow directions all

over a ship surface are not known too well,
despite the advances of recent years in the techparallel to the flow.

C and

somewhat

This

75. D.

filler is

as

shown

in

heavier than

water so that the additional displacement volume

of the filled coves is less than the corresponding
weight. In other words, the filler does not carry
its own weight. The extra displacement weight,
coupled with the extra expense, possibly may be
justified only in a ship running at a T greater
than about LO or LI, F > 0.3 or 0.33, or in
case there is only a small margin of power for a
specified

niques of observing and recording flow around a

The

leveled

and the whole surface given a high degree of

by troweling on a cement or filler which
adheres firmly to the metal for long periods
without repair or attention. On certain large
ships the coves associated with riveted lapped
seams and butts have been filled by applying the
same type of cement. The filler is tapered off to
zero thickness at a distance from the cove equal
Figs. 75.

Working Limits on Structural Roughness,

by

projections

fairness

to 4 or 5 plate thicknesses,

Fig. 75.D

their

of

minimum

Unfortunately,

speed.

the

smoothest

metal

shell

by the application

and heaving motions

of a ship in waves, even though not violent, add
motion components which change the flow

surface can be well-nigh ruined

directions relative to the ship surface.

agent like varnish or enamel, and when this dries

hard, the minor projections are minimized by

model.

This

pitching, rolUng,

not the place to discuss the matter of

applying shell plates on a metal ship to produce
a hull surface that is fair and without waviness,
is

as contemplated

by the

lines

drawing. It

is

proper design procedure, however, to emphasize

the necessity for accomplishing this if the con-

of

poor anticorrosive or antif ouling coatings.

When

the antifouling coating contains a self-leveling

the self-smoothing action of the coating around

them. This thins the freely flowing material over

the projections and thickens it over the hollows.
For the reasons explained in Sec. 5.21, the roughnesses which project through the laminar sub-

struction phases of shipbuilding are to keep pace

layer are primarily responsible for the roughness

with the design phases.

Riveted flush seams and butts, with a single

as indicated

strap inside, lack the rigidity and the reliability

of

lapped riveted joints,

symmetry

despite

the

of

of both, because of the stretchable butt

strap in between. Sad experiences with

vessels

oil

leakage

bottoms

of

proves that this method

of

in the single-strapped butts of the

numerous

lack

achieving

external smoothness is structurally

unsound. The remedy for it in riveted construction, namely double butt straps, is structurally
good but hydrodynamically "unsmooth." Welded

butts are the real answer, especially for large,

high-powered, or important vessels which run

at Tj values in excess of LO, and of which a high
propulsive performance

On

is

demanded.

yachts, where glistening appearance

may

drag.

The laminar sublayer

of Sec.

thickness 6i (delta)

is,

by the formulas of Fig. 5.R and those

45.10 on pages 104-105 of the present

volume, a function of the kinematic viscosity

j'(nu)

bow

of the water, of the .-r-distance

of the ship,

and

of the speed

from the

of the ship.

This speed, or the relative velocity [/ of the undisturbed water, is by far the most important
factor. It is the reason

surfaces

on

large,

fast

why rough
ships

or gravelly

generate

large

even when the roughness

heights are minute with respect to the ship size.
The ABC ship under design in this part of the
book is in what may be called the fast-speed class,
with a Taylor quotient r of 0.908 and an F^ of
about 0.27. It is worth while, therefore, to eliminate all irregularities in the plating which come into
friction

resistances,

HYDRODYNAMICS

742

contact with the water during normal running.

This

calls for all

All seams,

underwater butts to be

flush.

lapped and riveted, are to be as

if

nearly as practicable parallel to the lines of flow

in their respective regions. Tliis

especially the

is

case in the leading 0.2 or 0.3 of the length

and

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 75.4

ing surfaces with a reentrant angle not less than

about 80 deg, and the flow

is

generally parallel

to the intersection of these surfaces,

required, for

hydrodynamic reasons at

the cove thus formed.

does

its

own

The water

no

along

in this case

fairing, explained in Sec.

diagram

fillet is

least,

6.7

and

Common

in the after half or two-thirds of the run. If this

illustrated in

regions, lying at angles greater than

can not be accomplished the seams in these

about 30 deg
to the flow, should be faired with a suitable filler

examples of intersections of this type are to be

found where shaft struts enter the hull, diagrammed in Fig. 36. B for a pair of V-struts and

compound

in Fig. 73. F for the

In

as described earher in this section.

the length, flush

fact, for the leading 0.2 of

welded plating throughout promises the best

possible service performance.

75.4
Fillets.

The Utilization of Casting

The working of generous

or

Welding
into

fillets

the coves or inside corners of castings for hull

components is almost mandatory as a matter of

good foundry practice. Furthermore, many inside
corners occur where thin sections meet heavy
sections. Proper gradation in the distribution of
material

calls

for

transition

regions

that

are

improved by the use of large-radius corners.

Four pairs of corners filleted in this manner are
shown around the strut hub in Fig. 73. F.
When large appendages and structural parts
which form a portion of the outer hull are made
up as weldments, good design precludes the use
of masses of welding beads in inside corners.
Certainly not enough beads can be added to
produce the equivalent of the generous-radius
fillets in a large casting. If fillets in weldments
are really necessary, for hydrodynamic reasons,
they should be worked into the adjacent structural
parts, more or less independent of the welding.
It may be necessary either to machine the fillets
into the weldment or to modify the design so that
excessive weld metal need not be deposited. An
example of this design is illustrated in Fig. 73. F,
where stubs for attaching the strut arms are
incorporated in the strut-hub casting.
are cast integral with the stub

75.5
Fillets.

Comers

Inside

As

Requiring

background

design features

fillets

Negligible

information

discussed

The

arms and the hub.

in

this

for

the

section,

the

principal characteristics of flow about longitudinal

discontinuities are described in Sees. 8.2, 27.8,

and

28.2, particularly that

long chines and coves. It

is

quantitatively the effect

discontinuities

encountered around
not possible to assess

of

these

longitudinal

by any method yet developed, or to

give design rules with numbers.

When

flow takes place past two fixed intersect-

ABC

of Fig. 6.D.

arch-stern ship. Similar

where small skegs, horns, and

the like project below the main hull. A not-socomnion example, but one of much greater size,
is the long right-angled cove formed where a
large deck erection, such as a conning-tower
fairwater, rises from the flat superstructure or
upper deck of a submarine. The longest and the
most common pair of coves are those to be found
intersections occur

alongside a single-plate type of roll-resisting keel.

Both reentrant angles are of the order of 90 deg,

yet the sharp cove at the intersection with the
hull appears not to develop excess resistance or

to interfere with the keel performance.

For reentrant angles

design

is

of less than 80 deg, good

a matter partly of judgment and partly

There is a blocking effect at the

and this effect increases rapidly as
the acute angle becomes smaller. On the one hand,
the water can do its own blocking and slowing
down. On the other, a fairing can be added to
the inside corner, provided the leading and trailing
of circumstances.

inside corner,

ends of the fairing can themselves be faired.

In the case of movable appendages attached

from a hull, such as rudders

under the stern, or diving planes
with small hull clearances, it is not practicable,
nor is it necessary, to fit fairings. A similar case
is that of the retractable sound dome which,
when in use, is lowered bodily below the keel of
a ship through a hole only slightly larger than
the planform of the dome. If no separation or
eddying is to be expected abreast or behind the
dome, there is no particular need for fairing the
90-deg inside corner where the dome meets the
hull. Taking account of the variation in translational velocity under the keel, due to the boundary layer, does not change the situation or
require any means of improving the flow along the
to or projecting
fitting

close

inside corners.

75.6 The Fairing of Appendages in General.

Supplementing the foregoing, there are given
here a few design notes applicable to the fairing

HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAIRING

Sec. 7'y.7

743

There appears to be no more excuse for leaving

exposed the heads and nuts of bolts connecting
the palms of rudder stocks and rudders, considering the infrequency with which they are disturbed
or removed. Certainly it is incongruous to smooth
and fair everything else in the vicinity but to
leave a half-dozen or dozen of these sharpcornered

fastenings

ISBSR, 27

May

projecting

the

flow

1954, p. 10 of Advt]. In the

same

into

fashion

it is inconsistent to shape a strut or a

rudder section to some very special streamUned
form and then to plaster it with thick plates of
zinc which must make the water wonder what the

naval architect or shipbuilder expects of it. Fig.

75. E is a good illustration of what not to do in the

way

of roughening the surface of a horn and a

rudder lying in the outflow jet of a propeller.

75.7

Recessed Lifting and Mooring Fittings.

apply a veritable

It is frequently the practice to

multitude of external padeyes,

clips

with

lifting

and eyebolts to the shell plating in the run.

These permit the easy and quick attachment of
lifting devices and tackle for the handhng of
propeller blades, rudders, exposed shafts, and
other demountable underwater parts when in
dock. The practice is by no means limited to small
vessels, or to those of slow and medium speed.
Many, if not most of the fittings are under water
eyes,

Fig.

of

75.

E Roughnesses and Discontinuities ox

RuDDEB Horn and Ruddeb

appendages

problems are

in general. Specific

discussed in the sections following.

There is no excuse, from the point of view of

hydrodynamics and propulsion, and little reason
from the structural standpoint, for fitting external
strut-arm pads with their bases projecting beyond

at the designed-load draft, particularly

stern-wave crest

when

the

an age which is blessed with welding and other

improved methods of attaching structural parts
to each other. At times the pads must be mounted
external to the shell, as on some wooden vessels.

taken into account. Individually, the pressure drag resulting from each of
these fittings is small, but collectively they
present a formidable impediment to the motion
of the ship. Furthermore, many of them throw
spray when underway. They give anything but a
neat, trim appearance to a run which is supposed
to embody everything that the naval architect

The

and the shipbuilder have learned about stream-

the fair surface of the ship. This

is

especially true

in

projecting edges are then reheved with a

large radius on the forward edge

sides,

and along the

Floor

lining in the past several decades.

The handling

supplemented by a long taper on the after

side of the pad.

Plate

on

flight

decks that

must remain smooth, and the

tight

fits

of aircraft

Takes

Lifting

Load

Shell Plotinq
|

Alternative

is

Recessed

Liftinij

Fitting

3
Fig. 75.F

-J

'2
~

Recessed Lifting Fittings

of air-

HYDRODYNAMICS

744

jtl

Elevation from

Outside

--.

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 75.S

of the propeller hub. This requirement

the assembly drawn at

least

important part of

in Fig. 75. H.

continuous

this

met in
Not the

is

form

fair

the easy curve at the forward end, Avhere the

diameter of the assembly has to increase from the
is

diameter of the shaft to one nearly three times

as large. The shght decrease in diameter from
the forward end of the assembly back through
the propeller
Normol

hub conforms

to the pattern of the

flow lines in the inflow jet and contributes a

Vertical Section
U> 5liell

inward component of velocity which partly

compensates for the centrifugal force due to
induced rotation in the jet at the propeller. When
a propeller is located abaft a large skeg or long
slight

Fig. 75.

Recessed Mooring Bitt

craft-carrier hulls in canal locks

development

have led to the

a number of recessed fittings for

and mooring. Two types of simple,

of

lashing, lifting,

welded, recessed lifting fittings are diagrammed in

Fig. 75. F, adaptable to
shell

plating.

dolphin

is

single

any position or slope of

recessed bitt or Dutch

depicted in Fig. 75. G.

passed through the

designed

as

may

strap

is

easily

and an eye is
the bitt. While

off

an abovewater installation this

be used in positions which are under

water at some load conditions.

75.8 Fairing the Enlargements Around Exposed Propeller Shafts. The hubs of shaft struts,
the external or exposed couplings of the propeller
shafts passing through them, and the hubs of the

by these

reduction

of radius through the

a natural consequence of the
tapering form of the skeg or bossing. It is natural

hub

is

kind to give the propeller blades

a reasonable amount of rake but the designer of
the Prinz Eugen propellers did not see fit to do so.
in cases of this

Good design

lifting fittings

quickly thrown over or lifted

dolphin

bossing this

propeller

water flow

for

calls for

minimum

leading to traihng edge of this or an equivalent

assembly. There should be no sharp discontinuities such as are

sometimes encountered when

the leading fairing in front of a cyhndrical strut
is made of straight conical form. If such an
assembly can be expected to remain completely
submerged under all except the most severe

hub

in waves, the maximum

be at the propeller hub. If a large
not required there for other reasons

pitching

conditions

as units. In other words, the leading fairing, the

diameter

may

enlarged strut-hub body, the propeller hub, and

the trailing fairing are treated as parts of a single

diameter

is

body. They should, theoretically, form a continuous streamlined surface for a considerable length

design illustrated.

propellers carried

along the shaft

axis.

One

shafts require fairings

it

may

be in the strut hub, as in the German

Direction

solution for the fairing

an assembly is represented by the design

of these parts on the wing shafts of the World
War II German cruiser Prinz Eugcn, illustrated
in Fig. 75. H. The fact that the maximum diameter
of the integrated fairing combination is considerably larger than that of the strut hub is not to be
taken as an indication of good or recommended
design. This shape was adopted for many German
men-of-war of the 1930's and 1940's. Its use can

and easy

resistance

the use of curved profiles from

of

Flow

Manifestly,

the

farther

Moximum Diameter

of

Foirinij

2.77^mes

of such

aft

i5

Shoft

\J)iometer

Tonqent
'Lie5 0t32de(j
1

Foinnq on Outboard Shafts, Germon Cruiser PRINZ. EUGEN

'

*'"^ S'^""'

Center

be justified, at least partly, by the following line

of reasoning.

The
of

effects

factor,

best flow to the root sections of the blades

screw
is

where the interference

and uniform flow is a useful

propeller,

are large

obtained

when

the structure surrounding

the propeller shaft bearing and the strut hub is

absolutely fair for a rather long distance ahead

Fig. 75.H

Fairings for Strut and Propeller Hubs

HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAIRING

Sec. 7''.P

maximum

that this

diameter occurs in the assem-

bly the greater must be the slope of the fairing

abaft

it,

unless a blunt-ended cap

The ends

For high-speed ships, a propeller hub fairing

long enough to eliminate entirely the^'swirl core
described in Sec. 23.14 and illustrated in Fig.
23. K would probably have to extend for one or
more propeller diameters abaft the hub. This is
on the basis that the core is generated entirely
by the water set in rotation by friction around
the hub. In practice, such an appendage is out
of the question, especially as the propeller hub
fairing must also clear any rudder placed in the
outflow jet. There are two compromises available

One

here.

hub

to give the profile of the propeller

is

fairing a range of slope angles

from about

maximum of about 22 deg,

terminating

15 deg to a

continuities need

used.

is

the fairing in an ogival form having a radius of

about 0.1 the radius of its larger end. Variations
of such a form are drawn in full and broken lines
at 2 in Fig. 75. H. The other compromise, on the
basis that the swirl core is in reality the combined

vortex of the several blade-root vortexes,

is

to

terminate the fairing in a square end at about

hub diameter d. This is

also shown on Fig. 75. H.
Further comments on propeller-hub fairings
and caps are given in Sec. 70.14.
Exposed sleeve-type couphngs on a propeller
shaft are partly faired by trimming off the ends
of the sleeves themselves. This has the added
advantage of a gradual transition in the combined
rigidity of the sleeve and the shaft. The result is
0.7 to 0.5 the propeller

745

rotating shafts need not be large and these dis-

have no detrimental

effects.

of non-ferrous journal sleeves

onto steel shafts generally

lie

shrunk

within other

fair-

may

abut rubber or other

protective coverings around the portion of the
shaft which would otherwise be exposed to sea
water. In any case they are relatively thin and
need little or no fairing of their own.
The fairing of intermediate strut hubs follows
the general lines suggested in other paragraphs of
this section, as does the fairing of propeller hubs
ings.

If

not,

they

abaft skegs or bossings.

Water-lubricated

bearings

shaft

require

continual longitudinal circulation of liquid through

bearing when the ship is underway. An

opening around a rotating shaft and just inside
a fixed leading-edge fairing of oval or ogival shape

the

is

in a region of -fAp, sufficient to force the

Any Ap

through.

fairwater helps to
bearing.

may

The

fairing

water

occurring abaft a trailing

draw water
ahead

aft

through the

of a shaft-bearing

hub

rotate with the shaft, as does the propeller

hub of the arch-stern ABC ship in Fig. 74. L. A

beU-mouthed strip around the bearing hub, shown
in that figure, then serves as a scoop for the lubri-

cating and cooling water.

hole in the center of

hub serves to
draw the water out of the after end.
75.9 The Fairing of Propeller Hubs in Front
the fixed fairing abaft the bearing

of Simple or

Compound Rudders.

For a propeller

placed immediately ahead of a simple or com-

a stress concentration in the shaft of diminished

pound-type rudder, or ahead of a rudder hung on

a fixed rudder post, the propeller hub is faired

magnitude at the ends

neatly by a swelling of the fixed portion, by a

of the sleeve.

flange-type shaft coupling exposed to the

water

all

around

may

be enclosed in a substantial

casing of fair form, about as illustrated in Figs.

73.

and

74. L.

If

the fairing rotates with the

shaft as in the latter figure,

wax

it

may

be

filled

or other preservative to protect the

with

mechan-

ical parts of the coupling. If it is stationary, as in

Fig. 73. H,

it

can be "pointed" slightly on the

upstream side and given a streamlined tail of

sorts on the downstream side, following the
general shape of the short bossing diagrammed in
that figure. So far as known, it makes little
hydrodynamic difference whether the transition
from the stationary to the rotating parts, and
vice versa,

occurs in a parallel or cylindrical

portion of the enlargement, or at

its

beginning or

projection extending forward from the post, or

by both.

rudder of the balanced type, with

its

stock axis intersecting or lying close to the pro-

be notched moderately on
forward edge, cutting into the balance portion,
to provide clearance for a conical or ogival
peller shaft axis, can
its

propeller fairing cap of reasonable length.

One form

of fixed fairing for

a propeller hub,

worked into a deep horn or into the fixed

portion of a compound-type rudder, is embodied
easily

in the transom-stern design of the

illustrated in Figs. 66. Q, 67.U, 74.K,

ABC

ship,

and 74.N.

Rope and

cable guards to protect the opening

between the rotating propeller hub and the fixed
fairing, as well as removable sections of the latter
to facihtate taking off the propeller shaft nut and

ending, next to the shaft surface.

the propeller, are readily incorporated in a fixed

for

fairing of this type.

Gaps required
working clearances between fixed fairings and

HYDRODYNAMICS

746

When

the propeller shaft bearing

abaft the propeller, as

is

is

placed

done on many high-speed

motorboats and on the arch-stern design of the

ABC ship, this bearing may be carried by a
partial skeg, a deep horn, or a fixed rudder post,
extending down abaft the wheel. The rudder is
usually mounted as a hinged flap along its after
edge. The fairing assembly is then composed of
the following parts, reckoned from forward:
(1)

Leading

fairing, rotating

the propeller
(2)

Propeller

with the shaft and

hub
hub

Propeller shaft bearing housing with rope

guard and water scoop on leading end
which may
(4) Fairing for bearing housing,
extend aft into the flap or moving portion of the
(3)

rudder.

On

the

fairing

is

ABC

ship,

with twin rudders, a fixed

mounted abaft the

strut barrel or

hub

IN SHIP

DESIGN

Emergence

Points.

fairing.

The

simplest and the cheapest

bearing,

up to the after stern-tube

and pass the rotating shaft out through

a clearance hole in the shell plating.

A reasonable amount of fairing, with no increase

in

displacement volume and

Exposed

Shafts

at

little

added cost and

achieved by adding a pair of removable

shaped plates to enclose a free-flooding space

weight,

is

between the hull and the

shaft.

These extend

for

a short distance abaft the hull opening, indicated

no enlargement or
which must be drawn past the
fairing, the complication of bolting on a nonwatertight fairing which must be removed frequently for examination of the hull underneath
is obviated by extending the framing locally and
at

in Fig. 75.1. If there is

flange on the shaft

proper, in the
of

is

recess within the hull,

incorporating

Fairing

method

to omit the fairing altogether, build a watertight

Fig. 74.L.

The

which

shafts

emerge, as do most of them, at small angles with

the adjacent hull surface represent a problem in

supporting the propeller bearing, indicated in

75.10

Sec. 75.10

Exposed

the fairing plate into the

manner shown

shell

at 2 in Fig. 75.1.

On

a large or medium-size vessel the free-flooding

Mechanical Clearance

Around Shaft

Not Less Thon 4 and Preferoblu^

5 Shaft Diameters

Section at A-A

with

Near Side FairinQ

Plate

Removed

Section ot

J-

B-B

with Near Side

Plate.

Fia. 75.1

Two Types

of Hull Fairing Around Exposed Propeller Shafts

f?emoved

c.

HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAU^ING

Sec. 75.12

space

inspected by entering the hole through

is

which the shaft

The

one which

withdrawn.

is

method

best

may

member

hull,

Since the adjacent shell plating and the framing

and

contribute a large portion of the actual rigidity

eliminate an intermediate strut

is no reason why their scantlings can not

be increased to permit fining of the skeg or bossing
ending as required for easy flow into the propeller

otherwise required,

from the

747

deflection or vibration of a large skeg or bossing.

of fairing at this point,

is

to build a short bossing out

terminating in a single-arm strut

An

carrying a shaft bearing.

fairing of this type

was incorporated

excellent

there

position. Actually, the

optimum

solution of this

Bathdesigned World War I destroyers of the U. S.

Navy. Despite the small clearances around the
shaft tube within the ship, it is preferable that a
short bossing of this type be made completely
watertight and an integral part of the hull.
Design notes and rules covering these short

particular design problem

bossings are given in Sec. 73.9.

67.24.

The Termination of Skegs and Bossings.

75. 1 1
The endings of short skegs and short bossings are

The phenomenon

subject to separation drag

detrimental effects are discussed in Sec. 20.10.

surfaces

these

in the

the slopes of the

if

appendages

exceed

is

not necessarily to

unduly but to shape it in

such a manner that the periodic and transient
stiffen the structure

forces acting

upon

The matter

it

are diminished.

of shaping the endings of skegs

and

bossings in profile to provide the necessary aperture clearances

75.12

is

discussed in Sees. 67.23 and

Precautions Against Air Entrainment.

of

entrainment and

air

its

certain

This section mentions methods of eliminating the

angles with the flowlines. So far as known, the

formation and the trapping of air bubbles around

critical

of

values of these angles depend primarily

upon the hydrostatic

pressure.

They

are of the

order of 13 to 14 deg at the surface and perhaps

20 deg at a submergence depth of 20

ft

or more;

see also Sec. 46.2.

deep skegs on single-screw

vessels, of large skegs on multiple-screw vessels,
and of long bossings usually lie immediately ahead
of the propellers. Their terminations must be
fine else the eddying and other disturbances
created behind them are carried directly into the
propeller discs without an opportunity for smoothing out the flow. The square, blunt sternposts of
cheaply built cargo vessels are particular offenders
in this respect, despite the slow speed of both the
ship and the propeller. Indeed, it is only because
of this slow speed that unfair surfaces of this
kind can be tolerated.
The flexibility afforded by modern knowledge
techniques

members

known

in

the present state of the art.

The most
ship

is

direct cause of trouble on a

merchant

the multitude of air bubbles which pass

over the shell diaphragm of a fathometer or

The terminations

and

the underwater hull, as well as they are

in

of

the

casting

of

or in the assembly of these

structural

members

as

weldments makes available to the ship designer

a ready means of fining the terminations of skegs
and bossings. Indeed, a shining example of
excellent bossing terminations, even by modern
standards, was designed and built into the S.S.
Talamanca class by the Newport News shipyard
in about 1930. Fig. 73. G is traced from some of the

Newport News drawings, with the permission of

the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock
Company.
Sufficient rigidity can rarely

a heavy terminal

member

be incorporated in
prevent lateral

to

echo-sounder, usually installed in a horizontal

position under the bottom.

The bubbles

interfere

with the sonic pressure waves emanating from

and impinging upon such a diaphragm so that

depth readings are not satisfactory. For smoothwater operation at deep or load draft the best
position for such a diaphragm is well forward, say
in the first 0.1 or 0.15 of the length. This is ahead
of the point where the flowlines from the stem, in
the vicinity of the bow-wave crest, pass

under the

ship.

The

down

flow diagrams of Chap. 52

illustrate this feature for a great variety of hull

shapes. For operation in waves, especially

when

the forefoot emerges, or for operation in ballast

there is practically no
diaphragm position on the sides or under the
bottom which is entirely free of air interference
or light-load condition,

or air blanketing.

Design rules for guarding against problems of

entrainment are limited by present knowledge

air

to the following:
(a)

Avoid projections on the hull which face

downward and which can

trap air

when

the

bow

downward-facing ledge
as narrow as the thickness of a projecting shell
plate is sufficient to take some air bubbles down
with it. Projecting edges of fenders are worse in
drops during pitching.

HYDRODYNAMICS

748

respect because they extend farther from

this

the

sliip's side.

(b) Avoid an.v semblance of a flat bottom forward

beneath which air may be caught and buried
under the hull when the forefoot emerges and
then plunges heavily during wavegoing. The air is

carried aft

from

this region, along the

bottom

of

the ship, by the relative motion of the water.

practicable, the water-injection
(c) Wherever

openings on the under side of a ship are to be

kept free of streams of air bubbles. Usually, these

by the ship waves in smooth-water

operation and carried along under the ship in

are trapped

more-or-less well-traveled routes.

The

routes can

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 75.13

This +Ap
been larger for an opening longer in the direction
of flow. In any case it would be sufficient to start
a flow into the opening if a circuit for the liquid

= 0.5pUl

would undoubtedly have

were provided.
In the design of closed-bottom recesses to
create minimum drag, one obvious solution is to
offset the downstream edge inward, away from
the water flow, depicted at 3 in Fig. 75.J. S. F.
Hoerner indicates that a setback at this edge

equal to 8 per cent of the depth of the downstream

face, when combined with a square, flush corner
at the upstream edge of the recess, reduces the

by an appreciable amount [AD, 1951,

Reheving the downstream edge

overall drag

be determined reasonably well in a circulatingwater channel by injecting a small stream of air

at any point around the bow where water appears
to be falUng on itself (as in a breaking bow-wave
crest) and tracing the route of the bubbles

Fig. 4.22, p. 56].

visually or photographically.

recesses are few,

manner, for a hull opening, involves

and possibly
local trimming of framing members. This is an
expensive item on any kind of metal hull. If the

in

this

special shaping of the shell plating

and the openings

large, as for

the hopper-door recesses under a dredge,

Venting holes in keels, for the escape of air

trapped below them, are described in Sec. 73.19

and

it

may

be worth while to incorporate this setback in the

downstream edge of each of them. It is not recom-

illustrated in Fig. 73.0.

Air leakage to rudders, propellers, and the like

is prevented by overhanging portions of the stern,
by Jenney fins, and by similar devices, described
elsewhere in the book.

Direction of Flow Over Surfoce

-*-J)epth -

A shallow recess, illustrated at 1 in Fig. 75.J, is

defined here as one which has a depth h below

It has

auxiUary

a closed bottom, so there

flow into or out of

licjuid

is

[""^i^Cj the Flow *

For the

Lo'^OLft

Frontal

any shallow

is

b^r Wdth

'^'^'"" **^*

Thot of Reciancjle

of

Openinq

^<^

is

ABCD

AD&F

is --

For Low Broq, Keep e Short and

Ratio -g- Lorqe

it.

Judging principally by results of flow tests for

inlet openings in the shell, such as condenser
scoops,

Breodjh

[>^

Area of Downstream Face

Aspect Ratio

no

'
I

Shown;

Recess or Gap Area

the fair solid surface less than either its breadth b

across the flow or its length e in the direction of
flow.

Vi

T^L"Ie"^qThT~~

Design Notes for Shallow Recesses.

75.13

as a Whole.

V iscous /Mixing and

Retardation

recess of appreciable length

may be expected to have

on its downstream face,
in diagram C of Fig. 7.J and at

in the direction of flow

stagnation

illustrated at

point

diagram 2 of Fig. 75.J. The presence of

ram pressure on such a surface, facing forward,
means large -|-Ap's and added drag. Other

in

+Ap Reqion

ot and

Near Stoqnation Point Q.

features of the flow are discussed in Sec. 8.3.

W. Froude found in the early 1870's, when

experimenting with a pressure speed log for ships
[Brit. Assn. Rep., 1874, p. 256], that if a circular
pipe as small as 0.04

ft in

Schematic Streamlines

diameter was fitted

square to and terminated flush with a

flat

surface

was
mouth of the
the ram pressure

parallel to the direction of liquid flow, there

developed a small
pipe,

amounting

to

+Ap

within the

about 0.04 of

Fig.

75.J

Definition and Flow Sketches fob

Shallow Recesses

HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAIRING

Sec. 15.14

mended that

the shell at the leading edge of the

opening or recess be bulged outward solely to

move the stagnation point and the +Ap's out-

ward from the forward-facing surface at the

trailing edge. In any case, do not chamfer, relieve,
or set back the leading edge of the recess. According
to Hoerner, this approximately doubles the drag

upstream and downstream edges

both flush and square.
The effect of depth-width or length-depth
of a recess with

and of setback as well,

bound up with boundary-

ratios of shallow recesses,

is

rather intricately

layer thickness
recess;

and velocity

recess on the hull.

common-sense

The

one,

way

of the

best design rule here

which

as shallow as operating

permit.

profile in

possibly also with the position of the

If

the recess

is

is

to

make

is

the

the recess

and service conditions

large and the trailing

edge can be set back to reduce the area exposed

or fairing procedures.

respect

is

749

An

excellent guide in this

the group of data on the drag of surface

irregularities

assembled by

S.

F.

Hoerner [AD,

1951, pp. 49-54].

By and large, it is not difficult to achieve the

smoothness called for by specification requirements or to design proper fairings. Indeed, it is
often easier, if the job is planned properly from
the start, to make a ship or its parts fair, well
adapted to easy water flow around them, than to
make them abrupt or irregular. The difficulty
arises, first, 'in making good engineering compromises between initial cost and maintenance on
the one hand and improved service performance
on the other hand. The second difficulty is convincing all those concerned with the design and
building of the ship that the refinements apparently justified by improved service performance
are really worth while. All too often, it is feared,

means do it.
what might be termed

the designer and the shipbuilder look upon efforts

aspect ratio for the openings of recesses, Hoerner

as either outright compromises or trivial details

jumps

short gap, lying across the stream. It "penetrates

not worthy of their attention. In too many cases

the shipbuilder looks upon these efforts as nuis-

deeply into the longitudinal groove" formed by

a gap lying with its long dimension parallel to

ances and the ship owner as additional means of

draining his pocketbook.

to 4-Ap's,

As

by

all

for the effects of

states that the "flow

easily" across a wide,

to provide smoothness

the stream, or within 10 deg of the parallel direction [AD,

1951, p. 56]. Because of the

higher drag" in the latter case,

should,

if

practicable,

"much

the designer

place a recess with

its

shortest dimension parallel to the flow.

75.14 Practical Problems in Achieving Underwater Smoothness and Fairness on a Ship. In

the matter of hull smoothness and fairing, the

problem

of the conscientious ship designer re-

who must
and energy. The

sembles closely that of the executive

carefully apportion his time

is not to pass over all the

but to know which details are of sufficient
importance to justify his attention. Similarly, the

executive's solution
details

ship

must know which roughnesses

how much time and trouble to
fairing, and what will be the effect of

designer

and to incorporate

fairings

In yachts, sleek appearance above water

is

almost more important than smoothness under

water. Several centuries of experience with

them

prove that when the designer and builder and the

artisans realize the importance of smoothness, it
is

achieved at no great increase in cost and time.

New

tools

are

designed,

new techniques

are

and new procedures utiUzed which

make it relatively easy to smooth up the yacht
hull when it is known in advance that it must be
smooth. What has been done with yachts can
be accomplished with merchant and other vessels.
The designers and builders take pride in the increased speeds of modern ships. They will take
pride in their smoothness as soon as they and all
developed,

require smoothing,

others concerned are convinced that the necessity

devote to

for

neglect to incorporate the necessary smoothing

smoothness increases as the square of that

increased speed.

CHAPTER

The Design

76

of Special Hull Forms and

Special-Purpose Craft
76.

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 16.1

751

moment not be interested in special-service

craft, it may be useful for him and give him

and types now

valuable ideas to read through the various re-

orienting the reader's

quirements and the design comments and rules

which follow.
Design features applicable

the

in this chapter.

With

these thoughts in mind, the unusual forms

TABLE
To make

this table

in this chapter.

Hull Proportions
and Features

76.a

Classification op Special

world are

in general use throughout the

classified in

Table

76.a, as

mind

to the discussions

to

an aid in

shallow

and

restricted waters, without regard to vessel type.

Hull Forms and Special-Puhpose Craft

complete and comprehensive, special types of vessels are included whose design

is

not discussed

HYDRODYNAMICS

752
certain

as well as

important features of

self-

propelled craft intended to operate in confined

waters, are discussed in Chap. 72.
Special features in the design of tugs, towboats,
pushboats, and self-propelled lighters, as well as

and floats, are

under the general

non-self-propelled barges, scows,

covered in Part 5 of Volume

III,

subject of Towing.

The Design of Fine, Slender Hulls;

76.2
Canoes, Racing Shells, and Fast Launches. As
long as watercraft are required to be propelled
by manpower and as long as men have to handle
remain a demand for a
and small weight compared to its speed and carrying capacity. Such a
demand is met by the birchbark canoe of the
American Indian and the kayak of the Eskimo.

them there

or carry

will

craft of small resistance

Canoes

of greater fineness

but also

of greater

up of large
and still used by many
peoples of the world. These are driven by as
many as a hundred paddlers each [111. London
News, 9 Jul 1955, p. 81]. It is entirely probable
weight,

dug out

parts, are

that

still

many

of single logs or built

in existence

of these fine-ended designs evolved

from a desire to minimize water disturbance and

TABLE

IN SHIP DESIGN
noise

Sec. 76.2

when hunting. For

the craft paddled

by

one or two persons, a reduction of resistance and

thrust is far more personal and important than

is an engine available to drive it.

Dixon Kemp, in his book "A Manual of Yacht
and Boat Saihng" [Cox, London, 3rd ed., 1882],
devotes Chap. XXVI, on pages 374-381, to
"Canoeing." It contains drawings and rather

if

there

detailed descriptions of a considerable

number

of

and American canoes. A storj-- and excellent

photographs of canoes and kayaks built by the
natives of northwestern North America are found
on pages 77-79 of the February 1917 issue of the
Pacific Marine Review.
Some historical and technical data on the canoes
of America are given by H. I. Chapelle ["American
British

Small Sailing Craft," Norton, New York, 1951,

pp. 36-38]. Design features of the modern lightweight canoe, the small-boat version of the long,
slender ship, and still popular as a pleasure craft,
are discussed and presented by R. P. Beebe
[Rudder, Jan 1954, pp. 49-53, 82]. This article
illustrates five typical canoe midsections.
The ultimate in fineness and reduction of both
friction and pressure resistance is achieved by

Comparative Form and Performance Data for Two Types of Manually Propelled Ckaft and
One Mechanically Propelled Vessel

76.b

These data are taken from published information by F. H. Alexander (see the reference quoted in the text) and by
K. C. Barnaby [INA, 1950, p. J13].
The circular-constant parameters are those of R. E. Froude; see Appendix 1.
For comparison with the 8-oared shell, a single-oared shell is about 1 ft wide, and weighs about 28.5 lb, without crew.

Item

Length on LWL, ft
Beam, extreme, ft
Draft,

(estimated)

ft

Displacement, tons, with crew

(estimated),

Wetted

ft'

surface, ft^

Speed, kt
Speed, ft per sec

Value of
Value of (S)
Value of (g)
Value of
Value of

V/Vl

Value of A/f

j,

tons for 100-ft length

Resistance, lb
Resistance, plus

still-air Z).5a

lb

Resistance per ton of displacement, lb

Resistance ratio. Friction /Total
.

Value of

(C)

8-oared

Whaleboat,

Cross-channel

Racing Shell

10 oars

Steamer

62.0
2.0
0.5
0.81
28.4
109.5
10.0
17.0
20.2
11.78
6.025
1.34
1.27

28.0
6.85

320.0
40,0

1.70
59.5
133
6.7
11.33
7.17
8.73
3.58
1.34
1.27

1,850
64,750
12,510
22.75
38.4
7.97
7.76
3.78
1.34
1.27

3.5

77.5

56.5

77
90.0
95.0
0.95
1.162

81

87,300

47.6
0.51
1.662

47.2
0.40
1.469

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.2

TABLE

76.C

Data on Fast Launches and Torpedoboats Prior to

753
1905

HYDRODYNAMICS

754

IN SHIP DESIGN

maximum

76 J

Sec.

are of interest to a designer. These craft did not

make

plane in a strict sense, despite the T^ values of

portions which were developed through the years

some of them are

shown in Plate 190 of the reference. Deck plans
and waterUne planforms are drawn on Plates
191 and 192, while photographs of some of the
boats underway are reproduced on Plates 193-197.
Other successful yachts and launches of this
tj'pe were designed and built by N. G. Herreshoff.
A few of them are described and illustrated by
4.0 or more. Midsections of

when

still

represent the furthest point reached in the

development

of

fine-ended

displacement-type

craft. Their shapes are almost necessary for hulls

which are not permitted to create large surface
disturbances when moving rapidly ["Speed Without Fuss," The Motor Boat and Yachting, Sep
1956, p. 423]. These shapes may very well become
useful for certain requirements not yet presented
to the naval architect. Speaking of the future, the
requirements of the early years of mechanical
propulsion for a craft which could be driven
swiftly yet easily and smoothly, such as a pleasure
launch or yacht, may be expected to continue as
long as mechanical propulsion is utilized. When
another cycle of human behavior rolls around, the
former demand for a quiet craft, gliding gracefully yet rapidly, may well be repeated.
Jet and rocket propulsion may, in the years
ahead, be appUed to slender displacement forms
for certain particular duties rather than to the
skimming and planing forms now associated with
high speeds over the water. Pounding and slamming on planing craft, even in small waves, may
well set a limit on the ultimate speed at which

their hulls will hold together.

Except for the additional wetted surface unL/B or L/H ratios, and the

avoidable with large

extra friction resistance involved, the

shape for a

optimum

reduce the pressure resistance

due to wavemaking and separation to a minimum,
is

one which

L/B
15.

hull, to

ratio

This

is

definitely fine

and

slender.

The

may
is

then exceed 10 and even approach

not easy to accomplish in a small

which needs space for the crew, passengers,

propelling machinery, and some useful load but
must have metacentric stabihty as well.
A satisfactory compromise between lengthbeam ratio and absolute length is determined by
the speed-length quotient T^ or the Froude
number F at which the craft is expected to
craft,

speed.

The

lengths and pro-

high-speed

was the predominant type for small,

craft are given by C. H. Crane

[SNAME,

1904, pp. 321-326; 1905, p. 369].

of
is

this

them

are listed in Table 76. c.

Some

The B/H

ratio

frequently amenable to some variation but

only rarely,

if

at

all,

it is

that the propulsion perform-

ance can be improved by departing from the

proportions listed in the table.

With the length-beam and beam-draft propor-

L. F. Herreshoff [Yachting, Sep 1950, pp. 26-27].

While these vessels had shapes no longer considered stylish or efficient, they represented, and

its

tions likely to be found the

may become
small,

in

optimum, the draft

a small proportion of the length; so

that

fact,

it

provide
shape of
well below the

difficult

is

rudder area in an
blade except by projecting
sufficient

to

efficient
it

baseplane.

With the

large

L/B

ratios

mentioned here

it is

easy to keep the waterline run slopes below 11 or

12 deg and thus to eliminate all possibiUty of
separation at the stern. Attempts to save resist-

ance by cutting

off

the stern and

its

wetted surface

are rarely successful unless the transom so formed

kept out of water at all speeds. Working reverse

curvature into the buttocks and terminating them

is

tangent to the at-rest

the occasional

wave

WL

is

good design provided

slap under the stern can be

accepted. However, any curvature of the stern

buttocks, convex downward, develops
under them and drags the stern down, with

Ap's
all

the

disadvantages of excessive trim by the stern.

Special problems are involved in the design of

high-speed

craft

running

at

1.8,

"inter-

so-called

ference" speeds in the range of T^

1.3

to

0.39 to 0.54, where a practically con-

hump is shown by Fig. 66. B.

The design problems involved are discussed at
some length by E. Rolland, on the basis of
designs of former years by N. G. Herreshoff and
E. W. Graef [ATMA, 1951, Vol. 50, pp. 443^62;
tinuous resistance

an English translation of this paper is available

at the David Taylor Model Basin].
Ultra-High-Speed Displacement Types.
76.3
Despite the insistent modern demand for ultrahigh-speed ships to carry cargoes or other useful
loads, reckoned by the hundreds or the thousands
of tons, relatively Httle

thorough and systematic

investigation has been devoted to the displace-

ment type

of hull driven at speed-length or

Taylor

quotients T^ exceeding 2.0 or 2.2, F greater than

about 0.60 or

The

0.66.

100-ft Turhinia of C. A. Parsons

made 34

kt in the 1890's, and the 100-ft steam yacht

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 7r,.4

Arrow, designed by C. D. Moshei', reached the

unprecedented speed of 45 kt a few years later.

For displacement-type vessels to reach T, values

of 3.4 and 4.5 was remarkable, and still is, but
the useful loads carried by each were extremely

1908, PI. 87]. Fig. 76.A shows the fines of a

small.

An

early form of the

German

schnellboote (fast

a displacement- type craft intended to

maintain high speed on the high seas in heavy
boat),

weather,

is

[26 Oct-2

described and illustrated in Schiffbau

Nov

1921, pp. 112-116].

set of small-

round-bottom craft is included

During World War II the Germans

scale lines of this

in the article.
built

75b

view of the low speeds at which these vessels

formerly traveled, that the emphasis has been on
capacity and cargo handling rather than on hydrodynamics. R. Curr gives the lines of a Great Lakes
bulk ore carrier of a half-century ago [SNAME,

and operated a considerable number

of these

so-called S-boats of a later version [Rupp, L. A.,

NavTechMisEu Rep. 338-45 of 23 Aug 1945;

K., Handbuch der Werften, 1952, pp.
37-42]. The David Taylor Model Basin made
Biiller,

numerous tests following World War II of TMB

model 3993 representing some of these craft
[TMB Rep. 628 of Jan 1948 and other reports].
Although by no means cargo carriers in the
accepted sense of the term these craft did carry
an appreciable useful load, and they performed
admirably in such rough-water areas as the English
Channel and the North Sea. They may well

World
some 40 years later, similar
to the design covered by SNAME Resistance
Data sheet 90.
J. J. Henry gives a considerable amount of
statistical and other data on Great Lakes bulk
ore vessels in his paper "Modern Ore Carriers"

War

[SNAME, 1955, pp. 92-95], but here again the

emphasis is on features other than hydrodynamics.
Table 76. d lists five more vessel types and supplies
supplementary information on hull proportions
and features and form coefficients. Discrepancies
between the two tables are due generally to lack
of precise definition of the terms listed.
The bibliography of 24 items at the end of the
Henry paper, a number of which apply to oceangoing vessels with few draft and beam limitations,
is supplemented by the references which follow:
(1)

and

faster versions,

207

(2)

Narrow, Blunt-Ended Vessels;

Great Lakes Cargo Carriers. Limitations on
beam and draft imposed by canal locks, drydocks,
pier facilities at loading and unloading ports, and
shallow water along the route produce a ship form
that is abnormally elongated, especially if the
76.4

is

The result is a series of

among which may be hsted

other American
and its towed barges of
European rivers, and the bulk-cargo
the American Great Lakes. Only the
of

the large
carrier of

Volume

In the past, these limitations have produced

enough to make them manageable

in the confined waters in which they operated or
to enable them to be self-propelled with some
reasonable degree of efficiency. The Great Lakes
freighter has benefited from a great deal of
attention, devoted both to its construction as
whittled

(5)

(6)

(7)

off just

well as its design. It

is

perhaps not strange, in

paper,

although

H. C, and Lindblad, A., "Stresses on Vessels

Lakes Due to Waves of Varying
Lengths and Heights," SNAME, 1922, pp. 77-82.
The text and PI. 13 contain some data relating to

Lindblad,

A.

"Some Features

F.,

of the

Lake Freighters,"

Affecting

SNAME,

the

1923,

Cross, A. W.,

SNAME,

The paper

1928, pp. 51-62

and

Pis.

around a description of
steamer Harry Coulby, having an Lb^l oi
615.2 ft, a S of 65 ft, a displacement of 19,092 long
tons and a speed of 11.3 kt.
Fisher, C. R., and Kennedy, A., Jr., "Turbine
Electric Drive as Applied on the Great Lakes
Cargo Ships," SNAME, 1928, pp. 235-248 and
Pis. 135-138. This paper on propelling machinery
is

built

the

III.

box-like or block-shaped vessels, with the ends

This

of

Sadler,

41-51.

self-propelled craft are considered here; the others

are discussed in Part 5 of

119-133.

Moments

1905, pp. 187-

pp. 37-49 and PI. 9

(4)

the Erie and

canals, the river steamer

Pis.

Economy

the American (freight) car float, the self-propelled

cargo-carrier

and

SNAME,

hydrodj'namio design.
(3)

high.

widely varying types,

"Longitudinal Bending

I.,

of the Great

Long,

carrying capacity

W.

primarily structural, gives principal dimensions of

the Victory and the Elbert H. Gary.

carrying larger pro-

portions of useful weight.

Babcock,

Certain Lake Steamers,"

serve as the starting point for the development of

larger

II design of

(8)

gives a considerable amount of hull design and ship

performance data on the steamer Carl D. Bradley.
Workman, J. C, "Shipping on the Great Lakes,"
SNAME, HT, 1943, pp. 363-376
Baier, L. A., "The Great Lakes Bulk Cargo Carrier;
Design and Power," SNAME, Great Lakes Sect.,
1947, Vol. 55, pp. 385-390. On p. 390 of this paper
the author gives a list of 25 references pertaining
to the Great Lakes bulk cargo carrier.
Mathews, S. T., "Resistance and Propulsion Tests on
a Model of a Lake Freighter," Div. Mech. Eng.,
Nat. Res. Council, Ottawa, Rep. MB-137, 3 Jul

1951

HYDRODYNAMICS

756

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.4

24-ft
Bilqe t?adiu3-3.75 ft,

* 0.0625

Buttock
Rise of Floor-

Bx

025

ft, -o-

0.0042 Bx

-o- 0.0125 Bv
Lenqth of. Parallel Middlebody = 330 ft.-o 0542 L^^
Maximum- Area -Section ot Midlenqth of Middlebody, - 478 L^Lfrom FP
Lenqth of Entrance- 126 ft,=0 0.207 L^l
Lenqth of Run - 139 ft, -o- 0228 L^l
i-E ^ Entrance- 45.7 deq,
Ir=374 dec^
Lenqth Overall- 620.0 ft
Lenqth Between Perpendiculars - 605.0 ft
Lenqth on Keel- 595.0 ft
Lenqth on 24-ft I)WL= 609.0 ft

Tumble Home- 0.75

ft,

Position of

Beam, Molded Fig. 76. a

(9)

(10)

Body Pian, U.

S.

600

ft

"C4 Conversion to Great Lakes

Ore Carrier Tom M. Girdler," SNAME, Gulf Sect.,
19 Oct 1951; abstracted in SNAME Member's
Bull., Jan 1952, p. 20
Cowles, W. C, "New Ore Carrier Philip R. Clarke,"

MESR,
19.52, p.

Jul 1952, pp. 62-81; also

MESR, Dec

72

Service,"

MESR,

Oct 1952, pp. 50-63; also

Dec 1952
"Steamer Edward B. Greene Becomes
Cleveland-Cliffs

Flagship,"

MESR,

the

MESR, Nov

New
1952,

pp. 38-50
(13)

Nov 1952, pp. 16-19, 30. This article

describes the conversion of the C4-S-B2 vessel

Schaeffner, C. R.,

(11) Zuehlke, A. J., and Rankin, G. F., "Largest Lakes

Self-Unloader, the John G. Munson, Goes into

(12)

Depth, Molded- 35.0 ff

Maeitimb Commission Design L6-S-A1 of Great Lakes Freighter

"Conversion Job, King Size (Joseph H. Thompson),"

Naut. Gaz.,

Marine Robin,

utilizing only the after portion.

"600-Foot Lakes Ore Carriers Built in East Coast

Shipyard," Mar. Eng'g., Jan 1953, pp. 36-47;
describes the first vessel of the Johnstown class
(15) "The 690-Foot Ernest T. Weir," Mar. Eng.'g., Apr
1954, pp. 36-46; also Mar. Eng'g., Dec 1954, p. 60
(16) Downer, H. C, "Ore Carrier Richard M. Marshall,"
Mar. Eng'g., Jun 1954, pp. 44-60
on the Lakes (steamer George M.
(17) "Largest
Humphrey)," Maritime Reporter, 15 Nov 1954,
p. 27
(14)

(18)

De

Rooij, G., "Practical Shipl)uilding," 1953, Figs.

799 and 800 on

p. 373.

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. T6.4

The

following

vessels of the

and

SNAME RD

sheets apply to

Great Lakes bulk ore-carrier type,

refer to the loaded condition:

Sheet

amber

Length,

Beam,

Draft,

Displ.,

Speed,

757

:i3

^^

.S

o)

J.

Sec. 16.4

760

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.4

761

%.

Fig. 76.B

Gkeat Lakes Ore Carrier

George

M. Humyhrey

in Building

Dock

Photograph by Denny C. Harris, Cleveland, Ohio. The 5-bladed propeller is of built-up construction. Note the fine
skeg ending up under the stern. The aperture on the centerline at the stern is the hawsepipe for the stern anchor.

Summarizing the hull-design problem resolves

itself into:

the owners and operators for the highest possible

ratio of useful load to total displacement, in the
full-load

Achieving the required carrying capacity with

the minimum length and wetted surface
(b) Holding the sinkage down to the minimum
(a)

practicable value

Shaping the ends to keep down the pressure

resistance due to wavemaking, separation, and
(c)

the Uke.

The wavemaking

condition,

is

generally such that the

stern can not be fined sufficiently to eliminate

all

separation,

axis

of

even at depths as low as the

single

propeller.

separation drag kept large

by

Not only

is

this limitation

the

but

the possibihties of air leakage to the propeller,

its consequent loss of power, vibration, and

with

noise are aggravated.

a
can never be a large part

pressure

resistance,

at

Hmiting T of, say 0.7,

of the whole unless the bow is deliberately made
too blunt. On the other hand, the separation
drag can be excessive. These hulls are therefore
in the class where the major part of the fining
needs to be done at the stern. The demands of

It appears that a not-too-wide transom stern,

with an immersion in the load condition of only
a foot or so, might be a partial answer to this
problem. The transom sheK can be mde enough

to guard against air leakage to the propellers

and it can be used to make up the displacement

volume

lost

by

fining the skeg forward of the

HYDRODYNAMICS

762
single propeller.

On

ships of the

maximum

permitted by turning basins and pier

all this

length

facilities,

length could be put into the waterline.

76.5

The Design

of

Dry-Cargo Vessels with

Somewhat

Box-Shaped Holds.

similar

to

the

and to the canal

and not unlike the box-shaped watercraft
Sec. 76.15, is the vessel which is required to

long, narrow, blunt-ended vessel,

boat,
of

house rectangular, box-shaped, dry-cargo spaces

within the boundary of a ship-shaped hull. In
some respects the design problem resembles that
of a newsprint carrier in which the storage space
is required, almost literally, to be larger than the
dimensions of the outer shell!
Vessels of the rectangular- or box-hold type

which railway cars are stowed

on tracks at levels from the bottom of the holds
to and including the upper deck [Burrill, L. C,
"The Design and Construction of the Rail-Car
Carrying Steamship Seatrain," NECI, 1929-1930,
Vol. XL VI, pp. 179-204 and Pis. VI, VII; MESR,
(a) Seatrains, in

1952, front cover]

Cargo-container craft, in which the cargo

(b)

consists

almost exclusively

of

metal shipping

containers in the form of cubes and parallelepipeds. For these vessels the cargo,

when loaded

and unloaded, as well as when transported, may

be stowed instead on pallet boards suitable for
handling by fork-lift trucks. The combination of
pallet and material carried by it is usually of box
shape.
So-called trailer ships, in which the cargo

(c)

box or body portions of trailer

minus the tractor portions [Mar. Eng'g.,
Apr 1954, pp. 48-49, 60; Jan 1955, pp. 57-58, 74].
consists of the

trucks,

These ships are designed on the principle that

all

holds are to be truly rectangular, with

floors or

The boundaries
side

flat

decks and vertical sides and bulkheads.

are

all

to be flush on the hold

and to stand at right angles to each

other.

Actually, instead of designing a ship hull of normal

form and arranging cargo holds inside it, the

holds are laid out first and the ship envelope is
drawn around them.
The hydrodynamic design problem becomes one
of fashioning such an envelope so that it has the
greatest practicable fullness coefficient but is not
too difficult to drive. The box-shaped holds can
not be raised appreciably to help with the hull

shape because of the consequent loss of volume

and the

raising of the center of gravity of the

No

cargo.

Sec. 76.5

design rules are available for develop-

ing an acceptable underwater form under these

conditions except the general principles of achieving reasonably good flow around

all

parts of the

and a reasonably uniform pressure distribution. The comments in Chaps. 8, 27, and 28
relative to the flow around and the behavior of
straight-element and discontinuous-section forms
hull

are of value here.

Achieving practically a rectangular

maximum

transverse section presents no problem because

successful ships are

By

0.99 or more.

now

Cx values

built with

using a

of

inner bottom and

flat

placing a vertical wing-tank bulkhead inboard of

the shell on each side, the transverse section of the

hold

include:

Aug

IN SHIP DESIGN

is

To

completely rectangular.

obtain the greatest length of this

full rec-

tangular section^ the cargo holds must occupy

all of

the fullest portions of the length, leaving

the tapered portions at the ends to

accommodate

the propelling and auxiliary machinery and miscellaneous equipment.

It is

by no means necessary

interfere with the best hold space

up

to break

by the

or

installa-

tion of a midship deckhouse, as has been the

practice on tankers

many

decades.

vessel

may

and ocean-going ore ships

The whole

for

central portion of the

be kept clear for hatches, cargo-

handhng gear, and deck loads, if desired, by

moving the machinery and accommodations all
the way aft. This was done on the large Swedish
tanker Oceanus [SBSR, 16 Dec 1954, p. 20 of
advt.; Motor Ship, London, Jan 1955, p. 460]
and is shown by J. J. Henry in his "Artist's (and
presumably Naval Architect's) Conception of a
Modern Ore Carrier" [SNAME, 1955, p. 57].
76.6 The Design of Straight-Element Hulls.
Other than to obtain the special V-bottom
shapes for high-speed motorboats and other
planing craft, the straight-element form defined
in Sec. 27.1 is used to facihtate hull construction.

This involves not only reductions in cost, time,

and effort but in the amount and kind of fabricating equipment required. Depending

upon the

structure of the boat or ship the transverse frame

members may be made up

around

the

periphery,

plating

may

be

made

of straight

the

planking

developable,

single curvature only, or there

may

segments
or

shell

embod3ang

be a combina-

tion of both. If ease of construction

is

a pre-

dominating factor, the shape of the underwater

hull, and perhaps also that of the abovewater
hull, must conform to the limitations of the

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sen. 76.r>

amateur or inexperienced builder, to the lack of

equipment in small plants, or to the necessity
for rapid and economical fabrication and erection.
often convenient to replace the sharp

It is

corners of polygonal sections with rounded corners

but in this case the corners lying along any diagonal must generally be of fixed radius if rapid
production methods are employed.
The principal design requirement for straightelement hulls is that the chines (and coves) shall
lie in the adjacent lines of flow in such a manner
that water does not cross these external dis-

The

principles set forth in Chaps. 4, 27,

and

manner in which water flows

are employed to estimate the

52, concerning the

around a

ship,

direction which the water

take. It is well to

draft ratio

is large,

may

be expected to

remember that, if the beammost of the flow goes under the

bottom.
In the present state of the art

it is

not always

easy to predict the flow around hulls of unusual

shape. Fortunately,

it is

possible,

even with small

models, to check the flow directions experimentally

on a straight-element form, so that the

designer can obtain an idea of the flow pattern

while the hull form

is still sufficiently

"plastic"

to be changed readily.

For the best performance a cove

line is

not

placed where the water flowing around the ship

is

relative speeds are low the chine line can depart

from the hues of flow to facilitate construction.
For a sailing yacht which is almost never
upright when moving through the water, the
shape of the underwater hull varies with the angle
of heel, as do the lines of flow for that particular
heel. The flow may also vary for the speed or

range

of speed corresponding to that heel,

because of the considerable wavemaking. Never-

required to cross

it.

Fortunately, this

is

con-

be expected that, by simple flow

means, a chine line may be found

theless, it is to

tests or other

which

continuities.

763

the chine angle approaches 90 deg but as the

fits all

these flow positions rather well.

The maximum number

of chines

lines of flow.

The

chine positions therefore can

favor the lines of plating or the type of framing

to be used.

Frame

sections which are nominally straight

be given a slight outward bow or camber,
corresponding to the camber in a weather deck.
This is not enough to involve forming or furnacing.

may

Metal plating applied to

lies flatter,

slightly

held to perfectly straight frame

waviness, than

of a projecting chine,

lines [Baier, L. A., unpubl. Itr. to

inert water carried along in the cove

and the

usually shallow depth of the reentrant portion.

If a chine

extends above the designed waterline

in the entrance, it is generally necessary that the

when projected on the centerplane with the craft at rest and reckoned with
respect to the at-rest WL, be reasonably large,
slope of the chine,

to insure upward dynamic lift when pitching

and encountering waves and to throw spray clear

A suitable range of angles of slope

exposed forward chines of planing craft,
apphcable to all straight-element forms, has not
as yet been laid down. However, a series of chine
shapes and positions, based partly on the intended
of the hull.
for

service

and partly upon the maximum T^ and

is to run, is shown in Fig.

F at which the craft

77.1.

bowed frames

or perhaps one should say with less

siderably less important than for a similar crossing

because of the sensibly

(or coves)

which can be worked longitudinally into a hull is

Umited only by the number of strakes desired to
meet construction requirements. As many as five
chines on each side have been employed successfully in some hulls, illustrated by the body plans
of Figs. 27. B and 68. J. As the projecting corners
in multiple-chine sections approach 180 deg
there is less need for placing them exactly in the

if

HES

of

Aug

1950].

The degree to which a hull surface may vary

from one which is exactly of single curvature
depends upon the size of the surface in question
compared to the size or the area or the shape of
the sheet or plate of which that surface is to be
made. A wooden plank may be bent, twisted,
and sprung out of its natural shape, fastened to
the frame of a boat, and left in its sprung shape
for years provided it is not too wide or too thick
for the shape to be impressed upon it. A wide
sheet or plate of metal may often be pulled and
stretched to make it conform slightly to a second
degree of curvature. A wide sheet of plywood,
assembled in the flat, may not respond to such
treatment without definite and detrimental cracking.

The minimum number

the straight-element form facilitates con-

one at each
diagonal bulge, as in the hull of the well-known

struction in

flat-bottomed

advantageous to incorporate

skiff,

of chines

is

punt, or dory. In this case

If

any particular

case,
it

it

is

equally

into the above-

HYDRODYNAMICS

764

Body Plan of World War II ConcreteHull Steamer, U. S. Maritime CoiMmission

Fig. 76.C

Design Cl-S-Dl

water body. Indeed, the use of straight sides,

plumb or sloping slightly, is standard on

either

many

ships in which straight elements are not

otherwise employed.

The elements

of greatest practical benefit are

the straight and level sheer

line, utilizing

a section

and the straight or ridge-type

deck-beam lines described in Chap. 68.
Examples of straight-element ship forms which
have been designed and constructed in the past
are described and illustrated in the following:
of constant depth,

(1)

U.S.

Navy

plan

is

landing craft

LCI

(L).

The

shown by E. A. Wright,

original

SNAME,

body
1946,

Fig. 14, p. 384.

(2)

World War

TABLE

76.e

tions FOR

This

Maritime Commodel 3745M. A

II concrete steamer, U.S.

mission, Cl-S-Dl design,

TMB

Hull-Form Parameters and ProporWorld War II Concrete Steamer

craft, of

the U. S. Maritime Commission Cl-S-Dl

had transverse
joined by short arcs.
design,

Length between perps.

sections

made up

of straight lines

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.7

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.R
(14) Johnson, Eads,

"Ferryboats,"

SNAME, HT,

1943,

pp. 172, 174, 179

(15) Stephens, E. O.,

"Thames (Dumb) Barges," INA,

1945, pp. 170-184

(16) Holt,

W.

Vessels,"

"Admiralty

J.,

INA,

Type Motor Fishing

1946, pp. 295-307

(17) Wright, E. A., "A Pattern for Research in Naval

Architecture," SNAME, 1946, p. 374, particularly

LCI

body plan in Fig. 14 on p. 384

Wartime Prefabrioation
Methods Employed hi the Construction of Small
(L) original

R.

(IS) Aitlcen,

"Special

L.,

Vessels," lESS, 1947, Vol. 90, pp. 246-288, 322-344.

(19)

(20)

Gives many diagrams of small vessels with straight

frame segments.
Emerson, A., "Experiment Work on Merchant Ship
Models During the War," NECI, 1947-1948,
Vol. 64, pp. 289-332, esp. p. 320
Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
J. G.,

RPSS,

1948, p. 110

R. W., and Ward, L. W.,

of Nine Double-Chine
Simplified Hull Forms," Univ. Michigan Thesis,

(21) Thiel, P., Jr., Johnson,

"The Resistance and Waive

May

1948.

The

introduction gives a

list of

straight-

element-form vessels built and in service.

(22) During World War II a considerable number of small
cargo vessels, 173 to 176 ft long, were built with
straight-element sections and double chines along

One such vessel is shown in the National

Geographic Magazine, Jul 1948, p. 88.
(23) Bayard, N., "Stock Sloop," The Rudder, Feb 1950,
p. 44. This craft has 4-sided polygonal frames, from
keel to gunwale. It is not known whether the hull
the bilges.

surfaces are developable.

(24)

Simpson, D. S., "Small Craft, Construction and

Design," SNAME, 1951, pp. 554-611, esp. Fig. 21
on p. 580. On page 558 the author comments that:

"As the size increases (above 50 or 60 ft) there

would appear to be an excellent field for the doublechine hull form, especially for vessels that operate

under varying displacement and trim conditions and

in rough waters. There is little difference from the
molded (rounded) form in hull characteristics but
the double chine with its straight frames and warped
(developable) shell surfaces can be built with much
less equipment and at a considerable saving in cost."
(25)

Williamson, B.,
double-chine

SNAME,
corner

1950, Fig. 19, p. 21 shows

endings

developability of these surfaces

(26)

Examples

on
is

of straight-element barge

barges.

and

lighter hulls,

with resistance data, are to be found on

sheets listed hereunder:

RD

Sheet number

The

not known.

SNAME

765

HYDRODYNAMICS

766

BODY

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.8

PLAN

PROFILE

Chine Lencjth
Fig. 76.D

(3)

Lq

Diagram Illustbating Layout of Developable Surfaces for a Small V-Bottom Boat

First establish arbitrarily the deck edge at

(6)

To

get the proper rounding and fullness of

side or sheer profile, the chine profile, the baseline

the forward deck, the apex

and the chine planform by drawing

them in the customary manner for orthogonal
projection. It is necessary to draw the sheer
profile of the deck in approximately its proper

the forward portion of the side,

in the profile,

and farther
Its position
(7)

Apex

aft
is

in the profile, for

is to be lower
than the apex S in the profile.

fixed presently.

bottom
Lc ahead of

in the profile, for the conical

located about 0.2 or 0.25

relation with respect to the chine profile. In the

surface,

example given by Hartman and utilized here, the

baseline in the profile happens to coincide with

the chine beginning C. Its vertical position below

the chine beginning determines the depth of the

the centerline in the plan view. It

forefoot

is

required to

deck edge in plan, the keel profile, and

the stem profile, and to make the orthodox lines
drawing with section lines and buttocks.
(4) For laying out the side, place the apex S in
the profile at a height of about 0.5 to 0.75 times
the chine (or overall) length Lc above the chine
beginning C at the stem, and slightly forward of
find the

that beginning (0.1

(5)

Place apex

Lc

in the figure)

T in the plan

and

apex in the

and the rise of floor in the forward sections.

Apex

in the plan is located opposite

apex

and across the centerline from that side of the

bottom to be drawn. It is positioned laterally at
about the distance 0.5 Be from the centerhne.
(9) Divide the chine length Lc into a convenient

number

of

equidifferent

station

lengths;

there

are four such lengths in Fig. 76.

(10)

(opposite apex S

in the plane of the projection of that

(8)

is

Draw

a side generatrix from the point

along the chine profile at Sta.

straight line from

to the apex S. This intersects

D in the profile.

plan view) at a distance from the centerhne, on

the same side as the plan view to be drawn,

the sheer line already drawn at

approximately equal to the length of the halfchine beam IZ at the transom

by drawing a straight hne from

view to apex T

(11)

Lay down

by laying down a

the plan view of this generatrix

in the plan

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.8

(12) Project the point

D in

the profile

downward

FT, intersecting it at D.
one point in the plan view of the deck

(23)

Draw

to the latter generatrix

profile to

This

upward

is

edge at the side. FD in the profile and FD in the

plan view are two projections of the same straight
line in the side of the boat at the forward quarter.
(13) Starting similarly

with points P, N, and Z in

the chine profile, find the plan contour of the

deck edge at the side abaft the point

(14)

To

bow a

D in the plan.

get the fullness of side required at the

shorter and fuller cone

made by having the

is

used. This tran-

element of the
new cone coincide with the last element of the
old cone; for example, FDU and FDS in the
profile. This means that the apex U in the profile
sition is

first

on the generatrix FDS. Apex V is laid

down on the generatrix FDT opposite apex U.
must
(15)

lie

From

a selected point

draw

H in the

chine profile

HJ

on a straight generatrix
toward the bow-profile apex U. This straight line
intersects the sheer Une at J in the profile.
(16) From the point H on the chine in the plan
view, opposite H in the profile, draw a straight
line to apex V
(17) Project J in the profile downward to the
generatrix HV, which it intersects at J in the
plan view. This is another point along the deck
forward,

edge in the plan.

(18) Continue in this manner until sufficient
points in the forward deck edge are available to

767

a line from

on the chine

apex A. Project the point

until

it

M in the plan

intersects the generatrix

in the profile.

This

is

in the

HA

at

another point on the

manner

keel profile. Continue in this

until all

points along the keel profile are determined.

(24)

To

assist in delineating the after portion of

the bottom and to help in preparing the lines

draw a buttock Bj at about 0.4

beam Bc/2 (or draw several
them). Then draw the generatrix QB and

drawing

later,

times the half-chine

of

proceed as before.

To draw
(25)

The

the buttock B, in the profile:

generatrix

PYB

in the plan view inter-

sects the buttock Bi at the point

W.

Project this

point upward, intersecting the (same) generatrix

PYA in

the profile at

desired buttock.

W.

This

is

The remaining

one point on the

points are

same manner.
To draw the waterline WLi

drawn

in the

(26)

view, the generatrix

FDS

in

the plan

in the profile intersects

this waterfine at the point R. Project

R downward
FDT in

until it intersects the (same) generatrix

R of the plan view.

This is one point on

Continue in the same
manner to find remaining points.
(27) To draw the customary body plan, it is
possible to lay down the projections of the deck
edge, the chine, and the keel on a transverse
the point
the

desired

waterline.

permit drawing this line for the entire length

(19) As an aid in dehneating the deck edge aft

plane, using the station offsets of the other

the plan view a waterline WLi is drawn

through the hull in the profile, parallel to the
baseline. By estabUshing the approximate outline
of the transom, half of which is indicated in the

on the body plan, using the

B in the plan and the
vertical height of apex A in the profile. The

in

body plan, it is possible to lay down the point E

on the plan view and to determine another point
along the deck edge

ET. Another way

aft,

lying on the generatrix

to do this

is

to extend the

chine for a station or two abaft the transom and

follow the regular procedure.
(20)

To

line in the

plan view from

draw a

on the chine to apex

in the plan, intersecting the centerHne at

(21) In the profile,

draw a

chine to apex A. Project

to its intersection

K in
K is

generatrix FA. Point

line

from

F on

in the plan

the

upward

the profile with the

one point on the keel

profile.

on the
(22) Draw a line from another point
chine in the plan view to apex B; it intersects
the centerline at the point

(28)

Draw apex

transverse offset of apex

transverse projections of the two apexes for the

drawn in the same manner but they are

not shown in Fig. 76.D.
(29) From the known point F on the body plan,
where the chine crosses Sta. 1, draw a generatrix
side are

to the apex 0.

FGO

determine the keel profile, first

two

views

The point

G where this generatrix

crosses the section line for Sta. 0.5

is

then

found by stepping off (1) the offset from G in the

plan view to the centerline or (2) the height from
the basehne to G in the profile, along the fine
FGO. Sufficient points for drawing this and all
the other section lines are found by continuing
this operation. The section fines, when drawn,
are found to have the usual shape for a develop-

able surface, slightly convex outward.

may

not

have the shape that the designer intended.

He

When

the process

is

finished the boat

HYDRODYNAMICS

768

IN SHIP DESIGN

take care of some special situation which arises

may then shift the various apex positions and

go through the dehneation process all over again.

after the vessel

Even the most experienced

blister

designers of small

craft with developable surfaces find this necessary,

but with practice it is possible to perceive when
the developed shape is departing from that
visuaUzed, and to correct it before too much work
is put into an undesired delineation.
In the example described, the chine is used as a
directrix for both the bottom and the side. Only
two cones were used for the side but three, four,
or more could have been used to give the side a

greater tumble

home

aft or for other reasons.

Five cones, four above the side and one below it,
are employed for the 23-ft high-speed boat drawn

on page 30 of the Werback reference

In fact, the apex can continue to shift from

in Fig. I
cited.

one generatrix to the next, following a continuous

curve in space, provided that the apex always
remains clear of (outside of) the portion of developed surface that is to be worked into the boat.
Reduced to their utmost simplicity, portions
of developable surfaces

can be

flat or

cyUndrical.

In these, cases, the traces of given generatrixes

are parallel to each other in all three views of an

Sec. 76.9

is built. The ship which has a

added to the outside of its hull, as in
Fig. 76. E, whether it is a vessel M'hich needs
torpedo protection or more beam and displacement, or a submarine which needs external
ballast tanks attached to its pressure hull [USNI,
Feb 1955, p. 159], calls for the use of design

principles that are essentially the same.

Actually,

if

certain basic

principles are fol-

lowed, rather amazing discontinuities of this type,

in the

way

and the

of saddle tanks, thick fender strakes,

like,

can be worked into underwater

sections without incurring too

pressure

resistance.

much

friction or

may

These principles

be

stated as follows:
(a)

The chine lines are to be so placed that the

when flowing around the ship at the speed

water,

and under the conditions considered most important, follows but does not have to cross them
(b) When there are "offset" surfaces between
chines and coves, illustrated in diagram 3 of
Fig. 76. F, which are of appreciable area when
projected on a vertical transverse plane,

make the

it

appears

projected areas facing aft about

orthogonal projection.

wise to

Considering the importance of the bottom

shape in a V-section craft with chines, both the
keel line and the chine may be established at

equal to those facing forward, even though the

the outset and used as a pair of directrixes. The

procedure in this case, somewhat more involved

than that described, is covered in an unpublished

paper by L. K. Losee, reference (e) listed at the
beginning of this section. Mr. Losee is, at the
time of writing (1955), on the staff of the Bureau
of Ships of the U. S. Navy Department.
76.9 Design of Discontinuous-Section Forms
Chap. 28 explains that it
Blisters and Bulges.
is

frequently convenient to incorporate disconan vmder-

tinuities in the transverse sections of

water

hull, either to simplify

construction or to

actual offset surfaces do parallel the lines of flow.

For example, in the body plans of the German

submarine U-111 in Figs. 28.B and 28.C, the
projected area of the offset surfaces between the
chines and the coves in the forebody is of the
same order of magnitude as the area of those in
the afterbody. There is no known hydrodynamic
justification for this rule; only the engineering

intuition of the author.

(c)

The lower

offset surfaces of

discontinuous sec-

near the water surface, are shaped to

parallel the general surface-wave profile at the
selected speed. Otherwise they will lie at angles
to the streamlines and may produce areas of
tions,

if

separation.
(d)

It is desirable

to limit the sides or offset

surfaces of a cove, at least those lying perpendicular or nearly so to each other, to the

minimum

practicable widths. This can frequently be ac-

complished by sloping or cutting away the edge

the projecting portion beyond the region
where a right-angled connection is required for
structural reasons, indicated in diagrams 1 and 2
of

Re-entrant
Fig.

/>nqle 100 deq

Midsection of World War II German

Cruiser Prinz Eugen with Busters

76.E

of Fig. 76.F.
(e) The reentrant angle at the bottom of a cove
should be as large as practicable; in no case

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.9

should this angle, measured on the water

769

side,

less than 90 deg. If the reentrant angle of a

cove is much larger than 120 deg and approaches
180 deg, the position and direction of the cove,
with reference to the adjacent streamlines, is

be

not too important.

The discontinuities should fade out at the

(f)
ends and merge gently into the fair form of the hull
(g)

Shell openings on ducts or pipes leading into

the hull proper are best kept clear from the region

underneath the offsets in discontinuous

This is particularly true where both
sides of the cove slope upward, forming a possible
trap for air. Such a cove in the entrance may
easily collect air coming down from the region
close

sections.

of the

bow-wave

may

continuity

crest.

The length

of the dis-

be so great that this

and released
where the cove slopes upward.
readily carried along

air is

not

in the run,

Although they represent longitudinal disconof relatively

tinuities

bulged fender sirakes

small transverse section,

may

be classed with small

bulges and blisters. Discussing structural matters

moment, the combination of simplicity of

and greater efficiency

for a

construction, ease of upkeep,

dictates the use of heavy, single-thickness fender

strakes, conforming to the adjacent hull shape or

bulge,

instead

They may

of

built-up

external

fenders.

below the surface waterline on

submarines, as at 3 in Fig. 36. N and at 1 in Fig.
73. Q, or at or near the waterline on tugs, sketched
in Fig. 68. J. Diagrams 4 and 5 of Fig. 76. F illustrate several types of bulged fender strakes, not
including one of circular-arc section. These may
be worked in as part of the hull plating, either
above or below water, and in a fiat or curved side.
lie

Bhstered fender strakes should involve not-

Fig. 76.F

Design Details for Discontinuous

Sections

When

designing a blister to be added to an

existing ship,
available,

for

these

which the Hues of flow are

may

be used for guidance in

laying out the coves, chines, knuckles, and other

longitudinal discontinuities. It must be expected,

main

hull plating. As far as practicable they

should follow the actual lines of flow as modified

however, that the addition of a blister of relatively

large volume may change the flow pattern around
the combination. A check test is called for at an
early design stage to insure that the flow around

by surface waves,

the ship-and-blister assembly

too-small reentrant angles where they join the

especially at that speed for a

given ship at which low resistance is considered
If bulged fender strakes must of
be placed at the waterline the dis-

important.
necessity

turbance to surface wave action must be accepted.

It

will,

when blister sections are

down suitable cove traces which

should be possible,

sketched

in,

when

to lay

the blister

is

along the resultant lines

very nearly
of flow. This is partic-

in place, lie

special case arises

when

is

satisfactory.

external bhsters are

added locally and usually temporarily in the

form of boxes, pontoons, and the like to give
added buoyancy, or transverse metacentric stabihty, or both, to a hull which must be floated
through a region of exceptionally shallow water,
or which must be held upright when lifted to a
draft corresponding to that acceptable for the

[MESR, Jun

ularly true

shallow-water area

an awkward bump upon

Oct 1954, p. 58].

It is sometimes necessary to tow a vessel thus

if the blister, as it should, fairs reasonably well into the original hull and does not make
it.

1952,

p.

53;

HYDRODYNAMICS

770

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 7r,.10

supported, either before or after entering the

coast or, like whale catchers, they travel from

shallow water, through a region of deep water.

Norway to the Antarctic and back

every whaUng season.

The towhne

tension for such an operation

must

be approximated and the protuberances, with

their connections to the main hull, must be able
to withstand the forces and moments due to
waves and to the motion of the buoyed-up hull in
waves. No systematic design data are available
for use in .situations of this kind but the problem
is one readily and simply handled by a model
basin which possesses a model of the ship to
which the protuberances are to be attached.
76.10 Vessels with Fat Hull Forms.
Length
of hull, which is an asset when striving for speed
and propulsive efficiency, becomes somewhat of a
Uabihty when first cost, compactness, hull stiffness,
maneuverability, and habitability are important
factors. This is especially true for craft which are
small compared to the

minimum

lockers, passageways,

and access

Sailing yachts,

small fishing craft,

tugs,

sizes for berths,

for the crew.

work

and similar vessels are, more often than

not, fat and chubby. Icebreakers are larger

again for

pointed out by Ambrose Hunter ["The Art

Trawler Planning," Ship and Boat Builder
and Naval Architect, London, Feb 1953, pp.
It is

of

259-260] that fishing vessels in general:

(I)

Are similar to tugs in that they have to tow

and trawls, yet have to possess

fishing gear, nets,

a high free-running speed

(II) Are akin to lightships in that they spend
more time stopped at sea than any other type
(III) Are hke sailing yachts in their resistance to
drifting, ease of handling, and extreme maneuver-

ability.

Specific

from D.

S.

hydrodynamic requirements adapted

Simpson [SNAME, 1951, p. 561] and

R. F. Symonds [SNAME, 1947, pp. 381, 384] include the following, together with appropriate

comments concerning

design:

boats,

displacement-

(1) Adequate metacentric stability, both static

and dynamic, for all conditions of loading, includ-

to 500 or more, with

ing the top weight of a coating of ice over every-

0-diml fatness ratios of 17.5 and above. Their

thing above water. This coating may amount to

20 tons or more. Metacentric stability is outside
the scope of this book; see PNA, 1939, Vol. 1,
Chap. Ill, pp. 99-137, and other standard

vessels

in

this

Their

category.

length quotients run

up

length-beam ratios are invariably small, generally

less than 5 and sometimes as small as 3.
Figs.

66.

and

66.1

indicate

that separate

design lanes, or branches of regular lanes, are

needed for these craft. The two lanes of Fig.

66. A each have branches of this kind. They are
omitted from the latter figure partly to avoid
compUcation and partly because insufficient data
have been collected to locate them properly. In
general, data for existing craft in the fat and

chubby category are widely

scattered.

unfortunate that the Taylor Standard

Series was not extended to embody fat forms
It

is

having displacement-length quotients A/(0.010L)^

in excess of 250, corresponding to a fatness ratio
V/(0.mLY of 8.77. Partly to fill this gap there
are given in Sec. 56.6 the results of an analysis
of miscellaneous model-test data on fat forms
made by R. F. P. Desel and J. T. Collins.
Requirements and Design Notes for
76.11
Fishing Vessels.

references.
(2)

Moderate change

(3)

More than adequate

going ability, at

all

features are covered in Part 6 of

(4)

Easy motion

form

in reasonably

whether
a wintry, rock-bound

they work five miles

off

rough water, over a range of

(5) Reasonably dry decks, accepting spray but

no breaking seas or solid water, over the range of
speeds mentioned in (4), so that fishing can
proceed even in bad weather. The design comments of item (3) apply.

but not water

craft,

III.

well.

Ability to slow

ocean-going

These design

Volume

speeds where fishing gear can be handled. The

design comments of (3) preceding apply here as

(7)

robust,

wave-

to provide a good working plat-

fish

essentially

or above-average

speeds which can be main-

tained in the heaviest weather.

SNAME,

1951, p. 561]. Large or small, they are

between extreme
entering and

when

leaving the fishing grounds

all types and

by the requirement that
they must "keep the sea and work on it, all the
year around, and in all weathers" [Simpson, D. S.,

Fishing vessels of

sizes are characterized

of trim

operating conditions, such as

(6)

Extra-large freeing ports or freeing slots in

the bulwarks, screened to hold men, gear, and

down

or to heave to while

retaining steering control, so that the vessel can

be held in any desired position in wind and waves

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFf

Sec. 76.12

submergence of the propeller and

rudder, under wavegoing conditions, to give them
a hold on the water and to render the vessel fully
manageable
Sufficient

(8)

Minimum

J.O.Trauncj Model

Ship Lcnqlh -

19.51

540 q IV
m -o- 6401

771

ft

beam-bZ7m-o 2057_ft
Meon Drofl- 2.354rTr*T72

ft

when broadside or
when hauling in
gear and nets from abeam. The effect of driftresisting keels is discussed in Sec. 36.15; some
design rules for them are included in Sec. 73.19.
The drift-resisting effect of a deep hull, like that
(9)

drifting

of

nearly so to the wind and sea, as

New

of the pilot boat

36.K,

is

York illustrated in Fig.

appreciable.

(10) Positive

stability

conditions; this

of route

Volume III
(11) Ample speed

load

all

3.11

for running to

This feature

fishing grounds.

under

discussed in detail in Part 5 of

is

is

Ax" 10.347 m^

rather closely

Cx

related to the provision of a reasonably high

free-running speed for tugs. It

fishing vessels,

powered

like

tugs,

is

minimum

is

said in the foregoing about

importance. In other words,

it

ratio

is

of

little

can be as high as

beam does not

increase resist-

ance

The

(c)

It

center of

buoyancy should be well

possible that the position of the

is

aft.

maximum-

area section should also be abaft midlength.

(d)

Differences in the block coefficient

0.55,
(e)

have

The

little

(f

(g)

below

or no influence

Cp is of great imoptimum value of about 0.575

Transom sterns act to reduce resistance

The half-angle of entrance, or the waterline

.slope

(h)

Cb

prismatic coefficient

portance, with an

is in this region, should be low

Parallel

middlebody and sharp shoulders are

to be avoided. Fig. 76.

of Traung's models.

ft

Traung's Model 340a

Data from the Japanese fishing-vessel standard

and summarized in Sec. 56.4.

series are referenced

The
fitted

multiplicity of longitudinal fender bars

on some

steel trawlers to

by heavy

prevent damage

banging
probably more objectionable
from a maintenance standpoint than for the added
resistance which they cause. A construction much
to be preferred from all points of view is described
to the shell plating

along the side

and

is

illustrated in Sec. 73.22

76.r.

It

embodies heavier

complete absence of

form

fishing gear

and
shell

Figs.

73.Q and

plating and a

applied appendages in the

all

of fender bars, fender shapes,

and fender

strips.

A combination of controllable propeller and

swinging tubular rudder or Kort nozzle, designed
for astern as well as

ahead propulsion,

excellent combination for a fishing craft.

required for other reasons.

Enlarging the

32

J.-O.

resistance

The displacement-length

(b)

IN.

O.TOI

are invariably over-

and shaft power to meet the

several requirements, there is no more excuse for
unnecessary resistance and Uttle more excuse for
unneeded power in a fishing vessel than in a
craft of any other type.
With respect to fishing vessels as a class,
Jan-Olof Traung has come to the following conclusions concerning the effect of form parameters
on resistance, based upon analyses of tests on a
considerable number of models [Int. Fishing Boat
Congr., Paris and Miami, Oct-Nov, 1953, "Outline
to a Catalog of Fishing Boat Tank Tests"]:
(a)

Body Plan, European Fishing Boat,

Fig 76.G

why

one reason

for their size.

While nothing

-H-'2.56

and from the

G illustrates the lines of one

an
Such

is

a combination, designed by the Swedish naval

architect Jan-Olof Traung, is illustrated and
described in Motorship, New York, Jun 1950,
pages 42 through 44.

Modem Bibliography

on Fishing
on the design
and construction of fishing vessels, say for the
period following the year 1930, is very extensive.
This is not surprising because, although the average fishing vessel is less than 100 or 125 ft in
76.12

Vessels.

Partial

The modern

length, the

literature

number of t3T)es and kinds is incredibly

large.

An

insight into the great breadth of this field

and the variety

in it

is

afforded

by a reading

of

the excellent recent book entitled "Illustrations

772

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

of Japanese Fishing Boats."

Although pubUshed

Tuna

by the Fisheries Agency

of Japan, in 1952, the

man primarily responsible for it is Atsushi

Takagi, Chief of the Fishing Boat Section of the
Fisheries Agency.

Among

Sec. 76.12

Clippers

Trawlers and Sealers

Whale Catchers
and Exploration

Fisheries Research

Vessels.

other information the

Historical

book contains the following:

(1)

Simimary tables of the Japanese fishing

by types of vessels and kinds of engines,
made up of some 23 or 24 categories

Owen,

and General
"Outstanding

G.,

New

England Types

(a)

Fishing Boats, Whalers, and Yachts,"

fleets

HT,

Tabulated characteristics of 42 typical vessels,

from whale factory ships to fisheries training

(2)

"Ships and Sailing Albums," Book 4, Kalmbach

Publishing Co., 1027 No. Seventh St., Milwaukee
3, Wis. Describes New England fishing schooners.

(3)

Cunningham, D.

(b)

boats, giving general information, principal di-

mensions, capacities, form coefficients, and related

data for light- and full-load condition, as well as

(4)

37 entries for each vessel

Forty photographs of typical fishing vessels,
both large and small
(d) Technical data on 50 typical fishing vessels,
comprising general arrangement plans, lines
drawings, displacement and other curves, machinery and piping arrangements, fishing gear arrangements, refrigeration installations, and the like.
The data presented are not the same for all
vessels. The largest vessel has 15 plates of data;
the least important vessels 3 and 4 plates.
(e) All dimensions are in the metric system.

(5)

full-scale trial data;

B., "Notes on Trawl Fishing,"

lESS, 1948-1949, Vol. 92, pp. 260-330
Hardy, A. C, "Seafood Ships," Crosby, Lockwood &
Son, Ltd., 20 Tudor St., London, E.C.4., 1947
Symonds, R. F., and Trowbridge, H. O., "The

Development

(c)

Atlantic,"
(6)

"A Review

(7)

D.

S.

(9)

"Pacific

which follow are

under the headings:

and General

Model Tests
Design and Construction
Small Vessels

Miller

Freeman

Publications,

Washington.
(10) Articles about fishing boats, but with fewer drawings,

Columbia

St.,

Seattle

4,

are published in:

Fisherman,"

Goffstown,

Atlantic

Inc., 71

(11)

Freeman

Columbia

St.,

Seattle

4,

The U.S. Government Fish and

publishes

the

Review." This

monthly
is

Inc.,

Washington

25,

Publications,

Washington.
Wildlife

"Commercial

Service

Fisheries

by writing to the
Department of the Interior,

obtainable

Service at the U.S.

Model

Fisherman,

New Hampshire

"Pacific Fisherman," Miller

D.C.

Tests

ships."

specific references

Historical

1951, p. 582

Motor Boat,"

Inc., 71

(12)

The

Con-

London, Apr 1952

There are many references to be found under the

heading "Fishing Vessels" in the Engineering
Index Summaries of the SNAME Member's
Bulletins, dating from 1946 to the present
Many journals publish news on current trends in
fishing-boat design and construction. Generalarrangement drawings of new fishing boats can
normally be found in every issue of the following

"Atlantic

for convenience

of the British Fishing Industry,"

journals:

is

and factory

the North

Yachting Magazine, 205 East 42nd Street, New

York 17, N.Y.
The Rudder, 9 Murray Street, New York 7, N.Y.
"Fishing Gazette," Fishing Gazette Publishing
Corporation, 461 Eight Ave., New York, N.Y.

tions,

trawlers

in

1947, pp. 359-384

Simpson gives 8 references to papers and

on fishing and fishing-boat design in

SNAME,
(8)

is "Fishing Boats of the World," edited by

Jan-Olof Traung and published by Fishing News,

important to emphasise that 'Fishing Boats of

the World' is not meant to be a book on naval architecture.
It is a book dealing with that part of fishing boat design
which is missing from all textbooks on naval architecture,
and it is so written and presented that everyone concerned with building fishing boats can find its illustrations
and information of practical value. It is not suggested that
the book contains information about every type of fishing
boat, but it does provide a comprehensive survey of a great
number of boats, from beach landing craft to modern

Beam TrawHng

articles

A more recent informative book, of international

"It

of

SNAME,

tinental Daily Mail,

scope,

London, 1955, through A. J. Heighway PubhcaLtd., Ludgate House,

107 Fleet St.,
London, E.G. 4. The following explanatory paragraph is copied from the letter forwarding the
first of these books from the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations:

of

SNAME,

1943, pp. 145-151, 163-164

listed

(13)

Nordstrom, H. F., "Forsok med Fiskcbiitsmodcllcr

(Tests with Fisliing Boat Models)," SSPA Rep. 2,
1943; English summary on pp. 30-32 and 5 references on p. 29
Traung, Jan-Olof, "N^gra Erfarenheter FrSn Tank-

med FiskebS,ter (Some Ex-periences of Tank

Unda Maris, Goteborg
Yearbook of the Nautical Museum, 1947-1948.
The paper carries a summary in English on pp.
forsok

Tests with Fishing Boats),"

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.12

65-68 but there

a complete English version in

BSRA Transl. 58. A very comprehensive paper,
with a list of 40 references on pp. 62-63.
"Skarpning av FiskebS.tars
Jan-Olof,
(14) Traung,
Fijrskepp (Finer Entrances for Fishing Boat
Hulls)," Goteborg Yearbook, 1948; translated by
the

is

BSRA

Traung, Jan-Olof, "Svenska Tankforsok med Fiskeb&tsmodeller (Swedish Tank Tests with Fishing
Boat Models)," Norwegian Shipping News, 1949,
No. 9; translated by the BSRA
sheets for fishing vessels
(16) There are SNAME
available as indicated hereunder. Some form
coefRoients and proportions are listed under
"TRL" on page 35 of SNAME Tech. and Res.

(26

"Modern Development of the Herring Drifter,"

SBSR, 30 Apr 1942, pp. 468-470. Gives outlines

(27

"4rcterMs-Shrimp Trawler with New Idea," Motorship, New York, Jul 1947, pp. 26-28, 30. Length
108 ft, beam 25 ft, and designed draft 7 ft.
Dyer, J. M., "The Development of the Columbia
River Gill-Net Boat," SNAME, Pac. Northwest
Sect., Oct 1947

of profiles, with freeboard

body

(15)

(28:

RD

Shows

Length,

Beam,

Draft,

Speed,

ft

ft

ft

kt

number

HI

Trawler
Trawler
Trawler
Trawler
Trawler
Trawler
Trawler

123
125

126
127
142
157

130

110.5
144.4
227.5
59.2
119.8
124.7

28.5
22.48
27.1
38.55
16.96
25.67
24.6

12.5

13

10.69
12.8
17.18
5.12
11.0
11.48

11
11

transom
(33

1943,

(36

A.,

FAO

Fishing

1951,

Food and Agricultural Organization

International Documents Service,

Bulletin,

(37:

(25a) Traung,

Jan-Olof,

tecture,"

FAO

"Fisheries

and

(38:

(39:

(4o:

(41

in

published

FAO World Fisheries

by the FAO Headquarters in
the

Abstracts,

Rome.

Dec

"Twin

Steel Diesel Shrimpers,"

sterns.

F.,

J.

"The

Fishing,

SNAME,

W.

J.,

Processing Vessel

Pac. Northwest Sect., 27

"Northwest Yards Launch Fishing

May

1951, pp. 44-45.

Clippers

Snyder, G., "Stability of Tuna Clippers," SNAME,

Pao. Northwest Sect., 3 May 1946
Mann, C. F. A., "Sun Traveler A 121-Foot Tuna

Mar

1948,

52

"Tuna purse

seiner Santa Helena,"

Diesel Prog.,

"New Baby Tuna-CUpper

C. F. A.,
Conqueror," Diesel Prog., Feb 1949, pp. 30-31
Petrich, J. F., "The Tuna Clipper," SNAME,
Mann,

North. Calif. Sect., 31 Mar 1949

Pugh, M. D., "The Tuna Clipper Carol Virginia,"
Motorship, New York, May 1949, pp. 18-19
Mann, C. F. A., "Tuna Clipper Mermaid," Diesel
Prog., Sep 1949, pp. 42-45
Mann, C. F. A., "Mary E, Petrich World's Largest,"
Diesel Prog., Oct 1949, pp. 40-41. Describes and
illustrates tuna clipper with an overall length of
150 ft, a beam of 34 ft, a depth of 16 ft, and a

maximum

speed of 13.75 kt.

A., "Tuna Clipper Hortensia-Bertin,"
Diesel Prog., May 1950, pp. 54-55

(43:

Mann, C. F.

(44:

Barbour, H.

(45:

Tuna Clipper," Diesel Prog., Sep 1950, pp. 46-47

Mann, C. F. A., "A Temporary Lull in Tuna Clippers

Fisheries Bulletin, 1955, Vol. VIII,

No. 4 (in English), FAO, United Nations, Rome.

(25b) A good review of current literature on fishing-vessel
design and construction throughout the world is
given

(42:

of the

Naval Archi-

Processing

Jun 1948, pp. 41-42

Jan/Feb and Mar/ Apr

2960
Broadway, New York, N.Y.
Henschke,
"Schiffbautechnisches
Handbuch
W.,
(24)
(Shipbuilding and Ship Design Handbook),"
1952, Section on "Fishing-Vessel Design," pp.
592-613
U.N.,

A.,

Clipper for San Diego," Diesel Prog.,

Pao. Northwest Sect., 26

Traung, Jan-Olof, "Improvement of Fishing Vessels,"

Granberg,

p.

569, 571, 574-579, 581

(23)

Goodrich,

Tuna
(35:

of

"ScantUngs for Small Wooden Vessels,"

Aug 1950
(22) Simpson, D. S., "Small Craft, Construction and
Design," SNAME, 1951, pp. 554-611, esp. pp.
561-564 on the trawler, and drawings on pp. 564-

R.

F.

Craft," Diesel Prog.,

ments.

SNAME,

Fish

Pac. Northwest Sect., 9

Diesel Prog., Jan 1951, p. 47. These vessels are 54

ft long by 16 ft beam by 6 ft depth, with wide

(34;

(21) Smith,

Coast

"Pacific

SNAME,

Mann, C.

pp. 95-103
(18) Spanner, E. F.,

Motor Fishing Vessels for the Herring

Industry Board," SBSR, 5 Jun 1947, pp. 566-567.
Lines drawings are given of two 65-ft experimental
herring drifters, based on previous model e.xperi-

with large

(32

12

"Seaworthiness and Stability of

Trawlers and Drifters," Joint mtg. INA and
lESS, 24 Sep 1946. Abstracted in SBSR, 26 Sep
1946, pp. 354-356; 3 Oct 1946, pp. 381-382.
(19) Holt, W. J., "Admu-alty Type Motor Fishing
Vessels," INA, 12 Apr 1946, pp. 295-307

65-ft vessels

(3i:

10

INA,

and

1949
Robison, D., "Diesel Draggers," Diesel Prog., Apr
1950, pp. 56-57

Design and Construction

"New Type

Nickum, G. C,
Vessels,"

12

11

sheer, as well as

sterns.

Deep Sea,"
Apr 1951

(17) Taylor, A. R., "Fishing Vessel Design,"

(20)

several 60-

transom
(30;

Type

and

plan.

"Presenting a Group of Fishing Vessels Powered by

GM-Diesels," Diesel Times, Mar 1948, pp. 7-8.

(29

Bull. 1-14, Jul 1953:

Sheet

773

Small Vessels

(46:

J.,

"Marilyn Rose,

Pacific's

Newest

Ends with Diesel Powered Modego," Diesel Prog.,

Jan 1951, p. 53
Hanson, H. C, "The Tuna Clipper of the Pacific,"
SNAME, 1954 Spring Meeting. This is a wellillustrated and informative paper; see also SNAME
1954, pp. 30-42. For the 130-ft vessel whose

HYDRODYNAMICS

774

IN SHIP DESIGN
Exploration Vessel,"

data have been worked out for a 17-ft draft:

Sect.,

L =
S =
) =

130 ft
30 ft

L/B

ratio

4.33

S///

ratio

17 ft

A/(0.010L)3 = 494
F/(0.10L)3 = 17.32

1.76

A = 1,085 long
Cb = 0.648

tons

V =
hr

11.7
=0=

Mann,

Fireboats or Firefloats.

76.13

1947, pp. 359-384, esp. pp.

371-384 on Trawler Design

(48) Shearing, Douglas, "152-foot Ti-awlers for French
Fishing Industry," Diesel Prog., Feb 1948, p. 56,
with photograph of trawler Clair de Lune. Single
is
ft,

of

200/60

variable pitch, with

of 8.83

and 4

is

11 kt with

blades.

Speed

ft,

P
n

3.33 rps.

Sealer (Terra Nove) on Maiden

Voyage, Diesel Prog., Feb 1948. Lqa is 140 ft, B
is 28 ft, and D is 14 ft. Speed is 9 kt.
(50) French fishing trawler Saint Joan, Proc. Am. Merch.
Mar. Conf., 1949, p. 292. A photograph shows
rather well the form of the hull amidships and the
form of the run, with the single propeller and
(49) Diesel-engined

rudder.

Oct 1949, pp.

(51) Diesel trawler Giidrun, Diesel Times,

Length

1-2.
(52)

is

115

ft

and beam 23

139. This vessel has a length of 185

30.5

a depth of 16 ft, and a speed of 13.63 kt.

H. E., "Large Trawlers," INA, Apr 1954;

ft,

(53) Jaeger,

May

1954 issue of The Motor

Ship, London, pp. 62-63.
abstracted in the

Fireboats

as

the earliest of mobile special-

from the
In Europe these vessels are normally

vessels themselves nor the class will ever be large,

type

the

yet

problems

it

interesting

is

complex

the

for

poses in naval architecture and marine

engineering.

The service requirements involving hydrodynamics, listed hereunder, are adapted from a
paper by A. D. Stevens [SNAME, 1922, pp.
137-141 and Pis. 44-52], from a group of excellent
articles

in

Motorship [New York,

May

1950,

pages 17-57], and from a more recent paper by

D.

S.

They

Simpson [SNAME, 1951, pp. 564-568].

down more or less in the order of

are set

their importance:
(a)

Instant availability and prompt arrival at

the

fire.

This involves free-running speeds of 11

to 14 kt, in the present stage of development,

ft.

Trawler," SBSR, 31 Jan 1952, p.

ft, a beam of

"A Powerful Motor

among

called firefloats. It is probable that neither the

SNAME,

of 6.175

Oct 1947

service vessels, dating in the Americas

Symonds, R. F., and Trowbridge, H. O., "The

Development of Beam Trawling in the North

propeller

Northwest

Pan.

C. F. A., "Diesel Ship John N. Cobb," Diesel

Apr 1950, pp. 40-41.

a class are

Trawlers and Sealers

Atlantic,"

SNAME,

Prog.,

mi per

10.16 kt

Cw = 0.88
Cx = 0.88.

Cp = 0.732

(60)

1870's.

(47)

Sec. 76.13

curves of form arc given in Fig. 11, the following

depending upon how far the craft has to travel

from its station.

Extreme maneuverability, involving a high

(b)

degree of handiness, rapid response, and ability

to

move

in almost

any

direction. In particular,

the boat must be able to steer and maneuver

Whale Catchers

when backing.

(54)

Matthews, L. H., "South Georgia: The British

Empire's Subantarctic Outpost," 1931, pp. 123,
125-126

(55)

Granberg,

Dec

W.

(57)

"Diesels go

Whahng," Diesel Prog.,

wooden vessels,

North Pacific whaling.

Norway's New Whale-Catcher Ships, Nautical
Gazette, Jan 1951. Mentions a 16-kt speed with a
brake power Pb of 2,400 horses.
Whale catcher Setter II, SBSR, Feb 1952, p. 55.
This vessel has an Lqa of 177.5 ft, an Lpp of 160
ft, a depth D of 17.5 ft, and a mean draft, fully
loaded, of about 15.6 ft, including a bar keel
115 to 140

(56)

J.,

1949, pp. 34-35. Describes

ft long, for

about 0.62
ing

is

1,080

and the
(58) Shearing,

The displacement correspondlong tons. The trial speed is 15.3 kt,

ft

deep.

"The Whaler Enern," Diesel

Prog., Sep 1953, pp. 36-37. This vessel has an

LoA
a

of 210

ft,

of 18.33

engine

is

an Lpp of 186.5
ft.

ft,

of 33

ft,

and

The brake power of the single

rpm or 3.75 rps,

2,700 horses; n is 225

V is 16-17 kt.

and the speed

Fisheries Research
(59)

and Exploration Vessels

Hanson, H. C, "The Conversion

at the discharge nozzles

of Pacific Fisheries

only a moderate
say not in excess of 6 deg, when all fire-

(d) Stiffness sufficient to give

list,

fighting

nozzles

are

directed

abeam, and discharging at

(e)

full

horizontally

and

capacity

and for
power should
to the fire; an

Flexibility of drive for propulsion

pumping. The greater part

of the

be available for taking the vessel

equally large portion should then be available

for
(f)

vessel has a single screw.

Douglas,

(c) Ability to stay put in the position and at the

heading desired, under the reaction forces exerted

pumping water.
Freedom from clogging

suctions

if

only slightly exceeding

must

also

of

the

fire-pump

the boat has to operate in water depths

These suctions
and debris floating

its draft.

remain clear of

ice

at or near the surface.

(g) Ability to push or pull on vessels in an
emergency, like a tug. This involves propulsion
devices with large disc areas or equivalent-disc

areas Aa

In terms of screw propellers this means

DESIGN OF SPECIAL PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 7r,.J5

775

jamming

that they are neither too small nor too heavily

to prevent the craft from

loaded

when running free.

Too much attention need not be paid to a
hull of minimum free-running resistance, if other

piles

(h)

draft should be a minimum consistent

with other characteristics
(5) There should be no excessive keel drag or
(4)

and the hke.

filling

may

to

be accepted

if it

leads to a better all-around

firefighting craft.

Harbor icebreaking

(i)

features,

called for; see

To

achieve maneuverability and handiness in

of possible fires:

70 to 80 to 90 ft are adequate. Lengths of 110

and 120 ft are approaching the extreme; 125 ft
possibly the

SNAME,
(2)

maximum

[Parsons,

H. de

B.,

1896, p. 49].

The length-beam

ratio should not exceed 5.0.

between 4.0 and 4.5.

(3) The sides should have continuous curvature,
as for a tug, to enable the heading to be changed
readily when the vessel is alongside a pier or
another ship. The ends should be well rounded.
Preferably

it

should

so placed as

in the propeller outflow jets.

reaction forces at the discharge nozzles or

H and
by the example given later
in this section, can be very large. They are
counteracted by one or more of the following
indicated numerically

(1) The craft should not be too large. Depending

upon the pumping capacity required, lengths of

is

lie

monitors, illustrated pictorially in Fig. 76.

Sec. 76.26 following.

and around scenes

out of the lateral plane at either end

The rudders should always be

The
if

between

The

more important features are thereby improved.

As a rule, the pumping requirements call for
plenty of power so that a not-too-high hull drag

(6)

itself

lie

Fig. 7b.

procedures or devices:
(7) Constantly moving the fireboat or holding it
on a certain heading with its propulsion device (s)
turning over. This may involve a corresponding
shift of the water streams to keep them playing
on a desired spot of the fire.
(8)

Passive

drift-resisting

keels,

described

in

These are a help

at times but they are not adequate for all possible
Sec. 36.15, or the equivalent.

situations.
(9)

The

provision of one or more swinging or

rotating-blade propellers. This method, however,

T. Lunyley With Jeis in Action

Photograph by Lawrence Barber, Portland, Oregon

Honolulu Fireboat Abner

HYDRODYNAMICS

776

necessitates either an accepted projection of the

swinging propellers and rotating blades below
the hull or cutups in the hull forward and aft to

accommodate these devices. There is generally

not room within the vessel, nor would there
always be room under it, for retractable propellers of any kind. The cutups involve an increase in thrust deduction and a loss of efficiency
but there are several successful apphcations of
this kind.

ferryboat installation, equally appli-

is that on the Virginia ferry

Northampton, where a Voith-Schneider rotatingblade propeller under the bow supplements the
twin propellers at the stern [Motorship, New York,

cable to a fireboat,

New

York,

Aug

may

(10) It

1950, pp. 26-27, 43].

at times be possible to turn a few

of the jets in the opposite direction, to balance

some

of the reactions

from the

firefighting jets

Concentrating the monitors near midlength

of the vessel avoids the turning or swinging
moments set up when monitors near the ends
(11)

IN SHIP DESIGN

Low turbulence,

a more "solid" jet, and projection

more water to a greater distance is achieved
by slowing down, straightening out, and quieting
the water immediately ahead of the nozzle. There
of

is

insufficient information available in connection

with Fig. 76.

are

carrying

to indicate

in

that

how

far the five jets

Nevertheless,

case.

the

photograph clearly reveals that a considerable

amount of water is dissipated in the form of
spray and would probably never reach a fire into
which the jets were directed. The reader who is

may
W. Howe, and

interested in this aspect of fireboat design

consult a paper

by H. Rouse,

J.

D. E. Metzler, entitled "Experimental Investigation of Fii'e Monitors and Nozzles" [ASCE,

1952, Vol. 117, pp. 1147-1188]. Improved designs
recommended for nozzles and monitors are shown
in Fig. 3(c), Table 1, and Fig. 21 on pages 1152,
1172, and 1174, respectively, of the reference
cited, and in Fig. 76.1 of the present section.

An arrangement of underwater reaction jets

might be thought more efficient for holding the
fireboat in position because these would impart
momentum to some of the surrounding water in
same

Jet Diameter Dj

are playing.

the

Sec. 76.13

direction as the jet. It

is

to be

Nozzle

remem-

bered, however, that neither force nor pressure

is

communicated backward through a fiquid jet, at

least not for distances more than a few times the
jet diameter.

The

reaction force

is all

developed

when

accelerating the water in the nozzle, so the

force

is

against
it

made no

some

greater

fixed obstacle

into the water.

When

by playing the

jet

nearby or by directing

the nozzle reactions are

used to augment the propulsive thrust to get

the fireboat free of a hot spot in an emergency,
playing the jets horizontally into the air gives

Referenced

One important

Monitor Recommended by the Iowa Institute

OP Hydraulic Research

feature of fireboat design in-

hydrodynamics

has to do with the

monitor nozzles. This is measured
by the percentage of the total quantity flow of
water that can be delivered per unit time at the
greatest possible distance from the nozzle, reckoned
on the basis of the quantity rate passing through
the nozzle. A jet which disintegrates on its
way to the fire or which has a short trajectory is
inefficient. Breaking up of the jet in the air, as
well as failure of the water to "carry," is a func-

In the design recommended by the

efficiency of the

tion of the turbulence existing in the water

its

in

Improved Design of Fixed Fire-Fighting

Fig. 76.1

the greatest reaction.

volving

See Rq,2I
the Text

For Further Details

upon

entrance into the large end of the nozzle.

illustrated here, there are

removing

turbulence,

one

IIHR and

two honeycombs
in

the

stand

for

and

another in the barrel. Flow in the 90-deg corners

is

facilitated

nozzle

is

by the guide vanes shown. The

simpler than, and superior in perform-

ance to orthodox designs.

To

obtain an idea of the reaction exerted by

the vertical swiveling part of a monitor, comprising a nozzle fed from a horizontal 90-deg branch

on each

side,

assume that the barrel fed by these

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Scr. 76.11

branches

is

than 2

orifice, slightly larger

diameter

J^TPB

2g

Assume

EH,

n
29

2g

per

ft

sec",

specific

(76.i)

that the salt water being

weight

and that the pumping pressure

psi.

1950, pp. 65-66]

{9Vnf

further that the acceleration of gravity

32.174

pumped has a
150

produces a 2-in

energy equation [Rouse, H.,

is

in,

As the same water passes through

= (672')FB.rrei = 97^ From the

jet.

both, Fjet

and that the nozzle

of 6-in diameter,

of 64 lb per ft^,

in the barrel

is

Then
64.35(150)144

2gps

\w(9'

fQ4

1)

16.5

64(80)

whence Vj = 9(16.5) = 148.5 fps. As the feeding

branches come into the barrel at right angles,

AV is also

148.5 fps, reckoned in the jet direction.

Then F

upward and both

balances

forces

moment of
moment of the

the

these

By
lift

negative

buoyancy.
Tipping the submarine over on its side, in
imagination, produces the fireboat equipped with
both bow rudder and stern rudder. Swinging the
leading edges of both rudders toward the fire
produces a lateral force to counteract the nozzle
reaction force. It is to be remembered, however,
that the hft produced by the bow rudder, without
the benefit of a propeller outflow jet, varies
directly as the first power of the rudder angle
and as the square of the water velocity past it.
A 4-kt current might easily give the required
lateral force forward, with not too great a rudder
angle, whereas this might be difficult to obtain,
with a large rudder angle, in a 1-kt current.

Appended

is

a brief

of references relating to

list

supplementing those mentioned at the

fireboats,

is

are exerting positive Uft.

adjusting the angles, the

the force on the vertical-swiveling

nozzle assembly,

777

the leading edges of both sets of planes point

beginning of this section:

F = pQAV
Parsons, H. de B., "Fire-Boats," Cassier's Mag.,

(i)

1.9905

r i48.57r(l)^
144

1 148.5

958

May
lb.

1896, pp. 28-45. This article carries a con-

siderable

amount

of historical

data and

many

illustrations.

The

horizontal

reaction

on the fireboat

is,

(ii)

data on 24 fireboats

cosine of the angle of elevation of the nozzle

above the horizontal. The transverse reaction on

the boat is the horizontal reaction times the sine
of the angle which the nozzle makes with the
boat centerline.
It is sometimes necessary to hold a fireboat
reasonably stationary in space in a tidal current
or flowing river. The propulsion devices turning
over slowly furnish the necessary force to breast
the current but there remains the problem of
holding the craft transversely against the waterjet reaction forces

if

An

yaw

C.

C,

"Centrifugal-Pump

Fire-Boats,"

1908, pp. 211-228 and Pis. 116-121

Seattle Fireboat Alki, Diesel Prog., Mar 1949, p.

(v)

Robison, D., "Milwaukee's

43

New

Fire Boat Deluge,"

Diesel Prog., Oct 1949, pp. 24-25. The overaU

length is 96.58 ft, the waterhne length is 93 ft,

and the molded beam

is

23

ft,

with a draft of 6.75

ft.

(vi)

Houston Fireboat Captain

Crotty,

MESR, Dec

1952,

pp. 86, 112

Fireboat John D. McKean for New York City,

Mar. Eng'g., Feb 1953, pp. 79-80; Sep 1954, pp.
54-58; SBSR, Int. Des. and Equip. No., 1955,
pp. 68-69. The Lqa is 128.75 ft, the L^l 125 ft,
the B 30 ft, the D 14.25 ft, and the H^^^ is 9.25

(vii)

New

(viii)

"The World's Fire-Fighting Boats," SBSR,

slightly

the stern planes a slight dive angle; in this position

West,

(iv)

the

toward the direction of the

fire and balance the transverse yawing force
against the combined nozzle reaction forces.
However, the design situation here is exactly
comparable to one frequently met with in submarines, where it is necessary to hold the vessel
at about zero trim and at a given depth against
relatively large amounts of positive or negative
buoyancy. For negative buoyancy this is done
by giving the bow planes a slight rise angle and

II,

SNAME,

the monitors are playing at

expert boat handler can possible

SNAME,

and III give detailed

dating from 1875 through
I,

1895.
(iii)

right angles to the current direction.

fireboat

Parsons, H. de B., "American Fii'e-Boats,"

1896, pp. 49-64. Tables

roughly, the nozzle-assembly reaction times the

ft;

there are 2 screws.

Int.

Des. Equip. No., 1956, pp. 61-65.

76.14

Propelled

Distinguishing Design Features of Self-

Dredges.

self-propelled

suction

an example of a ship
acted upon by other than hydrodynamic (and
dredge, while digging,

is

aerodynamic) forces. This is because practically

all of them draw up the bed material through one
or more drag pipes, inchned aft and downward.

HYDRODYNAMICS

778

Each

of these pipes

has a scraper of some sort

and a large mouth adjacent to

through which the bed material is carried by

at its lower end

it

suction, suspended in a powerful stream of water.

At

upper end, possibly also at other points

length, the drag pipe is hinged or swiveled
about a horizontal, transverse axis. The scraper
and the pipe may thus be lowered to the desired
depth when digging or drawn up above the
baseplane (and the waterplane) when the dredge
is running free.
its

along

its

dredges may have two drag

outboard on either side, or a single
pipe, lowered through a long center well. A
diesel-electric twin-screw hopper dredge of the
latter type, having a length of 290 ft and a beam
of 58 ft, is illustrated in the technical hterature
[SBSR, 8 May 1952, p. 48; also 9 Apr 1953, p. 42].
Most large model-basin estabUshments have
tested models of self-propelled dredges (for example,
models 3132, 3175, 3597, 3633, and
Self-propelled

pipes, one

TMB

3779),

and some

of

them have made

resistance

tests of drag-pipe assemblies at various attitudes

and speeds. Unfortunately, however, much

of

this information is so speciahzed that it has not

found

its

hterature.

way into the technical and reference

The drag encountered by the scraper

units depends

upon the nature

of the bottom,

the depth of cut being made, and other factors.

The ahead

resistance

occasioned by the

mouth

and the

lateral forces

of the drag pipe

when

scraping on the bottom, and the hydrodynamic

moving
not exactly com-

resistance of the inchned drag pipe(s)

ahead through the water, are

parable to the towhne tension on a tug or to the
wind force on a sailboat. Nevertheless, the dragpipe resistances and scraper forces caU for
increased propeller thrust and they may interfere
with steering.

self-propelled

dredge

usually

scrapes

or

dredges in shallow water, with a small bed clearance. Furthermore, it necessarily scrapes at slow

more than the usual rudder effect

it under control and moving in
the desired lanes. This means that the rudder(s)
must be of greater-than-normal blade area and
that they must be placed in the outflow jets of

speed, so that
is

required to keep

propellers, to provide the necessary lateral forces

at low speeds.

Aside from

ground and hydrodynamic

and their gear, the
principal resistance components pecuUar to selfthe

resistances of the drag pipes

propelled dredges are the pressure drags developed

IN SHIP DESIGN
by the

Sec. 76.14

form
under the hopper doors. If the
doors, opening downward, are not to swing below
the baseplane the recesses are unavoidably deep.
The greater the hopper capacity of the dredge the
discontinuities in the bottom, in the

of large recesses

more

recesses there are.

Hopper-door recesses in the bottoms of selfpropelled dredges of a half-century ago are illustrated by T. M. Cornbrooks [SNAME, 1908, PI.
140], where one port and one starboard row is
indicated. Each recess is 4.42 ft wide and about
3 ft deep vertically. There are 6-in by 6-in by
5/8-in angles all around the lower edge of each
recess, projecting both into the recess and below
the bottom of the ship. The two rows of recesses
are shghtly over 6 ft apart, measured to their
inboard edges. Recesses in later designs of dredges
are similar, indicated by the hnes drawings of

SNAME RD
Technical

sheet

103 and of

Memorandum

The whole
the bottom

ETT

Stevens

100.

subject of hopper-door recesses in

is

discussed in Chap. VIII, pages

213-250, of the Scheffauer reference hsted near

the end of this section. Several conical

valves of a

new type

dump

are illustrated in this refer-

They practically ehminate the large hopperdoor recesses and the hydrodynamic resistance
generated by them.
Most self-propelled suction dredges, with their
limited draft and large underwater volume, have
large B/H ratios. That of the 247-ft hopper dredge
ence.

described in

SNAME RD

sheet 103

is

3.08, at

load draft. For other vessels of this type it is

4.5 or more. At reduced draft, as when returning

from the dumping ground to the dredging

the

B/H

This type of hull definitely

calls for

a twin- or

[SNAME,

1947, pp. 97-169].

easier to shape a twin-screw stern of

multiple-skeg stern
It is

area,

ratios are considerably larger.

much
beam and

small draft with double skegs than

with a normal form. Further, there is every
reason to anticipate a better flow around the
twin skegs, although the resistance may suffer
because of the increased wetted area. Certainly it
is far simpler to hang twin rudders abaft twin
skegs carrying propellers than to mount them
under a normal-form stern of generally V-shape.
As an indication of the percentage of time during
which a self-propelled seagoing suction dredge is
large

running to and from the dumping grounds, T. M.

Cornbrooks shows that for a working period
of about 7.5 days, during which time the dredge
made 44 complete round trips, it was outward

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.16

bound to the dumping ground and inward bound

traveUng like a normal
about 31 per cent of the total time

to the dredging area,

vessel, for

[SNAME,

1908, p. 249].

Since the

dumping ground must

of necessity

(12) Scheffauer,

Dredge;

be some deepwater area where the refuse will not

interfere with navigation in the future, and since

"The Hopper
Development and Operation,"
Engineers, U.S. Army, Washington,

C.

F.

(editor-in-chief),

Its History,

Off. of Chief of

Gov't. Print.

may

be rather well out to sea, self-propelled

dredges must possess a reasonable amount of
freeboard, sheer, and reserve buoyancy.
A brief list of references, limited almost exclusively to seagoing, self-propelled dredges of the
it

779

There are two 27.5-inch diameter suction pipes, one

on each side, with swivel joints below the waterline.
The pipes are 72 ft long and the vessel can dredge in
water up to 50 ft deep. There are twin spade rudders
and 9 hopper doors under the bottom.

Off., 1954.

An

extensive bibliography

given on pages 375-376 of this reference. The

following is taken from the Preface on page ix, as

is

applying to this book:

"It

is

not a manual by the use of which a novice

may

design a dredge, but rather a guide for the use of

those who may be engaged in the construction and

hopper type, follows:

operation of plant of this character."

(1)

(2)

(3)

Robinson, A. W., "Hydraulic Dredging," Cassier's

Mag., Nov 1896, pp. 37-47
Cornbrooks, T. M., "Sea-Going Suction Dredges,"
SNAME, 1908, pp. 247-249 and Pis. 140-146

"The United

States Suction

American,

Scientific

494. This vessel

Jun

Dredge New Orleans,"

and p.

1912, front cover

had a single centerline drag pipe,

on the scoop to help break up the

(4)

with water jets

mud in the river bed.
Styer, W. D., "Hydraulic Seagoing Hopper Dredges,"

(5)

Vaughn, H.

SNAME,

(6)

(7)

1924, pp. 28-48

B., Jr.,

"Seagoing Hydraulic Hopper

1941, pp. 262-299

Dredges," SNAME,
Barakovsky, V., "The Dredgers," Schip en Werf,
10 and 24 Jan 1947
Freeh, F. F., "Design and Construction of Seagoing
Hopper Dredges with Special Reference to
Essayms," SNAME, Phila. Sect., 27 Apr 1949.
Abstracted in the publication Motorship, New
York, issue of Sep 1949, beginning on p. 38. See

MESR, Dec. 1952, pp.

Mar 1954, pp. 48-57.

also

74-75,

and Mar.

Eng'g.,
(8)

McCarthy, E. W., "Hopper Dredge

Barranquilla) for Government of
Naut. Gaz.,

Mar

(Ciudad de
Colombia,"

1950, pp. 14-15, 37. This

is

twin-screw dredge having a hopper capacity of

1,000 cu yd, an overall length of 240.5 ft and a

speed of 11
(9)

The

kt.

general

features

of

six

shallow-water

hopper-type

self-

dredges

are

described and illustrated in Diesel Times,

Apr

twin-screw

propelled
1951. This

article also describes the seagoing, self-

propelled, twin-screw hopper dredge Pacific, built

in 1937, as well as the self-propelled

hopper dredge

There

(ID)

1951-1952, Vol. 95, Part 6, pp. 438-484, esp. pp.

463-474; also Part 7, pp. 485-491. Paper is con-

cerned only with self-propelled dredges. There are

no diagrams

of

hopper recesses or doors but there

them on pp. 472, 483.

are discussions of
(11)

French suction dredger Charles

May

LoA 309
Lbp 291

Be

Belleville,

MENA,

1952, p. 221

49.25

ft

H 13.83 ft in fresh water

19.75 ft

Hopper capacity

is

35,310

ft^

a constant

Box-Shaped

demand

Vessels.

which has
the customary barge,

hghter, or scow but which

for a craft

is

able to

move

itself

from place to place without the services of a tug.

Very often an equally important requirement is
that the craft be simple, cheaply or rapidly built,
or both, with hull boundaries having easy curva-

ture or else none at

all.

The ultimate in this respect

was probably reached by the so-called "rhino

ferries" of World War II, built up in the field
by bolting together standard steel boxes having
the form of rectangular parallelepipeds.

The requirements

for

this

group treat the

being definitely
secondary to the load-carrying characteristics, yet
they are of httle practical use unless they can be
seK-propelled. The answer to this problem is to
propulsion

characteristics

as

flat sides and

by outboard drives
he below the bottom

accept the square corners and the

to push or pull them, or both,

with propellers whose discs

plane of the box. Swinging these propellers about
a vertical axis solves the problem of steering,
backing, sidUng, and maneuvering, all at once.
Lifting them up about a horizontal axis solves the
shallow-water, repair, and maintenance problem.
The complete power plants, in packaged units

that
for

float, are inserted in

them

niches or slots provided

box assemblies, or are attached

any convenient manner.

in the

temporarily in

A power unit with a rotating-blade propeller

might be used to propel a box-shaped craft,
except that the vertical blades projecting below
the plane of the bottom of the box would be
vulnerable in shallow water.
76.16 Self-Propelled Floating

Drydocks. A
drydock which can propel itself in the
open sea at a reasonable speed when nominally
unloaded, which can maneuver after a fashion,
floating

ft

ft

is

the carrying capacity of

Sandpiper, built in Montreal and used on the

Lake Maracaibo Bar in Venezuela.

Low, D. W., "Considering Dredgmg Craft," lESS,

Self-Propelled

76.15

HVDRODVNAAriCS

780

Fig. 76.J
Official

U.

propellers,

S.
if

Aerial View of U.

S.

TN SHIP

Navy

ARD

DESIGN

Type Floating Drydock

Navy photograph. The

gate which closes the stern is hinged horizontally along its lower edge. Screw
fitted for self-propulsion, would be close to the extreme stern and just inboard of the outside of the dock.

and which can control itself when hove to

heavy weather, has all the principal attributes
a ship, and is so classified here. Basically,

in

cargo, with the disadvantage that the "cargo"

of

one package, extending below

the water as well as above it. The self-propelled
floating drydock also may be considered as a
partly submersible ship with a large, U-shaped,

it

resembles a single-ended car ferry or a "seatrain"

in its ability to

accommodate a bulky, heavy

generally

all

in

is

DESIGN OF SPliCIAL PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.17

781

open docking recess and a tail gate, or as a singlesection floating drydock with a ship bow and the

intended for the propellers of

same

the after outer corners of the stern,

tail gate.

The question

whether any floating drydock

should be self-propelled is not at issue here.
These notes are included for the benefit of a
designer who may be called upon to lay out a
self-propelled craft of this type, whatever its
service or purpose may be. As a rule, he will be
called upon to work on a craft which is not
suitable for self-propulsion but must be made so

by

of

his resourcefulness or ingenuity.

An

early form of self-propelled floating drydock

with Ruthven hydraulic propulsion was illustrated by Vice-Admiral Sir E. Belcher many
years ago [INA, 1870, pp. 197-211 and Fig. 2,
PI.

I].

It

seemed

logical

at that time to use

hydraulic jet propulsion since the dock had to be

equipped with pumps in any case to handle the

water in its various compartments. A similar
type of drydock, proposed by G. B. Rennie [INA,
1883, Vol. XXIV, p. 225ff] was intended to be
propelled by six hydrauhc jets on each side,
indicated on Plate

XV

reproduced in Fig.

forward of the

The

positions originally

ARD

were under
slightly

tail gate.

not-too-blunt bow, illustrated in the Bureau

of Ships Journal photograph,

drydock or any craft of

is

a necessity if a
shape is to

this general

be self-propelled at a reasonable speed without

an inordinately large propelling power. Assuming
a 420-ft waterline length a nd a n upper limit of
speed of 10 kt, T, is 10/V420 = 0.488, F =
about 0.145. From Fig. 66.1 the optimum waterline entrance slope is 32 deg but since the graph
relatively steep in this region the slope could
be raised to 40 deg or more if other more important

is

requirements forced this change.

A floating drydock requires considerably more

bed clearance, or water under it, than the ships
being docked. Since the dock is often moored close
inshore, generally in areas not useful for operating
ships, the overall draft must be kept to a minimum.
This complicates the problem of where to put the
propulsion devices while retaining a reasonable

degree of efficiency in their operation.

of the reference.

dock with one screw propeller outboard at each after corner was proposed by L.
Clark in a somewhat later paper, supplemented by
some comments of W. Froude [INA, 1877, Vol.
XVIII, PL XIV, Figs. 2 and 3; also discussion
on p. 196]. Froude reminded the author (Clark)

similar

multiple-arch type of stern, similar to the

single-arch stern described in Sec. 67.16, appears

to

offer

the best promise

of

good propulsive

efficiency while maintaining the stiffness necessary

any floating drydock.

Such a stern would have a profile corresponding

in the floor structure of

approximately to that for the single-arch

that:

stern
"If

76..I.

you put a screw

run at

all,

any
the screw becomes

close to a ship, cut off without

the propulsive effect of

pellers could be large

floating

drydock

(ARD

1),

cap-

handUng a destroyer of the middle 1930's,

was designed by the Bureau of Yards and Docks
of the Navy Department and built for the U. S.
Navy in 1934. This dock was designed to accommodate propelling machinery and propellers for
self-propulsion but was never so fitted. It had an
overall length of 393 ft, a beam of 60 ft, and a
depth of 33 ft, with a maximum draft when
flooded of 30 ft. Bow and stern views of this dock
were published at that time and later [SBSR, 23
Aug 1934, p. 200; Motorship, New York, Apr
1950, p. 27; Mar. Eng'g., Apr 1954, p. 110, shows
able of

a stern view of the larger

ARD

8,

Lqa = 486

ft,

B = 72 ft].
A bow aerial

view of an ARD floating dock

appears on the front cover of Bureau of Ships

Journal for April 1953.

stern aerial view

is

ABC

and 67.0. The procompared to the fight draft,

in Figs. 67.

as their upper tips could extend above the

absolutely nil."

A ship-shaped,

shown

WL.

They would be protected excellently all around,

and they could even be made accessible for inspection and repairs by flooding the forward
dock tanks. The multiple skegs should give
excellent

stability

of

route,

and the multiple

rudders abaft them equally good maneuvering

characteristics.

The

design of a ship-shaped floating drydock

embodying skegs or rudders or

for towing only,

both at the stern, is discussed in Part 5 of Volume

III, under the design of towed craft.
for
Temporary Bows
of
76.17 Design
Emergency Running and Towing. A design

problem akin to that of shaping a bow for a

self-propelled floating drydock is laying out a
temporary bow on a ship which has lost its own
bow. Towing or pushing a vessel terminated at
its forward end only by a flat watertight bulkhead
is

an extremely precarious operation.

danger-

HYDRODYNAMICS

782

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.18

ously heavy load can be built up on the immersed

sketched at 4 in Fig. 76. K, should suffice for

area of such a bulkhead by dynamic action of the

water, even at low speeds. Indeed, a vessel with

reasonably rapid travel. If head seas are likely

only a portion of its bow caved in, but with a

hole by which the dynamic pressure at that point

any amount that

is

transmitted to the boundaries of the flooded

portion, can develop high

dynamic loads on those

boundaries, indicated by diagram

of Fig. 76. K.

A vessel damaged in this manner can and should

be towed with the undamaged end foremost,
even to the extent of towing stern first, without
benefit of the steering effect of a rudder at the
trailing end. A photograph of a large tanker
without a bow, being towed in this manner, is
reproduced in Shipbuilding and Shipping Record
[5

Jun 1947,

propeller

is

p. 559].

Under these conditions the

permitted to free-wheel,

if

practicable.

combination of square leading and trailing

ends, such as might be encountered on a transomstern destroyer with its bow broken off, may
result in some yawing or weaving during a towing
operation. However, if the damaged vessel is
towed with its good end foremost, the holding
bulkhead should remain intact and the ship

should stay afloat.

If the

bow

is

damaged

or missing,

and

it is

home under its own

bow is found adequate.

desired to bring the vessel

power, a rather blunt false

Straight sides and an entrance slope of 45 deg.

to be encountered, a rake to the false

bow

sides

found practicable up to 15
deg or so pays for itself in easing the impact
loads on the flat surfaces. Because of the flat
sides on the temporary bow, it can be expected
that the wavegoing loads on the hull, at reduced
speed, will be at least as large as on the undamaged
vessel at normal speed.
With a well-constructed false bow of the type
illustrated in diagrams 3 and 4 of Fig. 76. K and
in reasonably smooth water, it should be possible
to make at least one-third the speed to be expected
with the undamaged vessel. In fact, vessels have
made ocean crossings under their own power
with false bows very much blunter than the one
depicted in diagrams 3 and 4 of the figure.
One such ship was the U.S.S. Selfridge (DD 357),
which had its bow blown off in the South Pacific
during World War II. Fig. 76. L shows the vessel
in a floating dry dock with the false bow completed. A photograph of the vessel under way in
this condition is reproduced in the Bureau of
Ships (U. S. Navy Department) Journal for
May 1953, page 12.
A varia76.18 Floats for Pontoon Bridges.
tion of the box-shaped, load-carrjdng barge or
fighter is the moored float intended to support
is

Hydrostatic Pressure

Bulkhead is
Auqmented b-; B'ynomic Pressure
+Ap Developed at Blunt Bow
on

Biacjrame

1,2,

IrrtQct

and 4 Represent Plan Views

Waterline

at About the Surfoce

Any Rake up to
15

of

deo

IS

Probably

Benefit in

RouQh Woter

Fig. 76.

Schematic Design for Tempor-vry Bows of Damaged Vessels

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 16.19

783

mooring gear. In the case of rivers at flood

stage, the pontoon may lie at an angle to the
current even though when moored at a normal
stage it may have been in line with the current.
For floats or pontoons which are open and
undecked, adapted for nesting inside each other
in transit, adequate freeboard possesses an importance only slightly less than that of low drag.
If the floats are moored in relatively shallow
water, the bow-wave crests are augmented.
of the

Furthermore, when floats are placed close to each

other along the bridge, the water flows at augmented speed between them, with a consequent
dropping of the water level there. Even though

wave crests at bow and stern may be high,

each float drops bodily in the water, as does the
simple ship in diagram 1 of Fig. 29. B.

the

Yacht-Design
Requirements;
Some
Sailing- Yacht Design.
Yachts, defined as craft intended for pleasure, recreational,
competitive, or ceremonial purposes only, may
be classified first by size:
76.19

Aspects

Fig. 76.L

Temporary Bow Fitted to U.

(DD

S. S. Selfridge

357)

photograph. The waterhne slopes of

bow are very large, much larger than
are recommended for a craft required to make a
transocean crossing under its own power.

Official

U.

S.

of

Navy

this particular

(1)

manner

100 or 125

Medium, over 50

ft in overall

proper but not exceeding 125

of

pontoons for temporary bridges. In general these

pontoons must carry their loads in swift streams
or rivers, on the surface of which wind waves of
considerable height and magnitude are often
formed. The problem here is not exactly comparable to that of a towed craft carrying the same
weight at the same speed, equal to the velocity
of the river current, because the pontoon may
not be entirely free to trim. Furthermore, the
pontoon is usually anchored by a cable or chain
which leads downward at a considerable angle
and exerts an appreciable downward component
of force at the bow.
For almost any river, the current velocity at
center exceeds the mean current speed,
because of the retarded flow in the boundary
layers along the sides and over the bed. In a

in

ft

overall

hydrodynamic design purposes these

are essentially displacement-type ships.

(2)

large fixed weights over water, in the

Large, exceeding

length. For

(3)

Small, under 50

By
be

ft

length of hull

ft

m overall length

of

huh.

type and method of propulsion they

may

classified as:

(a)

Displacement-type,

only,

mcluding water

signed
(b)

by the

propulsion

These are usually de-

rules applying to larger vessels.

Semi-planing

mechanical

type,

only, including airscrews

(c)

mechanical

jets.

and water

propulsion

jets

Planing type, mechanical propulsion only,

including airscrews, water

jets,

gas

jets, rockets,

and the hke

(d) Sailing

yachts

with

auxiliary

mechanical

propulsion
(e)

Sailing yachts without mechanical power.

the

wavemaking drag may exceed the

friction drag. Since the downstream pull on each
pontoon varies as the second power at least of
the current velocity, and possibly as some higher
power, the increase of current velocity from any

The

design notes in Chaps. 66 through 75 of

this part should suffice for the hull

and propdev

medium yachts with

The semi-planing and

swift river the

design of the large and

source whatever

is

mechanical propulsion.
planing craft of groups (b) and (c) preceding are
classed as motorboats, for which design procedures
and rules are set down in Chap. 77. Some features
of sailing-yacht design are discussed subsequently

The

is

in this section.

it

not to be regarded hghtly.

an important factor because
the type, strength, and arrangement

overall drag

affects

Leaving aside for the moment the

sailing

yacht

HYDRODYNAMICS

784

which is intended purely for racing, certain general

and detail requirements apply to all yachts:

Appearance

(i)

principal one.

is

usually a major item,

To be

if not the
a true yacht, a craft must

look like a pleasure rather than a utihty craft.

Styles, tastes, and fashions vary with individuals
and change with time. No one but the owner can
say whether he wants a 3-kt houseboat to look
like a Roman chariot, or whether he wants a
40-kt speedboat to look Uke an airplane,
(ii) Accommodations for engaging in
manifold
activities, even on a small craft. At first sight,
this and the preceding item appear far removed
from hydrodynamics but they involve freeboard,
sheer, air and wind resistance of the hull and
upper works, and other features having to do
with maneuveiing and wavegoing.
(iii) Speed in smooth water, coupled with endurance and fuel capacity at some specified speed
(iv) Abihty to travel safely, and not too uncomfortably in waves, to ride out storms when hove
to, and to negotiate passages through inlets and
rivers with currents, tide rips, and choppy water
(v) Useful load-carrying capacity, generally on a

usable-volume

rather

This item
commodations.
basis.

(vi)

is

than

weight-carrying

closely related to that of ac-

Maneuverability, like other items to follow,

by the prospective owner

but can never be overlooked by the naval archiis

usually not specified

This includes the ability to handle the

craft, usually with a very large part of its volume
out of water, in high winds blowing from un-

IN SHIP DESIGN

(x) As is customary for all other sets of requirements in the book, items not related to hydrodjmamics are omitted.

The renowned yacht designer and builder

Nat G. Herreshoff laid great emphasis on quiet
smooth running in all his craft, and devoted much
time and attention to achieving this end. WhUe
of the noise made by mechanically propelled

most
craft

comes from the main and auxiliary machinof the vibration and rough running
well have a hydrodynamic origin. No specific

much

ery,

may

design rules are given here for insuring quiet

smooth operation

in a yacht. It is pointed out

only that these features are by no means negUgible

and relaxa-

in a craft intended for pleasure, rest,

tion.

sailing

yacht usually receives

makes

driving force and

its

the designer, and

it is

its

greatest

when

highest speed

running at a large angle of heel. It

is

the aim of

often possible, so to shape

the hull as greatly to increase

its effective

length

in the heeled position. This in turn, acts to decrease

the speed-length or Taylor quotient or the Froude

number and

make the

to

as the propelling thrust

yachts,

when driven

of

to

1.2

is

more easily
Most sailing

vessel drive

increased.

hard, reach Taylor quotients

correspondmg to a Velox wave

1.3,

length (from bow-wave crest to

first crest

follow-

somewhat greater than the waterline length

ing)

mth

at rest,

To

tect.

zero heel.

some

illustrate

of these features. Fig. 76.

a body plan of a one-design saihng yacht,

is

having a waterline length of 32.0

nished by Olin

favorable directions.

Sec. 76.19

J.

Stephens,

II,

ft,

kindly fur-

of the firm of

Practically any yacht which expects to run

open water should have adequate metacentric
height for a large range of stabihty. For the sailing
yacht there should be a positive righting moment
at 80 deg angle of heel. This means a reasonable
width of deck on the lee side, high watertight
coamings, self-baihng cockpits, and no internal
ballast which can shift when rolling or when
heeled to the extreme angle,
(vii)

in

(viii)

distribution of weights as nearly amid-

ships as possible, to keep

down

the polar

moment

Actually,

ot

30

when He

of inertia of the

whole craft about the pitching axis

For the saihng yacht, the maximum practicable performance as to speed, freedom from leeway, and steering with the craft running at an
angle of heel, when the underwater body is
definitely and drastically asymmetric about any
(ix)

longitudinal axis

Woe

the

the Yocht

de(),

Trovelinq

Inclined

Woterlii

for Heel of

is

So Post that

30

Profile Alters

ot which the DisplQ

the Surface Woterplone

deg.

Volume Equals That

Apprecioblij

Upriijht Conditic

Constructic

Sections

Fig.

76.M

Body Plan op Sailing Yacht with Inclined

Waterline

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.19

Spai'kman and
"plan there is

Stephens,

Inc.

On

this

785

body

drawn an inclined waterUne for a

when the main deck edge touches

heel of 30 deg,

the water on the low side, for the condition in

which the inclined volume

volume V.

equals the upright

Diagram 2 of Fig. 76. N gives a half-waterline

shape with the yacht upright; diagram 1 shows
the whole waterline shape in the inclined position
just described. This shape, corresponding to the
intersection of the hull with the level of the
undisturbed water at rest, is definitely unsymmetric, even about a diagonal line

drawn from

the stem to the extreme after end of the inclined

Waterline Offsets Are Measured from Intersection of Plane of

Undisturbed

401

S>

Shape

WL length.

case only, with the water surface undisturbed

by any waves whatever. The dynamic situation

when sailing is far different, even in smooth water.
At their top speeds these craft generate a very
pronounced Velox-wave system, with high crests
at bow and stern and a deep trough amidships.
The immersed length of the inclined waterline is
then considerably longer than that shown in
diagram 1 of Fig. 76.N, and its shape is probably
much different. There is a similar difference
between the at-rest inchned section-area curve
and the corresponding yl-curve when underway.
This difference may be greater than between the
upright and inclined A-curves of diagrams 4

and 3, respectively, of Fig. 76.N.

While considerable research has been and is
being carried on relative to the overall resistance
and propulsion aspects of saUing-yacht design
and performance, this should be extended to
cover the wave profiles and lines of floAV at various
angles of heel. Put in another way, attention
should be focused as much on the flow patterns
around the hull when underway as on its form
coefficients, section-area curves, and other parameters. All too often the latter apply only to the
upright condition, with the vessel at rest. In the
few modern books on saUing-yacht design there
is little

discussion of the hull characteristics in

the inclined condition [Skene, N. L., "Elements

of

Yacht Design," 5th

Sec. 29.8 mentions a

Allen

covering

ed., 1944, Fig. 45, p. 75].

much

older paper

some phases

of

this

by R. C.
subject

-13

Station^

The Waterline Lenqth

is the Station Lenqth

the Upriqht Position.
For the 30-de<j Heel Position the Reference Lenqth L3 is olso theL^L

1.0

analysis apphes to the static

Desiqne

Yocht Upriqht

1.0

WL, when measured parallel to the ship axis. If

measured along the diagonal broken line in
diagram 1 of Fig. 76.N it is about 1.012 times
The foregomg

of

Waterline with

WL has very nearly the same length as the upright

the upright

of Yocht

3j
2.0

waterline. For this particular yacht, the inchned

Woter Surface and Plane of Symmetry

HYDRODYNAMICS

786

to the center of resistance of the underwater hull.

Manj^ saUing yachts have transom

sterns.

these craft, where the propulsive power

is

On

limited

to that which can be derived from the wind, the

shape and position of the transom may be of

greater relative importance than on a high-speed
motor yacht or a destroyer. At slow speeds the
transom must definitely be kept out of water, to
avoid the separation drag abaft it. At higher
speeds it may be possible to accept the added
drag, especially if some of the deflection drag
behind the bow-wave crest can thereby be eliminated.

ratio

In

its

appear in the design of sailing

them may be mentioned the

ratios

Among

yachts.

ratio.

new

and the

sail-area

to

wetted-surface

simplest terms, the ballast ratio

ratio of the total weight of ballast,

is

the

both inside and

outside (portable and fixed in the keel), to the

total scale weight of the yacht. It ranges

from

for a

same order

magnitude

of

ratios against load

worked up
instance, an

water

fine

excellent

formance to windward

made-good

divided

is

basis
is

obtained

angles,

characteristics

Tank

been assumed by some yacht

due largely to friction,

so that speed and actual wetted area are the
major factors. They are indeed factors but it is
doubtful that they are the major ones. They are
in the semi-planing range

is

certainly not the only factors.

D. Philhps-Birt presents a discussion which,

though appUed to a sail-and-power craft called a
motor sailer, embodies a number of useful
comments on saihng-yacht design in general
[Rudder,

As an

May 1955, pp. 12-15, 46-55].

indication of the type of unpublished

data available on saihng-yacht design, and of

those to be expected in the not distant future, the
followmg is quoted from an article by A. B.
Murray of the Experimental Towing Tank,
Stevens Institute of Technology [Yachting, Dec
1946, pp. 62, 110]:

"However, a system of correlation has been worked up

which provides a useful yardstick of performance for sailing
yachts of all sizes. Upright resistance, speed-made-good,
leeway angle, stability, and balance are put into coefficient
forms which eliminate the effect of differences in length

close-hauled speed-

few

fixed values of

have been prepared

for a large

number of
means

new design,

besides indicating performance

trends.

"Another step was taken when a method was set up to

compare three important characteristics on the basis of
hull alone without effect of sails or center of gravity
.

position. This

compares hull resistance, leeway angles and

longitudinal center of lateral resistance for three heel

and

angles at a standard speed

tions of boat length.

of the

sail

By

stability

which are func-

separating hull characteristics

power, a more

critical analysis

may

bo

made

problem."

76.20

collect

Bibliography on Sailing-Yacht
While no attempt has been made to
all the published and unpublished referBrief

ences relating to the design of sailing yachts the

may

find the following brief bibliography

useful and interesting from a historical

and general

Harvey, J., "On the Construction and Building of

Yachts," INA, 1878, Vol. 19, pp. 150-158
Kemp, Dixon, "A Manual of Yacht and Boat Sail(2)
ing," Cox, London, 3rd ed., 1882
Kemp, Dixon, "Fifty Years of Yacht Building,"
(3)
INA, 1887, Vol. 28, pp. 232-246
Nixon, L., "Yachts in America and England,"
(4)
SNAME, 1894, pp. 261-277
Kemp, Dixon, "Yacht Architecture: A Treatise on
(5)
the Laws which Govern the Resistance of Bodies
Moving in Water; Propulsion bj' Steam and Sail;
Yacht Designing; and Yacht Building," Horace
Cox, London, 3rd ed., 1897. This is a veritable
treatise on naval architecture in most of its phases.
Crane, C. H., "Some Thoughts on the Design of
(6)
Modern Steam Yachts," SNAME, 1903, pp.
57-65
Erismann, M. C, "The Effect of the Universal Rule
(7)
in Recent Yachts," SNAME, 1906, pp. 223-241
Warner, E. P., and Ober, S., "The Aerodynamics of
(8)
Yacht Sails," SNAME, 1925, pp. 207-232 and
Pis. 133-146
Fox, Uffa, "Sailing, Seamanship, and Yacht Con(9)
struction," 1934
(10) Baier, L. A., INA, 1934, pp. 107-108. Gives a brief
discussion of form variations for sailing yachts.
(11) Stephens, W. P., "Yacht Measurement," SNAME,
1935, pp. 7-42
(1)

designers that the hull resistance of a sailboat

if

for a

tested boats. These charts give immediately a

information standpoint:

It has probably

characteristics. For
on which to compare per-

by \/Z

factor in the design of purely displacement types.

sailboats

chart

By similar methods, stability, leeway

and balance may be compared. Charts of all these

reader

small

increased. Plots of the

other performance

for

which run fast

enough to generate large dynamic lifts and which
approach planing speeds, although it is also a
to

is

make a convenient

true wind speed.

Design.

primarily

resulting ratios are of the

for comparison of hull resistance. Similar coefficients are

but the scheme remains the same.

saU-area to wetted-surface ratio appUes

The

for all lengths of boats, tending

to be smaller as the boat length

from the

The

resistances of the full size boat

few selected fixed speed-length ratios are divided by

the displacement in tons.

upon the beam

and other factors. There are rather elaborate
ways of defining ballast, by modern racmg rules,
0.25 to 0.35 or more, depending

Sec. 76.20

and displacement. Upright

for evaluating a

Several

ballast

IN SHIP DESIGN

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.21
(12) Burgess,

C. P.,

SNAME,

"The America's Cup Defenders,"

1935, pp. 43-70

B., "On the Building of a Yacht,"

Yachting, Mar, Apr, May 1935
(14) Davidson, K. S. M., "Some Experimental Studies
of 'the Sailing Yacht," SNAME, 1936, Vol. 44,
pp. 288-344. There is a bibliography on pp. 303-

H.

(13) Nevins,

(33)

"Thoughts on Yachts and Yachting,"

Uffa,

1939
(17)

(18)

Stephens, W. P., "Traditions and Memories of

American Yachting," 1942
Owen, G., "Outstanding New England Types of
Fishing Boats, Whalers, and Yachts," SNAME,

HT,

1943, pp. 151-164

N.

(23)

L.,

New

Mead,

investigated by tests of models.

"Symposium on Sailing Yacht Design,"
isfew

Engl.

Sect.,

May

18

SNAME,
SNAME,

1948; see

1948, p. 90

C, BNA,

(24) Barnaby, K.

1954,

2nd

ed., pp.

244-256,

Arts. 165-169 as follows:

(165) Sail Propulsion
(166)

The Gimcrack

New

Norton,

York, 1951
(27) Barkla, H. M., "High-Speed Saihng," INA, 1951,
Vol. 93, pp. 235-257. This is one of the few papers
in

Testing,"

INA,

11

and Ware, B.

"Yacht

Oct 1956

Beam That Makes

Asymmetric

76.21

Forms.

Hull

Although

which are buUt to travel upright,

a marine architect sets out
to design a vessel which has an underwater hull
of different breadth and shape on the port and
rare, for ships

they do

exist.

When

starboard sides of the construction centerplane,

he wants to be sure that his unusual creation will

be acceptable and serviceable.
Among the asymmetric-hull craft which have
performed exceedingly well, not only for years
but for centuries, there may be mentioned:
(a) The saUuig yacht and the sailing vessel.
Although almost invariably designed to have
symmetry about the centerplane when at rest,
they always present an asymmetric form to the
water when heeled and propelled at any apprecia-

The

by the wind.

These employ
asymmetric hulls to eliminate centerboards, leeboards, and similar devices, as described in Sec.
sailing canoes of Oceania.

They make use

them the required degree of

24.21 ,and illustrated in Fig. 24. M.

of outriggers to give

metacentric stability under

(c)

The gondolas

sail.

of the canals

The

individual

hulls

usually asymmetric about their

basis.

catamarans

of

(d)

of

literature which tackles the

yacht design on a fundamental, analytic

and lagoons

of

Venice, described briefly in Sec. 24.21

technical

the

problem

E.,

the Boat Go,"

Yachting, Jan 1957, pp. 146-147, 285
(36) Crane, C. H., "What Limits Speed Under Sail?"
Yachting, Mar 1957, pp. 53-56, 100, 102.
(35) Scheel, H., "It's

(b)

and "Lead"
(169) Sail Area and Power to Carry Sail
Barnaby, K. C, "Progress in Marine Propulsion,
1910-1950," INA, 1950, pp. J14-J15
Chapelle, H. I., "American Small Saihng Craft;
Their Design, Development and Construction,"
(168) Centre of Effort

(26)

Allan, J. F., Doust, D. J.,

able speed

Sail Coefficients

(167) Sail Plans

(25)

(34)

practical applications of the asymmetric hull are

"Elements of Yacht Design," DoddYork, 1944

(20) Herreshoff, L. F., "The Common Sense of Yacht
Design," The Rudder Publishing Co., New York,
1945. In two volumes.
(21) Aupetit, A., "Essais de Yachts (Tests on Yachts),"
ATMA, Jun 1946, Vol. 45, pp. 433-452
(22) Murray, A. B., "Towing Tank Developments,"
Yachting, Dec 1946, pp. 60-62, 110, 112. Abstracted in SBSR, 9 Jan 1947, p. 37. Devotes a
considerable amount of discussion to sailing yacht
design problems which have been or should be
(19) Skene,

is

list of

Davidson, K. S. M., "Model Tests of Sailing Yachts,"

The Rudder, Aug 1937, pp. 14-15, 56, 58

(16) Fo.x,

1955 issue, pp. 66-70, 112, 114.

Davidson, K. S. M., "The Mechanics of Sailing
Ships and Yachts," Surveys in Mechanics, edited
by G. K. Batchelor and R. M. Davies, Cambridge
University Press, 1956, pp. 431-475. There
17 references on p. 475.

304, 312.
(15)

787

Yachting, pp. 58-61, 94-98. Part II appears in the

Mar 1955 issue, pp. 71-75, and Part III in the Apr

own

are

construction

centerlines.

Bay Saihng

(28)

Douty,

(29)

Morwood, John, "Saihng Aerodynamics," Morwood,

(30)

Denes, Gabor, "Yacht Research," The Motor Boat

and Yachting, Dec 1954, pp. 524-525

J.

Vessels,"

F.,

"History of Chesapeake

SNAME,

Ches. Sect., 29

Nov

1951

Several

other

cases

present

themselves

in

practice:

123, Cheriton Rd., Folkestone, Kent, 1953

(31)

Yacht Research Council

(32)

of

Great Britain. Photo-

work shown in The

Illustrated London News, 4 Dec 1954, p. 1009.
Chapelle, H. I., "The Search for Speed under Sail:
An Outhne of the Development of Yacht Design
in America Until the 20th Century," a series of
several articles beginning in the Feb 1955 issue of
graphs

of

experimental

(e)

The

long, slender ship

which becomes shghtly

bent due to collision or other major damage.

When the expense of straightenmg it appears
exorbitant, the marine architect may be called
upon for an opinion as to whether it really needs
straightening or not.
(f)

Ships to ferry, to tend, or to house operating

aircraft,

such as airplane tenders and aircraft

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESfGN

Sec. 76.22

which the various mstallations and

the pressure resistance are exerted in a vertical

the weights can not be balanced transversely

(g) Ships for special operations which have

longitudinal plane through the center of buoyancy,

elaborate and expensive apparatus installed on

propelling thrust

one side only.

centerhne, there

carriers,

in

which appears reasonable, but that the resultant

is

exerted along the construction

a constant

is

moment due

to

these forces alone which acts to swing the ship

asymmetry designed into a

measured conveniently by the follo^ving:

The degree
is

of

hull

(i) The port and starboard partial beams, measured in the same way as for the half-beam on a
normal symmetrical vessel
(ii) The percentage of the maximum beam by
which the center of buoyancy CB is shifted from
its normal centerplane position. This is measured
by the transverse distance between the CB and a

vertical longitudinal plane through the construc-

tion centerhne, as

compared to the maximum

beam.
(ni)

The percentage

volume which

is

of

shifted

the total displacement

from one side

of the hull

toward the wide side. Unless the length-beam

ratio is less than 5 or 6, this constant turning
moment is fikely to be of small consequence
although it will always be of the same sign. It is
wise to augment the steering control for a ship
of this type over that provided for a normal
design. The augment may equal but need not
exceed the percentage by which the center of

buoyancy

is offset,

described in (u) preceding.

Design Problems in Multiple-Hulled

It sometimes happens that a large beam
Craft.
can be accepted for the purpose of carrying objects
which are bulky and awkward to handle but
76.22

relatively light in weight. It

may

be possible to

to the other, relative to the vertical longitudinal

improve the metacentric

plane through the construction centerline. For

example, if 53.7 per cent of the underwater volume
lies on one side of that plane and 46.3 per cent

bution in a craft by utilizing two or more widely

on the other side, the percentage of asymmetry

in volume is (53.7 46.3)/2 or 3.7 per cent.

The numerous form

ratios of various areas

coefficients

based upon

and volumes to the areas

same manner
asymmetric as for the symmetric ship.
A few notes may be set down for the design of
asjrmmetric hulls which are to be built that way,
parallelepipeds are calculated in the
for the

based upon the usual demand for reasonable if

not minimum power, maximum speed, and
acceptable maneuverability of the asymmetric
vessel, correspondmg to those for one that is
symmetrical:
(1)

The

CG

is

to be found in the

same

vertical

plane as the CB, offset from the construction

centerplane toward the wide side, with the vessel
upright and carrying the designed load
(2) The CB and the CG should, whenever practicable,

have essentially the same

offset for load

conditions fighter than the designed, to insure

that the ship remains upright at all drafts and

trims
(3)

spaced but narrow hulls instead of one wide hull.

The term catamaran is in this book restricted to
craft which have two hulls of approximately
equal

Based upon a construction centerplane that

passes through the hull terminations at the bow

and stern, the propulsion devices are usually, but

not necessarily mounted symmetrical to that plane

(4) On the assumption that both the friction and

size.

An

have one main

of

or volumes of the circumscribing rectangles or

stabfiity or load distri-

outrigger canoe

is

considered to

hull only; the outrigger

auxfiiary-displacement

device

is

a form

corresponding

float of a flying boat or

having one main hull and one
supplementary hull abreast on either side is known
as a trimaran. The side hulls may be of approximately the same .size or they may be smaller

somewhat to the wing-tip

seaplane.

craft

than the main hull.

In view of the many possible uses for towed or
self-propelled craft mth multiple hulls no attempt
is made to set down their requirements here.
The crux of a suitable design of water craft in

two separate hulls must move along

by side, is the shaping of the region
between the two hulls. Only rarely can the hulls be
made sufficiently short and narrow, compared to
which

easily, side

spread, that they may be considered as

independent bodies, hydrodynamically speaking.
If they are slim enough to produce relatively
narrow velocity and pressure fields, they may
still be long enough to cause interferences between
theii'

the surface-wave patterns between the hulls, as

shown in Fig. 76.0. The diverging crests of the
inside Velox wave systems will meet each other

on or about the construction

if there were a thin plate
mounted vertically between the hulls in that plane.

and be

reflected

centerplane, just as

DESIGN OF SPECTAL-PURPOSF. CRAFT

Sec. 76.22
Huli

p-Extreme Beam

Beom-.

Outside Phrtiol

Beam

poorly handled

789

may

even capsize. This

means that the burden of preventing leeway falls
on the leeward hull. Like the flying proa or the
sailing canoe of Oceania, described and illustrated
sail. If

it

and Fig. 24.M, the leeward hull

should therefore be flat (or nearly so) on the
outside and cambered in planform on the inside.
This means that whatever speeding up of water
occurs in the venturi section between the two
in Sec. 24.21

starboard

Construction Centerplane'"

Hull

Direction of Motion for Both

DioQrQms-

/of

Ends

of

Reflected

Crests

of the

of

Waves

Crests

of

-Diverqinq Waves

^..^a^rr7777777//////\'k////^77777Z7^;;^i:^

Starboard

Hull

Approximate. "xDirection
'"

Rudder

of

Motion of End^\of

Crests of

Fig.

DiveroinQ ^-^ Waves

ajjd Design Sketches

Catamarans

76.0

Definition

Thus instead

fob

of the inside crests of the Velo.x

system from the port hull traveling across toward

the stern of the starboard hull they are reflected
on the construction centerplane of the catamaran
and travel back toward the stern of the port hull,
whose bow genei'ated them.
Considering the small projected area of each
hull against which a stern-wave crest could push
it is perhaps wise, if possible, to have this reflected crest just clear the stern.

Assuming

that,

as illustrated in Fig. lO.B, the crest Unes diverge

an angle

about 20 deg to the construction

centerplane of each hull, Fig. 76.0 indicates
that the spread between the hulls should be at
at

of

the waterline length times the natural

tangent of 20 deg, or about ^.Z^ALwl
The waterline beam of each hull, port plus
starboard, depends greatly upon the amount of
weight that must be carried on a given length,
least

and upon the permissible draft. It may vary

from about O-OGLrt^ on a sailing catamaran designed to reach a Taylor quotient T, of 3 or 3.5,
to 0.12LjfrL

0.l5LwL

or

more on a

craft for

more

utiUtarian purposes.

catamaran is sail-propelled, the lee hull

immersed more deeply when underway than
when at rest, and the weather hull less deeply.
Despite the seemingly large spread between the
hulls, the craft heels somewhat to leeward under
If the

is

an advantage. It increases the magnitude

Ap's on the windward side of the lee
hull, which rides deeper in the water than the
windward hull. On the other hand, the clear
space between hulls must not be too small, else a
blocking effect takes place there. With a catamaran assembly of the type shown in Fig. 76.0,
the clear space between them should be not less
than 3 or 3.5 times the maximum waterline beam
of each hull.
If the catamaran is mechanically propelled the
planforms of the hulls are apparently not too
important provided the speed-length quotient T,
is not too large. Each hull may be symmetrical
about its own centerplane, or each may be flat
on the inside, as best suits other features.
Because of the ever-present difficulty of obtaining sufficient usable and protected volume within
the hulls of a catamaran, these huUs may be
flared rather sharply above the waterline, especially on their insides.
Bracing the two hulls against twisting in waves
is a structural problem but determining the loads
and forces involved is one of hydrodynamics.
Unfortunately no method has yet been devised
hulls is

/\pproximate Direction of Motion

for calculating their values.

Catamaran

hulls with flat bottoms,

if

properly

shaped, can be reUed upon to produce some dynamic lift, as in a planing craft. However, the
aspect ratio

bottom

is

usually too small to permit the

of such a hull to act as

an

efficient

planing

surface.
It is sometimes reported that the "tunnel"
formed by the inboard surfaces of two catamaran
huUs and the under surface of a large, horizontal
deck structure joining them has a special shape.
It is intended that the blocking effect of the air
trapped in this tunnel will provide a -f-Ap under
the deck and lift the assembly partly out of the
water. Something of this kind might take place
at values of T^ = 5 or more, but even then it is

most uncertain.
G. H. Duggan designed and built an unusual
form of saihng yacht, the Dominion of 1898, in

HYDRODYNAMICS

790

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.23

which two canoe-shaped hulls were combined

with a shallow scow type of hull. A small body
plan of this craft, accompanied by a photograph
of it under sail, is published in Yachting [Dec

most cases have to back

for

distances out of or into their

slips.

1946, p. 72]. In this case, however, the designer

variety of needs

did not have to concern hmiself too

air flow

much with

between the hulls because at

its

higher

speeds the craft sailed at a large angle of heel,

with only the leeward "canoe" in the water.

Sec. 25.23 contains a number of references to
catamarans and trimarans in the modern (1955)
technical hterature. Older Uterature goes back at

Dixon Kemp's "A Manual of Yacht

and Boat Sailing" of 1882 [Cox, London, 3rd ed.].
In Chap. XXVI of this book, pages 348-356,
entitled "Double Boats," Kemp describes and
least as far as

illustrates

a number of catamarans, including

by N. G. Herreshoff in 1876 and the

several built

Grasemann and G. W.
McLachlan mention two ships designed

years following. C.

P.
for

relatively

The

long

latter are

definitely special-service vessels.

Because they are intended to

it is difficult

fill

such a great

to formulate general

requirements for the hydrodynamic design of

ferryboats. A few of these, covering their special
features, follow.

For double-ended
(1)

vessels:

maximum beam, and draft,

contemplated shps
Abihty to start and stop promptly, at large
Limiting length,

for existing or
(2)

values of acceleration and deceleration, for cutting

down

the running time, for maneuvering, and for

emergency stopping
(3)

Excellent steering and maneuvering charac-

teristics.

Most

ferries are required to cross tidal

currents at large angles. Furthermore,

them

cross the

most

normal routes of water

of

traffic

English Channel service, each having twin hulls.

nearly at right angles.

The Castalia, built by the Thames Ironworks

Company m 1874, had two half hulls with the
inboard sides vertical. The Express, a more successful venture, buUt by Messrs. Andrew Leshe
and Company at Hebburn-on-Tyne in 1878, had

Great metacentric stability because all the

is above the main deck and it is well
to hmit the fist when the vehicle loads are not
symmetric or when the passengers all rush to
one side. This happens usually when the vessel is

two complete

hulls

["Enghsh Channel Packet

Boats," Syren and Shipping Ltd., London, 1939].

C. J. Wickwire describes the 35-ft catamaran

designed and built by D. and A. Locke of Detroit,

based upon careful design studies supplemented

by model tests [Lakeland Yachting, Jul 1953, pp.
28, 40-41]. The extreme beam is 12 ft; the individual hulls, flat on their outboard sides and

cambered on

beam

of 4.5

their inboard sides,

ft.

practice which

each have a

Certain notes relating to modern

may

be found useful in the design

embodied in a paper by R. F.
Turner entitled "Catamarans, Past, Present and
Future" [SNAME, Pearl Harbor Sect., 13 Sep
1955; abstracted in SNAME Bull., Oct 1955, pp.
of catamarans are

Requirements for and References on

Ferryboats. While most double-ended vessels,
whether self-propeUed or not, are intended for
76.23

the short-haul transportation of people, creatures,

their use

is

not neces-

type of service. They are

therefore considered here primarily as vessels
which must operate equally well in either direction. There are, to be sure, many one-direction
car and train ferries, running on longer routes,
which load over the bow or stern and which in
sarily restricted to this

carrying only part of

its full

load

[SNAME,

1926,

pp. 228-229].
(5)

Large

the abovewater body for in-

flare in

creasing the metacentric stabiUty as the load

displacement and the draft increase

Mar 1939, p. 109]

(6) An unnecessarily
height

is

large transverse metacentric

to be avoided because

the vessel to yield and to

strikes the "racks"
its slip

[MESR,

it

does not permit

roll readily

when

it

on either side when entering

[Stevens, E. A.,

SNAME,

1896, p. 100]

Large longitudinal metacentric stabihty, to

prevent the ends from being depressed unduly
when the weights are concentrated there, in loading or unloading [DuBosque, F. L., SNAME,
(7)

1896, pp. 95-96]

31-32].

and objects as ferryboats,

(4)

useful load

Large deck overhangs, sponsons, and the

because the useful load is one of volume
rather than of weight. At the same time the
overhangs must be kept clear of wind waves and
the ship's own waves.
(8)

like,

For single-ended
(9)

No

excessive

vessels:
flare

under the car-deck or

vehicle-deck level, to cause pounding and slam-

ming when wavegoing

(10)

If

required to back into, or out of long

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.23

adequate steering ability when running in

slips,

either direction

run in the open

(11) If intended to

sea,

or enough protection for that deck,

off of

on

191

p.

particulars

at

both ends, to keep menacing quantities of water

and Prins

Helsingborg, Storebaell,

enough

freeboard at the open end(s) of the car or vehicle

deck,

791

1908-1909, Vol. LII, pp. 180-193 and Pis. X-XIV.

This paper describes and illustrates the ferries
hsts

22 Danish

of

"A

(a)

Stevens, E. A.,

New York
(b)

"Some Thoughts on the Design

Ferryboats,"

SNAME,

209 and Pis. 46, 57

DuBosque, F. L., "Speed Trials
Ferryboat,"

SNAME,

and stern

(i)

HT, 1943, Fig. 6, p. 170.

The Boston Harbor ferryboats

which has

and

174 ft
with a hull beam of 40
ft

(j)

1902, pp. 15-21

and

Pis. 1-3.

Elect.

(k)

The

Name

L.

(1)

Slip,

Admty.

tons

Coeff.

per cent

Coeff.

Length,

Cincinnati

Netherlands

Edgewater

217
200
203
173

0.34
0.42
0.36
0.42

900
952
825
687

"The above data

16

18.5
18.5
14.5

154
133
144
173

SBSR, 14 Apr

diameter

8 ft
10.03 ft
10.19 ft
26.4 square

stern

Projected area, each

forsok

(e)

Stevens,

boat Bremen,"
E. A.,
Propulsion,"

(f)

DuBosque,

SNAME,

F.

SNAME,

(p)

Motorship,

(q)

S. S.

Ferry Boat
1905, pp. 1-7 and Pis. 1-4

SNAME,
L.,

"A

1906, pp. 7-29.

The

Ferry-boat,"

table on pp. 11-12

gives principal dimensions of ferryboat

(g)

(t)

Hammonton.

Olsen, H. M., "Danish State Railway Ferries," lESS,

Apr

E.,

1943,

"Modeli-

(Model Experiments with

7, 1947. Summary in Enghsh.
York, Aug 1950, pp. 15-29, 36-43
Farja

Aug

1950, pp. 33-35;

1952, pp. 42-45

sheets 27, 84, 100,

and 150

Ferryboat Pvt. Joseph F. Merrell, MESR, Feb 1952,

p. 61, showing wave profile; also Dec 1952, p. 85.
This vessel is 290 ft overall by 277.5 ft on the
14.25-ft WL, by 69 ft over guards by 49 ft beam of
hull at 14.25-ft draft. Propeller Z) = 20 ft and draft
is 13.17 ft in normal operating condition.
Great Lakes carferries Spartan and Badger, Mar.
Eng'g., Mar 1953, pp. 42-57

H
A
(u)

New

SNAME RD

in

Fire-proof

1938, pp.

SSPA, Rep.

Vacationland, Diesel Prog.,

also

1903, pp. 1-14

"Some Problems

med en

a Ferry),"

LoA

Stevens, E. A., "Progressive Trials of Screw Ferry-

May

SNAME, HT,

(o)

ft."

(d)

1938, p. 495; also 5

pp. 165-196, 378-380, 386-387

Nordstrom, H. F., and Freimanis,

173 ft
34 ft

bow

a midship section

Johnson, Eads, "Ferryboats,"

(s)

Pitch,

is

(n)

(r)

9 ft, 6 5/8 in
687 tons
5,764 square ft

128

PI.

590-591

"Dimensions of Edgewater:

Length on water-line
Beam on water-line
Draught to base on trial
Displacement to base on trial
Wetted surface to base on trial

1926, pp. 225-226].

San Francisco Bay ferryboat Hayward.

Mitchell, E. H., "The Design and Propulsion of Fast
Double-Ended Screw Vessels," INA, 1928, pp.
88-102 and PI. X

are close appro-ximations only."

P. 17.

Propellers

SNAME,

and Green, C, "Some Considerations in

Ferryboats," SNAME, 1926, pp. 217-

(m) Ferry Lymtngton with Voith-Schneider propulsion,

ft

Bremen

Double-Ended Ferryboats," Amer. Inst.

Coast Conv., Sep 1925. The

of the

following quo-

Block

The hull depth is 15.33

ft. The two propellers,

ft.

service draft 9

Design of
248 and Pis. 119-130.

SNAME,

DispL,

and

Engr., Pac.

Gross, C. F.,

Pis.

tations are taken in full

W.

and the

sion for

from this reference, p. 15:

"The following is the approximate performance of
several vessels of this class at about that speed:

Flaherty

illustrated in

general conclusions arrived at in this paper are

Stevens, E. A., and Paulding, C. P., "Progressive

Trails of Screw Ferryboat Edgewater,"

SNAME,

attached to two shafts bolted together amidships,

have a diameter of 7.5 ft and a pitch of 10.5 ft.
Kennedy, A., Jr., and Smith F. V., "Electric Propul-

32-35
(c)

bow

1921, pp. 826-830. The vessels are

long overall and 57 ft wide over the guards,

of

a Screw-Propelled

its

MESA, Nov

reprinted in
of

Lieid.

Ralph J. Columbo are described and

1893, pp. 192-

1896, pp. 93-104

12

propellers carried at the ends of a fin

keel e.xtending below the hull; see also

78,

went to some pains to Ust the specific

design requirements which may be expected for
such a craft. Supplementary requirements are
given by F. L. DuBosque and E. A. Stevens in
two papers describing screw-propelled ferryboats
for New York harbor [SNAME, 1896, pp. 93-104
and Pis. 32-35; SNAME, 1893, p. 192].
Other useful references on this subject are:
pp. 381-412],

and

are

Wyckoff, C. D. S., MESA, Oct 1921, pp. 750-751.

This article describes and illustrates the diesel-

Diesel-Electric

Paddle Ferry-boat" [lESS, 1934-1935, Vol.

there

ferries;

electric ferryboat Poughkeepsie,

E. Denny, in a paper

Table

entries per vessel.

(h)

it.

M.

Christian.

the principal dimensions

=
=
=
=
=

0.656

410.5
59.5
24.0

ft

Cb

ft

Ps =

ft

V = ISmphor

18.5

ft

Twin screws

7,000 horses, normal

15.66kt

8,860 t

Ferry Carabobo for Venezuela, Mar. Eng'g., Dec 1953,

p. 76; Dec 1954, p. 73

LoA
Lpp

=
=
=

162 ft
161.67
42 ft

D =
ft

A =

12

ft

Sh
850

HYDRODYNAMICS

792
(v)

Crown
pp. 58-59; Dec 1954,

San Diego-Coronado

Apr

1954,

LoA = 242. 13
Lpp = 230 ft

over guards

B of
D =

ft

City,

ferrj'

65.13

79

= 46 ft
17.25 ft
approx. = 11.5

ft

p.

Mar. Eng'g.,

A =

hull

995

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.24

both propellers must exert thrust simultaneously to accelerate the craft at the high rates
If

required for short runs, or to drive

it

at the re-

quired speed, the type of propelUng machinery

ft

preferably such as to permit varying the rates

is
t

and delivering the maximum power

is done by:

of rotation
(w) Lengthened ferry Princess Anne, Mar. Eng'g., Jul

to each propeller. This

1954, pp. 66-67, 81. After conversion,

350

ft

Lpp = 340

ft

D =

Lqa

over guards

H
(x)

(y)

59

and

propeller, connected

single 10.5-ft

Characteristics of Propelling Plant

and

Propulsion Devices for Double-Ended Vessels.

When

simplicity of propelling plant

requirement,

as

usually

occurs

is

a primary

described in

Sec.

of rotation.

33.8,

This means, as

propulsive coefficient

is

hkewise low. This situa-

was described admirably by F. L. DuBosque,

well over a half-century ago, and it has improved
tion

little, if

any, since that time:

"The usual speed of this boat in ferry service is 11

miles per hour, and at this speed it requires 20 per cent
more power to propel the boat with two screws than with
one screw pushing, and 69 per cent more power to propel
the boat with the screw at the

bow than

at the stern.

same power could be put into one screw at the

as is used by the two screws, the speed would be

If the

stern

increased from 11 miles to 11.53 miles per hour. It

clear, therefore,

that the

bow screw

is inefficient.

is

When

(generators)

and pumps are

not installed for each motor.

Uncoupluig the bow propeller and permitting

(3)
it

to free-wheel, while the vessel

by the

stern propeller. This

is

is

driven entirely

possible only

if

either propeller can deUver the necessary power.

uneconomical as it seems because of

fraction and greater propulsive
efficiency for the stern propeller. To be sure, it
requires the fitting of some kind of clutch, fluid
couphng, or free-wheehng device between the
prime mover and each propeller.
Model tests with ferryboats having all three
methods of propulsion, carried out in the Swedish
It is not as

the higher

State
(a)

(b)

wake

Model Basm

at Goteborg, are described in:

Nordstrom, H. F., and Freimanis, E., "ModeUforsok

med en Farja (Model Experiments with a Ferr}'),"
SSPA Rep. 7, 1947. Summary in EngUsh.
Nordstrom, H. F., and Edstrand, H., "Propulsion
Problems Connected with Ferries," SSPA Rep. 17,
1951. Entirely in English.

that neither propeller

runs at an efficient advance coefficient, and the

shafts

electric,

dynamos

separate

on ferryboats

are coupled firmly to the same shaft so that they

by separate

hydrauhc, or other type

of drive in which individual motors on each
propeller shaft are driven from a central generating
plant. This is not too difficult even though

designed for short runs, both end screw propellers

run at identical rates

Utihzing an

(2)

diameter propellers at each end of the vessel. The

power which can be applied to each propeller is
about 3,000 horses; 10 per cent of this is delivered
to that propeller which is at the bow on any one
run and 90 per cent to that at the stern. The trial
speed is 15 kt at 171 rpm.
De Rooij, "Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Figs. 801
and 802 on pp. 374-375.

76.24

Providing a separate prime mover for each

(1)

ft

Ferry Cameron, Mar. Eng'g., Aug 1954, p. 63

Automobile and passenger ferry Evergreen State;
see Mar. Eng'g., Jan 19.55, p. 70; Diesel Progr.,
Mar 1955, pp. 40-41; Diesel Times, Nov 1955, p. 7.
Said to be one of the largest ferries of its tjrpe in
the world, with a length of 310.17 ft, a beam of
73.17 ft over the guards, a beam of 53.5 ft at the
waterline, and a depth of 23.25 ft. At a draft of
15.0 ft it displaces 2,022 tons. There is a dieselelectric drive to separate shafts

(z)

19.1ft
10.5 ft.

For a ferryboat which travels bow first on its

runs, which enters its shps either bow first or
stern first, and which is handicapped by narrow
slip clearance, cross winds, loose ice, and the hke,
an admirable solution is to employ an under-thebottom rotating-blade propeller at the bow. This
may supplement one or two rotating-blade propellers or screw propellers at the stern.

The bow

augments propulsive power when desired, provides powerful lateral forces and steering
effects at the bow, and creates a backward flow
of water at the head of the ship when entering a
shp, so as to clear out debris and ice [Virginia
propeller

under way, it thrust a column of water against the bow

of the boat at a velocity equal to the shp ratio of the
screw, and considerable power is absorbed through friction
of the blade surface; but a ferryboat's bow becomes its
stern at each succeeding trip, and it is therefore impossible to dispense with the forward screw" [SNAME,

ferry Northampton, Motorship,

1896, pp. 94-95].

when underway.

The

1950, pp. 26-27, 43].

this

arrangement

is

that,

if

York,

Aug

drawback to

the rotating-blade

and are not used to

they must always be idled

propellers are not retractable,

help propel the vessel,

New

principal

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.25

Brief design rules for feathering paddlewheels

on a double-ended ferryboat are given in Sec. 71.7.

It is emphasized in Part 5 of Volume III, under
the discussion of retardation and acceleration,
that to be able to start and stop properly, the
propulsion devices of a ferryboat must have a
thrust-producing area,

Ao

equal

equivalent to

or

in Fig. 15. G, that is large in

size of the vessel. If

these

must have a

comparison to the
driven by screw propellers

relatively large blade area as

well as a large diameter.

Sometimes the necessary

blade area can be achieved only by increasing

SNAME,

the propeller diameter [DuBosque, F. L.,

1896, p. 103].

76.25 Design Notes for Ferryboat Hulls and

Appendages. The relatively large metacentric

793

the designed waterline of the ferryboat Cincinnali,

described in reference (b) of Sec. 76.23 preceding.

complete set of lines for a double-ended ferryboat taken from Het Schip, issue of February
1929, is reproduced to small scale by W. P. A.

van Lammeren, L. Troost, and J. G. Koning

[RPSS, 1948, Fig. 195, p. 289].
Because thrust deduction is developed both
abaft the bow propeller and forward of the stern
propeller, it is important if both work simultaneously that the hull be fined as
ticable abaft

and ahead

much

as prac-

of these propellers. This

fining should extend for at least 2 and preferably

3 propeller diameters abaft and ahead of the
respective propeller discs. Actually, the form of

hull adjacent to screw-propeller positions

and the

height required for a ferryboat calls for a large

propeller clearances are determined for each end

designed

by the rules of Sees. 67.23 and 67.24,

on the basis that that propeller pushes from the
stern. The resulting design should be entirely
adequate for a propeller which pulls from ahead.
The combination of length to afford adequate
space on deck, large waterUne area for metacentric stabifity, and fining of the ends results in
a block coefficient Cb that is extremely low compared to its value for the average cargo vessel.
The first table accompanying reference (c) of
Sec. 76.23 shows a range of Cb from 0.34 to 0.42.
Because of the full waterline endings, described
elsewhere in this section, and of the large speedlength quotients at which modern ferryboats
run, the heights of the bow- and stern-wave
crests are factors to be reckoned with in design.
The necessary clearances must be provided above
the wave profile and under the sponsons or
supports for the deck overhang, as well as the
necessary freeboard for normal running. In
addition, there must be some assurance that a
heavily loaded vessel will not take water over the
main deck when encountering or passing through

waterline,

with respect to

in

all

loading

conditions,

displacement volume. Because

the cargo to be carried is one of volume rather
than of weight, the length and beam are also
its

large with respect to the displacement volume.

This means a small maximum-section

and a rather large beam-draft ratio.
It

area,

may

be expected that with

small

maximum-section

its

coefficient

large waterline

coefficient,

and

relatively shallow draft the ratio of the wetted

huU to the factor \^L

be large. This means a large wetted-surface
coefficient Cs
perhaps so large as to be off the

surface S of a ferryboat
will

graph in Fig. 45.G.

Rather clever shaping of the waterhnes is called
for to achieve a fineness at the ends which will
avoid undue pressure resistance because of wavemaking forward and excessive pressure resistance
due to separation aft, yet which will provide the
square moment of area about the pitching axis
called for by (7) of Sec. 76.23. If this can not be
accompUshed, it is usually the hull resistance
which has to suffer. Fig. 76. P is a plot of half of
scale of the

3-ft

6-ft

9-ft

12-a

15-ft

propeller,

Buttocks

Fig. 76.P

Half-Body Plan and Half- Waterline foe

New York

Ferryboat

Cincinnati

HYDRODYNAMICS

794
high waves

Feb

Dec

made by another

1951, p. 28;

MESR, Feb

1952, p. 85;

vessel [Naut. Gaz.,

1952, p. 61;

Mar. Eng'g., 1954,

this case the encountered

wave

bow wave. Running

the ship's

is

p.

MESR,
In

12].

superposed on

over shoal spots

IN SHIP DESIGN

mth

ferryboat

Sec. 76.26

a plated-in sponson.

additional buoyancy and righting

emergency,

by waves and

gives a far

it

affords
in

foreign objects,

cleaner appearance to the

Some

and meetuig the unexpected waves which often

craft as a whole.

come along

to these sponsons are found in Sec. 68.12

at inopportune times

can greatly

reduce the nominal main-hull freeboard above

these crests. Solid water over the large deck areas

Fig. 68. K.

at the ends can be disastrous.

is

Double-ended and double-direction craft are

invariably fitted with double steering rudders.
Because of the excessive torque imposed on a
bow rudder if it is allowed to SAving and to take

page

an

eliminates fouling of a long row

it

of strut supports

and

It

moment

An

notes and sketches relative

and

admirable view of the hull of the

ferryboat Evergreen Stale, embodying this feature,

November

published in Diesel Times,

1955,

3.

The

hulls of

many

ferryboats lend themselves

this kind, to be

A few of
found on ferryboats in service,

its

are illustrated in

SNAME, HT,

inefficiency as a steering device, for the reasons

and 20 on pages

172, 174,

part in the steeling action, to say nothing of

to the use of straight-element forms.

explained and illustrated in Sec. 37.11 and Fig.

37. G, it

is

preferable to lock the rudder mechanic-

1943, Figs.

9, 11,

and 179, respectively.

Special Problems of Icebreakers and

76.26

An

Iceships.

icebreaker

is

a special-service vessel

ally at the

end which happens to be the bow.

The steering control to that rudder is disconnected or de-energized, a centering pin is dropped
into the top of the rudder, and the vessel is steered
only with the rudder at the after or trailing end.
For this reason, each rudder is required to provide
the entire control necessary for maneuverability

breakmg up and making its way

through heavy floe ice, pack ice, and soM sea ice.
It makes navigable lanes for other vessels as well
as for itself. Indeed, it may be called upon to
tow other vessels through these lanes, or to push
on another icebreaker ahead of it when the going

of the vessel.

involving great power on a limited length and

Even though
as

it

located in a propeller outflow

should be, the rudder(s)

should be relatively large, to enable

traffic,

to

and leave

maneuver promptly
its

jet,

of a ferryboat
it

to dodge

in a fog, to enter

berth in a cross tidal current, and

need be.
Ice guards and rope guards are often fitted
ahead of bow rudders and abaft stern ones. If
these extend continuously around the outer
rudder profile, from the hull above to the rudder
shoe below, they form effective rope guards
[Graemer, L., Schiffbau, 11 Oct 1911, Fig. 4,
to turn around,

if

and Pis. 1-2; WRH, 15 Dec 1939, p. 381].

However, if they are bent inward accidentally,
even only shghtly, they foul the rudder and
prevent its swinging. They have one advantage

p. 4,

that they create a separation zone of sorts in

which the larger part of the rudder blade lies,

so that excessive torque is not apphed continually
on a rudder at the leading end of the vessel.
Conversely, they may vibrate transversely because of alternate eddies shed abaft them. It is
therefore best to

make such a

guard,

if fitted,

sort of prolongation of the sides of the rudder

blade.

There is much to be said in favor of supporting

a long, wide deck overhang on each side of a

capable

of

particularly

gets

rough.

exceptional sturdiness,

very

fit tie

is

such that

Like a tug,

can carry

it

it

is

its

often called

own

upon

services.

to deliver

forward (and astern) thrust at or near

zero speed. This thrust, furthermore,

to overcome forces other than

dynamic

duty,

useful load, either in weight or volume,

other than that required for

maximum

primary

Its

its

is

required

own hydro-

resistance, just as its structure

is

required

to withstand forces other than those imposed

upon

An

it

in wavegoing.

and constructed
adapted to traveling in heavily iced waters
without the necessity for breaking solid ice and
making its own water lane. It is intended to be
capable only of withstanding ice impact and
traversing an ice field which has previously been
broken up by an icebreaker or by natural causes
such as wind and swell. As a rule, the iceship is
of more-or-less normal form, although it may
have a Maier bow, intended to ride up on and
break through not-too-tliick ice. Its hull plating
iceship is a vessel designed

for, or

thick at the waterline belt, at least, and its

framing is heavily reinforced. It is, in fact,
designed and constructed for carrying cargo or
for some other primary mission. Its abiUty to
make its way through and to withstand not-toois

heavy

ice is purely

secondary ["Ships for Arctic

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.26

Use" (designations T-AKD-1 and T-AK270),

Maritime Reporter, 15 Sep 1955, pp. 11-13].
No specific requirements other than the general
functions Usted in the two paragraphs preceding
are given for icebreakers and iceships because
the service varies rather widely.

vessel suitable

and convoying large vessels

through the Northwest Passage, for example, is
for breaking a lane

entirely

unsuitable

for

clearing

out

small

harbor and working around slips. The details of

ship handling in various kinds of ice are mentioned in a

number

of the references of Sec. 76.27

following, but are given in

more methodic fashion

in the 1948 Edition of the British Antarctic Pilot,

Chap.

I,

pages 42-54, under "Ice Navigation."

While the process of bucking ice is in no sense a

hydrodynamic action there are major hydrodynamic problems involved. Considering the
solution of these problems and the selection of
design features for an icebreaker (not an iceship)
in somewhat the same order as in Chaps. 64
through 68 for a surface ship, the appended list
supplements one previously given by D. R.
Simonson ["Bow Characteristics for Ice Breaking,"

ASNE,

the smaller vessels are not intended to break ice

as thick as retiuired for the larger ones.

More important than

the length of an ice-

length-beam ratio, which must be

small for superior maneuverability in driving
through leads in the ice. When forcing its way
into a harbor or inlet the ship must go around
breaker

is its

corners, or must back and fill and turn to clear

an open space for other vessels. The icebreaker
may even have to back up or turn around to free
convoyed vessels that have become stuck in the
ice

behind

it

[Sokol, A.

E.,

USNI,

May

1951,

p. 482].

Fortunately, the very large

beam

the length needed for this purpose

to clear a lane wide

enough

for a

is

relative to

also required

convoy following

behind. This lane can not always be straight, so the

corners

must be cut

off for

longer vessels in the

rear.

beam-draft data for a large number

wide
variations with weight displacement. Considering
only those vessels whose performance is known

study

of

of icebreakers (and designs), reveals rather

to be good or excellent,
ratio with weight

1936, Vol. 48, pp. 249-254]:

795

(or

optimum values of L/B

A) may be taken from

the vicinity of the curved broken line in Fig.

(1)

(2)

(3)
(4)
(5)

Waterline length

76. Q.

Normal displacement
Length-beam and beam-draft

ratios

5.50

Engine power
Thrust available from the propeller(s) at low

500

speeds
(6)

Transverse section shape

(7)

Number and

(8)
(9)

position of propellers

Forebody shape
Appendages.

These items have to be balanced against carrying capacity, steering and maneuvering qualities,

allowable draft, and economical power.

The length

mum

525

is

limited to the practicable mini-

so that the vessel can

work to advantage
The waterline

in open-water spaces of small size.

length and the weight are also important because

they largely determine the downward icebreaking

which can be exerted at the bow when the

pushed up on the ice and the vessel lifts
forward, usually by an angle less than 5 deg.

force

latter is

Although there are limited authentic data for

it appears obvious from a consideration
of the mechanics involved, presented by D. R.
Simonson in the reference cited, and by R. Rune-

analysis

berg in references

(2)

and

(5) of Sec. 76.27,

that

This ratio increases from about 3.6 in

HYDRODYNAMICS

796

diameter propellers with tip submergences great

enough to

With
drafts

should

clear surface ice.

these small
it

is

be

L/B

ratios

and

relatively deep

natural that the block coefficients

low

and

the

displacement-length

quotients or fatness ratios high.

The Cb values

are of the order of 0.5 and the 0-diml fatness

ratios range

from 8 or

less to

about

15.

Like a tug, the icebreaker has waterlines, both

above and below the DWL, which are well

curved throughout. These enable

to follow

it

desirable leads or to extricate itself

when tem-

porarily caught.

The
the

ship often has to back

maximum

off,

stop,

and gain

possible speed ahead in a short

distance so that

its

momentum

can be added to
bow up over

the thrust forces to push the ship's

the ice. This means an ample reserve of power

and propellers that are large enough to develop

very high thrust values. In certain kinds of ice

the friction of a thick pack may exceed the water
friction around the hull, especially at low speeds.

On the basis that it is usually desirable to

break the ice without too much charging or
ramming, the thrust to keep the ship going at
low speeds in ice (say 3 kt) and at high real-shp
ratios or /-values is a function of the propellerdisc area, the propeller power, and the overall
26

24
22

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.26

DESIGN OF SPECIAL PlIRrOSF. CRAFT

Sen. 7r,.2r,

a slope of 85 deg should suffice for "all ordinary

ice-breakers." H. F. Johnson, in 1946, sa3's that
the slopes for the flaring sides of the midship

and 80 deg.
A pronounced tumble home above the DWL is
desirable to prevent the foulmg of top hamper
when working around other vessels. One other
feature of the abovewater body not to be oversection should be between 70

looked at this point

when heavily

the

is

minimum

freeboard

loaded. Entirely aside from wave-

going requirements, a reasonable amount of hull

extending above the ice level is required to insure
that, if held fast in the ice, the ship is not over-

whelmed by overriding
rising

floes

above the water

and pressure ridges

Nansen's Fram,

level.

although undamaged by lateral squeezing in its

drift over the Arctic Ocean in 1893-1896, never-

It

has since been found that when the ice

is

up and drawn down

under the bow by the inflow current from the
bow propeller, without damaging the propeller,
thin enough to be broken

then the latter

of great assistance.

is

When

thick layer of heavy snow hes on top of a relatively thin layer of sea ice the abovewater

bow

banks the snow up in front of it until finally the

ship can no longer force its way through. The
procedure then is to break up the ice by small
increments and to suck both ice and snow down
and under the ship, finally ejecting it behind. A

bow

propeller or propellers are of great assistance

here as well. If the ice

is

bow

so

heavy that as the

is struck by
huge blocks, these blows are Uable, not only to
bend or break the propeller blades but to bend

"Farthest North,"

the shaft or to dislodge the thrust bearing inside

January 1895 [Nansen,

F.,

1897, Vol. II, pp. 47-60].

The

powered steel icebreakers of

the 1890's and 1900's were almost mvariably
equipped with bow propellers, as were many of
those of later years. This was on the theory that,
after the breaker's bow had ridden up over a
thick ice layer and broken it into chunks, partly
by impact and partly by sheer weight, the
inflow current to the bow propeller (s) would
draw the ice down under the ship. The outflow
current would push it aft under the ship, leaving
the bow free to break more ice.
It may be well to remember, however, that
when F. E. Kirby of Detroit introduced the first
bow propeller on the icebreaking car ferry St.
Ignace for the Straits of Mackinac in 1888 [Runeberg, R., ICE, 1900, Vol. CXL, pp. 109-129], it
was to perform an entirely different function.
Faced with the problem of getting a ship through
ice that was piled in layers all the way down to
the channel bed, Kirby held the icebreaker's
bow to the ice with a powerful stern propeller
early, heavily

while the

bow

propeller, going astern, forced a

current of water into the ice mass ahead to loosen

When some

was loosened, the bow propeller was set to drive ahead, whereupon the
inflow current produced by it drew loose ice from
the mass and pushed it aft. After the ship advanced until it was again stalled, the process was
it.

are designed.

was nearly overwhelmed and sunk by

coming in sLx feet deep over the rail on 3-7

theless
ice

797

knowing why things are done when new ships

of it

Following Kirby's success, bow prowere fitted to many icebreakers, whether

faced with the same operational problems or not.
This is another example of the importance of
repeated.
pellers

ship rides

up on

the

it

propeller

the ship.

The meaning

under

of the foregoing is that,

conditions which

may

change from day to day,

the ship needs a

bow

propeller or propellers or

encumbered by them. Although the

mechanical problems seem almost insurmountable,
especially for such heavy-duty machinery, it may
nevertheless be possible at some time in the future
to develop a housing bow propeller for an icebreaker. This might be a 2-bladed affair, made
controllable and reversible from within, with
else it is

having thick sjonmetrical

not in use the blades could be
feathered fore and aft and the whole propeller
drawn backward into a shallow recess in a lower
nearly

flat

sections.

blades

When

vertical portion of the stem. This

would support

the blades and hub against the impact of heavy

blocks of ice striking from ahead.
for use the

bow

When

desired

propeller with its shaft could be

pushed forward a short distance by an internal

hydrauhc or equivalent mechanism. With the
blades then turned to the desired angle, the
propeller would be instantly available for pulling
the ship ahead, sucking blocks of ice down clear
of the upper part of the bow, or helping to back

the ship out of a jam in the ice.

While the thrust deduction due to positive
differential pressures +Ap abaft the bow propeller of an icebreaker is of no more than second-

ary consideration, the free passage of broken ice

through and abaft the wheel calls for the same
fining of the hull behind the propeller as would

be the case were

it

used for normal propulsion.

HYDRODYNAMICS

798
Indeed, the

bow

propellers of the ferryboat

and

although installed for entirely

different normal functions, involve many of the
of the icebreaker,

same hj^drodynamic

principles in their action.

The

comes in handy for

clearing loose ice out of the head of its slip.
For the designer faced with the problem of
considering one or two bow propellers, or of
designing an icebreaker with them, a most
useful document is SSPA Report 20 by H. F.
Nordstrom, H. Edstrand, and H. Lindgren,
entitled "Model Tests Avith Icebreakers." It was
published m 1952 and is entirely in English.
Whether a bow propeller is fitted or not, D. R.
Simonson mentions in the reference cited earher

ferryboat

bow

propeller often

in this section that it is often necessary to

fill

out what would be the forefoot, just above the

order to obtain sufficient displacement
baseline,

volume forward. The resulting bow profile corresponds somewhat to that of an icebreaker with
a bow propeller. The vertical stem portion
extending for a distance above the keel performs
another useful service in that

it

prevents a

vessel with a constant slope of about 30 deg in

bow profile from riding up so far on a deep

accumulation of ice cakes that it can not be backed
off. The vertical portion of the stem acts also as
the

a cutter to loosen up the lower layers of ice in

deep windrows. Fig. 76.S shows the vertical

Fig. 76.S

Bow Quarteu View

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.26

portion of the stem abaft a

bow

propeller position.

This portion should be retained, as previously

noted, even without a bow propeller. The peg-top
underwater sections, the tumble home above the
waterline, and the massive bossings are also well

shown

in the figure.

The forward buttocks should be sloped as

much or more than the bow profile, extending
back to the section of maximum beam, so that
the whole forward part of the ship acts effectively
to break ice. The characteristics of the forebody
should be duplicated as much as possible in the
afterbody since the vessel will be required to

break ice when backing.

The follo\ving is quoted from page 254 of the

Simonson reference:
"It

is

desirable to

work the same angles

into

the

buttocks of the fore body to obtain equalization of lifting

forces when the ice carries past the bow without breaking
clear of the hull. As for the frame sections, they should
show a marked flare at the waterline to relieve the crushing
force of the ice."

It is obvious that vessels having V-shaped

midship and other sections similar to those of
icebreakers, with their large bulge radius, possess
httle in the way of roll-damping characteristics.
Without roll-quenching devices of some kind

they

ment

roll

deeply and heavily, to the great detriWhen the beam-draft

of their habitability.

of Hull of an Icebreaker of the Wind Class

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.27

moderately large they also

ratio is

unless the polar

moment

fore-and-aft rolling axis

The usual type

roll

Underwater inlets and discharges for the cooling

water of heat exchangers are often shut off by

sharply

about the

of inertia

ice cakes resting across the

is large.

ice

Any type of retractable projection is

almost as vulnerable. Plate-type keels, as distinguished from those of triangular section,

icebreakers carry fuel and other liquids

connections could be plugged temporarily and

where the system could be filled with mud, silt,

wing tanks connected by pumps.

Shifting these liquids from one side to the other
produces enough heehng moment to rock the
vessel and help free it from the ice. If sufficient
power and weight could be spared to make this
certain

or sand.

Published model-test data on icebreaker hulls

are rather meager. There
signer

roll-quenching

active

Protection against large blocks of ice striking

a single propeller at the stern is afforded by fitting

one or more fins, generally horizontal, ahead of

Icebreakers.

1952, pp. 778-779; 25

Theia,

The Motor

1952, p. 831;

M.

S.

Since the flow of water along such a skeg

fins

should

lie

is

(5)

aft

in the natural

streamhnes, as determined from model lines of

flow

and as checked by

methods.

tufts

or

above the other,

parallel to the shaft

fins,

producmg more nearly

hne and

in

axial flow in ice-free

circulating-water

such

channel.

of icebreakers

and iceships are

tected
integral

after

with

fashion

the

hull,

by

They

in-

preferably

projecting

downward

tabulation

contains a great deal of miscellaneous tabulated

At the time of writing (1955) only the table

are pro-

horns,

comprehensive

in these tables date

avoid separation and eddying ahead of the wheel.

Rudders

really

on pages 22-23 and 26-34. The ships described

from 1871 to 1938. The book
appears to cover the theoretical and analytical
aspects of icebreaker design rather well, and it

The

fins require fining to

variably completely submerged.

first

114-116 contains 44 entries for 39 icebreakers and

same year (1946) I. V. Vinogradov
pubhshed in Moscow a Russian book entitled
"Vessels for Arctic Navigation (Icebreakers),"
which has a rather complete list of tabulated data

checking in the design stage, preferably on a

trailing edges of all

tabulation of dimensions,

iceships. In the

water. Such a layout, however, requires careful

model

first

appears to be that of H. F. Johnson [SNAME,

1946, pp. 112-151]. A large 3-page table on pages

one

extending forward for perhaps a propeller diameter, might have a beneficial propulsion effect
in

The

of the fist in the latter part of this section.

The

equivalent

"ladder" of three or four

available to the de-

published in 1952 by

These data are contained in a single table on

page 285 of reference (2), pubhshed in 1889;
otherwise the small tables of data are somewhat
scattered throughout both references.

Ship, London, Jan 1954, p. 458].

and upward, the

is

characteristics,

Dan, SBSR, 19 Jun

Dec

20,

and other data on icebreakers

was made by R. Runeberg in references (2) and

the propeller, projecting on each side from the

centerline skeg [M. S. Kista

SSPA Report

H. F. Nordstr5m, H. Estrand, and H. Lindgren,

entitled "Model Tests with Icebreakers." This
is abstracted in SBSR of 5 June 1952, pages
726-728; the Swedish report is, however, entirely
in EngUsh.
76.27 Tabulated Data and References on

the natural rolling period,

tanks thus formed

would go far toward making the icebreaker a
more hvable ship in the open sea.
the

dis-

charged into this box is cooled by contact with

the shell before it is used over again. Similar
water boxes are fitted on vessels required to
operate in very shallow water where the outboard

be added at the start of each voyage and

used to quench roll until such time as they are
bent over or stripped off by the ice.

shift in the order of half

Water

circulating lines can be connected.

may

Most

openings or by broken

lodged in the strainers. It is customary to

provide a water box inside the shell to which the

of roll-resisting keel is vulnerable

in the ice.

in

799

data.
of

contents has been translated into English.

of Congress number is VM451.V5.
Table 76.f contains some dunensions, propor-

heyond the rudders and below their tops, so as to

break up the ice when going ahead or astern and

The Library

prevent blocks from wedging themselves between

the top of the rudder and the hull. To meet the
they
exacting maneuverability requirements

tions,

and

characteristics of

modern

icebreakers,

should be larger than normal but are often just

the opposite, to make them less vulnerable to

supplementing the 1946 list of H. F. Johnson.

These data were gathered from pubhshed sources
so they are incomplete and in many cases inconsistent. This is due partly to a lack of strict

damage from the

definitions of displacements, powers,

ice.

and other


800

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

TABLE

Sec. 76.27

76.f

Dimensions, Proportions,

All dimensions are, unless otherwise stated, in ft to the proper power. All

General

Name

of Vessel

powers are in English

nF.STON

Sec. 7r,.27

OF SPECIAL PITRPOSF CRAFT

AND Form Data for Icebreakers

horses.

AH weights and

Elbjom

displacements are, so far as can be learned, in long tons of 2,240

lb.

801

HYDRODYNAMICS

802

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.27

TABLE
Proportions and Form Coefficients
{<2onUnucd)

Name

of Vessel

76.f-

Sec. 76.27

(Continued)

Elbjorn

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

803

HYDRODYNAMICS

804

IN SHIP DESIGN

terms and partly to incomplete descriptions of

the terms for which numerical quantities are
given. In any case, the new tables provide a
framework for filling hi missing data in the future.
In a number of cases new icebreakers have been
built to replace old ones and have been given
exactly the same names.
There follows a selected list of references on ice,
icebreakers, and iceships, giving what are beUeved
to be the principal sources of information. Except
for the

Vmogradov book

of 1946

of 42.5

ft.

Sec. 76.27

When

fully loaded, the draft

25

is

ft,

and the corresponding displacement 2,000 t.

However, the displacement given is much too small
for
the dimensions. Although not specifically
named in the reference, this vessel appears to be
the Errnack.

There are three propellers

aft

and one propeller

forward, driven by four engines having a combined

(indicated?) power of 10,000 horses. It is believed to
have been designed by Admiral Makarov.
On page 1223 it states that "The stern of the ice
breaker is cut to form a recess, into which the stem of
another vessel can be securely lashed, and thus
obtain the utmost protection from her powerful

and the Schiffbau

references, these are all hi English.

consort."
(1)

"Bibliography on Ice of the Northern Hemisphere,"

H. O. Publ. 240, Hydrographic Office, U.S. Navy,

(4b)

1945
(2)

"On Steamers for Winter Navigation

and Ice-breaking," ICE, 1888-1889, Vol. XCVII,
Part III, pp. 277-301 and Pis. 3-5. These plates
show arrangement plans and lines drawings for the

Runeberg, R.,

ships

Bryderen,

Express,

Boat

"Ice

No.

(5)

Swan, H. F.,
pp. 325-332
Erniack and
Runeberg, R.,

Frictional resistance caused

of

by change

metacenter

of

about the

Sampo

CXL,

Sect.

pp.

I,

The

plate embodies an arrangedrawing of the Aegir, complete

lines drawings of the St. Marie and Sampo, and
forebody lines drawings of twelve icebreaking
vessels, built between 1871 and 1896. Runeberg
discusses the bow propeller, which was apparently
introduced by F. E. Kirby on the Straits of

literature

Displacement

1899, Vol. 41,

tells

"Steamers for Winter Navigation and

ment plan and

this reference appears to

Ice-breaking by a continually progressing steamer

Ice-breaking power of a steamer when charging
Effect produced by the continued working of the
engine

Pis.

the Finnish icebreaker

109-129 and PL

2"

be the first one in the

on this subject. Runeberg
tackles the design problems involved in icebreaking
from an analytic point of view and develops
formulas covering the various operations under:

and

Ice-breaking," ICE, 1900, Vol.

(driven by paddles!) and a projected steamer for

the Finland Government. It seems incredible but
technical

INA,
LIX-LXII;

"Ice-Breakers,"

Mackinac
(6)

4.

lines

ferry St. Ignace in 1888.

"Icebreakers for the Port of Stockholm," the Ship-

(now SBMEB), Jan-Jun 1914, Vol. X,

builder

pp. 55-57. LoA = 200 ft, Lpp = 188 ft, Bx =

= 21.5 ft. The ship has one large stern
55.75 ft,

propeller plus one smaller

is

(7)

some drag

The Russian

motion

in

bow

icebreakers Sviatogor and Alexander are

illustrated in Schiffbau, 11

(vertically).

Engineer,

also in

propeller; also there

the keel.

Feb 1920, pp. 402-403;

London, 26 Deo 1919. Some

details are:

These sections are followed by discussions entitled

"Details of Construction" and "Particulars of Some
Ice-Breaking Steamers." Among the latter are the
Express, Isbrytaren, Oland, Bryderen, Em. Z. Svitzer,
for

3 screws,

and a proposed steamer

the Finland Government.

Starkodder, Ice-Boat No.

2,

(5)

LoA 99.2
LirL 90.52
21.64

hereunder.

Magazine, Jul 1897, Vol. XII, p. 326,

shows the stern view of a vessel in a drydock at
Newport News. From all indications this ship is
an icebreaker. In any case it has a very large beam,
a considerable amount of tumble home all around,
and is fitted with two huge 4-bladed propellers

Cassier's

(8)

(9)

"gigantic Russian ice crusher"

is

mentioned

latter reference this vessel

1898. It

is

305

ft

was launched on 29 Oct

long and 71 ft beam, with a depth

325.48 ft
297.0

ft

stem screws,

screw
Lqa 85.64
Lwl 83.20

71.0 ft

19.45

m=
m=
m=

bow

280.98 ft
272.98
63.81

ft
ft.

The midsections of these vessels, shown on page

404 of the Schiffbau reference, are of the typical pegtop shape, with a large tumble home above the DWL.
Flodin, J., "Ice Breakers," Mar. Eng'g., Sep 1920,
pp. 707-712
Kari, A., "The Design of Ice-Breakers," SBSR, 22
Deo

1921, pp. 802-804.

is

Some

of the information

included in Mr. Kari's book

entitled "Design and Cost Estimating of Merchant

and Passenger Ships." The reference discusses
static and dynamic icebreaking, length, lengthbeam and length-depth ratios, and gives various
formulas useful for design and for predicting the

in

ASNE, Aug 1898, Vol. X, pp. 917-918; also ASNE,

Nov 1898, Vol. X, pp. 1222-1223. According to the

m =
m =
m =

given in this article

with fan-shaped blades. The propellers are of the

built-up type with securing bolts or nuts that
project prominently from the hubs. It is believed
to be Russian.
(4a)

all aft

Runeberg's comments and conclusions in this

reference are somewhat modified by those in a later
ICE article by hun, dated 30 Jan 1900, reference
(3)

Alexander

Sviatogor

(10)

performance of a ship designed elsewhere.

"Swedish Ice Breaker of 2,450 Tons Displacement
and 6,000 I.H.P.," SBSR, 12 Mar 1925, p. 310

(11) "(Russian)

Ice Breaker Krisjamis Valdcmar,"

Shipbuilder, Jul 1925; abstracted in

The

ASNE, Aug

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.27

SBSR, 4 Mar

pp. 611-612;

192.'5,

1926, pp. 247-

A small sketch showing the general hull shape

and the principal dimensions of this vessel is found
in WRH, 22 Jan 1929, Fig. 9, p. 30.

particulars

"Konstruktionsbedingungen fur die

in Eisgang und Eisbrechdienst zu verwendenden
Schiffe (Construction Specifications for Ships Going
F.,

Through

and

Ice-Breaking Service),"
WRH, 22 Jan 1929, Vol. 10, pp. 27-31 (in German).
Comments in English on this article are to be
Ice

(13) Icebreaker

R.

Railway

of

SBSR, 20 Nov 1941, pp. 481-484, 491

"The Ice-breaker Ernest LaPoinie," SBMEB, Jan

(33)

and channel-surveying vessel built in Canada for

the Canadian Department of Transport.
Wasmund, J. A., "Coast Guard Ice-Breaking

1942, pp. 13-18. This

Vessels,"

1930, p. 610.

Lbp

ft,

The displacement

the

60

ft,

31

is
ft,

5,034

Hammar, H.

G.,

Intended for

t,

the

19.5

(35)

(36)

Feb 1932
Ymer," SBSR, 25 Aug

1932, pp. 175-177

Ice Breaker Ymer's

Particular Attention to the

Aug

VIII, Stockholm,

Main

Plant,"

1932, following

ref.

(38)

Part

(15)

V., and Ericson, N., "Federal Ice

Ymer's Machinery Equipment, with
Emphasis on the Propelling Machinery,"
Part IX, Stockholm, Sep 1932

Breaker

Ymer

(9,000

B.H.P.

Machinery),"

1933, pp. 165-167

"Japanese Ice Breaker Soya Maru," MESA, May

1933, pp. 162-164, 182. Gives particulars, trial
data, and photographs.
(23) Hohnberg, G., "Federal Ice Breaker Ymer's Trial
Runs," Teknisk Tidskrift, Stockhohn, Jan 1934
(22)

(24) Gouljaeff, N., "Ice Breakers,"

SBMEB, Mar

(40)

(Icebreakers)," Moscow, 1946 (in Russian)

Outboard profile of Swedish icebreaker with diesel
drive, having controllable twin propellers aft and
one small screw propeller forward, is shown in AM,

"Machinery Installation of the Wind

Guard Icebreakers," ASME, 29 Nov-3
Dec 1948, No. 48-A-lll
Finnish Government Icebreaker Into, with 12,000
B.H.P. Machinery," Motor Ship, London, Aug

plans. Ship has

two bow and two stern

LoA = 212.88 ft
Lpp = 185 ft
B, molded = 36.75

H, as cargo

y =
ft

cargo

Mendl, W. V., "Ice Breakers,"

pp. 543-544. Gives formula
that can be broken.
Sisu,

SBMEB,

as

(iceship)

Rooij (pronounced Rooy), G., "Practical Shipbuilding," H. Stam, Harlem, Holland, 1953, Fig.

De

Apr

Jun 1954, Vol.

Oct 1938,

Macy, R. H., "Icebreakers," USNI,

Voima.
Dept.,
(46)

SBSR, 6 Feb

of Icebreakers,"

1941, pp. 127-128. This gives general

Aug

Bureau

of Ships Journal,

Navy

MENA, Aug

1954,

1954, pp. 2-6

Canadian Icebreaker Labrador,

pp. 293-294. Gives general particulars and an out-

1940, Vol. 66,

board

"The Design

1955, Vol.

(45) "Ships Against Ice,"

pp. 669-674

R. Munro,

130, pp. 655-657. Abstracted in

LXVII, pp. 13-14. These

references give data on the Thule, Elbjom, and

IME, Jan

Motor

pp. 22-24. Finnish

particulars of vessel, with
1939,

Gives
arrangement plan and photographs.

(30) Smith,

capacity

vessel

16 on p. 19, Art. 208 on p. 372, and Fig. 798

on icebreakers in The Shipping World, 30

for thickness of ice

Diesel-Electric Ice Breaker,"

London,

icebreaker.

(29)

18.083 ft

(44) Article

cutter).

Ship,

1,200 tons
(43)

SNAME, 1937, pp. 81-114. Describes cutters

Escanaba, Algonquin, and Raritan (110-ft harbor

"The

vessel

12 kt

Deadweight

(25)

(28)

propellers,

with a motor power of 4 times 3,500 horses.

(41) Kassell, B. M., "Russia's Icebreakers," ASNE, Feb
1951, pp. 137^152
(42) "A Motorship for Arctic Waters (Kista Dan),"
SBSR, 19 Jun 1952; pp. 829-831

pp. 143-150. Gives a bibliography of information

on icebreaker design.

(27)

icebreakers.

"Vessels for Arctic Navigation

V.,

1950, pp. 166-167. Includes particulars of vessel,

discussion of machinery, profile and arrangement

1935,

Simonson, D. R., "Bow Characteristics for Ice

Breaking," ASNE, 1936, pp. 249-254
(26) Hunnewell, F. A., "U.S. Coast Guard Cutters,"

modern

Class Coast

Motorship, Jan 1933, p. 366

(20) "Ice-Breaker Goeta Lejon," SBMEB, Feb 1933, p. 91
Ymer" for Swedish Government,
(21) "Ice Breaker
Motorship, London, Apr 1933, pp. 7-14; also

MESA, May

I.

(39) Thiele, E. H.,

Special
(19) "Ice

Vinogradov,

Jul 1948, p. 26

(18) Christofferson,

Breaker

"Coast Guard's Diesel Powered Ice-Breakers,"

Motorship, London, Jun 1945, pp. 562-566, 604
Johnson, H. F., "Development of Ice-Breaking
Vessels for the U.S. Coast Guard," SNAME,
1946, Vol. 54, pp. 112-151. A very complete paper,
summarizing development to date and describing
the design of

(37)

and Ericson, N., "The Federal

Machinery Installation, with

(17) Christofferson, V.,

propellers,

MESR, Apr 1945, pp. 142-145.

Includes a history of icebreaking vessels and gives

G.,

(16) "Diesel-Electric Ice-Breaker

bow

particulars of various icebreakers.

"The Construction of Cargo Vessels

Winter Traffic and Navigation in

1931, p. 175
"Federal Icebreaker Ymer," Teknisk
Tidskrift, Stockholm, Part I, Jan 1932; Part II,

(15) Halldin,

1944, pp. 184-186. Includes

(34) "Ice-Breaker Design,"

ft.

SBMEB, Mar

Ice,"

a twin-screw ice-breaking

propulsion motors, speed control, and power requirements.

Indicated power 2 times 3,250 horses.

(14)

MESR, Dec

is

discussions of hull construction,

1929, p. 116.

McLean, for the Hudson Bay

the Canadian Government, MESA,

is

suggests

(31) "Icebreakers,"

B.

Nov

260

Mar

icebreaker,

(32)

in

found in Marine Engineer,

typical

length-beam and beam-draft ratios, and gives

a formula for thickness of ice that can be broken.

251.

(12) Judaschke,

805

for

(47)

profile.

of sLx icebreaking cargo vessels for Russia, being

built in Holland, is illustrated and described in

One

HYDRODYNAMICS

806

MENA, Aug

pp. 288-290. These vessels

have a single screw driven by a 7,000-horse electric

1954,

motor turning at 150 rpm.

LoA
Lpp

=
=

425
387

B =
D =

ft
ft

at this draft
vessels

have a

it

ft

Deadweight

6,500 tons.

profile

27.63

7 =

ft

capacity

15 kt. These

resembling almost exactly

that of a regular icebreaker.

(48)

"Ingalls Launches

Most Powerful Icebreaker," Mar.

Eng'g., Oct 1954, p. 58

(49)

"The Twin-Screw

Diesel-Electric Ship General San

Martin; an Ice-breaking, Research and Supply
Vessel for the Argentine," SBMEB, Feb 1955, pp.
108-109; also The Motor Ship, London, Jan 1955,
p. 432, and MENA, Dec 1954, pp. 480-481. The
last reference contains photographs of the bow and
stern of the vessel in the building dock

(50)

and a
photograph of the completed ship under way.
"Diesel-Engined Soviet Icebreakers," The Motor
Ship, London, Feb 1955, p. 503. Illustrates and
describes the three vessels of the Kapetan Belousov
class, as well as

(51)

the two 12,840-t icebreakers

now

on order (1955). Abstracted, with outboard profile,

in IME, Jun 1955, Vol. LXVII, pp. 86-87; see
also SBSR, 6 Sep 1956, pp. 313-315.
"Icebreaker with 12,000-B.H.P. Machinery," The
Motor Ship, London, Dec 1956, p. 362

Lo A ,273

ft

H, mean 22.33

LwL

260

ft

A, 4,950 t

Bex

63.75

76.28

ft

Hydrodynamic

Amphibians.

It

due largely to

its

Pb (normal),
Design

ft

10,500 horses.

Features

of

may

be expected that the future

will find more and more peacetime uses for a
good combination of water craft and land vehicle,
notwithstanding that its development to date is
first

wartime usefulness. Indeed, the

of Donald Roebhng

successful "alhgator"

was used originally in 1933, in the otherwise

impenetrable expanse of the Florida Everglades,
for rescuing hurricane victims and downed
aviators.

During the recent war

its

descendants

served as means of carrying medical supphes and

even as mobile hospitals. Refitted World War II

DUKW's are already serving as combination

and salvage craft, equally useful

on dry land and in the water [Rudder, Aug 1952,
pp. 24-25]. There is no reason why they should
not be useful as ship-to-shore package and perfireboats, rescue,

sonnel carriers in out-of-the-way places where

ships must anchor off and where there are no

shore

Sec. 76.28

soft

enough

it

acts as a hquid;

if

mud.

If it is

hard enough, as

a sohd.

61.58

36.79

IN SHIP DESIGN
permissible "holiday" for travel in

facilities.

For these duties an amphibian must:

(b) Have an adequate reserve-buoyancy ratio,

not only for wavegoing but for the bank require-

ment

of (f) following. This is more important in

an amphibian than in a surface vessel because the
former can rarely be ship-shaped or have much
of a weather deck.
(c) Maintain the reserve-buoyancy ratio throughout the design and construction period. This
means that the total scale weight can not exceed
the weight of the hghtest water displaced by the
buoyant volume up to the safe working waterhne.
Judging by some bitter experiences of the past,
it means that an ample weight margin must be

included in the preliminary design.

(d) Possess adequate freeboard to guard against
water from the crests of its Velox waves. With a
blunt bow and full form, these crests may be high.
(e) Limit its water speed to 1/3, 1/4, or possibly a
smaller ratio of its maximum land speed
(f)
Be able to drop down or run up a bank having
a slope of at least 30 deg with the horizontal,
both below and above the water surface.
An amphibian, in the form of a wheeled or
tracked vehicle which can propel itself along the
surface of the water, or of a boat which can run
on dry land with wheels, tracks, or the equivalent,
can hardly be expected to have a high degree of
propulsive efficiency when running in either
medium. If the primary object of the design is to
produce a load- or passenger-carrymg vehicle, a
watertight body to give it flotation may be a
clumsy encumbrance. Shaping this body to ease
the water flow around it and at the same time
to incorporate a pair of paddletracks, one or
more screAV propellers, or a paddlewheel involves
compromises Avhich must be worked out for each
particular case. Applying wheels or tracks to an
object designed primarily as a water craft is no
less of a special problem. Fig. 76. T shows how
clumsy such a craft can look and still perform
well as an amphibian.
This is not the place to advance arguments for
or against the use of wheels or tracks for travehng
on land, through sand and mud, or over submerged reefs. There might be some reason for

discussing the relative merits of propellers

paddletracks
(a) Run in and on any kind of Hquid or sohd
medium, from fresh and salt water to dry land,
or any combination of these two. There is no

way

if

and

the form of the craft were in any

standardized. It may, nevertheless, not be

amiss to

list briefly

and precautions

the advantages, disadvantages,

to be observed in adapting

and

OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

m'.SK.N

Sec. 76.28

lllllll

807

good performance provided water can

flow easily to it, either from the side or under the
bottom.
will give

in nil
fin

The

central paddlewheel

is specially adapted
catamaran type. It is
simple mechanically, is easily constructed, maintained, and repaired, and is reasonably efficient

(3)

to divided-hull craft of the

for

shallow-water craft. It

lumbersome, and heavy

I

1)

The sternwheel

is

is

admittedly bulky,

for the

power

delivered.

indicated only for raft-like

craft designed for traveling in extremely shallow

water
(5)

One Type of Tracked Amphibian

Fig. 76.T

U. S. Navy photograph. Note the M-shaped

paddles or cleats on the two moving tracks and the
relatively close spacing of these paddles along

Official

the tracks.

employing one of the several possible methods

water propulsion:

of

water

phibian

is,

jet to propel

with

its

space than can be devoted to

might serve for a lighter

The paddle track has

the advantage that the

installation

is

utihzed for run-

ning on both the water and the land, including

propulsion as well as maneuvering. If

it is suffi-

and durable it is satisfactory for

extended land travel but not for high speeds
ciently strong

ashore unless

can somehow be rubberized.

it

Balancing this present shortcoming

is

the great

advantage that the track furnishes the only

known adequate and

acceptable propulsion in

ammore

resistful

it.

Such a device

craft.

(6) The amphibian driven by a paddlewheel of

some kind or by one or more screw propellers
needs a good rudder. Probably it needs more than

one to approach
(1)

same mechanical

a heavy,

ducts, likely to occupy

the

maneuverability

the

of

which can change its track

speeds or even go astern on one track while
gomg ahead on the other. Rudders in amphibians
tracked

vehicle,

propelled

by paddlewheels

or screw propellers

are almost of necessity placed in the outflow jets

from those propulsion devices.

(7) Despite its clumsy form, maneuverability of
an amphibian may not be too difficult to achieve
because the length-beam ratio of such a contrivance is usually about 3 or 4 and rarely exceeds 5.

the complete range of media from clear water to

hard ground,
growths, and

comprising

mud

silt,

sand,

vegetable

of all possible consistencies.

The screw propeller is adapted only for use

media having the consistency of water. Undoubtedly, it is the most efficient of the propulsion
devices, and capable of producing the highest
speeds at which craft of this kind can travel in
water. The propeller can be housed and at the
same time protected in a tunnel under the stern
of the craft, similar to that on a shallow-draft

Despite the fact that an amphibian

is

of

practical use unless it can travel in water,

no

it is

(2)

possible that whatever water-propulsion device

in

is fitted

vessel.

An adaptation

propeller

is

possible.

of the
It is

outboard or swinging
even practicable to

provide, as John Ericsson did for the American

auxihary sailing ship Massachusetts in 1845, a
propeller carried

verse

plane

by an arm swingmg

[Isherwood,

B.

F.,

in a trans"Engineering

Precedents for Steam Machinery," Vol.

II,

pp.

When

working it is swung down so that

below or at least abaft the hull.
When not working it is swimg up, well clear of the
ground and inside the frontal or transverse
213-220].

the propeller

is

projected area of the vehicle.

The screw

propeller

to

it

may have

to play a secondary role

to the land-propulsion gear. Because of the variety

of possible configurations, not

much can be

said

emmust have a reasonably

as to design for water propulsion except to

phasize that the water

good path to flow to whatever propdev is fitted.

Because of the interference effects described in
Sec. 32.2, the cleats on moving paddletracks
always give the best performance when they are
spaced as far apart as the considerations of
ground or land travel permit.
Although the water-excludmg portion of an

amphibian may look more hke a covered wagon

than a boat or ship, the law of Archimedes still
apphes. The craft sinks in the water untU the
weight of water displaced equals its scale weight.
Because of the relatively high bow-wave crest
and deep folloAving trough created by the amphibian body when running at moderate speed.

HYDRODYNAMICS

808

and because it has a prow which resembles that

of a scow more than that of a boat, the provision
of adequate freeboard at the running attitude
particularly

is

important.

possible to calculate

empirical

of

This

and there

is

is little

data for reference.

Towing and

are definitely indicated. Fortunately,

when the
and when

almost wholly due to pressure

the wavemaking aspects are to be studied, tests
can be accomplished in any of the small model
is

76.29

Vessels Designed for Beaching.

reported that the

course of

its

Chmese junk became,

It

is

in the

long development, a rather more than

is

because of the almost

use of a non-watertight forepeak and a watertight

bulkhead at its after end stemmed from

the hopelessness of keeping tight the hull seams
around the stem with constant beaching. While
the shallow-draft sternwheel river steamers of
America were not designed expressly for beaching
they were eminently adapted for tying up along
the river banks and handling cargo whenever
the occasion demanded and wherever there
was a bank suitable for the purpose. Like the
amphibian, therefore, the first craft designed for
collision

transferiing cargo directly to a bank or beach

were engaged in peaceful pursuits. The need for
peacetime landing craft may be expected to
continue as long as shore facilities lag behind

needs.

Requu-ements for vessels to carry heavy, bulky,

and expensive cargo for landing directly on the
beach must state the:

Minimum

Minmium depth

for keeping one

end

of the

craft waterborne or, conversely, the distance

within which the ship shall approach the water's

edge at the beach

Range

conflicting requirements of (1) acceptable

for

ocean voyages and

(2)

shallow draft with trim by the stern for landing

may

be met by the same procedure as for ships in

and for tankers traveling light, that is,

by the use of liquid (water) ballast. This can be

of tide or

Strength and direction of tidal and other

currents at the

pumped out
it

just before landing at the beach or

can be shifted aft to give the desired trim.

bow, adapted to landing

on broad, sand beaches but wholly unsuited for
of a broad, flat, shallow

The only reasonable solution to this

impasse appears to be the use of liquid ballast,
liquid fuel, or liquid cargo in the forward part of
wavegoing.

the vessel.

The bow

bank or beach

Wind waves and

surf to be encountered

Percentage (approximate) of the useful load

which can be devoted to changing the trim of the
craft to accommodate the depth and slope of the
beach

is,

by

means, pushed down as far

this

as possible, in an effort to keep the flat portion

always under water, so that slamming does not

occur there. The hquid is shifted aft when approaching the beach, to hghten the vessel forward

and to accommodate the slope of the beach.

Proposals are made from time to time for a
landing craft to be fitted Avith

bow

propellers

and to run in waves with the deep end forward.

This sounds attractive but has the disadvantage
of a high thrust-deduction fraction for screw
propellers positioned ahead of the hull, as well

as inadequate submergence and racing because

ampfitude of pitch at the bow when

traveling in waves.

A form well adapted to operation in reasonably

rough water and to running in toward shore
through heavy swells and surf is one having a
flattened W-section, similar to a pair of inverted-

vee

water level to be expected

at and during the landing

(f)

The

wavegoing behavior

of the large

slope of beach wherever a landing

needs to be made

(e)

a pier or quay.

design. This involves the almost inevitable use

routes. In fact, it

(d)

foregoing requirements are in addition to

supposed that the ancient

and wharves along the

(c)

The

those for a ship of normal design which lands at

A much worse problem is not so easily solved

by the compromises often encountered in ship

craft

total lack of piers

(b)

in

traffic

passable landmg

(a)

Relative importance of landing on a beach

compared to maintaining speed and wavegoing
the open sea.

ballast

basins.

human

Ser. 76.29

(g)

as

almost imbackground

simple self-propulsion tests of small-scale models

drag

IN SHIP DESIGN

hulls, like

two sea

Three projecting keels

sleds placed side

may

be

fitted

by

under

side.
it

to

somewhat as longitudinal stabilizing fins and to

resist slewing, yawing, and broaching. In addition,
act

the three keels provide great lateral stability

when beached,

to say

nothmg

of

tribution of the beaching load.

circumstances

the

surfaces under the

absence

of

bow might

an excellent disUnder certain

flat,

horizontal

defer or ehminate

slamming. Under other sea conditions, especially

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 7 6.30

It is impossible,

809

within the space allotted in

do more than describe briefly certain

problems encountered in this hydrodynamic design, having to do primarily with
operation submerged. One seldom finds these
problems discussed scientifically in any kind of
literature. A statement of them, with their
present solutions (or lack of solutions), should
not only broaden the outlook of the marine
this book, to

special

architect engaged in the design of surface vessels

but also give him a more penetrating insight into

the influence of hydrodynamics on the design of
kinds and sizes of water craft.

all

It might be thought strange,

not for so many other missing shipoperation requirements, that no basic requirements for submarine vessels have ever been

Requirements.

I.

Landing Craft with Inverted V-Bottom

AT Stern
Official U. S. Navy photograph. The small auxiliary
rudder forward of the strut is for control when backing.
The hole in the rudder permits withdrawing of the
Fig. 76.U

propeller shaft without unshipping the rudder.

driven hard, the W-sections forward might

if

produce large accelerations and decelerations, as

sled. The under side of the stern of a
landing craft with a single inverted vee of small
slope is illustrated in Fig. 76. U.
Although it has to date (1955) been used on
small vessels only, there is a great advantage in
having hydraulic jet propulsion available under
does the sea

were

it

formulated and published. Those which follow

are sketchy but they may at least serve as the

groundwork for development in the future. They

are based upon a possible, even though seemingly
remote utilization of the submarine vessel for
peaceful purposes. No attempt is made to go into
detail or to insert numbers in these requirements:

Submerge and emerge, while stationary

(a)

or

dimensions

under way, when initially on the surface or

submerged. This may or may not have to be
accomplished within a given interval from the
"execute" signal, starting from a given set of
conditions as regards ballast water carried and
percentage of reserve buoyancy.
(b) Run submerged at a given nominal depth,
throughout the complete speed range, without
varying up or down more than a given amount

G. de Rooij ["Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Figs.

791 and 792 on pp. 368-369]. Model test data for

from that depth

(c) Run submerged, throughout a given speed
range, without exceeding specified trim angles

the bottom

By

when

getting off a

bank

or beach.

directing the jet forward, toward the region

where the bow is aground, it is extremely useful

washing away the sand or soil and freeing

for

the vessel easily.

General arrangement drawings and principal

of landing and beaching craft of
intermediate size (LCF and LOT) are given by

four models of landing craft are found on

RD

SNAME

sheets 38, 40, 43, and 44.

76.30

Common

Some Hydrodynamic Design Problems

There are no books,

literature, which
discuss the design of submarine vessels [Hay,
M. F., "The Design of Submarines," SNAME,
1909, pp. 233-255]. The hydrodynamic design
alone involves matters of diving and surfacing,
dynamic equilibrium, speed and propulsion,
.maneuvering, and wavegoing, both surface and
submerged. Diving and surfacing involve in turn
the flooding, venting, and blowing of the main
ballast tanks which provide the reserve buoyancy
of the submarine when it is on the surface.
to All

and there

is

Submarines.

little

technical

(by the

bow

or stern) for the series of speeds

Maintain a given depth, within specified

hmits, when the excess of static weight or buoyancy reaches a certain limiting amount, generally
a percentage of the total weight or buoyancy,
(d)

at

all

(e)

submerged speeds above a certain minimum

Hold a given depth and maintain a level

fore-and-aft attitude, within not-too-close limits,

when underway submerged at a very slow speed,

than a certain maxmium. This is the operation

as hovering. The speed is so low that
dynamic control is rather weak.
Change depth, either up or down, within
(f)

less

known

a given elapsed time from level running at the

original depth to level running at the new depth.

HYDRODYNAMICS

810
within

certain

diving-plane

speed,

of

limits

angles, fore-and-aft inclination of the vessel,

buoyancy

excess static weight or

Change course

(g)

and

a horizontal

in

when submerged, from the

direction

small angles involved

normal steering to turns of 180 deg or more

good wavegoing performance as a

in

(h) Possess

including

surface vessel,
for personnel

the craft

is

reasonable

who may be on deck

either stopped or

safeguards

at sea,

when

underway

Provide adequate freeboard in the surface

for access hatches leading to the
pressure hull which may be open when underway
(i)

condition,

IN SHIP DESIGN

the underwater hull design is

abovewater design to msure acceptable wavegoing performance, the same as for the
surface ship. While it is perfectly possible for a
properly sealed submarine to plow through
surface waves instead of riding over them, it
suffers from much the same retardation as would
a surface vessel under similar circumstances.
Most of the space between the inner and the
outer hulls is devoted to the provision of added
buoyancy when the vessel is on the surface. In
fittings. Similarly,

tied into the

this condition the water-excluding

Rest on the bottom for appreciable periods,

and possibly travel along the bottom.

as diving trim at full buoyancy,

Physical Arrangement. To serve as a background for a discussion of hydrodynamic design

problems of a submarine there must be some
knowledge of the principal physical features of
this type of vessel. It is possible but not likely
that a further half-century of development will
modify somewhat the physical arrangements of

modern

the

(1955)

modern,

relatively

One such design,

shown by G. de Rooij

design.
is

["Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Fig. 42 on p. 29

and

Fig.

788

the back of the book.

brief

when the

vessel is

on the

The

result is

surface, the inner

appendages are raised above the level

water by a volume equal to
that of the main-ballast tanks, between the mner
and outer hulls and below the surface waterline.
This main-ballast-tank volume divided by the
inner or pressure-hull volume is thus the reservehull

and

its

of the surrounding

buoyancy

ratio in the surface condition.

customary, on double-hulled submersibles,

for the main-ballast tanks to extend above the
surface waterline in diving trim. In fact, this is
It

is

usually necessary,

to

provide adequate

initial

above the surface waterline adds to the reservebuoyancy volume of the pressure hull and of all
water-displacing appendages and objects above

distinct

hulls,

taking

into

consideration

the

underwater and the abovewater portions as

units performing distinctly different functions.
The always-buoyant inner or 'pressure hull is of
a form best adapted to resist external hydrostatic
pressure, with practically no regard for the ease
with which it could, as an independent unit, be
driven through or along the surface of the water.
The outer hull is a ship-shaped envelope built
around the inner or pressure hull, designed to
minimize resistance of the combination for surface
propulsion and to provide spaces between the
hulls for water-ballast tanks and fuel tanks.
The portion of the outer hull lying below the
waterplane in surface condition, indicated in
diagram 2 of Fig. 37. C and in the schematic
of Fig. 76.V, fulfills exactly the same
function for a submarine as for a surface vessel.

section

is

that,

its

on the surface, called a

itself

submersible in this book, possesses two rather

with

all

metacentric stability and a safe range of positive

stability. The volume of the main-ballast tanks

is

a good account of

It

external appendages.

plus

is

equal

is

given in Sec. 203 on page 368].

submarine which is also required to give

description

The

of the

volume of the inner hull

to the water-excluding

(j)

II.

volume

outer hull up to the surface waterline, in what

known

or at anchor

7630

Sec.

generally designed in the

necessarily

clearance,

access

more regard
between

same manner,
for

hulls,

machinery
and special

The

the waterplane.

vertical hatching of Fig.

76.V indicates this volume in schematic fashion.

A rather complete general discussion of these
features, including the matters of equilibrium
of

static

and

forces

of

metacentric

discussed subsequently in this section,

by A.

Nov

I.

McKee

1929; also

the U.S.,"

[Bu

C and

is

given

R, Tech. Bull. 8-29,

"Development

SNAME, HT,

stability

of

Submarines in

1943, pp. 344-355].

When the craft submerges, sea water must be

admitted to the main-ballast tanks to destroy
the buoyancy which lifted the pressure hull above
the water in the surface condition. For a vessel
having a water-excluding displacement when
submerged of say 3,000 tons, the weight of water
to be admitted to the main-ballast tanks

may

Furthermore, to permit
flooding with this water, the air in the mainballast tanks must be vented to the atmosphere.
exceed

1,000

Admitting

tons.

this

much water and

venting an

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.30

811

Wood-Slat Decklor Perforoted- Metal Deck for Ventino of Superstructure

Hatch
Freebocird

Fig. 76.V

Schematic Section op Double-Hulled Submersible Showing Main-Ballast Flooding and

Venting Arrangements and Buoyant Volumes

equal volume of

air,

while at the same time

exercising control of the flooding

among a number

and venting

of separate tanks, involves a

given a large tumble

beam

of the flat or

rather elaborate system of large flood valves in

than 0.7 of the

the lower part of the outer hull and correspond-

waterplane.

ingly large vent valves along the tops of the

main-ballast tanks,

indicated

schematically in

Fig. 76.V.

Somewhat

similar

water-handhng systems

required for taking aboard,

shifting

what

is

known

pumping

out,

are-

and

as variable-ballast water

within the pressure-proof boundaries of the submarine.

The

admission, discharge, and transfer

water serve as compensation for the expenditure

of useful weights such as food, stores, and lubricating oU; for the taking aboard of additional
of

weights; and for the moving of these

weights fore and aft and transversely within the
pressure-proof boundaries to suit the mission of
useful

the vessel.

Because a submarine is not burdened with

deck hatches and rarely requires
personnel to work on deck at sea, except possibly
for a limited region amidships, its freeboard to
the superstructure deck can be much lower than
that of a surface vessel. With this low freeboard
it is expected that soUd water will be taken
aboard. Several expedients are adopted for unloading this water expeditiously. The topside is
vulnerable

home and

the deck edges

are often well rounded into the side, so that the

cambered deck

maximum beam

is

rarely

more

at the surface

The deck forward, excluding the

rounded turtleback on each side, may be not
more than 0.5 times the beam at the corresponding
section. The perforations and slots in the deck,
placed there to provide rapid venting of the free-

means
away the deck load of water before it
during an up pitch and dashes against

flooding superstructure volume, afford a

of sluicing

sUdes aft

the deck erections amidships.

The freeboard at the extreme stern may be

diminished to zero, so far as wavegoing characteristics are concerned. If, however, the surface
speed is high enough to produce a crest of appreciable height on the stern wave, the outer hull
should be carried up at least to the top of this
crest, with the vessel in running trim.

The

flooding ports or openings along the lower

edges of the superstructure volume, just above

the surface waterline, represent an unsolved
problem as far as combining rapid flooding of the
superstructure with
surface

waterline

minimum drag along

is

concerned.

the

continuous

flooding slot along the lower edge of the superstructure, used at various times, is not

able

solution

because

of

the

an accept-

relatively

large

HYDRODYNAMICS

812

quantities of stationary water which can enter

there.

by

When

these are picked up and accelerated

transverse

parts housed
loss of

members and other

structural

mthin the superstructure a

energy

The volume

useless

involved.

is

of

water occupying certain small

free-flooding spaces below the surface waterplane,

rarely to be found on surface craft,

as

is

considered

a part of the ship weight which must be

must be displaced
around these spaces the same as around the other
parts of the hull. In one respect these several
volumes of water are treated as though they were
carried along. Outside water

blocks of

ice,

frozen in place. If the free-flooding

spaces have external openings in regions where

there
hull,

is a pressure gradient on the outside of the

a flow of water through the spaces takes

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 76.30

motion. Combined, these render the equalization

of weight
and buoyancy B a matter of hydro-

dynamics as well as hydrostatics.

Admitting and expelling variable-ballast water
in suitable quantities and at the proper locations
as the submarine is moving can take care of the
preponderant hydrostatic inequalities between
and B. However, the hydrodynamic inequalities
usually vary in magnitude with ship speed.
They, as well as the undetermined {W-B) values,
are normally compensated by vertical forces
derived from hydrofoil action of the diving

planes.
It is found that an amazing variety of submarine
forms are afforded adequate control in rising and
diving by the usual arrangement of bow and

stern planes.

place because of this pressure gradient. Energy

expended in setting up and maintaining

this flow,

generally of an eddying character and invariably

is energy lost so far as the propulsion
submarine is concerned.

undesirable,
of the

III.

Equilibrium of Static and Dynamic Forces-

In a surface vessel, nature takes care of the

balance between the hydrostatic weight and

buoyancy

forces

by adjusting the

latter so as to

equal the weight force imposed by the crew.

the weight

is

increased

If

by loading something

aboard, the vessel sinks to provide the additional

buoyancy. In a submerged submarine the buoyancy force is usually fixed by the total volume
of the water-excluding structure and external
parts, combined with the density of the surrounding water. The crew then has to make the
necessary internal adjustments in the weight
force, by admitting or expelling or shifting
variable-ballast water, if equilibrium is to be
maintained.
While it is possible for the primary static
forces of weight
and buoyancy B to be balanced by taking in or pushing out variableballast water, this is the exception rather than
the rule in submerged opei-ation. It is rarely
possible to achieve an exact balance of primary
hydrostatic forces, and moment as well, when
underway beneath the surface. In addition there
are vertical dynamic forces and moments gen-

when the vessel is underway by the lack

symmetry of the outer hull about any longitudinal horizontal plane, by the presence of deck
erections and appendages, and by small inclinaerated
of

tions of the fore-and-aft axis to the direction of

and Pendulum Stability. The

adequate metacentric stability when
in the so-called "awash" condition, during either
diving or surfacing, undoubtedly involves a time
element to a small degree, and hence partakes of
the nature of hydrodynamics. There are free
surfaces in most if not all of the main-ballast
tanks at some time or other during flooding or
blo\\'ing. Each tank is in communication with the
sea and only indirectly with its companion tank
on the opposite side of the vessel. For this reason
it is necessary to reckon a loss of
correspondIV. Metacentric

problem

of

BM

ing only to the square

moment

surface in each tank about

its

of area of the free

own

fore-and-aft

and not about the longitudinal axis of the

vessel. As a practical matter the time element
enters particularly in the blowing-down operation
while surfacing. This requires some minutes,
dining which time the loose water in each mainballast tank is in direct communication with
the sea through the flood valves at the bottom
of the tank. There must be sufficient control over
axis,

the compressed air delivered to the main-ballast

tanks on the two sides to hold the vessel in a sort

of average upright position,

by a heavy beam

down

sea,

even when acted upon

with water surging up and

in the tanks.

For a consideration of the forces and moments

involved in maneuvering submerged it is necessary to realize that the submarine in that condition has no effective or intact surface -waterline
= and
area (and no loose water), so that
the metacenter
coincides with the center of
buoyancy CB. What holds the submerged submarine upright is the fact that the center of

BM

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec. 76.30

"Surfoi

BuoyancN; Force

813

few features already kiarned from them are

discussed in Sec. 15.0 and illustrated in Fig. 15.

under

flexible-fin propulsion.

However,

in

an

effort to

copy features that

will

be helpful in submarine design, two obstacles

present themselves. They have not yet been sur-

Up^^

Stern

-->_J^uM Axis

mounted.

Arm

Restoring

The

mechanism
known, man has not discovered the exact method by which the fi.sh or
first is

that, while the general

of fish propulsion
Submarine Acts Qs a

the sea

Pendulum with Weight

at

CG

and Support at

CB

mammal

is

achieves

its

highest speeds or

Manimethods must be known and understood before they can be copied or utilized. For
s-wims rapidly for long periods of time.
festly, these

76.W Sketch Illustrating Pendulum Stability

OF Submerged Submarine in Plane of Symmetry

Fig.

example,

it is

asserted that, in order to maintain

a speed of 20 or 25 kt while converting food

gravity

CG

always

lies

below

combined

the

energy into propulsion energy and motion at the

center of buoyancy and metacenter. This gives

highest rate

known as pendulum stability,

with G always below M, illustrated in Fig. 76.W.
Any moment of weight forward or aft of the

to

the vessel what

submerged

CB

is

causes the vessel to trim in that

direction until the center of gravity

underneath the center of buoyancy.

offset

may

the vessel

external

small

result in a large trim angle unless the

necessary correction

When

directly

is

is

moment,

is

made

inclined

to the

CG

position.

submerged by some

either in heel or in trim, there

always a pendulum-type restoring moment

acting to level it off at an equilibrium attitude.
When underway, this moment is superposed on
is

the hydrodynamic moments.

V. Hull Shape and Propulsion.

repeatedly raised,
propulsion

is

The

question

is

when submarine shape and

discussed,

why

the submarine de-

signer should not take advantage of the develop-

ments

of nature, involving a process of evolution

through untold millenniums. He is

why he does not copy some sort
of aquatic fish or mammal, such as the shark or
the porpoise, or even the whale. These creatures
extending

known

to be, for their

size,

capable of prodi-

gious speeds, exceeding 20 kt in spurts for the

porpoise and the whale.

They make

these speeds,

at least in the case of the porpoise, with

what

seems to be effortless ease.

The achievements of fish and aquatic mammals,
in the matter of propulsion and maneuvering and
related operations, have been the subject of
scientific, engineering, and physiological study for
three-quarters of a century or more. Research
along these lines

is

continuing, steadily

if

slowly.

known

not do

weight in small

fish

every

seems certain that the animal does

this, at least

such high speed. It

while traveling continually at

is

as inefficient as

if

man, a porpoise would have

to

his entire

half hour. It

also asserted that a pigeon,

some man-made

airplanes,

would have to carry along an internal-combustion

engine with a power of several horses, in order to

make its known speed through

The second is that for the

the

air.

great majority of

creatures in this category, propulsion

inherently

upon

in addition to

Certainly,

is

motion

swimming

of

at the high relative speeds

body undulations.

has

not

yet

based

body as a whole,
the fins, tail, and flukes.

flexure of the

desired always involves

invented

Man

submarine structure

which can withstand great hydrostatic pressures

and house a powerful propelling plant, while at
the same time possessing great flexibility and
capable of generating S-shaped undulations which
travel along its length.

Actually, because of their varying environment

questioned as to

are

consume

and

their different needs, fish

often

rather

poorly

and mammals are

by modern

streamlined

hydrodynamic and aeronautic standards. If it

becomes necessary, on a submarine, to depart
from a good streamline shape, that of some fish
or

mammal

could be accepted.

VI. Maneuvering Submerged.

ing, as
(1)

Transient and steady motions in a straight

line parallel to the

(2)

The term maneuver-

used here, involves:

submarine axis

Steering and turning in a plane that

zontal or nearly so

is

hori-

HYDRODYNAMICS

814
(3) Rising,

diving,

and

depth-keeping

in

vertical plane.
of the vessel

are involved in each case, as contrasted to a

smaller underwater volume for the surface ship.

submerged to a depth h

times

its

hull height h,

surface above

it

is

of the order of several

the effect of the free

negligible.

This situation

is

contrasted with that of the surface ship, sur-

rounded by an air-water interface upon which

gravity waves can be formed.
Heel when turning, usually only an inconvenience on a surface vessel, can introduce vertical
forces and moments on a submarine which
affect its trim attitude and perhaps its depth of
submergence. Unless the submarine carries a
topside rudder of the type described in Sec. 37.14
and illustrated in diagram 2 of Fig. 37. C, the same
steering rudder that "handles" the normal
lateral area on the surface must, for horizontal
steering and turning submerged, "handle" the
greater lateral area of the entire bulk of the
submarine.
One feature related to both speed and propulsion and to maneuvering requires mention.
Unlike a surface vessel the speed and propulsion
requirements for a submerged submarine can not
be dissociated from those of trim and attitude.
In other words, it is useless for a submarine to
be able to travel at a certain speed submerged
unless the vessel can be held at the desired
attitude and depth at that speed.
76.31

Lightships

Light

or

Vessels.

The

design of a lightship or a light vessel, whether

manned

or unattended

when on

station, repre-

some extremely interesting problems in

hydrodynamics, which have benefited from only
sents

sporadic scientific study in the past.

few of

these are discussed here, in rather limited scope.

Stated

briefly,

the requirements for a lightship

are for a vessel that shall:

(1)

Display the necessary Ughts or other identifiboth abovewater and underwater

cation, send out

and perform
These are best accomplished
when the vessel is upright and at zero trim
although they must be carried out under all

Sec.

that the vessel maintain

is

minimum

Exert the

(3)

The bulk shape and bulk volume

If

IN SHIP DESIGN

charted position.

consistent with
mooring cable or
when subjected to wind, or current, or both

other characteristics,
line,

its

76J

on

pull,

its

(4) Be free of violent or undesirable yawing

under the influence of wind or waves or both
(5) Reduce the motions of rolling, pitching, and
heaving to a minimum consistent with other
requirements and the wavegoing conditions to be
encountered. This is to reduce fatigue of personnel
and wear and tear on equipment, whether the

vessel

is

Be

(6)

manned

or

unmanned.

able to propel itself at reasonable speed

and to maneuver,

if

the vessel

of this type.

is

The lightship is in a class with the life-saving

boat discussed in Sec. 76.32 with respect to its
abiUty to remain on station, completely operative
except for

its

when

propulsion plant,

vessels of its size (and larger)

all

other

are required to

seek shelter in port.

Its freeboard coefficient or freeboard-to-length

ratio is

much

greater than that of

any other type

of craft except a life-saving boat. Similarly, the

reserve-buoyancy ratio is very large, perhaps

even larger than that of the latter craft.
Lightships may have much more than the usual

amount

of sheer, especially forward, unless the

more deck height, for its whole

would be customary in other vessels

vessel has one

length, than
of its size.

While low resistance in a lightship when

moored in a seaway is one of the major requirements, some of it may be sacrificed to permit the
use of special features furthering the vessel's mission.

One such

feature

is

a set of extremely wide

stayed by auxUiary

roll-resisting keels, possibly

struts extending

from near the outer edges of

the keel to the adjacent hull [SBSR, 17 Jan 1935,

Another would be an effective pitchdevice, provided a successful one could

be devised for this type of vessel. Indeed, anything which assists in damping any part of the
wavegoing motion is a useful feature, whether
p.

66].

damping

manned

sonic signals, transmit radio signals,

the craft

similar functions.

provided, is almost never a

primary feature, but the drag exerted by the
stationary propeller in a current should be held
to the minimum practicable amount.
In only a very few cases does the technical
literature contain reasonably complete principal
dimensions, hull parameters, form coefficients,
and other characteristics of lightships. Table 76.g

ship-motion conditions.
(2)

Remain

afloat

and operable and on

station,

invariably an exposed one, regardless of the state

of the sea and of the wind and weather. In fact,

the worse the conditions, the more necessary

it

is

Self-propulsion,

if

or unattended.

Sec.

7631

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

815

HYDRODYNAMICS

816

embodies the rather meager information of this

type which could be collected for six lightship
designs dating from 1881 through about 1914.
Additional information and data, on old as well
as modern vessels, are to be found in the brief
list of references which follows:
(a)

Body plan

of Elbe lightship,

(b)

(c)

with a

B/H

ratio of

and a rise of floor of 24 deg, is

shown in Schiffbau, 26 Jun 1912, pp. 715-722, PI. .3
Idle, G., "The EfTect of Bilge Keels on the Rolling of
Lightships," INA, 1912, pp. 103-123 and Pis.
IX-XI. Figs. 10-13 on PI. X illustrate by flowlines
the assumed motion of the water around the
ship hull and around the bilge keels when rolling.
Cook, G. C., "The Evolution of the Lightship,"
SNAME, 1913, pp. 97-118 and Pis. 52-63. Gives
considerable historical data. Shows arrangement
plans, body plan, and lines of self-propelled U.S.
Lightship 94. Principal dimensions and hull coefficients are listed in Table 76. g. The wedges of
immersion and emersion are intended to be nearly
25.25/12.46

2.03,

equal. The bilges are very slack. The full-load displacement at 18.58-ft draft is about 1,072 t. Static
stability is a maximum at about 60 deg, and very

100 deg. The roll-resisting keels are of

The Ship-

large at

triangular section, 1.5 ft wide. See also

builder (now

SBMEB), Jan-Jun

1914, Vol. X, pp.

215-220.
(d)

Cooper, F. E., Liverpool Eng. Soc,

The Shipbuilder (now SBMEB),

Mar

1914; also

Jan-Jun

1914,

X, pp. 295-296. Describes the non-self-propelled

light vessel Alarm, whose dimensions are listed in
Table 76. g. The bilge keels extend for 0.6L and are
about 1.2 ft wide.
New Lurcher No. 2 Lightship, Diesel Prog., Mar
Vol.

(e)

192, p. 59
(f)

(g)

(h)

New
New

Mar. Eng'g., Apr 1953, p. 45

Ambrose Lightship, Mar. Eng'g., Sep 1953, p. 85
Lightship Kish Bank, illustrated in SBSR, 27 Jan
1955, p. 36, has a centerline hawsepipe just above
the
for mooring on station plus a regular
hawsepipe on each bow with port and starboard
bower anchors and separate chains. The Motor
Boat and Yachting, Aug 1954, p. 357, shows a
photograph indicating extreme local sheer at the
bow.
Light vessel Osprey, SBMEB, Jun 1955, pp. 417-418;
SBSR, 30 Jun 1955, p. 841. This non-self-propelled
ship has an overall length of 136.42 ft and a beam
Overfalls Lightship,

of 25

ft,

mooring

(j)

with "exceptionally large bilge keels." The

is by 1.75-in chain, attached to a 4-ton
anchor, with port and starboard 1.5-ton

from vessels

in distress it

be required for
Presumably general design requirements exist
for these craft but none have been located in the
technical literature, especially none that relate
directly to hydrodynamics. The following specifications appear to meet these needs:
will

(1)

The

craft .shall be able to operate in the

matter how severe

(2) The boat shall be self-righting without crew,
when rolled to any angle of heel up to 180 deg
(3) It shall be virtually unsinkable; in other
words, it shall remain afloat, even when moder-

damaged
The reserve-buoyancy

ately
(4)

shall

ratio, with crew only,

be exceptionally large, preferably of the

3. The wind resistance inherent in

abovewater volume is accepted. With
all the rescued personnel which can crowd aboard,
the reserve-buoyancy ratio shall be not less than

order of 2 or

this large

1.0.

(5)

of

There shall be a covered deck at both ends,

arched or turbleback form, designed to reUeve

itself of

water and spray which comes aboard well

of

subjected to a succeeding load

is

water

(6) All cockpits and depressions in the weather

deck shall be self-baihng, with the boat carrying
its crew and the maximum number of rescued

personnel
(7)

The

free-running speed, without passengers

but with crew and

full fuel

and

erably, within the overall fair surface of the hull.

it

shall

be possible to operate them

jiust aground, or

with the boat

when directly alongside a larger vessel.

(9) The fore-and-aft position of the propulsion
be such

they continue to
running under heavy

76.32 Life-Saving or Rescue Boats. The

hfe-saving or rescue boats discussed in this section
are the self-propelled craft which are based on
shore .stations, or on large station ships afloat.

devices

They

with other recjuirements listed

by passenger

be

It shall be not less than 10 kt, in smooth water

and no wind, and preferably 12 kt or higher.
(8) The propulsion devices shall be housed, pref-

In any case

e.xclude the lifeboats carried

stores, shall

sufficient to reach a disaster scene expeditiously.

in shallow water,

793 and 794 and Sec. 206 on pp. 369, 373.

open

sea or to stand by in practically any weather, no

anchors in reserve.
Rooij, G., "Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Figs.

appears that life-saving

home or shore stations

many years to come.

boats operating from

mushroom

De

Sec. 76.32

personnel can be taken aboard another vessel.

Despite improved methods of removing personnel

before the craft

DWL

(i)

IN SHIP DESIGN

and other vessels, intended only to remain afloat

and stay together on the scene until the rescued

shall

produce

thrust

when

that

pitching conditions
(10)

The

draft shall be the

minimum compatible

DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT

Sec.

7632

(11)

The type and

rudder(s)

taking suction from the bottom of the boat must

shall

be such that steering or maneuvering control

be able to work in water-mud or water-sand

boat

of the

is

position

maintained at

the

of

all

times, regardless

mixtures.

of the state of the sea.

from item (1) preceding that these

boats represent very nearly the ultimate in the
wavegoing performance required of any vessel
at sea. It might almost be said that life-saving
boats should float and remain upright when all
other craft sink or turn bottom side up. To achieve
requirements (1) and (4) they are distinguished
by very large freeboard at the bow and stern,
usually very nearly equal at both ends, by a
very large sheer, and by a very large volume of
abovewater reserve buoyancy, often in the form of
closed compartments intended for buoyancy only.
The self-righting requirement (2) means that
the boat should have positive transverse metaIt

clear

is

centric

or

positive

pendulum

inclined to amj 'position in

roll.

It

stability

when

should not only

and 180
deg but should be capable of rolling completely
over (360 deg), without serious damage, if caught
by a breaking beam sea.
right itself from heel angles between 90

Cockpits and other depressions exposed to the

weather are rendered self-bailing by making them
watertight, with freeing slots passing out through
the sides or down through the bottom. Some
water enters through these slots when the boat
pitches and rolls but the

amount

is

small, usually

only enough to cause slippery footing or to freeze

817

Gill

screw propeller,

fitted inside

an internal
and dis-

duct, taking suction through a grating

charging through a rotable "deflecting nozzle,"

sometimes used for a lifeboat installation

[SBSR, 27 Jul 1939, pp. HI, 113]. Figs. 59.Da
and 59. Db show the general arrangement and
method of operation of the Hotchkiss and Gill
is

propellers, respectively.

pointed out in reference

It is
list

(o) of

the attached

that rescue-boat speeds of the past, usually

not exceeding 8.5 kt, are no longer considered

adequate. Speeds up to 20 kt, to be incorporated
in German life-saving boats under design at the
time of writing (1955), will call for a rather
modification in the double-ended form
which has been standard since the days when all
these craft were propelled by oars. Transom
sterns of moderate width are indicated for speedlength quotients exceeding about 1.2 or 1.3. It
is possible that the high-speed, round-bottom,
drastic

transom-stern patrol boat of small size, already

developed into a craft capable of withstanding

extremely heavy weather, may be found suitable

life-saving boats meeting the requirements

for

beginning of this section.

listed at the

Appended

a brief

is

list of

references relating

to life-saving or rescue boats. Although by no

means complete it will give the reader some idea

problems involved:

of the design

into objectionable ice in cold weather.

On

certain life-saving boats of older design,

which were not required to be self-righting, it was

customary to fit one or two projecting appendages,
resembhng roll-resisting keels, along the bulge on
each side. These were slotted so that, in the event
the boat turned bottom side up, the survivors
could use them as hand rails. In fact these
appendages were wide enough to serve rather
well as roll-resisting keels, despite the

cut through them. There

is

(a)

(c)

To meet

specification (7), propulsion

may

the

Reynolds advocated the use of models

J., "Experiments with Lifeboat Models,"
INA, 1890, pp. 263-283 and Pis. XIV and XV.
Reserve-buoyancy ratio of craft in the period
1862-1890 varied from about 0.75 to 2.1.
Bamett, J. R., "Motor Lifeboats of the Royal

somewhat general terms.

Everett, H. A., "Stabihty of Lifeboats," SNAME,

1913, pp. 133-143 and Pis. 73-82. While this paper
applies to lifeboats as carried on larger vessels, it
contain interesting information for the designer

(e)

making a study of life-saving craft.

Bamett, J. R., "Recent Developments in Motor
Life-boats," INA, 1922, pp. 283-290 and Pis.

(f)

Bamett,

be by

with impellers entirely inside the hull, are often

employed. Any type of propeller or impeller

Investigating

Corbett,

in
(d)

or guards for the lower portions of the hull.

ducted propellers, approaching pure hydraulic-jet

propulsion, or by screw propellers working in
tunnels of suitable shape. Hotchkiss propellers,

of

National Lifeboat Institution," INA, 1910, pp.

112-119 and 129-139; also PI. X. This paper contains the principal lifeboat requirements, expressed

self-

two pairs of roll-resisting keels, to improve the

wavegoing performance and to serve as fenders

"On Methods

fessor

(b)

righting rescue boat could not be fitted with one

or

O.,

Qualities of Lifeboats," Manchester Literary and

Philosophical Society, 14 Dec 1886, in which Pro-

hand holes

no reason why a

Reynolds,

XIX-XXII
J.

R.,

"Motor

Life-boats

of

the

Royal

National Life-boat Institution," INA, 1929, pp.

225-236 and

Pis.

XXIII and XXIV

HYDRODYNAMICS

818
(g)

IN SHIP DESIGN

The two
"Moyens de sauvetage modemes (Modem

Ghiradi, L.,

Methods

of Lifesaving),"

(i)

Design

of

ATMA,

Institution Lifeboats,"

(j)

482^83
"The German Lifeboat

(k)

Self-righting,

National

Lifeboat

SBSR,

15

May

1947, pp.

SBSR,

USNI, Dec

illustrated in

L., Pengelly,

Naval

"Theoretical

5 Jun 1947,

Guard

lifeboat

is

craft

(n)

H.

S.,

and Sims, A.

Architecture,"

1953,

J.,

pp.

The Bremen

is

ft.

a beam of 13.75 ft, and

The brake power is 2 times 120 horses;

first

is

Each

(p)

of the larger boats built expressly for

(q)

ft,

is

lifeboats

20 kt.

of these rescue craft carries a smaller or

"daughter" boat in an inclined trough set in the

stem, enabling the smaller boat to be launched and
hauled aboard at will. The "daughter" boat is 16.42
ft long and 6.5 ft wide.
Although the righting arms are large when the
boats are incUned to 90 deg, apparently neither of
them are intended to withstand rolling completely

having a range of 238 miles at 8.38

kt.

and

all lifeboats

in general.

11 kt.

is

signed top speed

German

in

for British lifeboats in particular

ft,

the Helgoland. It has an overall length

a beam of 17.75 ft, and a draft of 4.75 ft.
The brake power is 2 times 300 horses and the deof 73.75

further discussion of British and

diesel engines,

a converted steel huU having an

overall length of 57.42

work

of the larger

"The Future of the R.N.L.I. Lifeboat," SBSR, 30

Jun 1955, pp. 828-829. This article discusses a
number of requirements and features for lifeboat
design and indicates the probable future trends

(o)

newest types of German lifesaving "cruisers" for

The

stem

desired to launch or to take aboard

SBSR, Int. Des. and Equip.

given by G.
No., 1955, pp. 67-68. The new British Coverack
class are 42.5 ft long, with twin screws driven by

rescue work. These craft are "of a larger, faster,

and more powerful t3rpe than previously used."

rescue

it is

Wood

181-183

the top speed

when

for sea-rescue work, of the period 1954-1955, is

1948, p. 1552

(m) "German Lifesaving 'Cruisers'," SBSR, 13 Jan 1955,

pp. 41-43. This well-illustrated paper describes the

draft of 4.58

carried in

the smaller one.

non-sinkable Coast

Attwood, E.

Bremen are

is

trim-control device to depress the

Service,"

pp. 556-557

(1)

There

one balanced rudder abaft each

by a skeg bar
which serves as a guard for both propeller and mdder.
Between the port and starboard skeg bars there is
mounted a horizontal hydrofoil which serves as a

1932, Vol. 36,

Royal

propellers of the

side tunnels.

propeller with its lower pintle carried

pp. 83-104

"Improved

life-

boats.

165-166
(h)

Sec. 76.33

over and righting themselves, as for the smaller

Motor lifeboat Insulinde, Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing.,

13 Apr 1929, pp. 499-503; WRH, 22 Apr 1930, pp.

"Fast German Rescue Ship (Herman Apelt)," SBSR,

25 Aug. 1955, p. 259 (illustration). Length, 66 ft;
beam, 15 ft; speed, 17 kt.
"A New Watson Class R.N.L.I. Lifeboat," The
Motor Boat and Yachting, Feb 1956, pp. 62-63.

76.33

Special-Purpose

Craft

of

the Future.

one can predict the uses, not now dreamed of,

to which water craft will be put in the future.
It is certain, however, that the creation of new
forms or the adaptation of existing forms to these
uses is to be done most efficiently by the application of hydrodynamic knowledge, as has been the

No

aim

in this book.

CHAPTER

The

77

Preliminary Hydrodynamic Design of a

Motorboat
77.1
77.2

77.3
77 4
.

77 5
77.6
77.7
77.8
.

Scope of This Chapter

General Considerations Relating to Motorboat Design
Special Design Features for Small-Craft Hulls
Design Notes for Displacement-Type Motorboats
Semi-Planing and Planing Small Craft
Operating Requirements for Planing Forms
General Notes on the Powering of Small Craft
.

Analysis of the Principal Requirements

Tentative Selection of the Type and Proportions of the Hull

77.11

First Space

77.12

First

77.13
77.14

First

77.20
77.21
77.22

Interdependence of Hull-Design Features

Layout of the Lines for the ABC Planing-

843

Type Tender
Design Check on a Basis of Chine Dimen-

843

77.25

Selecting the Hull Features; Section Shapes

Rise-of-Floor Magnitude and Variation

Chine Shape, Proportions, and Dimensions

Buttock Shapes; The Mean Buttock ...
Trim Angle and Center-of-Gravity Position
Use of Trim-Control Devices
Spray Strips
Stem Shape
Deep Keel and Skeg; Other Appendages

Scope of This Chapter.

846

77.26

Second Estimate of Shaft Power, Based Upon

77.27

Effective Power
Running Attitude and Fore-and-Aft Position

77.28

First Space

77 29
77 30

77.31

Weight Estimate for the 18-Knot Hull

Power Estimate for the 18-Knot and
14-Knot Conditions
Selecting the 18-Knot Hull Shape and Char-

77.32

Layout

Heavy Weights
Layout

of the

827

850

First

ABC

Round-

Bottom Tender
Example of a Modern Round-Bottom UtilityBoat Design
Design for a Motorboat of Limited Draft

77.33

832
835
836
837
839

77.34
77.35
77.36
77.37
77.38
77 39
77.40

Design of Control Surfaces and Appendages

Third Weight Estimate
Self-Propelled Tests for Models witii Dynam-

77.41

Partial Bibliography on Motorboats

motorboat

Estimate of Screw-Propeller Characteristics

Propeller Tip Clearances; Hull Vibration

Still- Air

Drag and Wind Resistance

....
.

ic

853

854

of the Lines for the

831

840
841
842
842

852
853

First

acteristics

828

847

18-Knot Round-

Bottom Hull
.

827

Procedure
Second Weight Estimate
Approximation to Shaft and Brake

of the

825
826

Weight Estimate; Weight-Estimating

Power
77.15
77.16
77.17
77.18
77 19

823
823
824
824

Layout of the 24-Knot Planing

Hull

77.23
77.24

sions

Principal Requirements for a Preliminary

Design Study
77 9
77 10

819

820
822

Lift
.

855
858
858
859
859
862
862
863
864
865

is

design of a planing hull. Chap. 13 discusses basic

defined in this chapter as a mechanically pro-

planing phenomena and Chap. 30 the behavior

having a length of about 110 ft

(33.5 meters) or less, running at a Taylor quotient
r, greater than 1.0, F > 0.3, and of a general
type which may or may not include the fishing
vessels and yachts of Sees. 76.11 and 76.19. The
treatment here is limited to craft driven by screw
propellers. The motorboats may be supported
wholly or in part by water buoyancy or by
dynamic lift on the hull proper. In other words,
they may be of the displacement, the semi-

of actual planing craft.

77.1

pelled

craft

planing,

supported

or

the

craft

fuU-planing
are

in

type.

Hydrofoil-

separate

category,

discussed in Chap. 31 and partially covered

by

the limited bibhography of Sec. 53.9.

As introductory material

for

notes

on the

set of

Some

quantitative data

and planing and a rather lengthy

references are given in Chap. 53. Notes for

on dynamic

lift

guidance in determining whether a craft designed

to meet a given set of requirements is to be of
the displacement type, or whether it is to be a
semi-planing or a full-planing form, are found in
Sec. 77.10 of the present chapter.

One aim

of this chapter is to collect

and

cor-

performance and design

information applicable to motorboats in general,
supplementing the large-ship data set down in
earlier chapters. Sec. 77.41 contains a partial
bibhography relating to smaU-craft, yacht, and
motorboat design. It is to be hoped that, in the

819

relate certain small-craft

HYDRODYNAMICS

820

not distant future, an enterprising small-boat

designer will present a much more extensive

summary and

and useful

digest of all available

information, as N. L. Skene did some years ago

in his

book "Elements of Yacht Design," and

Simpson and P. G. Tomalin did more

as D. S.

[SNAME,

recently

1951, pp. 554-611; 1953, pp.

590-634].

Manifestly,
this

it is

not possible to compress into

chapter, with its illustrative examples,

all

fundamentals that have

appeared in each of several books on the design
of motorboats, Usted in the bibUography of Sec.
77.41, to say nothing of the valuable information in the multitude of technical papers and
articles on this subject. It endeavors only to
cover certain hydrodynamic features of motorboat
design in a manner similar to the coverage of the
principal features of large-ship design in Chaps.
the

essentials

and

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 77.2

which the speeds are usually restricted to T,

values less than 2.0 or 2.5, F < 0.60 or 0.74,
the comments as to water flow and ship behavior
of Chaps. 24, 25, and 26 of Part 2 are vahd
for

regardless

of

at least

size,

for

all

craft

large

enough to carry an adult human. Except for

certain limitations on small craft because of the
accommodations which have to be provided for

human

beings of nearly constant dimensions, the

design

rules

and

considerations

set

forth

in

Chaps. 66, 67, and 68 of Part 4 apply to small

craft as well as to large ones.

W.

F.

Durand

pointed out as long ago as 1907, in his book

"Motor Boats; A Thoroughly Scientific Discussion
of

Their Design, Construction, and Operation"

Mar. Eng'g., London and

[Int.

New

York, 1907,

Library of Congress number YM341.D9] that:

".

the selection of principal dimensions, hull coeffi-

and parameters, underwater form, and the size

and form of appendages is handled in almost exactly the
same way as for a large vessel."
cients

64 through

It

68.

stresses

the

differences

in

and procedures necessitated by

size, as well as by the presence
of a major supporting force other than buoyancy
in the form of dynamic lift.
As an illustration of the use of the data presented and the procedures described, there are
characteristics

the difference in

included in the chapter the preliminary hydro-

dynamic designs
alternative

of

two motorboats,

specifications.

One

two

to

involves

a fast

semi-planing hull and the other a high-speed

full-

planing hull.

General Considerations Relating to MoFor water craft of all kinds there

is little difference in behavior \vith size if care is
taken to maintain dynamic similarity of flow.
This is done when a self-propelled free-running
model, or a pilot model large enough to carry one
77.2

torboat Design.

more persons, is built as part of the development work on a large project. Dynamic similarity
or

of flow is not fully realized if model tests include

towing of the model of a mechanically propelled
craft but exclude self-propulsion tests of that

model,
its

when driven by a

small-scale replica of

propulsion device. This matter

is

discussed

further in Sec. 77.40. Since similarity of flow

almost

never

endeavoring to

completely
ruii

achieved,

as

is

when

simultaneously at the same

number and of the Reynolds

model and ship, similarity is
maintained for that flow which is considered the
most important. This is the basis of the whole

values of the Froude

number

for both

technicjue of ship-model testing.

Considering vessels of the displacement type.

The

and unfortunately also

hes in estimating the total

principal difference

a principal difficulty

weight

of the finished small craft,

especially

if

some new type. There is another difference,

discussed in Part 6 of Volume III under Wavegoing, in that the short wind and ship waves to
be met by a motorboat or motor cruiser are
considerably steeper than the long waves having
the same ratio of wave length to ship length for a
of

it is

large vessel.

The motorboat has wavegoing adventures, even

in waters that are

considered sheltered. Velox

waves from passing vessels of larger size or greater

speed are steep and sometimes troublesome, as
are the waves stirred up in shallow areas by
sudden squalls and storms. As a rule, the slowing
down of motorboats in shallow and restricted
waters is taken for granted, so that no special
hull shapes are required for these conditions.

Motorboats

of the semi-planing type represent

a considerably more difficult design problem than

those of the displacement type. The change of

when underway becomes a major design

parameter and the necessity for an accurate
estimate of the weight becomes much more acute.
Moreover, there is a rather wide variety of
possible hull shapes from which the proper choice
has to be made. It must be admitted that in the
past these problems have not had the benefit of
the systematic empirical and practical study, to
say nothing of the scientific and analytic research
trim

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.2

that has been devoted to the design of larger

time comes, the hydrodynamic

other aspects of semi-planing motorboat

ships. Until this

and

design will not be adequately covered, in reference

books or elsewhere.
In the design procedure for a full-planing craft
it is necessary to emphasize the large and numerous differences between the design problems for a
displacement craft, set forth in Chaps. 6G, 67,
and 68, and those applying to a planing motorboat:
(1)

In the

first

Rr/W,

is

of displacement,

7?,.

/A

or

higher than for a displacement-type

craft, often

Rt/W

the total resistance in

place,

pounds per long ton

by two orders

for a tanker

may

of

magnitude. Whereas

be 4 or

5, for

a liner 10

and for a destroyer or similar high-speed

craft up to 130 or 150, the Rt/W value for a
motorboat with a T, of 5 or 6 is 700 or 800,
indicated clearly by Fig. 56.M. The latter figure
or 12,

represents a ratio of say 750 to 2,240, or roughly

one-third of the total weight.

(2) In the second place, the buoyancy force
corresponds to practically the entire weight of a
displacement-type vessel, whereas for a planing

craft it

only

may

be not more than one-third or perhaps

of the total weight. The

one-thirteenth

remainder

is

dynamic

lift.

its

and

its pitching and

wavegoing behavior

behavior when planing,

porpoising characteristics,
its

slamming

its

loads, as well as its controll-

ability, stability of route,

and heel when steering

and turning.
(4) For a destroyer or similar high-speed vessel
running on the after side of its own bow wave the
slope drag

may

be as

much as 0.01511'", correspondOn a motorboat,

ing to say 30 or 35 lb per long ton.

before planing is reached, it may be as high as

O.lOH^or more, corresponding to say 225 lb per ton.
(5) The actual wetted surface of a planing craft
diminishes rapidly as the speed increases, until at

designed speed

it

may

be only one-third or

less

of the at-rest value

(6)

The

still-air

accompanied by large vertical forces. Furthermore, the abovewater volume and exposed area
of a motorboat increase with the speed, as the
craft rises out of the water.

The planing-boat

design problem

resistance

of

a large

ship

is

hydrodynamic
resistance but in an ultra-high speed motorboat
it may approach that resistance in value, and be
rarely a large percentage of the

is

not only

vastly different from that of the displacementvastly more intricate, with

and interactions of major effect.
In perhaps no other branch of water-craft design
is there so great a dependence of each design
feature upon all the others. A 10 per cent increase
in displacement of a vessel supported only by
buoyancy means that it sinks somewhat deeper
in the water and runs at slightly reduced speed
but it retains essentially the same underwater
form and gives about the same performance. A

type craft but

is

interrelationships

10 per cent increase in weight of a planing craft

prevent it from planing at all, and from

may

designed

reaching more than half of

its

of the

slight

change in shape

which supports the

only prevent

its

craft

full

speed.

bottom surface

when planing may not

planing but double

its

running

trim by the stern. Another slight change in

bottom shape, hardly large enough to be noticeable, may lift it to planing position but may
render it actually dangerous to handle at high
speed.

The

planing-craft designer

reconcile himself to learning,

(3) The shape of the bottom of a displacementtype craft usually affects only its pressure resistance but may and often does have an effect upon
maneuvering and wavegoing. In a planing craft
the bottom shape affects its ability to plane at
all,

821

must accordingly
and understanding,

what amounts almost to an entirely new science

and art. Fortunately for him, dynamic lift and
other planing phenomena have also called for
intensive study and experimentation on the part
of aeronautical engineers and aerodynamicists
who have been designing seaplanes and flying
boats for the past half-century. Many more
minds and hands were concentrated on the
problem than would have been the case if the
naval architect had had to go it alone.
The attainment of superior hydrodynamic performance is perhaps of greater importance in small
pleasure craft than in small utility craft. A person
who builds or buys a boat and runs it for sheer
enjoyment expects to have fun and not trouble.
He is in a position, as when buying an automobile,
to pick

and choose, and to be

satisfied

with nothing

but the best.

For the same reasons, appearance may likewise
be more of a factor than it is on a larger vessel,
although as a rule not more important than performance in the water. Even a racing yacht must
fines. A skipper who is proud of
her racing record must also be proud of her

have pleasing

HYDRODYNAMICS

822

appearance.

He must

like to

look at her as well as

to sail her.

Many modern motorboats, and small sailing

yachts as well, are of the V-bottom, hard-chine
type, as contrasted with the round-bottom craft
discussed in earlier chapters of Part 4. The fast,
hard-chine, full-planing craft

may have

stepless

hulls or hulls with double or multiple steps. In

the former,

there

a single bottom surface

is

generating dynamic

terminating in a single
transverse edge at the stern. In the latter there
are two or more separate lift-generating surfaces,
each with its own sharp downstream edge. In
some cases the sharp, deep edges of steps may
lift,

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 77.3

than 6 kt is likely to be unacceptable in any

pure power boat and more is generally needed.
For this reason the values of T^ for non-planing
craft rise from a minimum of 1.3 to a maximum
of 1.5 or more, F in excess of 0.45 [Phillips-Birt,
less

The Motor Boat and Yachting, Apr

D.,

1953,

p. 158].

The

(7)

larger change of trim for small craft at

Vision ahead, and fairly

must be maintained at all trim

their designed speed.

close aboard,

angles to be encountered in the speed range.

The

(8)

importance of aerodynamic

increased

loads with high absolute motorboat speeds, and

the effects of natural Avinds on high abovewater

run in diagonal directions, both fore-and-aft and

structures

transversely.

Special Design Features for Small-Craft

(9) The types of hull construction and building

procedures are of considerably greater variety

The

than for large

77.3

Hulls.

design

small-craft

of

hulls

under

This

vessels.

of

is

importance to

about 110 ft (or 33.5 m) in length requires particular emphasis on certain features of lesser
relative importance on large vessels. Among these

the hydrodynamic problem because of the possi-

are:

dicted

(1)

The normal

size of

human

adult and the

more-or-less fixed deck heights, headroom, berth

and bunk

messing spaces, seating room,

areas, and stowage facilities
resulting therefrom. A skiff, for example, must
have enough stability so that a man can stand
up in it without risk of capsizing. A motorboat
passages,

biUty that the finished weight

estimated weight.

dynamic

Uft

is

may

exceed the

the calculated or pre-

If so,

not sufficient to raise or to

trim the boat to the position or attitude where

hydrodynamic resistance is
power and thrust available.

matched

its

by the

sizes,

The

access

minimum

considerations of Sec. 77.2 combine with

the special features mentioned in this section to

render the preliminary design of a motorboat of

the semi-planing or full-planing type exceedingly

metacentric

complex as compared with that of a large displacement-type vessel. W. P. Walker describes

the situation admirably by saying that:

stabUity with scale as the vessel becomes smaller,

especially when certain factors or parameters

that the smaller the ship the greater are the problems

can not have bunks smaller than a given

size.

(2)

The diminution

in

transverse

remain constant. This is the reason why, when

sailing in the same wind, a model yacht has to
have a much larger and heavier ballast keel in
proportion to its hull than the full-scale prototype.
(3)

The

increased space required for handling

and stowing relatively larger items of equipment

on deck. A dinghy carried for safety purposes is
much larger in proportion than a lifeboat on a
larger vessel.
(4)

The

huU and

upper works on a small craft, because the fixed

deck height is large with respect to the hull size
(5)

The

increased inconvenience from spray with

closer

relative speeds,

to

the

water,

with

higher

and with heavier impact loads

from slamming at those speeds

(6)

The

(he) considers it

one of the parado.xes of his profession

associated with its design,

relatively larger

T,

= V/VL

or F

values at which most small craft run. Anything

."

[lESS, 1948-1949, Vol. 92,

p. 304].

The

large

number

of successful displacement-

and planing boats in service

proves that they can be designed. However, the
embarrassingly frequent poor performers and
downright failures leave most designers with a
type, semi-planing,

distinct sense of uncertainty in the behavior of

their next product

proportionately larger area of

everything

".

if it is

different

from what has

already been built and run.

The pubUshed

design comments and notes

some extent from this uncertainty, as
well as from the lack of a straightforward procedure or sequence of operations by which one can
actually design a boat. However, they can be
greatly improved if experienced designers are
able to find time and are willing to write down,
systematically and in detail, the most reliable
suffer to

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOA E

Sec. 77.5

and useful information

data,

when made

in their possession.

These

available to the profession at

large, will surely lead to

improvement and prog-

ress.

The present
fore,

effort is to

be looked upon, there-

as only a beginning in the application of

823

The ends have

people on board.

to be filled out

more than on a large ship, where spaces for man

and his requirements are more readily provided.
Some additional design information which
apphes to certain kinds of motorboats and small
craft,

together with appUcable references,

and

is

given

h3'drodynamics to the design of small craft.

77.4 Design Notes for Displacement-Type

in Sees. 76.2

Motorboats. There has been a major change in

what may be termed the "normal" form of the
motorboat in the course of a half-century. The
fine, slender launches of the 1900's and the 1910's
have become the much fatter transom-stern
forms of the 1930's, 1940's, and 1950's. This
major change in shape has left the marine architect with httle save his own resources in the
design of a displacement-type motorboat. W. F.

It is difficult to define a semi-planing craft, or to

Durand's design procedure of 1907, embodied in

the book referenced in the first part of Sec. 77.2,
differed but little from that of a Uner of about the
same proportions. Indeed, the analysis undertaken
for the preparation of Chaps. 66, 67, and 68 still
leaves the marine architect with unfinished spaces
and missing design lanes on the following:
(a)

Fig. 66.A; the design lane for fatness ratios

should have an upward branch, not indicated on

that plot, for relatively high values of /{0.lQLY

above 1.0
66.D shows the upper portion only of a
lower branch into which the value of the maximum-section coefficient Cx drops rapidly for
yachts, tugs, fishing craft, and other small
vessels. This is because of the need for large deck
space, for wide beam to give metacentric stabihty,
for a deep keel with which to resist drifting, or
in the range of T,
(b) Fig.

for other reasons.

(c)

beam Bx

manner

in

which the

diminishes to a limiting or

minimum

Fig. 66.E illustrates the

average value of about 2 or 3

ft

as the vessel

Semi-Planing and Planing Small Craft.

77.5

limit,

7G.3.

by a

description in words, the range of

variables within which a small craft of this type

is

best located, as

appropriate

is

because of the wider beam of small

vessels the waterUne slopes at the entrance branch
off into a lane of their own, for the present not

were. Until something

more
is

assumed to be one mtermediate between a displacement type and a true- or full-planing type,
without specifying the speed range too closely.
Put ia another way, the craft is of the semiplaning type, when:

becomes appreciable with

more than
5 per cent of the latter. It may, in fact, become
the controlling factor in its design and perform-

The dynamic

(1)

lift

respect to the weight of the boat, say

ance.

The

(2)

total resistance

Rt becomes more than

10 or 15 per cent of the total weight

The

(3)

craft trims

by the stern at

its

designed

speed and the center of gravity CG at this speed

is at least as high with reference to the undisturbed water surface as when the boat is at rest
(4) Roughly, the speed range Hes between T,
values of 2.0 and 3.0, F between 0.60 and 0.89.
This corresponds to the upper part of the inter-

mediate range of Fig. 29.D.

somewhat more

semi-planing craft

is

practical

way

to say that

of defining

it is

the round-

bottom version of a high-speed planing craft, more

suitable than the latter for moderate weights
carrying purposes and for continuous operation

heavy weather.

in

The length used

length diminishes to zero

it

devised, a semi-planing craft

in semi-planuig craft design

when

is

at rest,

(d) Fig. 66.1;

the waterMne length of the vessel

too well defined.

with the loads on board specified for the designed

condition, the same as for a displacement-type
vessel. The change of level or of trim that occurs

A graph given by D.

PhiUips-Birt ["The Design

of Small Power Craft," The Motor Boat and

Yachting, London, Apr 1953, pp. 158-162] for
the selection of prismatic coefficient Cp on a basis
of a given T,

= V/ "s/L Ues well above the design

lane of Fig. 66.A for large vessels. This

is

un-

doubtedly due to the need in small craft of finding

space for all that must be carried, including the

when running

at designed speed or below

is

taken into account here.

The
(a)
its

(b)

'Un

craft is of the fuU-planing

The dynamic

lift is

not

type when:

the controlling factor in

design and performance

The

total resistance

Rt

per cent of the total weight

rises
TI^

above 10 to 15

to a range of from

25 to 75 per cent or more of that weight

HYDRODYNAMICS

82-1

CG

The

(c)

position

at the planing speed rises above its

when the

craft

is

at rest, reckoned with

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 77.6

It should be no higher than the speed at which a

displacement-type hull of the same approximate

an inordinate amount

respect to the level of the undisturbed water

size begins to require

surface

power.

designed-speed range lies above T",

(d) The
values of 2.5 or 3.0, F > 0.74 or 0.89. This
corresponds to the range given in (1) of Sec.

(3) To achieve successful wavegoing performance

a planing hull must plane at a speed so far below

30.2, subject to the quaUfication given there.

its

fifth

criterion

a semi-

differentiating

for

planing from a full-planing type of boat

is

that

used at the Expermiental Towing Tank, Stevens

Institute of Technology. It is based on the fact
that the full-planing type is always built with
chines at the outer edges of the bottom. Here a
full-planing condition

the water breaks

is

away

defined as that in Avhich

cleanly from the chine for

the entire length of the boat.

No

water curls up

over the chine and wets either the sides or the

transom.

A sixth criterion is that given in

(3) of Sec. 30.2,

illustrated graphically in Fig. 30.B. This defines

the full-planing speed as that at which there is a

sharp reduction of the exponent n in the formula

Rr = kV:
The

length used for planing-craft design pur-

poses varies. It

may

be:

the cruising range that in a seaway

planing characteristics.

If

it will

the craft

of

maintain

is

involun-

slowed to below that speed it should at

once regain its planing position upon an increase
in speed. This factor is of the most vital importtarily

ance. For example,

if

a planing hull must travel

if it has a

at 14 kt to reach planing speed and

sustained cruising speed of only 16 kt, the adverse

only a small or moderate sea Avill suffice

down to below the planing speed

effect of

to slow the craft

planing

of 14 kt. It will struggle along, alternately

back below hump speed. Such a craft

is, in the words of Teller, "neither a successful
planing boat nor an honest displacement boat."

and

falling

(4)

If

the planing craft

is

deliberately throttled

must have as good

wavegoing performance as the best displacementtype hull. OtherAvise, if the planing boat experiences power-plant failure in a gale or has to be
slowed because of fog or any other cause, it is no
to below planing speed,

it

longer a seagoing vessel.

The

(i)

chine length

Lc

projected upon the

baseplane
(ii)

The waterline length Lwl at normal

when the craft is at rest
The overall length Lqa

load and

trim
(iii)

This matter

is

must be as

from pound-

free

size, running at the same speed.

no seagoing vessel.

same

it is

not a weight-

is

carrying vessel, in the sense of a cargo ship. Its

should be restricted to carrying special

equipment, certain types of cargo in an emergency,
or so-called premium loads, where the expense

use

Operating

Requirements

for

Planing

normal requirements for speed,

maneuverabihty, good wavegoing behavior, and
adequate stability, the same as for any other
small craft. The items listed and discussed here
are adapted from those previously published by
C. R. Teller [Motor Boating, New York, Ann.

in addition to the

Show Number
At

hull

Finally, the true planing craft

(6)

discussed further in subsequent

Forms. There are a number of operating requirements peculiar to all planing forms which call
for consideration ahead of the particular requirements of the owner and operator. The former are

(1)

hull of the

Otherwise

sections.

77.6

The planing

(5)

ing and slamming as the best displacement-type

less

(Jan), 1952, pp. 66-68, 247-249]:

than planing speed, that

is,

when

running as a displacement-type boat, the planing

craft must be as seaworthy as the best displacement boat. Otherwise it is no seagoing vessel.
(2) The speed at which the craft passes the humpresistance region and begins to plane must be low.

involved

in

transportation

saving in time.

An

example

excellent

may

boat

these

illustrating

Indeed, the planing craft

by the
is an

justified

is

aircraft rescue

features.

well be regarded

more nearly as a seaplane or flying boat than as

an ordinary boat. If the fljdng boat is overloaded
it can not and will not take off from the water.
If

the planing craft

not take

off

is

overloaded

it

likewise will

and plane.

General Notes on the Powering of Small

of powering for motorboats and other small craft is touched upon here
77.7

Craft.

The general subject

briefly, as

a preliminary discussion of quantitative

power estimates

The designed

in Sees. 77.14

or

minimum

and

77.26.

speeds for which

motorboats are powered are usually those to be

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.S

made

in

specified,

with

the

(|uLet

water,

either

fresh

or

salt

as

with a clean, smooth, new bottom, and

propelling

machinery

delivering

its

rated power or some specified fraction thereof,

corresponding to the 0.95 factor of Sec. 69.9.

important for the naval architect as well

It is

as for the marine engineer to realize that because

of the limit

on mean effective pressure

in

the

any reciprocating internal-combustion

engine can produce its rated power only at a
certain rate of rotation. At a lesser rotating speed,
the power is less. Furthermore, it may not be
possible for the engine to deliver its rated power
cylinders,

at a higher rotating speed than that for which

designed or adjusted. This makes

it

it is

most impor-

tant that the small-craft propeller be one which,

at a desired boat speed, absorbs exactly the engine

fuel,

77.8 Principal Requirements for a Preliminary

Design Study. The craft selected as the running
example in this chapter is a small motor tender
for the ABC ship designed in Chaps. 64 through
68. The first step in the preliminary hydrodynamic
de.sign of this motorboat is to outline the mission
of the craft; in other words, to state

motorboat, just as a modern tug or fishing vessel

is overpowered, but not for exactly the same
reasons.

Motorboat overpowering resembles more

nearly, in fact, the gross overpowering of the

modern
is

(1955) passenger automobile. Engine

longer and wear and tear

powers.

is

reduced

less at

The engine power actually required

greater part

of

the time

is

life

for the

delivered reliably

even though the engine may be somewhat out of

adjustment or the fuel may not be up to standard.
For these reasons, and others not mentioned,
powering allowances are as necessary for a small
craft as for a large one. It is

to cover the
(a)

power needed

customary

boat structure,

if

in items (1)

to a period of at least six

wood, corresponding
months in the water and

Roughening

of the

bottom surface because of

uneven

rusting, pitting, oxidizing, flaking, peeling,

and fouling by marine organisms

The

craft described in these specifications

is

to:

Serve as a power launch for and to be carried on board

the ABC ship whose requirements are set forth in Tables
64.a through 64.g
(2) Serve as an all-weather tender for the ferrying of

and miscellaneous portable

from ship to shore and vice versa, under special
conditions where the ship must anchor or lie-to.

personnel, incidental packages,

articles

WEIGHT AND
hoisting

it

LIMITATIONSTo
ABC ship the boat is to:

SIZE

on board the

permit

(3) Have a gross hoisting weight not exceeding 25,000 lb,

including a full supply of fuel, other consumables, parts,

tools,

and two crew members, the latter assumed to weigh

Hoisting is to be by a single hook on the ship.

350

lb.

(4)

Be capable

of stowage, in a secure position for travel

on the weather deck either forward of or abaft the

passenger accommodations
(5) Have an overall length not exceeding 40 ft.
at sea,

is

Be capable

(6)

to:

of carrying

one of the following items, or

of all three, not exceeding

any reasonable combination

3,000 lb in weight:
(a)

(b)

Twelve passengers plus a maximum crew of four

Cargo in packages or luggage, in total weight not
and in total volume not to exceed 125

to exceed 2,300 lb

maximum crew of four

Eight passengers and a maximum crew of four, plus

plus a

ft',

(c)

one

litter

(7)

Provide protection from rain, wind, spray, and sun

patient

for all passengers

(8)

and

cargo.

Achieve a speed

of:

18 kt in smooth water with a half-load of fuel, a

crew of two, and two passengers and their personal baggage
(a)

(b)

Reduction of propelling-machinery efficiency

and output because of wear and tear, low grades
(d)

77.a. It is followed

SPEED AND ENDURANCEThe craft shall be able to:

speed.

calking,

Table

(1)

carrying capacity, over

and above design requirements, are not in this

category. Logically, they must be paid for
separately, either in increased power or reduced
(c)

MISSION

two seasons

Unavoidable increases in weight with time

in service, because of adding new equipment.
for increased

(2) of

CARRYING CAPACITY AND ACCOMMODATIONS

(b)

Demands

and

TABLE 77.aMotor Tender for ABC Ship;

Principal Hydrodynamic and Other Requirements

The tender

of

in the weather, covering at least

it is

for these

for:

Increase in weight due to thorough Avetting

of the

what

required to do. After consultation with the owners

and operators of the large vessel, this is set down

output, less the transmission and shafting losses.

More power absorption means that the engine

and propeller both have to speed up to make the
powers match, if indeed this can be done.
It is customary to overpower the modern

825

and excessive time between overhauls

(e) Damage to blades of propulsion devices from
numerous causes, probably of more frequent
occurrence on small craft than on large ones.
of

14 kt in smooth water with a

full

load of fuel and

cargo.
(9)

Run

at full power for six hr without replenishing fuel.

HYDRODYNAMICS

826

TABLE
SAFETYThe
The

(10)

77.a (Continued)

following requirements apply:

fuel used in the

power plant

shall

be diesel fuel

or its equivalent; no type of gasoline or equally volatile

fuel is permitted

remain afloat and upright if completely swamped, with crew, passengers, and cargo on
board. The cargo may be considered as 50 per cent permeable, and the special flotation volume as fully intact.
(12) Drinking water and emergency rations for sixteen
persons for two days are to be carried
(13) Safety and operational equipment as required by
regulations of the U. S. Coast Guard for operation in
semi-protected ocean waters.

The tender

(11)

shall

OTHER REQUIREMENTS
(14) It shall be possible to warm up and run the power
plant for a short period before the boat is hoisted out
(15) The boat shall preferably bank inward on turns in

normal steering

The

craft shall possess adequate steering control in

head or following seas
(17) It shall not pound or slam excessively, so as to risk
injury to the boat structure or to the crew and passengers,
when running in rough water at speeds in excess of 10 kt
(18) The design and construction shall be rugged and
substantial, suitable for hard service and reliable operation
(16)

either

IN SHIP DESIGN
(g)

Materials of construction

(h)

Method

of attaching the single-ring hoisting

sling.

Analysis of the Principal Requirements.

77.9

Before starting the design proper it is well to

analyze the requirements, in terms of the back-

ground already gained

ABC

ship.

fixed for

and F values

are:

Fn

T,
Fn

items

for weight,

endurance,

safety,

in items (3)

and other

through

features,

develop as the design proceeds.

prospective operators wish an alternative

the same general requirements as in Table 77.

but to run at a higher maximum speed with less
carrying capacity.

down

in

Table

The

is

the principal and the alternative designs:

(a)

Type

of hull,

whether displacement, semiHowever, a conference

planing, or full-planing.

ABC

ship

operation,

all-

with the prospective operators of the

brings

out

that

=
=

2.30(0.2978)

2.30

0.685

18 kt

18/6.083

2.96(0.2978)

2.96

0.881

24 kt

T,
F

=
=

24/6.083

3.95(0.2978)

3.95

176.

Nothing is said in the specifications about

running trim; that is, change of trim when
underway. Excessive trim by the stern, resulting
either from placing the useful load too far aft, or

detail requirements are

77. b.

noted that complete freedom is left to the

designer with respect to the following, for both
It

14/6.083

Speed

(18). Still other

design prepared for a craft to meet substantially

set

=
=

carrying capacity,

may

The

14 kt

Speed

Speed

by requirements
embodied

in the preliminary design

The

overall length of 40 ft is
both the principal and the alternative
designs. To achieve the load- and volume-carrying
capacities required, it is almost a certainty
that the stern will have to be of the transom type.
From an examination of the pubUshed data for
other motorboats an average length for the waterhne at rest may be estimated as 37 or 38 ft; the
lower value is on the safe side. Its square root
is 6.083. Based upon the speeds in item (8) of
Table 77.a and item (b) of Table 77.b, the T,
of the

in salt water.

speed,

Sec. 77.9

reUabUity

of

weather behavior, and load-carrying performance

of the craft are considered of paramount importance. Speed can be sacrificed if need be.
Hull proportions, principally the L/B ratio
but more important still, for actual stowage on
the ship, the maximum beam
(c) Hull draft or hmiting draft
(d) General shape and appearance of hull
(b)

(e)

Power plant and power

(f)

Number

of propellers

TABLE 77.b Motor Tender for ABC Ship;

Requirements for Alternative High-Speed Design
An alternative design of motor tender is to be prepared
having the general requirements of items (1) through (14)
plus (18) of Table 77.a, modified by the following:
Carrying capacity of six passengers plus a crew of
all having an average weight of 170 lb per person,
plus a cargo of packages or luggage weighing not in excess
of 900 lb and having a volume not in excess of 50 ft', plus
(a)

two,

a two-thirds load of fuel

(b) Speed, 24 kt minimum, in quiet water, with the load
of item (a)
(c)

Run

(d)

The boat

two hr without refueUng

bank inward on turns when running

at full power for

shall

in

the planing range

The

craft shall possess adequate steering control in

head or following seas
(f)
It shall not pound or slam excessively, so as to risk
injury to the boat structure or to the crew and passengers,
when running in rough water in the planing range
(g) The craft shall not porpoise at any operating speed.
(e)

either

Sec. 77.11

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

827

from too much squat, increases the power unnecessarily and leads to impaired maneuvering
and wavegoing. On the other hand, the craft
with only the crew on board, but with full fuel,
should not trim unduly by the bow. Better still,
it should not trim by the bow at all.
Since the steering is to be entirely by hand,
the rudder(s) must trail under all running conditions.

Freedom from pounding and slamming

in

both

designs calls for V-sections in the lower f orebody,

with appreciable rise of floor. The speeds in all

cases approach those for planing, especially at

Hght loads, hence the buttock lines aft should be

straight or only very shghtly convex downward.
77.10 Tentative Selection of the Type and
Proportions of the Hull. For the principal design
it appears practicable to shape one hull that will
run well at both 14 and 18 kt. However, the total
weight displacements will be different for these
two speeds because of the different useful loads
of items (8) (a) and (8)(b) of Table 77.a. The
underwater portions of the hull will thus be some-

what
if

different in the

two

conditions, especially

the trim changes between loadings. It

ex-

is

25

ZO

15

Speed,

kt

Ranges op Size and Speed for

Round-Bottom and V-Bottom Craft

Fig. 77.A

Adapted from the data

of

D. De Groot, referenced

in

the text.

bination for the

ABC

tender hes shghtly inside

the round-bottom region in the figure.

Because the design

of

a planing craft represents

what might be termed the general case, embodying

18-kt condition

practically all the variables to be encountered in

be the controUing one in the principal design.

The 24-kt craft, to run definitely in the planing
range, is destined to have an entirely different hull.
From Sec. 77.9, the T, value for an 18-kt
design of 37-ft length is below 3.0. If the whole
available length of 40 ft overall is used, the
length will be about 39 ft and the T, value
2.88. A semi-planing type of hull is tentatively
indicated. This, combined with the important
requirement for excellent wavegoing performance,
points to a round-bottom hull as the preferred
shape. For the faster 24-kt boat, running at a
T, of the order of 4.0, well within the planing
range, a hard-chine, V-bottom hull is called for.
These will hereafter be called, for convenience,
the round-bottom boat and the V-bottom or

lajdng out and selecting parameters for small

pected,

nevertheless,

that the

will

WL

This is not to make the

but to avoid introducing
entirely new features into the story at points
which would break up the reader's line of thought.
craft, it is

described

problem more

first.

difficult

The round-bottom

design procedure then becomes

one of simplifying that for the general case.
First Space Layout of the 24-Knot Plan77.11

The

ing Hull.

the

ABC

first

actual step in the design of

tender, as for

determine about

how

paper, showing proposed internal-space layouts.

Sec. 77.3 points out that these craft are relatively

human and his accommoThey must, therefore, almost

a basis of quiet-water resistance, D. De

Groot says that "the upper limit for the advantageous use of the U-form (round bottom) hes
somewhere about F/a/L = 3.25" [Int. Shipbldg.

dations

Progr., 1955, Vol. 2, No. 6, p. 70]. Fig. 77.A is

adapted from De Groot's diagram, showing the
round-bottom and V-bottom regions in graphic
form. However, the dividing hne in his plot
corresponds to a T, of about 3.13; this was not
changed in the adaptation. The 18-kt 37-ft com-

to

usually free-hand on ruled or Ught-lined coordinate

small in proportion to a

is

meet the design requirements. This is done by

making a series of sketches to a convenient scale,

full-planing boat.

On

any motorboat,

large the boat has to be to

afloat.

invariably be designed on a volume basis rather

than a weight-carrying basis. The size of the

boat is determined, not so much from those
dimensions which will, with a normal form, give
enough volume displacement to float the weight
to be carried as from the positions of the boatshaped boundaries which wiU enclose the various
spaces and units needed to meet the specification
requirements. Several separate space studies are

HYDRODYNAMICS

828

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 77.12

arranging the various principal units, the accom-

worked into spaces not useful for anj^thiug else.

Their volumes should, if practicable, be so placed
that the swamped boat is supported at or about

modations, and the service

zero trim.

perhaps a dozen oi' more, especially

when the designer is allowed some latitude in
(lesiniblc,

For craft over 25

facilities.

or 30 ft in length the pre-

ft

liminary space layouts

may

involve two or more

deck plans, one for the weather deck and another

for the space below deck. A boat-shaped hull
sketched around these spaces affords a rough idea
of the principal dimensions such as overall length,
beam, and depth of hull. Profiles based on these
hull sketches indicate the positions

and

sizes of

houses or other erections projecting above the

weather deck. Having the general size and shape,

or perhaps one might say the minimum size and
shape, the designer proceeds to incorporate
certain other features in the sketches such as

minimum freeboard and sheer, freeboard at or

near the bow, and profiles of the bow and stern.
He shows crew and passengers, as well as "cargo"

Fig. 77. B

ABC

smaller boat, 35 ft in

and 32

ft

long on the waterline,

overall length

appeared to be sufficiently roomy but with an

estimated weight of 18,000 lb its displacementlength cjuotient of 245 was too high. The boat
shown in the figure, with a waterhne length of
35 ft, provides room enough to meet the requirements of Table 77. b and is not too heavy for its
length.

unless

for

show

minunum dimen-

sketch.

It

does not

within the limitations established by the

owner and operator.
77.12 First Weight Estimate; Weight-Estimating Procedure. The second step in the design

oversize in case of doubt.

fire

in

by the

to

specifications

known, the spaces for propelhng

can be roughed in,

auxiliaries

The

hull

or subdivision bulkheads are

The buoyancy tanks

flotation

fitted into a craft of the

is

necessarily represent the best arrangement pos-

structure usually presents no problem at this

required.

by the

that the spaces called for

represented

considered

nevertheless

is

the powers and sizes of the en-

gine(s) are not yet

stage,

The layout

purely preliminary. Its sole purpose

can be

them

for the

larger than necessary.

sions

leaving

made

craft 40 ft in overall length, with an estimated

displacement weight of 25,000 lb, was somewhat

positions.

machinery and

last of several

planing-type tender. These indicated that a

in the present case, in their proper or proposed

Even though

was drawn from the

layout and arrangement sketches

or

compartments

an emergency can usually be

sible

of the planing-type craft

is

make

to

a preliminary

weight estimate of the complete boat, in operating

condition and with the full useful load on board.
Trace

of

De&iqned Waterline at rest

In

Second Arronqe-

ment Sketch

^
'^

\.

T^^J

Movino Engines
Forward and
Passenqers Mt
to

Make Them

More Comfortable
and to Place
Heavy

Removable

Sections to Permit Liftinq Out

FP
Fig. 77.B

Weiqhts
Over

Enqmes

Sketch of Tentative Space Layout fok V-Bottom Tender for

Stotlons

ABC

Ship

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.12

may

be handled in several ways. All of them,

like that used for the ABC ship in Sec. 66.4,

This

involve weight estimates for a craft which

in

a distinctly nebulous

situation

more difficult,

state.

reliable

is still

To make

this

pubhshed informa-

tion as to the weight percentages of the various

groups and detailed information as to the actual
scale weights for

motorboats are much scarcer

corresponding data for large vessels. A

start in this direction has recently been made by
E. Monk ["Weight and the Motor Boat," Yacht-

than

ing,

Jan 1955, pp. 118-120]. The graphic data

presented by

Monk, comprising a

between waterline length at

for

relationship

and total weight

wooden pleasure boats, are embodied in the
rest

lower broken-line curve of Fig. 77. C.

The

full-fine

829

HYDRODYNAMICS

830

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 77.12

ob

Fn'WT

Froude Number

-1=-

USEFUL LOAD
FUEL-

:=!:

FUEi:'

MACHINERY and ELECTRICAL

14

IPMEifr, ,5T0RE5,

OUTFIT

::=^=1
::i

Toylor Quotient Jcf '^j^

12

1.0

Fig. 77.D

1.6

1.4

I,

20

'

2Z

'

24

'

26

'

2.8

3.0

the fuel rate for the two 215-horse engines proposed is about 0.5 lb per brake horse per hr, so
that 430 lb of fuel is required for both engines for

a 2-hr run. Since the owner has had no previous

service experience with a tender of this kind, it
seems mse at this stage to allow for a considerablyenlarged fuel capacity, say about tmce that
actually required.

With an assumed weight

amounts to 860/6.2

6.2 lb per gal, 860 lb of fuel

of

138.7, or say 140 gal. A further study of the probable service required of this tender reveals that,
despite the increased capacity, it may be neces-

sary under some circumstances to return to the

parent ship for refuehng before the day's work
done. There may be times when this will be
extremely inconvenient, so another 50 gal is
added to the fuel capacity for good measure,
is

bringing the total capacity to 190 gal, or 1,178 lb.

The weights reasonably well known at this
stage are:
(1) Useful load, from owner's requirements, six
passengers at 170 lb plus 900 lb of packages,

1,920 lb

Weight

ready to run, 5,300 lb

(3) Fuel; although the owner requires only twothirds capacity on board for the designed speed,
the full capacity is hsted here, 1,178 lb
(4) Crew, two persons at 170 lb, 340 lb.
of engines,

The known weights

18,000
still

3.6

5B

4.0

4.2

46

4.4

4.8

5.6

5,2

54

i,b

Percentage Disteibution op Principal Weights for Seven Moderate- to High-Speed Craft

quirement in item (c) of Table 77.b calls for a

2-hr supply at full power. Under these conditions

(2)

3.4

3.E

8,738

total 8,738 lb, leaving

9,262 lb for the weight groups

to be considered.

One method

of

making a preliminary weight

estimate of the remainder, with the craft not yet

roughed out in the form of lines or structural

drawings from which weights can be calculated,
is to use a weight-percentage diagram such as
that of Fig. 77.D. Here the percentages of seven
weight groups, making up a total of 100 per cent

on a basis of
Taylor quotient T^ (and f) for seven different
planing craft for which reasonably reliable data
are available. Only a general pattern of weight
distribution is apparent for any of the boat types,
for the complete boat, are plotted

because of great differences in the operating

functions of the various craft, hsted in Table 77. c.

For the ABC planing-form tender, with an

assumed WL length of 35 ft, the Taylor quotient
T, = 24/\/35 = 4.05. The only reference craft
of Fig. 77. D with a T, of about this value is the

24-ft personnel boat, designation

of the table

Here the combined total of useful

load, fuel, and machinery (including electrical
items) is 52.5 per cent, working down from the
top in Fig. 77.D. For the craft being designed the

and the

figure.

corresponding percentage

is

8,738/18,000

48.5,

leaving 51.5 per cent for the hull, hull fittings,

equipment and Stores,

and margin.

electrical

and electronics

gear,

What

appears at this stage to be a reasonable

subdivision of the 51.5 per cent

is:

(a)

Hull, 28 per cent or 5,040 lb

(b)

Hull

fittings,

9 per cent or 1,620 lb. This must

if they are built in and

include the hoisting shngs

carried as part of the boat structure.


Sec. 77.13

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

TABLE

77.C

The data in this table supplement those set down graphically

upon the waterline length, where this is known.

Function of boat

831

Weight Distribution for Different Motorboat Types

in Fig. 77. D.

The Taylor

quotients listed are based

HYDRODYNAMICS

832
brake power required

is

about 430 horses.

When

rigged for direct drive and fitted with hydraulically

operated chitches, with

lubricating

all

carried in the engine sumps, the weight

lb per engine or 5,300 lb total.

liquids in the engines

is

With an increase
too

much
is

This includes

all

first

It

estimate.

in the ratio of hull weight to

from 0.28 to

0.33,

it is

clear that

additional fuel can not be carried

percentage of margin
fuel

oil

2,650

and the piping systems.

the same as was used for the

total weight of

is

is

if

also to be increased.

the

The

therefore limited to the 140 gal necessary

to run both engines at full

weight

power

for 4 hr. Its

868 lb.
Hull fittings usually account for an unreasonably large proportion of the total weight for small
boats because many of these parts are of standard
140(6.2)

is

and constant weight for a rather wide range

A good value for a twin-screw planing
boat of 35-ft waterline length seems to be about
size

of boat sizes.

8 per cent of the total.

The planing boat under

therefore

many

design

is

a tender,

usual items of equipment are not

no bunks or mattresses
minimum and
only a small quantity of drinking water need be
carried. A low percentage of weight assigned to
required. For example,

are needed. Stores can be held to a

the stores group, say only 3.0 per cent of the total,

appears adequate.

The customary amount

tronic

as 800

To

equipment

is

of electrical

and

elec-

called for. This is estimated

lb.

avoid overweight, the most

common

fault

an ample margin is mandatory. At this stage a good 10 per cent of the

total of the preceding groups is none too much,
or about 9.5 per cent of the resulting total.
A summary of the groups of the second weight
of planing motorboats,

estimate follows:
Hull

0.33(18,000)

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 77.14

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.14

ment

vessel, it is

imperative to i^now, very early

about how much shaft (or brake)

and the approximate weight
of this machinery. Perhaps because it has been
customary to make direct power estimates in the
past, as distmguished from indirect estimates
based upon effective power and propulsive coefficient, there are more shaft (or brake) power
estimating procedures available to the motorboat
designer than to the one who undertakes to
in the design,

power

is

called for

design a large ship. Unfortunately, these

many

methods usually give as many different answers,

and sometimes the answers vary widely among
each other. Moreover, the observed data upon
which these procedures are based also vary in
reliability,

because

principally

of

the

lack

of

proper instrumentation and techniques whereby

shaft powers for small craft may be measured
accurately on

trial.

In the late 1920's and early

Charles Ross undertook a lengthy

research project in an effort to measure the brake
power of small-boat internal-combustion engines
1930's

Sir

by recording the rate of rotation and measuring

the rate of fuel consumption with extreme care.
Unfortunately the project was never finished nor
were the results

of the

work written up

for publi-

The designer is therefore left with the

hope that when a given engine is put into a boat
cation.

it will

deliver the

shaft at rated

same brake power

rpm

that

it

did

when

at the output
it

ran on the

factory test stand.

One
power

of the simplest direct estimates of

is

the table and the dimensional

brake

"K"

formula of K. C. Barnaby [BNA, 1954, Table 40

100

90
30
TO

60
50

833

HYDRODYNAMICS

834

Taylor quotient r less than 2.0. This is

below the planing range for most motorboats.
C. E. Werback has developed still another
dimensional relation, derived originally by G. F.
Crouch, of the following form:
of the

where the

K^

coefficient

by

given

Sec. 77.14

taken from a table

reproduced here as

is

PhilUps-Birt,

Table 77.e.
N. L. Skene uses a formula almost exactly
the same as Eqs. (77.i) and (77.iii), with the
alternative forms

(ft)

= C

7(kt)

IN SHIP DESIGN

(77.ii)

TF(lb)

iPs

(horses)

Transposed for deriving the shaft power

of the other quantities it becomes

Fs

(horses)

(lb)

7'

in

terms

The

(kt)

TF/(0.010L)^

(ft)

(a)

required for taking

is

(lb)

(77.iv)

(horses)

=^(M_5imph)

(horses)

values of Skene's coefficient

(77.iva)

range from:

(77.iia)

CVL;,^

Analysis of this method indicates that a family

of curves for various displacement-length quotients

P.

^^
\Pb

(mph)

off

180 to 185 for high-speed runabouts

190 to 205 for multiple-step or shingled

hydroplanes
(c) 210 for single-step hydroplanes of good design
(b)

220 for small sea sleds to 270 for the largest

.proper values of the coefficient C. However, on

(d)

the basis that displacement-length quotients for

good planing craft are of the order of 200 or

and most

slightly less, Fig. 77. F gives a

graph for selecting

efficient sleds

240 to 250 for small, three-point hydroplanes

["Elements of Yacht Design," New York, 1944,
(e)

p. 222].

A value of C =
ABC tender.

185 appears appropriate for the

Five of the methods listed give first approximations to the shaft power as follows, based upon
an estimated weight, at this stage, of 19,000 lb
or 8.482 tons, a speed of 24 kt, a waterline
length hy,!^ of 35 ft, a T, of 4.056, and an P of
is on Approximate Meonline.
There Should Be Q FomllyCurves for Various DisplQce-_

This

1.208:

Only.
of

ment-Lenqth Quotients
Taylor Quotierrt Tq=

ill

'

liinlnnl

Method of K. C. Barnaby, Table 77.d. With a

boat of the Y-chine, stepless type, 35 ft long, and
I.

YlVh =

K^

is 3.4.

AND Weight

II.

at Tj values greater than 2.5 and not exceeding

^=

8.482

Method

of P.

Du

P^ =

Crouch- Werback Formula and Graph

FOR Relating Shaft Power to Length, Speed,

Fig. 77.F

4.056,

Then

J.O

3.0

1.0

50

t^

-^^ =

422.6 horses.

Cane, Fig. 77.E. The ratio

is estimated conserva-

of (IF in lb)/(PB in horses)

tively at 43.

Then

6.0.

D. PhiUips-Birt gives a dimensional formula

exactly the same as K. C. Barnaby's (Eq. 77.i)
the total
for relating the brake power P^
weight W, and the speed Y ["The Design of
Seagoing Planing Boats," The Motor Boat and
Yachting, Jan 1954, p. 29]. This takes the alter,

Pb =

(IF in lb)/43

19,000/43

Ps

(horses)

(lb)

F^

C'VL^^

(77.iii)

(let)

(77.iiia)

(horses)

356.9.

is

estimated as

(72)'V35

Pb

is

(ft)

19,000(24)'

= i^.^/f^^^^
W (long tons)

442 horses.

III. Method of Crouch-Werback, where C

taken as 72 from Fig. 77.F, and Eq. (77.iia) is

native forms
F(kt)

From

this the

brake power Pb

356.9/0.95 or 375.7 horses.


PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.15

TABLE
The

values set

1954, p. 29).

77.e

down

Values of tub Piiillips-Birt Powering Coefficient Ki

here arc taken from a table published

by D.

in

Phillips-Birt [The

Equation

835
(77.iii)

Motor Boat and Yachting, Jan

HYDRODYNAMICS

836

IN SHIP DESIGN
This

sections.

is

Sec. 77.16

often

an

important

design

consideration.

Straight entrance sections,

depicted at

in

have many of the disadvantages of both

the concave and convex types with few of their
advantages. Straight segments are often used in
sections near the stern where the rise of floor is a
minimum and there is little difference between
the various section types. In regions of high
rise-of-floor angle, they are used only for ease of
Fig. 77. F,

Some

Rise-of-Roor Annie j

Nominal

For All

construction.

The yoke
-Hr^Holf-Sidinq
Fig. 77.

'^Possible Modification

G Four Types of Typical Forebody

Sections for Planing Craft

rough water there is heavy pounding and slamming, accompanied by either a reduction in speed
or a risk of damage to the boat and injury to the
personnel.

Better performance in rough water

by

raising the chine forward

rise of floor

is

obtained

and increasing the

but this change increases the resistance

and involves a sacrifice of smooth-water speed.

Running into a wind, the concave forward section
keeps the boat dry because the water is thrown
to the side with little spray and disturbance. In
heavy weather, entrance sections which are fine
as well as concave result in heavy pitching. They
give little reserve buoyancy and they are still
subject to pounding and slamming.
Boats with convex sections, sketched at 4 in
Fig. 77. G, and of a type to be found in developable
bottoms, have higher smooth-water resistances
than those with concave sections. The water
climbs up the side more easily and does not
separate cleanly from the chine, resulting in
greater wetted area. This type of section is much
better for wavegoing because, like the round-

or inverted-bell section,

drawn at 3

good compromise. It gives

the excellent wavegoing performance of the
round-bottom entrance but retains the sharp
angle at the chine to throw the water off cleanly,
thus holding down the wetted area. It provides
adequate reserve buoyancy, an ample rise of
floor, and a constantly diminishing flare with
vertical distance above the base, to prevent
slamming and pounding. By using a high chine
forward, the entrance sections are kept fine
enough to avoid too great a hook at the chine
corner where water could be trapped in a slam.
in the figure, offers a

The rounded

portion near the centerline acts to

deflect the water

under the bottom and give

reasonably quick planing with good flow lines.

Bell-shaped sections produce less spray than the

pure convex type. They have the disadvantage

that they are more difficult to construct, they
involve slightly higher building costs, and they

can not be worked into developable surfaces.

They have

slightly greater resistance in

smooth

water than the low-chine concave sections, due

to the greater wetted surface, but probably less
resistance than pure convex sections.
77.16

The

Rise-of -Floor Magnitude and Variation.

expressed as a sectionan important characteristic

rise of floor or deadrise,

slope angle ;8(beta),

is

of a planing boat.

In

fact, its choice influences

bottom form, it presents a constantly decreasing

the oncoming (and upcoming) water as
the bow pitches down. Pounding and slamming are

many

other features of the underwater and above-

water

hulls.

reduced considerably or avoided altogether. The

considerations the smaller the rise-of-floor angle

flare to

convex section builds up reserve buoyancy and

As might be
expected, boats with convex sections will not
plane as rapidly or as readily as those with concave
acts to ease the pitching motion.

From pure

planing and dynamic-lift

the better; in other words, the barn-door type of

flat surface is the best load-carrying

inchned
device.

As the

bottom
and the dynamic

rise-of-floor angle of the

increases, the resistance increases

diminishes.

sections.

lift

Convex sections throw considerably more spray

and make the boat wetter in a wind. The fitting

In the case of racing motorboats of the stepless

type, havmg a continuous bottom terminating in

of spray strips, described in Sec. 77.20, largely

the transom edge, this bottom

overcomes these disadvantages. Convex sections

forward give more internal volume than concave

practically

At other times

is

often

made

has a shape
approximating that of an inverted deck with a
flat.

it

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.17

small camber. Excessive slamming and pounding

in

waves are accepted

ultiinate in speed.
4.8,

in the effort to rcat'li the

At Froude numbers

Taylor quotients of 15 or

IG,

the

of 4.5 or

minimum

the chine the attention

Planing

is

taken for

the

sinc(;

Clement ["The

SNAME,
May 1951; "Hull Form of Stepless
Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan

minimiuii of bottom surface in contact with the

spray, like the pounding,

has received

Analysis of Stepless Planing Hulls,"

Ches. Sect.,

The

it

early 1950's at the hands of E. P.

pressure and friction drag are achieved with the

water.

837

are valid hydrodynamic reasons for devoting to

.3

paper Clement approa(!hes the

1955]. In his 1955

granted as an unavoidable characteristic of ultrahigh-speed performance. If the craft jumps com-

planing-boat design problem by using the chine

pletely out of water because of impact with the

jected area

crests of waves, this too is accepted providing

certain loading factors on the chine area as the

fundamental design parameters. However, the
lack of comprehensive and reliable full-scale performance data renders this scheme something less
than adequate at the present time (1956). For
convenience, Clement has embodied the data of

the stabilizmg

fin,

the lower blades of the propeller,

and the rudder can be kept reasonably well

in the

water.

Obviously, a planing boat with a

does not

make a

flat

bottom

satisfactory boat for all-around

length

Lc

beam Be

the chine

Ac

the chine pro-

the chine planform shape, and

new

High rise of floor is necessary forward for

wavegoing and for low resistance at speeds below
planmg. Some rise-of-fioor angle is necessary in
the bottom aft to provide dynamic stability of
rovite and proper steering qualities, although the
angle required at the extreme stern is small.
Thus most planing boats are built with what is
known as a twisted or warped bottom, with a
decreasing rise-of-floor angle from forward aft.

the referenced 1951 and 1955 reports in a

D. Phillips-Birt gives the following typical values

mention either of them specifically, are given by

D. Phillips-Birt ["Motor Yacht and Boat Design,"
London, 1953, Fig. 51, p. 147]. The graphs of
Fig. 77. H are adapted from curves 1 and 2 of
the reference cited. Ratios of Lw^/BcfM^^) between 3 and 4 are typical of modern planing craft.
In fact, many of the smaller boats, 20 to 25 ft in
length, have ratios less than 3. For the ABC
tender of 35-ft waterUne length a maximum beam
at the chine of about 10 ft is indicated. The

service.

for these angles:

Amidships, 14 to 18 deg, flattening along the run

to 2.5 to 4 deg at the stern [The Motor Boat and
Yachting, Jan 1954, p. 28; "Motor Yacht and
Boat Design," London, 1953, p. 148].

G. A. Guins states, in the paper listed as

reference (16) of Sec. 77.41, that the minimum
rise-of-floor angle found necessary for satisfactory

longitudinal stability

is

7 deg, together with a

are

built

with an ^un-

twisted bottom, embodying a constant rise-of-

from amidships to the stern. Compared

to the warped bottom, the constant-slope bottom
usually gives less rise of floor amidships and more
at the stern. The untwisted bottom has the lower
smooth-water resistance of the two, but its use
floor angle

may

Boat"

[TMB

Nov 1956].
maximum chine beam Bc(Mai)

Rep. 1093,

Nevertheless, the

serves as an excellent starting point for deter-

mining the proper transverse dimensions of a

planing craft. Good design graphs of what appears
to be a maximum chine beam on a basis of
waterline length, although the author does not

fore-and-aft position of the point of

long tapering skeg.

Some planmg boats

report entitled "Analyzing the Stepless Planing

lead easily to other unfavorable character-

chine

beam should

lie

maximum

in the range of 0.55 to

0.65L,i abaft the FP.

If

kept

good planing
full to

is

ranging from 0.80 to 0.90 of Bcdnao

stern

is

also beneficial to steering

However,

beam

desired the chine

is

the stern, with a value at the transom

in

rough

weather,

following sea, too wide a stern

when

especially

may

wide

planing.
in

cause broach-

such as poor location of the center of

ing or sudden sheering from one side to the other.

buoyancy or bad steering qualities. Most smallboat designers seem to find it easier to obtain
good planing-boat performance with the twisted
bottom than with the constant- slope type.
77.17 Chine Shape, Proportions, and Dimensions.
Inasmuch as the sensibly flat bottom of a

This condition is aggravated if the craft is running

below planing speed. To improve wavegoing
behavior and steering under these conditions, it is
advisable to tuck in the sides at the stern to say

planing craft, within the boundaries of the chine,

produces practically all the dynamic lift, there

planing craft, are shown by E. P. Clement ["Hull

Form of Stepless Planing Craft," SNAME, Ches.

istics

0.65 to 0.75 of the

maximum beam

at the chine.

Acceptable chine planforms, at least for larger

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 77.17

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MO TORBOAT

Snc. 77.18

other hydrodynamic reasons, the following general

design rules are given,

based on a 10-station

waterline length and the craft at rest at the

designed load and trim:

839

or 7 to the stern. There should be no concave

curvature in this region.

(5) The chine Hne from Sta. 6 or 7 to the stern
should be parallel to or have only a slight slope

upward and forward with respect to the

(1)

The

chine height at Sta.O, above the designed

waterline at rest, should be at least O.OQLwl

If

a small pleasure boat the chine

can be higher, up to 0.13L,tl above the designed
waterline, because the pay load is small and the
the design

is for

(6)

The

chine depth at Sta. 10 should be about

O.OlOLfTL to0.030Z/,pi below the designed waterline

(7)

If

the boat

volume is relatively unimportant.

happens that pay-load capacity is important then a low chine height may be necessary to
get additional internal volume, at a sacrifice of

be used. Indeed,

rough-water performance.
(2) Large boats can operate satisfactorily with

Fig. 30.

lost internal
If it so

less chine

height forward than can small boats,

because the small, steep waves usually encountered have less influence on the rough-water

performance of the larger craft

(3) The chine should He above the at-rest waterline from Sta.
at the FP to a point somewhere
between Sta. 3 and Sta. 5
(4) The chine line should be straight from Sta. 6

Fig. 77.1

at-rest

waterline. Large slopes are to be avoided.

is

intended for smooth-water

operation only, a lower chine height forward can

if

smooth-water speed

ant, a lower chine height

(8)

Spray

cially at

is

is

import-

desirable in that region.

strips of the general

form shown

in

should be fitted along the chine, espe-

the forward sections and preferably along

the entire length. This matter

is

discussed

more

fully in Sec. 77.20.

77.18

Buttock Shapes; The Mean Buttock.

in the bottom of a planing

The buttock shapes

important that some repetition is

emphasizing them. With the straight
floor segments customary in V-bottom planing
craft are so

justified in

Dimensionless Chine-Elevation Diagrams for Six Types and Sizes of Planing Craft

HYDRODYNAMICS

810

boats the fore-and-aft shapes of the buttocks are

largely determined

when

by the shape

of

the chine,

projected on the centerplane. This

is

true

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 77.19

and an unattractive appearance when viewed from outside

results in discomfort to passengers

the boat.

may

It

with the

actually interfere

from

particularly in the afterbody.

steersman's

The shape and position of the buttock at about

one-ciuarter beam on each side of the centerhne,
often called the mean buttock, is used by some as
one of the characteristic parameters of a planing
craft [Clement, E. P., "Hull Form of Stepless
Planing Craft," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan

Moreover, the possibility of porpoising is greater

with the larger trim angles. As a practical compromise the running-trim angle of a planing craft
is usually kept below 2 or 3 deg; the greater
resistance and lower speed inherent in this lesser
trim are accepted. Limiting the trim to these

1955, pp. 2-3].

small angles requires that the center-of-gravity

Straight buttocks in the wetted region, where

be the

avoid negative differential pressures under the

ing.

suction and excessive trim by the stern.

The effect

of concavity in the buttocks

is

under the

described in the section following.

Convex buttock

lines

under the afterbody act

Ap's,

but the convexity is sometimes

unavoidable. Successful planing boats have been
and can be designed with slightly convex buttock
to develop

lines in the run,

control

but they require careful attention

station.

would otherwise

This in turn acts to prevent porpois-

case.

There are many advantages

running

in level

aside from those just mentioned,

afterbody, reckoned with reference to the water

underneath,

the

position be farther forward than

the dynamic pressures are generated, reduce or

afterbody. These in turn act to prevent bottom

vision

when

the force

and moment to achieve the smaller trim angle

by a trim-control device external to
the planing under surface of the hull proper. The
slope drag called by some the induced drag, and
are applied

illustrated in Fig. 53.

A is

carrying ability of the boat

and

it

diminished, the loadis

greatly increased,

usually behaves better in waves. Trim-

control devices to accomplish this are discussed in

to other features of the design, such as the center-

Sees. 30.11

of-gravity location, because of the negative

hsted here for the convenience of the designer:

lift

and 37.24 but the principal kinds are

generated under the bottom.

mentioned previously in item (4) of Sec.

to be discussed in item (1) of Sec.
77.19, and the designer is cautioned here that
slight downward hooks in the buttocks near the
stern are to be used vnih caution. They often
produce erratic and sometimes even dangerous
It is

77.17,

it is

performance.
77.19

Trim Angle and Center-of-Gravity Posi-

tion;

Use

and

practical

of

Trim-Control Devices.
considerations

Theoretical

relating

to

the

running trim of a planing craft are rather thor-

oughly discussed by A. B. Murray [SNAME,

1950, pp. 658-692], It is customary, in analytic

and design work, to express the trun in degrees;

this is the form employed in the present chapter.
It would be preferable, if the full-scale data for
it

could be readily derived, to express the trim

as a linear distance over the boat length, as

is

(1)

A wedge

side of the

manner that

extreme after end, or a

bottom in such

forms a downward "hook" of

it

variable angle at the extreme after ends of the

buttocks terminating on it. The thickness of

such a wedge, and the angle it makes with the

bottom on the full-scale boat, still require to be

determined by cut-and-try methods. The wedge
must be applied with caution because too much
wedge action and vertical lift at the extreme
stern are liable to have a disastrous effect

upon

the steering, especially in a following sea.

(2)

The

controllable

flap,

with

its

variable

"hook" angle, probably requires for best performance something better than a shnple mechanical device which holds it rigidly in any
selected position.

a gas or with

position.

(3)

For most planing boats, the ideal planing angle

for least smooth-water resistance lies between 4
to 6 deg by the stern. This much trim often

briefly

for large vessels.

its

controllable flap hinged to the

Measuring the sinkage or

rise at the bow and stern would give the naval
architect a direct measure of the amount by
which the center of gravity shifts its vertical
done

or "shingle" applied to the under

bottom at

mentioned in
performance

(3)

of

The Plum

described

yielding device, loaded with

Plum

stabilizer

improve the
both the boat and the trimfollowing, should

when

control device

in

liquid, similar to the

in waves.

stabilizer,

Sec.

37.24.

many

j'^ears

whose action

is

explained

This was developed and

ago [Motor Boating, Mar

and has benefited by a

1928, pp. 16-17, 54, 134]

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.20

amount

great

John Plum,

development by the inventor,

of

in the period 1945-1955.

From

the

produced amazing increases in

the capabilities of a planing craft as compared
with boat performance without trim control.
however,

first,

(4)

it

Surface propellers, such as those fitted to sea

and propellers on ultra-high-speed racing

motorboats which become surface propellers at
high speed, exert an upward lift at the disc
position which acts as a trim-control device. In
fact, some planing craft with surface propellers
are not able to get through the hump speed and
to plane without their help.
sleds,

(5)

some form

It is possible that

of auxiliary

may

be found useful in the

future for trim control but no practical device of
this kind is as yet developed.
subsurface hydrofoil

841

In the absence of more extensive chine data it

has been customary to indicate the fore-and-aft

CG

position as a fraction of the

WL length from

at the waterline beginning or from the

Sta.

extreme stern. The chine planforms of all singlestep planing craft terminate at the transom, and
the chine planforms approximate a shape that is
rather well standardized. Referring the CG to the

WL

at-rest

termination

therefore a reasonable

is

enginee ring p rocedure.

The LCG values for the two test conditions
reported by Clement on Plate 6 of the reference

and

cited are O.b'ilLwL

C.

W.

Spooner,

0.567L,i^i

states that t he value of

also of

LCG)

respectively.

Jr., in refe rence (26) of Sec.

LCB

77.41,

(and presumably

varies from about 0.53Ln^z, at a T^

of 1.5 to 0.58L[F, at or

above a T,

of 3.0.

He reports

that successful high-speed designs have had the

Because of

rather specialized nature, no

its

trim-control device

planing-form

considered for the

is

and

tender,

it

is

not

ABC

discussed

further here.

Lacking the trimming

effect of

a trim-control

CB

as far aft as Q.^SLwl

stern

and V-drives to the

Moving the

CG

with engines

in

the

propellers.

forward reduces the running

trim and lessens the risk of porpoising but at

the expense of increase in wetted length and

and-aft position of the center of gravity

wetted area. The effect on the total resistance

depends upon the variation of friction and
pressure resistance with trim angle, indicated by
graphs similar to those in Fig. 77.0 of Sec. 77.26.

fuU-planing craft must

At low trims the

an auxihary

device, of surface propellers, or of

hydrofoil,
effect of

and neglecting

buoyancy,

CP

moment

the

apparent that the foreCG of a

lie

close to the center of

dynamic lift on the wetted

the bottom. There is no direct, practical

pressure

area of

method now
this

it is

for the

CP

of the

available

position on

(1955)

determining

for

must be
with reference to some part

an actual boat.

estimated, therefore,

It

total resistance usually increases

but this is not to be taken for granted by any

means, as witness the beneficial effect of trimcontrol devices.

77.20 Spray Strips. The form, position, and

function of spray strips are well described and

of the planform, on a basis of expei'imental data

from models. The chine planform, projected on
the baseplane, is the logical element to use, and

generously illustrated by R. Ashton

the center of area of this element

flying boats to

reference point in

it.

is

the logical

Unfortunately, the chine

area has not been in use long enough, or to a

sufficient extent

to build

optimum

among

up a fund

planing-craft designers,

of reference data indicating

relative fore-and-aft positions of the

center of the chine area and of the

CG. E.

P.

Clement gives some performance data for several

types of motorboats with the CG abaft the center
of chine area ^c by from 2.1 to 11.1 per cent of
the chine length Lc ["Hull Form of Stepless
Planing Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan
1955, Pis. 6-8, 10].

On

Clement gives a plot

in the

manner

4 c/y^'^,

of

Plate 9 of the reference

CG

positions expressed

described, related to the ratio

based on data from half a dozen models

of large planing boats.

Memo
first

keep spray out of the

pellers, are excellent illustrations of

less

[ETT

Tech.

Feb 1949]. These devices, probably

employed on multi-engine seaplanes and
99,

major hydrodynamic

effects

offset pro-

the more-or-

produced by

not almost insignificant physical features.

Spray strips are most important along the

minor,

if

forward portion of the boat.

usually beneficial to

fit

them

However,

it

is

for the full length.

to advantage on all hulls,

round-bottom as well as V-bottom with chine,
except perhaps for forms with concave sections
and low chines which have extremely sharp
chine corners. On certain round-bottom craft
they can also be used as fender strakes.
Spray strips usually result in a sUght increase
in resistance at low and cruising speeds. However,

They can be used

their

many

beneficial effects

disadvantage. They:

outweigh this slight

HYDRODYNAMICS

842

Decrease resistance at planing speeds

Deflect spray roots and random water sharply

(a)

(b)

the sides

off
(c)

Reduce spray throwing

(d)

Provide a positive lift in the forward part of

boat which helps counteract any diving

the

moment
Reduce, in round-bottom boats, the large
at full speed sometimes climbs
high up the side toward the deck edge. The spray
root and spray accompanying this wave can be
troublesome at times.
(e)

bow wave which

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 77.21

three "highly capable and well-known designers,"

supplemented by design sketches on page 27.

Fortunately for the designer, spray strips are in
the nature of appendages which can be adjusted
in form and position to produce the best effect
without either major or minor changes in the hull.
77.21
Stem Shape. Up to a speed-length quotient T, of 2.0, F of O.GO, the stem of a displacement or semi-planing type of boat should be
nearly plumb. This takes advantage of all the
waterline length possible, without increasing the
hull weight to provide an overhang. For a higher
T, and F
the forefoot should be cut away,
starting above the waterline, to get the bow
wave under the boat as much as possible and to
lessen sheering in a seaway [Spooner, C. W., Jr.,
"Speed and Power of Motorboats," unpublished
manuscript dated Oct 1950 (in
library)].
For pleasure craft of all three types discussed
,

TMB

matter of appearance is not

There is some objection, from
this standpoint, to a stem which rakes downward
and forward under any trim or running condition.
To prevent this, the stem must have a rake
downward and aft, when at rest, of at least 6
deg, and possibly as much as 7 or 8 deg.
77.22 Deep Keel and Skeg Other Appendages.
Most motorboats carry a centerhne keel that is
rather deep, compared to the flatness of the
bottom. This keel terminates aft in a skeg through
which passes the shaft tube and shaft for an engine
and propeller that happen to be located on the
centerline.
Examples are the small planing
motorboat of Fig. 30.A and the larger roundbottom utility boat of Sec. 77.33 and Fig. 77.T.
Besides acting as a support and fairing for the
centerline shaft the skeg serves as a deep vertical
fin which gives the boat dynamic stability of route
and facilitates steering by serving as a sort of
fulcrum about which the rudder moment is
applied. For high-speed racing motorboats this
in this chapter the

Fig. 77.Ja

Model of Large V-Bottom Craft

Running Without Sprat Strips

The displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)' for this
hull is SO. It is being towed here at a Tq of 3.5. The spray
root climbs up the side and the spraj' rises higher than
the deck.

to be overlooked.

Fig. 77.Jb

Model op

Fig. 77. Ja

Running With

Spray Strips

The spray

roots

and the spray are thrown to

either

The speed-length quotient T,

the same as for Fig. 77.Ja but the bow is lifted slightly

side, well clear of the hull.

is

higher.

The photographs. Figs. 77.Ja and 77. Jb, reproduced from the Ashton report referenced at the
beginning of this section by the permission of the
Experimental Towing Tank, Stevens Institute of
Technology, offer an excellent pictorial means of
comparing spray formation on a planing-huU
model, mth and without spray strips. There are
many other pairs of photographs in the Ashton
report which give similar comparisons for both
models and full-scale motorboats, and which
show the beneficial effect of the spray strips.
The Appendix to the referenced ETT report
by R. Ashton contains design comments from

skeg is reduced to a small, thin metal fin, generally

forward of midlength, which also serves as a
fulcrum about which the swinging moment
exerted by the rudder

is

applied.

There are no known rules

for positioning

and

shaping this skeg, unless it is desired to have it

extend far enough below the keel to serve as

mechanical protection ahead of the propeller.

Many such skegs are included on published
drawings of motorboats but a designer consulting

knows whether the skegs

them are good or othermse.

these drawings rarely

shown

in

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MO'IORBOAT

Sec. 77.2-f

Rudders
74.11.

for

motorboats are discussed in Sec.

Comments upon

the fairing of external

pads for the attachment of strut arms to wooden

motorboat hulls are given in Sec. 75.6.
77.23 Interdependence of Hull-Design FeaThe principal hull-design features of a
tures.
planing craft are mvich more dependent upon each
other than are those of a displacement-type
vessel, just as the latter are

much more

intimately

843

Even though, as described presently,

be necessary later on to change slightly

larger ship.
it

may

the water-surface level on the hull to effect a

balance between weight and buoyancy rather

than to draw a new set of

the original

lines,

waterline (or waterplane) serves a definite purpose

in

proportions,

dimensions,

establishing

parameters while the

and shape

size

and

of the hull

are being worked out.

the desirable features pertaining to each individual

parameter, and then working out a compromise

ABC tender as an
assumed as a starter that all the
requirements can be met on a WL length of
35 ft. A horizontal waterline of this dimension is
at the
drawn to a convenient scale, with Sta.
FP or waterline beginning and Sta. 10 at the
AP or waterhne ending. The latter is also the
transom position on the centerline. The shape of

to produce the nearest approach to the desired

the hull

overall performance that can be estimated during

stage,

than are the corresponding features

of an airplane. For a planing craft the beam, the
chine height, the rise of floor, and the type of
tied together

sections are all related

hand

and must go hand

in

in fashioning the boat.

proper design procedure involves selecting

the preliminary design. Often several different

types of section may be used to advantage along
the length of a boat.

Yoke

sections forward easily

transform into convex or straight sections aft.

Concave sections are often employed forward to
obtain good planing characteristics, transforming

and aft where

needed for the machinery plant and for
tanks to carry liquids. Convex forward sections
lend themselves to an easy transformation to
straight sections where the rise of floor is small.
compromises are made when
Still greater
selecting features favorable to both seakindliness
and planing. In many boats the seakindly roundinto convex sections amidships

space

is

used in the entrance, transforming

into the hard-chine efficient planing hull in the
run. The reverse of this is sometimes encountered,
but there appears to be no advantage in such an
hull

form

is

arrangement [Phillips-Birt, D., The Motor Boat

and Yachting, Jan 1954, p. 27].
77.24 Layout of the Lines for the ABC PlaningType Tender. With the comments of the preceding sections as a background the designer is
now ready to lay down a tentative set of lines.
He must anticipate that this set may be only the
first of a half dozen or more, in his search for a
shape that best meets the design requirements.
For this reason it is well to start with a scale just
large enough to permit measuring lengths, areas,
angles, and slopes with reasonable accuracy.
The first line to draw is a waterUne for the
profile and the bow and stern elevations. The
designer is advised to work to this waterUne as a
sort of fixed reference plane, the

same as

for a

Using the planing-type

example,

it is

is

to be based, but only generally at this

upon the arrangement sketch

The next

step

and to position

DWL. A

is
it

to

of Fig. 77. B.

the shape of the chine

fix

vertically with respect to the

tentative chine line

is

drawn according

to the rules previously discussed:

(a) Chine height at the FP. Because of the good
wavegoing performance desired the chine height
at the FP is made greater than the value of
O.OQLwL previously mentioned in item (1) of
Sec. 77.17. This allows finer sections forward with
less probabifity of slamming and pounding. A

chine height of 0.07ZLwl appears adequate.

(b) Chine height at the AP. A tentative value

-0.02lL,^z,

is

(c) Straight chine fine from Sta. 7 aft, for the

aftermost 0.3 of the length
as projected on the centerplane,
(d) Chine,

crosses the

DWL between

4 and

Stas.

5.

then laid out on

The plan view of the chine
the basis of the preliminary arrangement sketch
is

As a rule, the maximum chine beam

within the range of 0.55 to 0.65Lwl
abaft the FP. For the ABC tender it is placed at
Sta. 6, or at O.QOLwt, abaft the FP. The maximum
of Fig. 77.B.

should

chine

fie

beam

is

gives a ratio

tentatively selected as 10 ft, which

of 3.5. This is typical for a

Lwl/Bc

craft, for

which the

varies from 3.0 to 3.6.

The beam

modern high-speed planing

ratio

Lwl/Bc

made about 0.9 the

Subsequent fairing of
and working over the design produces a

at the transom ending

maximum beam,
the lines
5c(Max)

of

or 9

10.04 ft

is

ft.

and a chine beam at the

transom of 8.96 ft.

In this design a wide stern

is

chosen because

844

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 11.24

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOl'ORBOAT

Sec. 77.24

the boat will operate most of the time in sheltered

harbors or rivers. In addition, it improves the
steering

when

next drawn in the

elevation. It is so placed with reference to the
chine as to give a rise-of-floor angle amidships
in the range of 14 to 18 deg. At the stern the
range

from

is

is

to 4 deg. If constant rise-of-floor

no twist in the afterbody

be of the order of 6 to
9 deg. The lines of two motorboats of good
performance published by L. Lord ["Naval Architecture of Planing Hulls," 1946], in Fig. 41 on
page 89 and Fig. 43 on page 92, have constant
rise-of-floor angles of 5.8 deg and 9.2 deg, respectively. Those of one planing boat whose Unes are
pubUshed by D. D. Beach [The Rudder, Jan
1954, p. 38] average about 8.3 deg.
The sections are next sketched in. For the
is

desired, with

bottom, the angle

may

81

was to decrease the risc-of-floor

the run of the boat. Every effort was

angles in

made

planing.

tentative keel Kne

angle aft

The net

effect

to keep the buttock lines straight in the

run, especially abaft Sta. 7.

The

sections were then redrawn with the

same
volume
was calculated. The volume below the DWL was
found to be sUghtly more than needed, but a
uniform decrease in draft of about 0.21 ft along
the whole length gave the correct volume. A
lifting of the whole boat in this manner is usually
general characteristics, and the

found acceptable, because

hull

AP

The

revised

+0.073 IL^t and at

is

0.0211Lwl The relocated chine

new designed waterhne between Stas.

it is

crosses the

4 and

FP

hull

the changes in the

all

are favorable.

characteristics

chine height at the

the

new

5.

convex

Next, the fore-and-aft position of the center of

buoyancy CB is determined, and a check is
made with available data such as those presented
at the end of Sec. 77.19 to determine whether

sections in the run.

the

these

As previously mentioned,
give volume forward but still

acceptable for good planing-boat design. If the

ABC

tender, sections of inverted-bell shape are

forward,

suitable

sections

into

fairing

slightly

allow the water and spray to break

the chine.

They mil probably

cleanly at

off

result in slightly

smooth water, but should

greater resistance in

CB

lies

mthin a range

CB is not less than

from the FP, the

CG

of

position found

more than 0.65L.i,

can probably be placed

0.55Z/nr or

CG

within that range so that the craft will float at

give improved wavegoing performance. Sections

the draft and in the attitude desired

with slightly convex bottom segments are favored

If

aft,

more

as they provide

hull

volume and allow

lower mounting of the engines.

When
check

is

a tentative
of the volume of the hull up to the

made

in,

When

was first
tender the volume was found
rest.

is

when

at rest.

as far forward as 0.45LH^i from the

FP, or as far aft as 0.70L^z,

the hull will have

to be reshaped to correct this condition.

the sections are sketched

designed waterline at

CB

the

craft is liable to porpoise

the

CGare

too far

if

the at-rest

The

CB and

aft.

After making the necessary shifts in the section

this

done for the ABC

to be smaller than that corresponding to a weight
of 19,000 lb of salt water. It would have been
necessary to increase the draft about 0.5 ft to
support the estimated boat weight. This was
unacceptable as it lowered the chine too far and
it altered the wavegoing characteristics intended

and other hues, and checking the volumes and

CG positions, the lines are faired and drawn,
including the abovewater body to the main-deck

for the forward sections.

curve,

Increasing the volume required the following

edge.

or

1:4

submergence

chine

at

the

increased to 0.0275Lwl or 0.962 ft

chine crossed the
between

DWL

Sta. 4. It

was

still

AP

The
Sta.

was

revised
3

and

a straight line from Sta. 7 to

the stern at Sta. 10.

(2)

The depth

of the keel

below the

DWL

was

increased shghtly
(3)

The

position

chine forward remained at the same

mth

respect to the

DWL.

final result for

shown
curve

box. This

drawn

is

is

the

ABC

in Fig. 77. K.

drawn

The

planing-form
section-area

in Fig. 77. L, in the usual

supplemented by the

B/Bwx

Bwx/2
length L^l

so that the half-beam

equal to one-fourth the waterline

Holfthe

The

is

A/Ax

changes:
(1)

The

tender

is

HYDRODYNAMICS

846

Design Check on a Basis

77.25

of

IN SHIP DESIGN

Chine Di-

mensions.

I.I

Form of Stepless

:t

Ploninc)

Boats,*

5NAME,

Ches.Sect

l2Jan

^1

I955,PI. 12

how

the characteristics already determined for the

tender compare ^\'ith the available chine

ABC

data plotted by E. P. Clement ["Hull Form of

Stepless Planing Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect.,

There are

TMB

listed

and

dimensions

in

derived

planing-form tender,

of

the

Motor Yachts

PT

Boots,

World Worll

Rep. 1093, Nov 1956].

Table 77. f the principal

characteristics

1000 to

Adopted from
E.P Clement,' Hull

background and reference data to enable a new

planing craft to be laid out on a basis solely of
the chine dimensions and characteristics. It is

12 Jan 1955; also

met

D.iaplocement,

proportions, and position, there are insufficient

nevertheless useful at this point to ascertain

36 40 44 48 52 56

28 32

20 24

16

12

Despite the logical nature of the procedure and the various design data given in
Sec. 77.17, based upon the chine dimensions,

Sec. 77.25

40

30

20

10

ABC

50

Bisplocement,

by the methods

Fig. 77.

l<ip,

60

80

70

or thousands

90
cff

100

120

110

pounds

Vaeiation op Chine Ratio Lc/Bc

described in the sections preceding. Included in

With Displacement

the table are some of the ratios used as parameters

by Clement, based upon the actual dimensions

The dimension Lc is the projeoted length of the chine

and Be is the mean width of the projected chine planform.
The displacement corresponds to the buoyancy volume
with the boat at rest. The solid line represents a tentative

of the craft

whose

As a check

lines are depicted in Fig. 77. K.

of these

dimensions and ratios with

meanline for the data plotted here.

the data given by Clement in the reference cited.

Figs. 77.

Plates

M and 77. N have been adapted from his

12

standard

and

13,

Ac/V^^^

Using

found to be 413.7 ft'. This is considerably larger

than the projected area of the chine, 334.6 ft',
of the actual boat of Fig. 77. K. If this larger
value of A c is divided by the actual chine length,
the mean chine beam Be is found to be 413.7/36.65
or 11.29 ft. If, on the other hand, this larger area
is used in combination with the Lc/Bc ratio of
3.86, the fore-and-aft chine length comes out as

notation.

the

tentative

total

With a fore-and-aft chine

Lc of 36.35 ft from Table 77.f, the mean
chine beam Be = 36.35/3.86 = 9.417 ft.
With the Lc/Bc ratio of 3.86, Fig. 77.N is
entered along the bottom scale and a ratio of

the meanline shown.

length

The

=
LwL =

LoA

Lc

principal dimensions, characteristics,

38.0

V =

ft

44.484

36.35

296.7

Ax =
Le =

ft

ft';

ft.

and other data listed here are

35.0 ft

of chine

39.96

is

Chine Chabacteristics and Other Features of Proposed Fuli^Planing Tender fob

77.f

The
Ac is

taken from the meanline.

value of ''' from Table 77.f

weight of 19,000 lb for the full-planing tender,

is entered along the bottom scale and
Fig. 77.
a value of the ratio Lc/Bc of 3.86 is taken from

TABLE

of 0.3 is

with necessary changes to

for the craft

lines are

shown

ABC

Ship

in Fig.

77.K.

standard salt water

ft' in

10.56

whose

ft"

0.57LwL

from

FP

to section of

maximum

area

= 19,000 lb
A = 8.482 long tons
T, = V/VL = 24/V35
= 4.057
A/(0.010L)' = 197.8

4jf of at-rest waterline

Ac

'!'
F2/3

Ratios Based upon the Chine Dimensions:

Ac/Vi' = 334.6/44.484 = 7.522

Be mean,
Ratio

of

334.6/36.35 = 9.205
/{Brake Power Pb at designed speed)

over chines,

Weight

of chine, projeoted,

= Ac/Lc =

=
=

6.6696

ft

44.484

ft^

Le/Be =

36.35/9.205

=
=

281.9

ft-

334.6

ft^

3.949

ft

19,000/430(est.)

44.19

Weight TF/(Brake Power Pb) = 19,000/450 (to be installed) = 42.22

Center of projected area of chine, Ac Ues at 0.532LirL abaft the FP
Rise of floor at midlength of Lwl = 18.25 deg; at AP = 3.75 deg
,

LCB = 0.5ML^L or 20.79 ft abaft the FP

LCG is assumed to be in the same fore-and-aft position, corresponding to 3.29 ft abaft midlength of the designed waterline
or 14.21 ft forward of the

AP.

Sec. 77.26
6

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

8-17


HYDRODYNAMICS

818

mean chine
Strictly
than Be

the designed speed, the afterbody

beam

is

9.46

ft,

slightlj^ less

IN SHIP DESIGN

The

Srr. 77.26

dynamic-lift coefficient, assuming a con-

stant rise-of-floor angle of

speaking, Murray's data are not applicable to

the present case, because they are derived from

{Cdl)

/3,

is

2Cl
Cl

O.opV'B'

angle

/3.
models with a constant rise-of-floor
However, they are used here by taking as the

reference angle

angles

at

13

transom. This

mean

the

of the rise-of-floor

midlength section and

the
is

0.5 (18.25

The speed coefficient, based on

beam of the afterbody, is
Cv =

at

the

3.75) or 11 deg.

the

mean

chine

J'^'-'^''^
\/32. 174(9 .46)

referenced paper but

ATTC

C,

TABLE

77.g

The data

Col.

is

the boat

of-floor angle of

2.324

(77.vi)

is

notation. It

calculations.

/3

is

required for the resistance

To determine

it,

enter the lower part

of Fig. 53. B in Sec. 53.4 with the average rise-of-

The load coefficient, also based on the afterbody

mean chine beam, is expressed as C^ in Murray's
the

on the basis that the entire weight

of
is supported by dynamic lift. Data so
derived are certainly on the conservative side.
The dynamic-lift- coefficient {Cdljo for a ri.seThis

represented by Cld in

floor angle

/3

of 11

deg and the value {Cdl)^ of

The derived value of {Col) a = 0.155.

The sum of the friction resistance Rp and the

0.1298.

residuary resistance
is

Rr

is,

the total drag force

opposing motion, represented as the

19,000

wB^c

64.043(9.46)'

0.3504

(77.vii)

and J

sum

of the

However, as it is
not always practicable or possible to determine
forces 7

in Fig.

13. C.

Resistance Calculation for Full-Planing Tender Hull of Fig. 77.K bt Murray's Planing-Surface Data

referenced in the heading of this table are found in Fig. 53.B, Sec. 53.4.


PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOIORBOAT

Sec. 77.26

TABLE
The data

77.h

Calculation for CENTEn-OF-PuEssonE Location fob Fuli^Planing Hull op Fia. 77.K by

Murray's Planing Surface Data

referenced in the heading of this table are found

ir

819

HYDRODYNAMICS

850

and the T at designed speed is

4.057. From the referenced graph the minimum
resistance per pound of weight for a displacementtender

197.8

is

length quotient of 160 to ISO

is

0.123

cor-

lb,

responding to a resistance of 2,377 lb for a displacement of 19,000 lb. From Fig. 77.0 the
minimum resistance predicted, at a trim angle d
of 3.25 deg, is 2,320 lb.

The LCB

of the

boat at rest

is

found, by routine

methods, to be approximately 0.594L.l abaft the

FP. By Table 77.f, the center of the projected
chine area is found to be 0.532L,rL abaft the FP.
The CB thus lies at slightly more than 6 per
cent of

LwL

This

close to

is

abaft the centroid of the chine area.

an average value as indicated by

Form

E. P. Clement ["Hull

Boats,"

SNAME,

of Stepless

PL

ft

Then

LCG =

abaft the FP, or 14.21

the transom.

To run

position on the

0.594L,rL
ft

0.594(35)

forward of the
lie

P.5

With a

horses.

trans-

mission loss of say 5 per cent in the shafting and

bearings, the brake power Pb required to be

by the engines is 414/0.95 = 436 horses.

This independent estimate compares well with
the first approximations to the shaft power in
Sec. 77.14, where it was found that two engines,
delivered

each delivering a brake power of 225 horses,

would be adequate for the purpose.

K. C. Barnaby gives a few average values

the propulsive coefficient

j/p

Appx.

[INA, 1943,

126]:

1, p.

25-ft motorboats, average

motorboats, average

(b) 50-ft

of

as applying to craft

in the category being considered here

(a)

book

Barnaby's

"Basic

about 0.58
about 0.59.

t]p is
tjp is

Naval

Architecture"

[1954, Art. 191, Fig. 100, p. 306] contains a

graph

20.79

of average

tjp

values which indicates a propulsive

AP at
CP

coefficient

of

only about 0.45 for single-screw

at a steady trim the

bottom must

Sec. 77.27

absence of a better value, the shaft

(or better, the propeller power Pp) is

Pe/vp = 207/0.50 = 414

9].

be assumed that the CG of the boat

laid out in Figs. 77. B and 77. K lies directly above
the center of bu oyancy CB when the craft is at
rest.

power

Planing

Ches. Sect., 12 Jan 1955,

may

It

IN SHIP DESIGN
of 0.50 in the

approximately

craft

50

long.

ft

lengths of 1,000

Since this graph extends to

ft

it

may

not be intended to

under the CG position in the hull. From the

upper graph of Fig. 77.0, the running trim for
this CG position is found to be about 4.9 deg by

cover motorboats.

the stern. At this trim the total resistance

Rr

situation at this stage relative to the probable

is

position of the proposed craft with reference to

from the lower

2,500

set of graphs of that figure

by Murray take no
drag of the hull and upper

resistance data given

account of the still-air

works above the DWL. To predict this value for
the ABC tender, it is necessary to estimate the
transverse projected area above water. A rough
calculation from Fig. 77. B gives 60.2 ft^. For the
still-air drag the designer may use the dunensional
formula Dsa = 0.0044^7' [S and P, 1943, p. 52],
where D is in lb and V is in kt. Substituting,
Dsa = 0.004 (60.2) (24)' = 138.7 lb. Other
coefficients for this formula are given in Sec. 54.7.
Based upon the rule given by H. F. Nordstrom
[SSPA Rep. 19, 1951, p. 15], the resistance of well
streamlined appendages for a twin-screw motorboat need not exceed 7 per cent of the bare-hull
total resistance. An estimated value is then
0.07(2,500) = 175 lb. Still-air drag and wind
resistance for motorboats are discussed further in

2,500

power

total resistance
-I-

is

when

its

To

Rt

Dsa

^app

-I- 175 = 2,813.7 lb. The effective

then 2,813.7(24)1.0889/550, or about

138.7

207 horses. Assuming a propulsive coefficient

t/^

visualize the

running attitude

planing, the designer proceeds to predict

certain features.

Among

these are the change in

CG

elevation of the center of gravity

with speed,

the fore-and-aft position of the center of pressure

CP

and

of the

CG, the dimensions and shape

of

the wetted bottom surface, the position of the

probable impact area in waves, and the best

positions for the heavy weights in the boat.

There are at

least

two methods

the vertical position of the boat

determining

of

when underway

at full speed with respect to the level of the sur-

rounding undisturbed water. One is to make use

of a diagram such as that given by A. B. Murray
in Fig. 2 on page 658 of his referenced paper, or in
Fig. 29.

of

Volume

I of

the present book, for a

about the same size and

shape. Although Murray's diagram referenced in
this case is for 40-ft V-bottom motorboats it
full-planing

craft

of

should serve reasonably well for the

Sec. 77.37.

The

Heavy Weights.

the surrounding water and

lb.

The

Running Attitude and Fore-and-Aft Po-

77.27

sition of the

which

ABC

tender,

on the waterhne and 38 ft overall.

At the designed speed of 24 kt, equivalent to
27.6 mph, tlie rise of the center of gravity above
its at-rest position is approximately 0.7 ft, or
is

35

ft


PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.27

0.0175 of the 40-ft length. For a craft 38 ft long

the rise of the CG would be about 0.G7 ft.

Another method

is

boat at

profile of the

an elevation
designed speed and in

to lay out
its

or
its

predicted position and attitude with respect to

the undisturbed smooth water into which

advancing.

One

detailed

method

plane 14.21

ft

of

Sec.

follow.

mean wetted

77.26

in

by

is

4.9 deg

by the

Col.

of

stern.

Table

centerplane the point of intersection of the spray-

undisturbed

the

of

(77. ix)

It is probable that this length is a function of

the local rather than of the average chine beam
rise-of-floor angle. For the ABC planing
tender these are taken as the local chine beam at

and

Sta. 5, equal to 9.96

ft,

and the

local rise-of-floor

angle at midlength, equal to 18.25 deg. Then,

for a trim 6 of 4.9 deg.

somewhat above the

water surface.

Li

This

(9.96)(0.3298)

1.22(9.96)

3.1416(0.0857)

On

is,

77. h,

ft.

lies

/3

tan 9

If

The

According to B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky, D.
Savitsky, and W. F. Lehman [ETT, Stevens,
Rep. 360, Aug 1939, Fig. 15, p. 36] the forward
edges of the wetted area of a planing craft when
underway are defined by the bases of the spray
roots under the bottom. These extend generally
in two straight lines from a point on the keel to
points abaft this on either chine. When the wetted
area on one side of the hull is projected on the
root base with the chine

851

(planing surface beam) tan

transverse

length L,s at this trim angle

by interpolation from

level

forward of the AP, the correspond-

ing running attitude

21.4

which

CG and the CP tentatively located

the procedures

is

of accomplishing

this is described in the paragraphs

With the

it

the basis of perfectly

flat

surfaces, with constant angle

/3

12.2

ft.

V-shaped bottom
and no twist, the

wetted length of the keel should equal the mean

wetted length L^s plus half the length L^
For
the ABC tender this is 21.4 ft plus 6.1 ft or 27.5 ft.
This wetted keel length is laid off along the keel,
forward from the AP, terminating at the point
.

in Fig. 77. P.

ft less 6.1 ft

The wetted

or 15.3

ft.

chine length

This distance

is

21.4

is laid off

along the chine, also forward of the AP, terminating at the point C.

The diagonal broken

line

KG in

the figure forms the locus of the spray-root bases

on each
breaks

side.

off

transom

Taking

for granted that the

water

cleanly along the chines, and that the

clears to its lower edge, the

wetted area

illustrated schematically in the small

hes entirely under the after portion of the V-

figure

pubhshed by A. B. Murray as a part of

"The Hydrodynamics of Planing Hulls" [SNAME, 1950].
The mean wetted length Lws measured generally

bottom, indicated by the hatched area in the

Fig. 10 on page 665 of his paper

figure.

situation

is

mean buttock at the quarter-beam,

mean of the wetted length of the
and the wetted length along the chine. The

parallel to the
is

the arithmetic

keel

between these two lengths, indicated

Stevens, Report 360, is estimated
by Eq. (17) on page 14 of that report, namely
difference

as Li in

ETT,

The

drawn

Mean Buttock from Centerplane

Calculated Trim

is

4,9 deo b\

15

-^-2 30

ft

is

placed at the level of the sur-

in,

picturing the position and attitude of

the hull with respect to the undisturbed water

level. Fig.

77.P

is this profile for

the

ABC

full-

planing tender, with dimensions and explanatory

notes.

[Proposed
Offset of

point

rounding undisturbed water, and the craft is

trhnmed 4.9 deg by the stern. Its profile is then

E'ye

Position of

the Stern

Water Surface

\*

Fig. 77.P

^Mean Welted Lencjth

is^

b^ calcuialion,

Lws

214 ft

f^CP

Position

for

Normal

H^dronomic Pressures

on Bottom,

14.21

ft

Forword of

Diagbam Showing Pbedicted Running Position and Attitude op Planing Tender at Full Speed

FP

HYDRODYNAMICS

852

Assuming a suitable vertical position of the

in this case 0.5 ft above the DWL, the at-rest
and underway CG positions are placed on the

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 11 2R

Despite the fact that this item has received

little

Plum

CG,

attention in the technical literature, John

drawing, in a transverse plane 14.21 ft forward

of the AP. Scaling the rise of the CG due to the

and others who have produced high-speed planing

craft which give reasonably satisfactory behavior
under these severe conditions maintain that the
proper adjustment of the fore-and-aft location of

forward speed of 24 kt from the original of Fig.

77.P gives 0.81 ft, as compared to the 0.67 ft
derived from the Murray reference earlier in

the heavy weight groups, and the control of the

the section.

superior wavegoing performance than

Two

now

some consideration. The first is the question of whether or not

the steersman at the control station can see ahead
other features

over the

bow

require

in this running attitude. Fig. 77.

indicates that with the stem carried all the

up to the forward deck

direction

just

is

way

line,

vision in a horizontal

possible

from the proposed

control station. In order to see clearly to a point

on the water surface some 90

proper trim angle, are more important factors in

shape of the

any par-

To

give the
naval architect a more reliable background in
ticular or special

hull.

and to furnish him with better design

an intensive and thorough study of the
of weight location and trim control should

this respect
rules,

effect

be carried out at the earUest opportunity.

77.28 First Space Layout of the 18-Knot

Round-Bottom Hull.

For the round-bottom tjT)e

motorboat selected tentatively
in Sec. 77.10 as the one best suited for the 18-kt
speed, the requirements of Table 77. a indicate

ahead of the
steersman, his line of sight would have to be
depressed about 5 deg, indicated by a broken line
in the figure. Clear vision at this angle would
necessitate rounding the stem head and using
some reverse sheer forward.
The second matter is one of appearance. A
planing boat running at full speed with a trim
of the order of 5 deg by the stern seems to be
struggling along, as though it could not quite get
through its hump speed. The same boat, running
at the same speed but with a trim of only some
2 deg, gives that delightful impression of smooth,
effortless running which is the aim of every
motorboat designer and builder and the hope of
every owner and operator. Few among those who
ride or watch seem to reahze, or to be concerned,
that the resistance and power may be less at
5 deg than at 2 deg trim by the stern. If level
running becomes of more importance than

40 ft long is unnecessarily large and that the

weight hmit of 25,000 lb need not even be approached. A second arrangement sketch, reproduced in Fig. 77. Q, reveals that a transom-stern
hull of 35-ft waterline length is ample to contain
the necessaiy spaces and volumes without

efficiency of propulsion, a trim-control device of

crowding.

some kind

is

Sees. 36.26

and 37.24.

Taylor quotient 2\ at 14
For 18 kt it is 3.042,
F = 0.906. From the utihty-boat curve of Fig.
77. C, the total weight should be not in excess of
18,000 lb or 8.036 tons. Using the PhilUps-Birt
Eq. (77.iiia) of Sec. 77.14, the 14-kt speed, and
the proper value of K2 from Table 77. e.

ft

clearly indicated, as described in

If this

area

is

well forward of the

boat receives an up-pitch

moment

as

it

CG

the

crest.

If,

the result of slamming on

wave

make

this speed with a half-

passengers and their personal baggage. It must,

however, be able to accommodate, at the slower

speed of 14 kt, any of the items listed in (6) of

Table 77. a and to run for 6 hr at full power.

In short, it must have power enough for the 18-kt
load and speed, but room enough for the 14-kt
load.

as

Sketching a preliminary arrangement indicates,

it did for the full-planing boat, that a hull

For
is

this length the

2.366,

F,,

0.705.

strikes

however, the impact forces are

applied more or less underneath one of the heavy
weight groups such as the propelhng machinery,
every

that the craft must

load of fuel and a crew of two, as well as two

kt

The next step is to estimate, possibly from a

diagram such as Fig. 77. P, about where the
impact area will be under the bottom when the
craft runs at high speed through relatively short
waves.

of semi-planing

Pb

(horses)

V^

(kt)

W (long tons)

(14)^(8.036)

201.

(2.80)'

crests is limited

be remembered that at the 18-kt speed

to a compression of the structure

between the engine bearers and the bottom of the
boat, with an effective reduction in pitching

the useful load (and the total weight) will be

moment.

moment

generally

It is to

considerably less than 8.04

that one of the

t.

It

HN-10

appears for the

diesel engines

!ser.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORROAT

1130

853

/Trace of Desioned Waterline

In Second Layout

Enqme

Should

Be Moved
Forward and
Passengers Aft
to Provide
More Comfort
for

Them

Weather
Protection

Over Corqo

and Boqt^Qqe
'*-

not

Shown
Here

Desiqned" Woterlineot rest

96765|43ZIF|P
mentioned in

Sees. 77.13

and 77.14

for installa-

tion in the 24-kt planing tender, with a

maximum

brake power of 225 horses, may be sufficient for

the round-bottom tender. At least, it will be used
for a first weight estimate.
77.29 First Weight Estimate for the 18-Knot
Hull. A first weight estimate is made by using
a few known weights plus reasonable percentages
(from Fig. 77. D) of the estimated gross weight
of 18,000 lb.

These

are, in lb:

18-kthull
(1)

Pay

(2)

Diesel engine, one

load, including crew

equivalent,

and
(3)

oil

HN-10

14-kthuU

1,000

3,000

2,650

2,650

or the

including water

in the engine

Fuel for 6 hr at

Stations

Sketch op Tentative Space Layout for Round-Bottom Tender for

Fig. 77. Q

power, reckoned as 0.5 lb per brake horse 338 (half

per hr
full

675

Pb =

ABC

Ship

HYDRODYNAMICS

854
Assuiiiiiig

tiaiisinissioii loss of 5

necessary brake power

is

178/0.95

IN SHIP DESIGN

per cent, the

Characteristics.

cus.sed

187 horses.

IV. Skene's Eq. (77.iva) of Sec. 77.14 does not

apply to round-bottom forms. Instead he gives

a graph of the dimensional ratio P/W^'^ on a
base of 7\ = V/'\/L, where P is in horses
is in tons
(presumably of brake power) and
["Elements of Yacht Design," New York, 1944,

Fig. 147, p. 295].

is 6.071 t,
For the 18-kt boat, where
For T, = 3.042, the value of P/W'^"
from Skene's graph is 25. Then P = 25(8.20) =
205 horses.
is 7.187 t,
(b) For the 14-kt boat, where
W'^" = 9.98. For T, = 2.366, the value of P/W'^"

(a)

Then

P =

13(9.98)

130 horses. This

design

The

G. TomaUn [SNAME,
600, for displacement-type vessels]

The nomogram

1953, Fig. 7, p.

of P.

shaped to run well at either the sustained

maximum

Here, however,

it

is

it

not possible to install

enough power to reach the higher speed at the

heavier load condition. This limitation would

modern

(1955) reciprocating,

draft.

174 horses.

is

semi-

con-

sidered good boat design, therefore, to shape the

hull for the heavier load condition

165/0.95

all

planing as well as full-planing craft. It

For the 18-kt boat, Aveighing 13,582 lb, a

predicted shaft power Ps of 195 horses. Then
Pb = 195/0.95 = 205 horses.
(b) For the 14-kt boat, weighing 16,099 lb, a
predicted shaft power Ps of 165 horses. Then

Pb =

.speed

was considered better

design to fashion it for the higher speed. Although
it was known that the ship would run for much
of the time at reduced load and draft, the design
was laid out for full load and full draft.
speed,

gives:
(a)

high-

found to control the

engine power to be installed but for the selection
of hull features the heavy-load condition is used.
For the ABC ship itself, where the hull at its
designed full-load displacement could have been
is

internal-combustion power plants, to

V.

dis-

intended to run at

different displacements.

apply, at least with

seems very low.

is

speed light-load condition

13.

The round-bottom

these sections

two speeds, at

or the

TF'^' is 8.20.

is

in

Sec. 77.31

and the deeper

Although the alternative design

of the

ABC

tender, running in the lower range of speeds,

is

have a round bottom it is nevertheless of the

semi-planing type. For this reason, as well as to
give it adequate metacentric stability and to
to

provide a better internal arrangement, a wide-

H. F. Nordstrom for determining

The
effective power Pe
Fig. 48 of SSPA Report 19,
1951, is a good one for craft of this type but
unfortunately it does not extend far enough for
chart of

beam

either the 18-kt or the 14-kt designs considered

here.

From

the foregoing

light-load condition

amount

it is

is

manifest that the 18-kt

the one which controls the

power required. Of the empirical

Crouch-Werback formula
is only 187 horses, and is decidedly low. Those of
the Skene graph and of the Tomalin nomogram
are identical and low, but to a lesser degree. The
identical predictions of the K. C. Barnaby and
of engine

estimates, that of the

Philhps-Birt formulas, 251 horses, are higher than

the average by a greater amount. Despite these

appears safe at this stage to make

use of one HN-10 engine or its equivalent, with
a rated brake power Pu of 225 horses.

variations,

it

All the foregoing estimates are based upon the

brake power Pb at the engine coupUng, and upon
the designed (maximum) speed V and weight

W of the complete boat.

77.31

Selecting the 18-Knot Hull Shape and

hull

As a

10

is

first

again favored.
guess, a

ft is selected. It is

maximum

waterline

beam

of

placed at Sta. 6 or at O.QQLwl

from the FP. At the 14- to 18-kt speeds at which

this craft will run, a narrower stern is favored
than for the 24-kt full-planing hull. Following
seas are more of a problem in steering the slower
craft and the liability of broaching is greater. The
transom width is tentatively selected as only
0.75j5.y or 7.5 ft. A waterline is then sketched in,
avoiding any hollow in the entrance portion.
D. Phillips-Birt recommends certain optimum
prismatic coefficients for small craft in the range
of T,

1.3 to 1.8 ["The Design of Small Power

The Motor Boat and Yachting, Apr 1953,

from

Craft,"
p. 160].

of the

While the lowest T^ value

ABC

tender

is

for this version

2.366 for 14 kt, Phillips-

Cp = 0.69 is used as a starter.

35 ft and a weight displacement of
7.187 t, the underwater volume V is 251.4 ft^
and the maximum-section area is
Birt's value of

For an Lwl

Ax =

of

251.4
Cp{L,r,)

(0.69)(35)

10.4

ft'

Sec.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OE A MOTORHOAT

77J2

about the same as for the 24-kt

planing-type tender, the beam is about the same,
This area

is

and the length

is

The

exactly the same.

keel

boat in Fig. 77. K, at the

is therefore used as a
guide in drawing a similar profile for the roundof the 24-kt

profile

bottom

of

bottom

the hull proper,

craft.

The depth

position of the section of

at

the

maximum

fore-and-aft

area

is

extrem(!ly valuable but almost

equally rare.

Layout of the Lines for the ABC RoundLaying out the underwater lines
for the semi-planing motor tender being designed
77.32

Bottom Tender.

here calls for following the general principles set

forth in previous sections for this operation on

about the same as for the faster boat.

There is no general or special rule concerning

full-planing craft. Fashioning the abovewater hull

is

ft,

the longitudinal position of the

section for a boat of this type.

maximum-area

To

afford a clean

run toward the transom it should, however, not

lie abaft the midlength of the waterline. It is
preferably placed slightly forward of that point.
For the design in question it is taken at 0A7Lwl
from the FP.
Any small-craft designer welcomes the opportunity to study the hull shapes fashioned by
others, even though he may have little intention
of follomng or copying any of them. Sources of a
considerable amount of these data are listed here

based upon considerations of wavegoing, good

from the control platform and other
operating requirements, convenience of the passengers and crew and, last but not least, appearis

vision

ance.
Specifically,
the first three steps involve
roughing in the maximum-section contour, laying
out a designed waterline, and sketching a pre-

liminary section-area curve,

much

as they did for

ABC ship design in

Chap.

06.

the large

(a)

"Some Tests with Models

waterline

tentatively as 0.05 ft

lated model-test data. Text

(d)

F.,

SSPA Rep.

19,

1951.

is

in English.

"Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces," Buenos

Aires, 1951. The text is in Spanish, as yet untranslated (1957), but the lines drawings are understood

(b) Baader,

J.,

by any naval architect.

Beach, D. D., "Power Boat Form," The Rudder,
Jan 1954, pp. 38-43, 90. The author gives lines
drawings of seven modern hull forms, with the
practical and the hydrodynamic reasons for their
hundreds of lines drawings of modern motorboats are to be found on the pages of yachting and

(d) Literally

motorboating magazines, most of them mentioned

in the references of Sec. 77.41.

extremely unfortunate that,

^vith

such a

wealth of published data at hand, a motorboat

renders himself vulnerable by rarely
knowing whether the shape he is using for guidance is a good one or not. In other words, he
seldom knows a fraction as much about the good
or bad performance of a boat as he knows about
its physical shape and other features from the
published lines, arrangement drawings, photographs, and descriptions. As an example of what
should be done with published material, D. S.
Simpson includes a sketchy body plan of a
round-bottom motorboat, but gives rather full
comments on the behavior of the actual craft in
designer

10.0

ft.

(c)

The designed waterline beam at the transom

AP) is 7.5 ft
The maximum-sectio n area is 10.4 ft'
The value of LMA is 0.47L,^,, reckoned

(or at the

(e)

from the

The

FP
keel

profile

tender, at the

bottom

(f)

of

the 24-kt full-planing

of the hull proper, is to

be

used as a guide.

The

first

layout of the maximum-area section

Bwx) indicated

(actually taken at the position of

various features and characteristics.

is

beam Bwx is

from the FP.

The half-siding at the bow may be taken

of Small
This pubhcation
gives the body plans of many round-bottom forms,
together with their section-area curves and tabu-

Vessels,"

It

The maximum

Its fore-and-aft position is O.GOLwi,

(b)

Nordstrom, H.

Summariz-

ing from Sec. 77.31:

for convenience:

(c)

kind

of this

855

1050, pp. 081-082). Information

selected

as 1.65

(a)

[SNAME,

service

that the initial beam of 10 ft was too large and

that the keel line used for guidance lay too near
the at-rest waterplane. The floor lines in the

bottom had too smaU a rise to insure reasonable

freedom from pounding. The bottom slope was
in fact smaller than for the corresponding sections
of the full-planing form. Unfortunately there
appears to be no set of minimum values to be
used as a design criterion for selecting a proper
rise-of-fioor angle for this type of boat.
The combination of wide beam and shallow
underwater body produced an extremely sharp
curvature at the turn of the bilge. Indeed, the
section had the appearance of
one taken from a hard-chine hull in which the

maximum-area

chines had simply been rounded

second layout the

keel line

beam was

was lowered.

oS.

For the

decreased and the

856


PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77 J2

Skot.ching

designed

icMitativc

watcrliiie

through the three points given in the summary

is no way of
knowing whether it is a good one until the sections
are drawn. Before this can be done, there has to
be a tentative section-area curve from which to
work.
Before sketching such a curve for a normal
form of motorboat it is necessary to fix its termination at the AP. Here again there are few design
rules for selecting an immersed-transom area Au
but the immersed draft Hu should not exceed
the values given in Table 67. d. For a speed of
18 kt, it is about 1.15 ft; for 14 kt, about 0.695 ft.
Probably it should not exceed 1.0 ft in the present
presented no problem, but there

With a transom beam Bu

case.

average draft of say 0.6

4.5
is

ft^

and A^/Ax

ft,

0.43.

is

of 7.5 ft

and an

the value of

Au

sketched in roughly through the three

known

points and a check on the probable volume

obtained. It should be about 6.07 (35) or 212.5

Many

is

section-area curve

is

ft'.

of the descriptive articles hsted in Sees.

and 77.41 include section-area curves with

the hull lines. These may be used by the designer
77.31

as guides.

new and deeper keel

an assumed designed waterline, and a

Starting again with a

profile,

tentative

curve,

section-area

sketching of the

sections at the various stations

may

proceed.

When

drawing these sections a distinct effort is

njade to keep the buttocks in the run as straight
as possible. Even though the craft is not intended
to plane at the designed load, this shape may be
relied upon to encourage planing at the higher
speeds, under loads (total Aveights) that are
somewhat lighter than those specified.

TABLE

77.i

857

When

the section areas correspond roughly to

the section-area curve ordinatcs, and the rise of

each appears to be adequate to prevent

pounding, with convex sections in the entrance
floor of

and not-too-sharp transverse bilge curvature, the

designer may proceed to add the abovewater body.
The main deck edge at the side is drawn to
give a moderate flare in the forward sections, a
slight flare in the midship sections, and some
tumble home in the stern sections. Unless deck
space

is

required in service, the extremely wide

decks seen in

many motorboat

designs do

slamming when waves

under this overhang.
For the ABC round-bottom tender the stem
is made more nearly plumb than that of the
planing tender. This provides a greater waterline
length on a given overall length, with lower
resistance at the speeds below planing.
Upon completion of the shaping and fairing
easily lead to dangerous
strike

two
was found that the
volume under the tentative waterUne at rest was
slightly greater than that required by the heavyload
of 16,100 lb of salt water. Rather than to
draw a third set of lines the designed waterline
was lowered to give the correct volume. The final
for this craft, involving the preparation of

successive sets of lines,

it

faired lines are reproduced in Fig. 77.R.

All the revised characteristics and parameters

were checked to make sure that they were satisfactory. They are listed in Table 77. i.

final section-area

portions,

down

curve of the usual 1:4 pro-

and a curve

of

B/B^x

ratio, are laid

in Fig. 77. S, together with the fore-and-aft

Hull Characteristics and Other Features of Proposed Round-Bottom Tender for ABC Ship

The principal dimensions,

characteristics,

and other data Hsted here are

for the craft

whose

lines are

shown

Speed Data
14 kt at

T,
r,

full load;

18 kt at light load;

= V/Vl =
= V/Vl =

2.366
3.042

Hull Parameters

LCB =
Cp

0.5S0LwL from the

251.4/(35)(10.6)

in Fig. 77. R.

Bwx = 9.3 ft
Bu of transom = 7.3 ft
y = 251.4 ft' in standard salt water
Ax = 10.6 ft^
Aw of at-rest waterline = 250.9 ft^
Hu of transom = 0.87 ft at rest

= 37.07 ft
LwL = 35.0 ft
Bx = 9.04 ft
W = 16,100 lb
A = 7.188 long tons
A/(0.010L)3 = 167.6
LoA

V =
V =

little

but add weight and require exaggerated flare in

the forward sections. The latter may, in turn,

FP
Cx
C

0.678

35/9.30 = 3.763
Bfj = 0.785 B^x
lE of entrance = 21 deg; ir of run, at transom corner,

L/B^x =

5.75 deg.

10.6/9.04(1.7)

250.9/35(9.04)

LMA =

0.47Z/

= 0.690
= 0.793


HYDRODYNAMICS

858
Holf the
- B

Beom B^x

^^

Drown

to a Scoie of One-Quorter the

Unqth

Lu/i_

IN SHIP DESIGN
extreme draft

is

Sec. 77 J3

often determined

by the

size

'

and

the

of

position

vertical

propeller(s)

and

rudder (s). The bottom of the skeg or rudder shoe

may be the lowest projection but if so it is lower

than the bottom

of the propeller tip

circle

to

give protection to the latter.

When

the draft

ditions, or
Fig. 77.S Duiensionless Watebline-Offset and
Section-Akea Cukves for Round-Bottom Tender
OP ABC Ship

positions

of

maximum

the

ordinates

of

each.

This completes the preUminary hydrodynamic

design of the ABC round-bottom tender, as

worked out in this chapter.

77.33 Example of a Modem Round-Bottom
Utility-Boat Design. An example of a roundbottom design for a motorboat somewhat larger
than that of the ABC tender is the 50-ft open
utihty boat designed recently (1954) by C. E.
Werback. Fig. 77. T is a body plan of this craft
and Table 77. j lists its characteristics for the
light- and full-load conditions.

TABLE
50-FT

Dimensions and Other Data for the

77.
Round-Bottom Utility Boat of Fig. 77.T
j

Light displacement, 24,500 lb

Speed, 13.5 kt

Full-load displacement, 48,000 lb

10.937

21.784

Speed, 10.5 kt

LoA

Be

50.02 ft

(over guards)

14.48 ft

Lk^l =
Bwx =

48.0 ft

12.02 ft

DWL

= 6.2 ft
Freeboard at FP above
Freeboard amidships = 4.1 ft
Freeboard at AP = 4.02 ft
Draft to bottom of skeg = 3.92 ft
Radius at full power =145 miles
Brake power, one 165-horse diesel engine
Fuel, 170 gallons
_
At 13.5 kt, T, = V/\/L_= 1.950
=
= 1.517
At 10.5 kt, T,
A/(0.010L)' at full load = 21.78/0.1106 = 197.2
Ratio of (Ih/Ps) at full load = 48,800/165 = 296.0 lb

V/^L

is

it is

limited

may

more tunnels

be recessed upward

just as they are in larger

tunnel-stern shallow-draft vessels. Usually, however,

there

insufficient

is

down

tunnel roof

length

to

drop the

to the plane of the designed

waterline abaft the wheel, so the after end of the

upper portion of the tunnel is exposed.

In certain speed-length ranges, particularly
just below hump speed, the change of trim and
squat for most motorboat forms is large. Shallow
water exaggerates this situation because of the
increased steepness of the waves, generated either
by the boat's own motion or by natural winds.
It must not be expected, therefore, that a boat
which has a draft of x ft when at rest may be
able to run, under a variety of conditions, in
water of x ft depth without scraping along or
striking on the bottom.
When working up the characteristics of a
shallow-draft motorboat the designer may, with
what appears to be a reasonable first weight
estimate, convert this weight to volume of the
liquid in which the craft is to run. Then on the
basis of a tentative waterline area and shape, he
may determine the mean draft necessary to give
the displaced volume, assuming first that this
draft is constant under the entire waterline area.
As a first approximation, the maximum draft of
the hull proper may be taken as equal to 3 times
the mean draft. Additional draft needed to
provide dynamic stability of route, or mechanical
48.0

ft

Beom, maximum on waterline, 12.02

Displacement Full Lood, 48,

This craft has buttock lines that are very

nearly straight in the region from Sta. 8 to Sta.
12, or for the aftermost third of the length. The

by operating con-

desired to give the propellers

protection, they

into one or

Lenqth on Waterline,

per horse.

minimum

some

when

ft

WL5

rise-of-floor angle at Sta. 4, one-third

from the bow, exceeds 8 deg. The

transom beam to maximum waterline
rather large for a round-bottom boat but

of the length

ratio of

beam

is

in this case

it

provides additional room within

Wcterlme
Buttock

Spocmq

Spacing
l_

15

1.0

the hull.
77.34
Draft.

Designed Speed ot

Design for a Motorboat of Limited

For a motorboat of normal design, the

Fig. 77.T

15

..

Full

Lood, 10.5 kt

YV/Vl

ft for all

at 'this 'speed. 1.517

Body Plan op 50-Foot Utility Boat

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.36

protection to the propener(s) and ruddcr(is),

added to the

is

liuU draft.

(1)

The speed

of

859

advance Va

is

0.95 (21) kt. In

the units required for the chart. Fig. 77. U, this

This estimate, plus a preliminary layout of the

is

0.95(24) (1.15)

24.84 mph.

and rudder(s), and an estimate of

the sinkage at the stern, indicates roughly whether

delivered directly to

the limiting-draft conditions can be met.

per shaft, from the calculation at the end of

propeller(s)

Because

of the small

immersion

of its surface

and the small trim by the stern at

runs, a sea-sled type of motorboat may

(2)

The

shaft power, considered here as the

Sec. 77.26.

On

tiie propeller, is

power

207 horses

the basis that the engine

is

rated

propellers

for sea-level

which it
be admirably suited to operation in waters of
limited depth. A 75-ft cruising yacht of the seasled type, in which the extreme draft is of the

of (b) preceding is 1.00, for a boat to be operated

always at sea level. Strictly speaking, since the
24 kt is a maxunum trial speed and not a sustained speed, the sustained-load factor should
also be 1.00. However, it seems wise, as in the
case of the ABC ship described in Chap. 69, to
limit the power at designed speed to about 0.96

order of only 3.5

Apr

[Yachting,
77.35
teristics.

ft, is

illustrated in the literature

1950, p. 62].

Estimate

For the

of

Screw-Propeller Charac-

selection of preliminary screw-

propeller characteristics for a motorboat, use

is

here of a nomogram developed by W. E.

Fermann, issued by the Marine Division of the
Federal-Mogul Corporation, and used since 1943
by the Bureau of Ships of the U. S. Navy Department. The diagram is reproduced as Fig. 77. U.
On the facing page there are instructions for its
use, supplemented by an example worked out

made

ABC

for the 24-kt planing type of

Use

tender.

Fermann nomogram

of this

requires that

three of the principal quantities be known:

(a)

The speed

advance Va

of

of the propeller,

expressed as miles per hour, where

mph. The value

Va

kt

is

Tomalin gives a

types. P. G.

special

for determining the factor (1

w)

nomogram

[SNAME,

1953, p. 602].
(b)

The

power Ps delivered

shaft

at each pro-

may

be taken as 0.95 times the rated

brake power P^ of the engine connected to that
peller.

This

propeller.

Fermann

The

accompanying the

instructions

to the brake

power times the

mission

the

modifier

times

propeller

is

equal

efficiency of trans-

times

sustained-load

barometric

factor.

The

product of the last three factors is given as an

average of 0.90 for gasoline engines and 0.85 for
diesel engines.
(c)

The

rate

of

for transmission losses

and taking the nearest

round figure, the shaft power delivered at each
propeller is assumed to be 210 horses.
(3)

The

engines are designed to run at 2,500

rpm

at rated full power.

Only when

special

performance

justifies

the

custom-made motorboat propeller, conforming to a design drawn

up in accordance with big-ship methods such as
described in Chap. 70. Normally, a propeller is
selected from stock, having the desired number
of blades, diameter, pitch, and mean-width ratio.
cost is

it

77.36
tion.

possible to install a

Propeller Tip Clearances; Hull Vibra-

For a

craft of the displacement type the

no more than the

nominal turbulent boundary-layer thickness 5
(delta), determined for an a;-distance equal to
that from the stem to the propeller position and
for a speed V equal to the highest boat speed
expected. Using the ABC round-bottom tender
propeller-tip clearance need be

as an example, the .r-distance to the propeller

about 33

ft.

At a speed

per sec in standard salt

is

say 14 kt or 23.65 ft
water, R^ from Table 45.b
of

about 60 (10*^). Assuming that the flow is fully

turbulent and interpolating between the graphs
of Fig. 45. C, the value of 5 at the propeller is
is

chart state that the shaft power

to

maximum. Allowing

of the order of 3 per cent

1.15

reckoned as 0.90 the

speed V of the boat for a single-screw craft with
a fine run and 0.95 times that speed for twin-screw
craft, whether of the planing or round-bottom
of

of the

operation the barometric modifier

rotation in

propeller turns. This

is

rpm

at

which the

equal to the engine

rpm

for direct drive.

Taking the twin-screw 24-kt planing type

tender as an example:

ABC

about 0.3 ft. The data plotted there are for fresh
water but the values would not change materially
for salt water.

For a planing craft, the R^ length is somewhat

shortened because of the diminished wetted length
along the keel. For the ABC planing tender,
running at 24 kt or 40.53 ft per sec, the mean
wetted length is just under 22 ft, giving an R^ of
about 66 (lO**) in salt water and a 5 at the propeller position (from Fig. 45. C) of the order of

HVDRODVN.\i\riC,S IN SHIP DESIGN

860

RATE OF ROTATION,

revolutions

RATE OF ROTATION,
o

\n

"O

PER

REVOLUTIONS

LOCATOR

minute,

per

Srr. 77 Jf^

SELECTOR

MINUTE,

in

pO
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iQ.n

Mil

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CAVITATIN&

HUNDR|DS

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liiiiiiiiil

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MAJOR

PITCH, INCHES

-,

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FOR

RATIO

CAVITATION

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MMI|IIII|IIII| lllll

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OF ADVAjNCE,

I
I

<Ti

a>

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(o

lo

per hour

miles

RATIO for MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

i

u iu^
i

Ji;u

|i

^
I

^i

J^
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,i

D EFFICIENCY, PER CENT

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SPEED
PITCH-DIAMETER

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1-

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORROAT

Sec. n.3C,

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HYDRODYNAMICS

862

Here the .r-distance involved is slightly

than the mean wetted length, because the
propeller is to be forward of the transom.
Without any more than instinctive or intuitive
knowledge of viscous flow, boundary layers, or
wake velocities, N. G. Herreshoff buUt many
0.2

ft.

less

and

successful high-speed launches, yachts,

tor-

IN SHIP DESIGN

boat, with the center of its "sail" area in the

proper fore-and-aft position, is usually more

important than on a large vessel.
Chap. 54 contains sufficient information for an
estimate of the still-air drag of the hull and deck
erections of a small craft. Sec. 77.26 contains a

computation

pedoboats in the half-century between 1870 and

1920 Mith extremely small tip clearances [Herre-

ABC

"N. G. Herreshoff and Some of

the Yachts He Designed," The Rudder, Mar
1950, pp. 33-35; Sep 1950, pp. 26-27, 56-58].
He was fully as conscious as are modern marine
architects of the advantages of smooth running
and the need for holding vibration to a minimum.
There is some question, therefore, as to whether
radial or hull tip clearance is an important feature

dages.

shoff, L. Francis,

in a small craft [Tomalin, P. G.,

SNAME,

1953,

The

structural scale effect, which causes a small

more

than a geometrically similar large one oj

material,

may

the

rigid

same

vibration than on a large vessel. Nevertheless,

seems wise on any small

it

craft, regardless of size,

not to reduce the tip clearance below 0.083 ft

(1 mch) or, at the most, 0.0625 ft (f inch) [Lakeland Yachting,

On

all

May

and on most utihty craft as well, comfortable

riding and freedom from vibration acquire an
importance comparable to that on large vessels.
P. G. Tomalin has discussed this matter at some
length

[SNAME,

1953, pp. 610-613] so that

considered necessary only to reference

77.37

Still-Air

mentioned

it

it is

here.

Drag and Wind Resistance.

item (6) of Sec. 77.2 that in

an ultra-high-speed motorboat the still-air resistance may approach the hydrodynamic resistance
in magnitude. In any type of motorboat, with
It is

by

in

far the greater part of its total

the water surface, neither the

volume above

still-air

drag Dsa

The

small craft are:

(1)

Deep

(2)

Vertical stabihzing fin on an ultra-high-speed

craft, to

keel or skeg, or a combination of the

act.

Many

(3)

Propeller shaft(s), usually exposed

(4)

Shaft struts for supporting propeller bearings.

These

may
On

be either forward of or abaft the proultra-high-speed

Aires, 1951, Fig. 104, p. 130].

(5)

Steering rudder(s)

(6)

Inlet scoops for cooling water to the propelhng

machinery; see Fig. 34 on page 42 of the Baader

reference just cited.

The deep
fins

keels or skegs act partly as stabilizing

to give the

prevent

skidding

craft

and

stability

of the

upper works on a motor-

of

sideslipping,

route,

they

and

they
[Fig. 265

probably add some roll-quenching effect

on p. 328 of the Baader reference listed in
preceding].

Practically,

they

serve

as

(4)

partial

housings for centerline propeller shafts and as a

when grounding. There

appear to be few design notes or rules in the
literature other than those given by D. PhillipsBirt ["Motor Yacht and Boat Design," 1953,
protection for the hull

dynamic difficulty.
tered on such an appendage

Proper design

the propeller

is

it can still become important

maneuvering. When the drag in a beam wind
creates a swinging moment that, for example,
always causes the craft to fall off and swing
downmnd, the crew may have difficulty holding
it in a hove-to position, head to both wind and

sea.

craft

sometimes carried by a swivel fitting

on the rudder [Baader, J., "Cruceros y Lanchas
Veloces (Cruisers and Fast Launches)," Buenos
bearing

pp. 65-66].

for

types of these are

shown by J. Baader on pages 115, 119, 322-325,

and 341 of the reference listed under (4).

nor the wind resistance i?wind is ever a negligible

or an inconsiderable part of the total resistance.
If it is not a major factor in resistance and powering at cruising speeds

two

provide a sort of fulcrum about which the

moment can

rudder

1952, p. 20].

small boats buUt for pleasure purposes,

drag for the planing-type of

Design of Control Surfaces and Appenprincipal control surfaces and appendages on a motorboat or other self-propelled

peller.

render the hull less susceptible to

of this

tender.

77.38

p. 611].

structure of a given material to be

Sec. 77.37

Exposed propeller shafts

of shallow draft are

in a high-speed craft
a constant source of hydroThe drag normally encoun-

aggravated by the
it, where the
ambient pressure is too small to develop a pressure
gradient which will cause the water to close in
abaft the shaft. Further, the ditch, hole, or
separation zone extends aft into and through the
ditch or hole in the water

propeller disc.

The only

is

made by

design solution here,

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.39

short of eliminating the shaft altogether or raising

it

out of the water at speed,

to

is

make

it

as small

as possible in diameter.

the

Because the shaft struts of motorboats are

usually short, and because they gain in relative
rigidity with decrease in size, due to the structural
scale effect,

it is

863

Prepared by the Chris-Craft Corporation for the

Bureau of Ships of the U. S. Navy Department,

frequently possible to

make them

entries for the light-load condition alone

occupied 56 tabulated sheets.
Of the large weight groups, the machinery is

usually the heaviest.

itself

may

Indeed,

the

weight

fuel

be appreciable. Only rarely

is

a motor-

of the single-arm type [Phillips-Birt, D.,

"Motor
Yacht and Boat Design," 1953, p. 124; Baader, J.,
"Cruceros y Lanehas Veloces (Cruisers and Fast
Launches)," Buenos Aires, 1951, Fig. 47, p. 60].
Design notes for motorboat rudders are dis-

boat designed unless there is a propelling plant

ready to put into it. The engine and its attached
components usually have been built, tested, and
weighed, so that the designer knows just what
figure to set

cussed in Sec. 74.11. Additional notes are given

machinery manufacturer. The

by D.

and 68

Phillips-Birt on pages 67

of the

reference just cited.

Third Weight Estimate. Having seton the general arrangement and equipment
and the principal details of hull, machinery, and
appendages of a motorboat design, it is now
77.39

tled

make

possible to

a more reliable estimate of the

weights, using smaller parts

and groups than

those listed in Sees. 77.13 and 77.29. Moreover,

when

this stage of the preliminary

design

is

hydrodynamic

reached, detailed arrangement layouts

and sketches of the framing and structure will

have been started. These will include rough
drawings of the revised internal arrangements,
drawn to a scale considerably larger than those
of Figs. 77.B and 77. Q, as well as framing layouts

showing the tentative scantlings,

and

characteristics of

and some

of the hull
It

now time

is

many

The sUngs

77.29.

tenders,

that of the hull structure, including fastenings

but excluding hull fittings. As the largest unknown

item it deserves the most attention in the weight
estimates. Lacking reliable information concerning previous construction or faced with a novel
design for which weight data probably do not

both below and above water, then multiply this

area by an average weight of hull planking or
plating, framing,

for

deck,

for

hoisting

Indeed, the hulls themselves

them

in

and out

example,

the

ABC

may

require

of the parent ship.

third weight estimate involves a more-or-

less detailed listing of all

the principal parts in

each group, and a calculation of the weight of each.

Instead of the 8 items of Sees. 77.13 and 77.29,
there should be more nearly 80. Even 180 items
are not too

example,

Navy

many

at this stage.

the weight

As an

calculations

for

excellent

a U.

52-ft rescue boat, with direct drive,

of appreciable area,

(c)

flats,

and

for internal bulk-

and platforms

Calculate the weight of the deckhouses and

deck erections
(d) Estimate the weight of what might be termed
hull trim, such as guard rails, fenders, rubbing
rails,

spray

strips, chafing pieces, doublers,

and

foundations for main and auxihary machinery.

By a somewhat different procedure, the designer

and 31 groups

may:
(e) Rough out the structure by drawing the usual
midship section, \vith its scantlings, supplemented

by several other

typical sections, sho-wing the

structure at those points in

(f)

Calculate the weight of

typical section
basis of length.

some
all

detail

the parts in each

and draw a weight curve on a

area under this curve repre-

The

sents the hull weight.

S.

em-

bodied 24 separate weight groups for the light-load

condition, 30 groups for the hoisting-load conditions,

if

heads,

strengthening to take the constant wear and tear

The

and reinforcing

Follow the same procedure for the weather

(b)

carried partly rigged in the boats,

if

of hoisting

Calculate the area of the hull boundaries,

(a)

involve weights not normally included under hull

fittings.

the designer can:

exist,

of the principal parts

determine,

by the

fuel has a weight

is known within close limits, so that

when the fuel capacity is fixed, the designer can
set down a second fixed figure for the fuel weight.
The largest single remaining weight group is

sizes, positions,

whether the hull proper of the round-bottom

ABC tender is hable to weigh more than the 34
per cent of the total weight allowed for it in
Sec.

for the units furnished

density that

of the details.

to

down

for the full-load condition.

Certain features are of great importance in the

weight estimate; first, that they be included
and second, that the estimated weights assigned
final

to

them be adequate. To enumerate and

explain:

HYDRODYNAMICS

8f)l

the hull

If

(1)

wood,

built of

is

it

inevitably

absorbs a certain amount of moisture as soon as

launched, no matter

it is

by paints and
soakage.

how

well

it is

similar coatings. This

protected
is

called

The moisture can be absorbed above the

waterline from rain and spray, as well as below

that

line,

from

routine

immersion.

It

adds

directly to the weight of the boat as built.

Woods

same kind and grade vary

if of the same
moisture content. A boat is more likely to be
buUt of heavy pieces than light ones, unless a
(2)

of the

rather widely in weight, even

made. Wooden boats conby the same

builder, have been known to vary plus and minus
10 per cent in weight in the course of a building
program extending over a year or more.
(3) For a design that is different from one for
which adequate weight data are available, or
for one that is novel, no naval architect can
estimate accurately, in advance, the weight of the
various parts, nor can he list all the parts that the
builder (or he) will put into the boat by the time
deliberate selection

structed

it is

to

is

the same drawings,

finished

operator, crew,

templated or allowed for in the design. When the

performance of the boat suffers as a result, the
designer is usually the one who has to take the
initial blame.
(5) New technologic developments bring into
being certain items of equipment, such as radar,
which may not have been in existence or even
thought of when the design was completed. It is
for this reason that numerous combatant vessels
have been designed with margins to take care of
increases in weight throughout most of the life
of the vessel.

small-boat designers and builders have an utterly

attitude

the amount
wooden hull can and
and exposed to the

concerning

(weight) of moisture which a

does absorb

by C. C. Walcutt [Yachting,

1955, pp. 64-65, 108-110].

The number

of motorboat designs of the past

which the total weights have been underestimated is no less than appaUing. The finished
weight has been known to exceed the weight
estimate by 10 per cent or more, and the speed
to be 10 per cent below the predicted value, solely
for

because of overweight. Despite the time, labor,

and expense involved, correct motorboat design

procedure

calls for

estimate. This

is

the making of a detailed weight

possible as soon as the design

arrangements and hull structure is

and equipment is made, and decisions have been rendered
as to just what gear the boat is to carry.
of the hull

essentially complete, the list of fittings

77.40 Self-Propelled Tests for Models with

Djmamic Lift. An exception to the procedure set
down in Sec. 1.5 of the Introduction to Volume I
is justified

here to emphasise the necessity for

the self-propulsion of models of craft in which the

forces or

moments generated by the propulsion

devices are likely to be large compared to those

when

afloat

elements. It has long been recognized that even

The

lift.

various velocity and pressure fields and forces set

up by the propulsion devices are of such magnitude

in proportion to the other forces acting that

they
can not be neglected in an endeavor to determine
the resistance and running attitude of the full-

For high-speed vessels this running

most important because the slope
large in proportion to the hydrodynamic

scale craft.

attitude

drag

is

is

drag.

example of the intowed model test alone is that

never-to-be-forgotten

adequacy

of the

of the sea sled described in Sec. 30.13. Indeed,

the

lift

force produced

by the

surface propellers

at the stern of a craft of this type

The element of soakage in a wooden hull needs

much more emphasis than has been given to it
in the past. It is perhaps safe to say that many
unrealistic

May

Sec. 77.40

generated by buoyancy or dynamic

The owner,

and others are

certain to add weights which were never con(4)

IN SHIP DESIGN
are vividly presented

may

be so

necessary to reduce the trim and the overall

resistance that unless the propellers are running

enough to produce this force the craft may

become nearly inoperable. It may, in effect, have
only two speeds, full speed or stop, with an infast

abiUty to run satisfactorily or efficiently

when

slowed down.
It

was

for

many

decades the practice, when

the best of paint and enamel coverings will not

stepping up the observed resistance of models of

prevent this absorption. It is perhaps not so weU

that a plastic coating on one surface only
will not prevent absorption through the other.

full-planing craft, to ignore the friction resistance

known

The astounding weight

reductions recorded by
drying and weighing a small sailboat hull, where
the weight ranged from 375 lb wet to 275 lb dry,

The total observed resistance was

multipUed by the cube of the scale ratio, with the
usual allowance for water density, to predict the
resistance of the prototype. This was on the basis
that the wetted surface diminished appreciably
entirely.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.41

when planing, and

possibly also on the assumption

that the surfaces of any type of planing craft

would always be smooth. It is now found far

preferable, and far more accurate, to expand the
observed data to full scale in the same manner
as for a large, displacement-type vessel [Peters,
S. A.,

SNAME,

1950, p. 682].

"Furthermore, there

is need for the development of

equipment and techniques for self-propelling models of
planing craft, if guesswork is to be eliminated from
estimating engine power requirements, and maneuvering

characteristics" [Curry, J. F.,

77.41

Bibliography

Partial

Sec. 53.8 gives a partial

surfaces,

SNAME,

dynamic

list of

lift,

1950, p. 688].

on

Motorboats.

references on planing

and planing

craft.

The

emphasis here is on the analytical and empirical

aspects of predictmg performance rather than
on the practical aspects of design.
A few references from Sec. 53.8 are repeated
here, but for the most part the items listed in the
present section contain design notes and information of direct practical use. Furthermore, the
references apply to displacement craft and to
round-bottom motorboats of the semi-planing
type, as well as to full-planing boats of

(7)

Speed Motor Boats," INA, 1927, Vol. LXIX, pp.

121-143 and Pis. X and XI
(8) Richardson, H. C, "Aircraft Float Design," Ronald
Press, New York, 1928
(9) McKenzie, Ian L., "The Powering of High-Speed
Motor Yachts," SBSR, 16 May 1935, pp. 554-557
(10) Nicolson, D., "High-Speed Motor Craft," NECI,
1937-1938, Vol. LIV, pp. 98-118 and Pis. I and II;
also pp. D25-D32; abstracted in SBSR, 13 Jan
1938, pp. 39-40. This paper is devoted to a description of the design and construction of ultra-highspeed motorboats having lengths of from 22 to 75
ft and Taylor quotients 7', of from 6.97 to 3.94.
The single graph of power-weight ratio on a base
of speed in kt begins at 35 horses per pound and
35 kt and extends up to over 150 kt.
(11) Hadeler, W., "Motortorpedoboote-Schnellboote (Motor Torpedoboats-High-Speed Boats)," Zeit. d.
Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 12 Aug 1939, pp. ^17-924. An
English version of this paper is given in
Transl. 88, Jan 1940.
(12) Miller, R. T., Johnson, V. D., and Towne, S. R., "The
Design of a High-Speed Torpedo Boat," Thesis,
Webb Inst. Nav. Arch., New York, Apr 1940

TMB

N. L., "Elements of Yacht Design," New

York, 1944. While much of this book is devoted to
the design of sailing yachts, there is a considerable
amount of information relating directly to the

(13) Skene,

design of motorboats and small powered craft.

on Resistance,
This is especially true of Chap.

many

XV

kinds.
(1)

SNAME,

PL 94 of this
paper gives speed-rpm, speed-sUp, speed-power,
and other curves of the launch Vingt-et-Un II,
designed by Crane. See also Yachting, Jan 1952,

pp. 224-240.

1904, Vol. 12, pp. 321-325.

(14) Lord, L.,

Crane, C. H., "Problems in Connection with High-

Speed Launches,"
Pis. 190-197.

of Planing Hulls,"
York, 1946
(16) Guins, G. A., "The Design of Pleasure Planing Craft
(15) Lord,

The

first

1905, pp. 365-373 and

three of these plates give

and fast launches of that time.

Durand, W. F., "Motor Boats;

Thoroughly

and Operation," International Marine Engineering,

London and New York, 1907, L. C. No. VM 341. D9
Luders, A. E., Sr., "Model Experiments and Speed
Trials of 60-ft Motor Cruiser Kalhmar II,"
SNAME, 1913, Vol. 21, pp. 177-180 and Pis.

rise-of-floor angle for satisfactory longitudinal sta-

(17) Baier, L. A.,

May

"Model Experiments on Express

High Speed-Length
Ratio Deadrise Tj^pe Proves Superior to Round
BUge Model Resistance of Appendages Investi-

Gamon, T.

work

A.,

(18) Thiel, P., Jr., Johnson,

United States.

AM, New York,

"The

and Wake of Nine Double-Chine

SimpHfied Hull Forms," Thesis, Dept. Nav. Arch,
and Mar. Eng'g., Univ. Mich., Ann Arbor, May
Resistance

gated," Inter. Mar. Eng'g., Aug 1918, pp. 473-476

Smith, R. Munro, "The Design and Construction of
Small Craft," pubKshed by The Technical Section,
Association of Engineer and Shipbuilding Draughts-

men, 96, St. George's Square, Westminster,

London, 1924. A considerable number of reproductions of this book have been distributed in the

"Power-Length-Speed,"

1948, pp. 34-35. Covers relatively slow-speed

craft of lengths from 40 to 100 ft, speeds of

9 to 12 kt, weight displacement 50 to 300 t.

R. W., and Ward, L. W.,

Cruisers of Deadrise Type; For

(6)

New

bifity is 7 deg.

110-112
(5)

"Naval Architecture

boat sizes is not given. Best rise-of-floor angle "for

spray deflection and soft riding" found to be 38.5
deg at FP and 21 deg at 0.3L from FP. Minimum

Scientific Discussion of their Design, Construction,

(4)

L.,

from Model Studies," SNAME, Pac. Northwest

Sect., 13 Sep 1947; abstracted in SNAME Member's Bull., Jan 1948, p. 18. Author found by tests
on small models that the best value of the ratio
[(average waterhne length) /(average waterline
beam)[ is 2.63 for work in rough water. Range of

SNAME,

midsection shapes, outboard profiles, waterlines,

and deck plans of a number of small torpedoboats
(3)

"Elementary Considerations of Planing Hull

SNAME, Phila. Sect., 18 Oct 1946

Design,"

Cornell Maritime Press,

p. 62.
(2)

pp. 181-209, Chap. XVI on The Hydroplane, pp.

210-223, and Chap. XVII on Screw Propellers,

"High Speed Gasoline Launches,"

Crane, C. H.,

SOf)

Nicolson, D., "Design and Construction of High-

(19)

1948. The models forming the subject of this thesis

have certain characteristics of motorboats.
Peters, S. A., "Development of the Motor Torpedo
Boat," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 3 Nov 1948. Abstracted in SNAME Member's Bull., Jan 1949, p.
21.

HYDRODYNAMICS

866
(20) "Tests

of

Twenty Related

IModels

of

IN SHIP DESIGN

V-Bottom

TMB

EMB

Motor Boats,
Series 50,"
Rep. R-47,
Revised Edition, Mar 1949. This report was originally number 170 in the ETT series, issued on 28
Oct 1941, under the authorship of K. S. M. David-

(30) Latimer,

Coast Guard
13 Oct
SNAME Member's Bull., Jan
1952, p. 18. This paper describes and gives drawings and photographs of a rather wide variety of
sizes and types of motorboats, from 18 to 52 ft in
length. Most of the paper is devoted to a description

by modern standards. There are

many

low, because of laminar flow on

(21)

(22)

of the models.

of the

are plotted as contours of total model

resistance per lb of displacement,

or

Rt/W,

as

contours of running trim angle in deg of model

wetted surface, and of other factors.
Locke, F. W. S., Jr., "An Empirical Study of Low
Aspect Ratio Lifting Surfaces with Particular
Regard to Planing Craft," Jour. Aero. Sci., Mar
1949, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 184-188
Ashton, R., "Effect of Spray Strips on Various PowerBoat Designs," ETT, Stevens, Tech. Memo. 99,
Feb 1949. This report is generously illustrated with
excellent photographs of both models and full-scale
motorboats, showing the spray formations very
clearly. The appendix contains useful design comments, with sketches a rather unusual feature for
a report of this kind.
Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., Savitsky, D., and Lehman, W. F., "Wetted Area and Center of Pressure
of Planing Surfaces," ETT, Stevens, Rep. 360,
Aug" 1949. This is the Sherman M. Fairchild
Publication Fund Paper 229, issued b)^ the Inst.
Aero. Sci., New York, N. Y.
Du Cane, P., "High-Speed Small Craft," Cornell
Maritime Press, 1950. This book embodies, in 21

(24)

comment and design data on

machinery, equipment, operation, and trials,
in the size range up to 130 ft in length and in the
speed range above 15 kt.
chapters, informative

(31)

"N. G. Herreshoff and Some

He Designed," The Rudder. This

comprises a series of articles, subdivided into about
12 chapters, which ran more or less regularly
through the years 1949 and 1950.
(26) Spooner, C. W., Jr., "Speed and Power of Motorof the Boats

Boats up to a Speed-Length Ratio of Three,"

unpubl. manuscript dated Oct 1950; available in
the
(27)

TMB library

Murray, A.
Hulls,"

B.,

"The Hydrodynamics

of

Planing

SNAME,

1950, pp. 658-692. This is a most

informative and useful paper for the practical naval
architect. There is a bibliography of 19 items on

embodying three

40-ft utility boat,

Nordstrom, H. F., "Some Tests with Models of

Small Vessels," SSPA Rep. 19, 1951 (in English).
Data are given, with body plans and graphs,
embodying test results on 27 different models of
round-bottom and V-bottom boats (with chines).

values of propulsive coefficient.

(32)

Simpson,

D.

S.,

"Small Craft,

SNAME,

Design,"

Construction and

1951, pp. 554-582. This paper

devoted mostly to the larger craft in the smallgroup, although many of the excellent
comments in it apply to the motorboat
group as well.
is

vessel

design

(33) Savitsky, D.,

"Wetted Length and Center

of Pres-

sure of Vee-Step Planing Surfaces," Inst. Aero.

Sci., Sep 1951, S. M. F. Fund Paper No. FF-6.
This report also carries ETT, Stevens, number 378.
It lists 24 references on pp. 25-27.

"Some Notes on Steering of High-Speed

Planing Hulls," SNAME, Pac. Northwest Sect.,
27 Sep 1952; abstracted in
Member's
Bull, Jan 1953, p. 35

(34) Grenfell, T.,

SNAME

(35) Phillips-Birt, D.,

W. and

J.

"Motor Yacht and Boat Design,"

Co., Ltd., Chatham,

MacKay and

England, 1953. A splendid addition to the scant

on the problems and compromises of
power boat design. There are chapters on size,
speed, behavior, accommodation, appearance, stability, construction, hull form, powering, propellers,
planing boats, and examples in design. American
distributor, J. de Graff, Inc., 64 W. 23rd St., New
York 10, N. Y.
(36) Phillips-Birt, D., "The Design of Small Power Craft;
Design Problems to be Solved by the Naval
Architect," The Motor Boat and Yachting, London,
Apr 1953, pp. 158-162. This excellent article, like
all the papers and books of this author, gives an
incredible amount of general information in a
small space. This reference covers, in addition to
literature

general comments, the following:

"The Analysis

Planing
Hulls," SNAME, dies. Sect., 3 May 1951
(29) Baader, J., "Cruceros y Lanohas Velooes; Su Dinamica. Propulsion y Navegacion (Cruisers and Fast
Launches; Their Hydrodynamics, Propulsion, and
Operation)," Buenos Aires, 1951 (in Spanish). This
appears to be by far the most comprehensive book
of Stepless

on the subject of motorboats and sailing craft, of

small to moderate size, that has ever been pubIt includes a considerable amount of
information on naval architecture in general and
some data on hydrodynamics in particular. It is
lished.

USCG

pages 15 and 16 the report gives data as to

the resistance of appendages and the probable

p. 680.

(28) Clement, E. P.,

of

Ches. Sect.,

On

hulls,

(25) Herreshoff, L. Francis,

SNAME,

vai'iations.

(23)

"Characteristics

P.,

1951. Abstracted in

indications that the observed resistances are too

The data

J.

Powered Boats,"

son and A. Suarez. Unfortunatelj', the parent form

chosen for this series has a chine that is considered
too low forward,

Sec. 77.41

generously illustrated, with drawings and graphs

that are nothing less than superb.

Design requirements
Speed and power

Power and

hull proportions

Hull form
Principles of engine installation
Seaworthiness and stability.

Tomalin, P. G., "Marine Engineering as Applied to

Small Vessels," SNAME, 1953, pp. 590-634. This
paper gives a number of nomograms and other
data useful for the designer of small craft.
(38) "Boats Today," Universal Motor Company, con(37)

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT

Sec. 77.41

and descriptions of 101

interesting boats created by 53 American and
Canadian naval architects, Oshkosh, Wis., 1953
taining detailed designs

(39) Sliaw, P. S., National Researcli Council of

112.0

Whaler,"

MB-172, "Results
Landing

Nov

Craft,

"The Design

(40) Phillips-Birt, D.,

Boats;

"Unusually
of a 27-ft

May

of

27-ft

small craft have natural rolling

stiff

beam

seconds. In

Sea-Going Planing

seas these will also be the

of

encounter will be greater,

amounts depending on the

ship's

"While the period

of encounter

is

longer than

the boat's natural rolling periods, small craft tend

to roll in the period of the waves.

an amazinglj' small space. The

often than large vessels,

in

They

are,

by the

prevailing sea rather than their hull form."

bilge or chine?

Displacement and shape

(50)

of section

Beam
The planing

angle

Calculating the power required

Stepped

ETT

Stevens Tech.

Memo.

These

8.54-ft

percentages for 12 groups in the total weight of an

covering

PT

boat,

74.81-ft

TMB

Press, 1955

covering

26-kt,

by

model

a 30.18-ft by

twin-screw

pleasure

is

"Fundamental Design of Stepless Planing

Motor Boating, New York, Feb-Jun 1956.
a comprehensive paper which appeared

after the writing of the present chapter

had been

On page

54 of the June 1956 issue

there is given an outline of the design procedure
for stepless planing craft, in 26 operations. Reprints
of the five parts of this paper may be obtained
completed.

Boats," Inter. Shipbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2, No. 6,

pp. 61-80. There are 9 references on page 77 of
this paper.

"Small Craft-Stabihty and SeaJul 1955, p. 110. Says that

147,

1.34^ft,

Temple

This

"average cruiser."
(47) Clement, E. P., "Hull Form of Stepless Planing
Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan 1955
(48) De Groot, D., "Resistance and Propulsion of Motor-

SBSR, 28

116,

model 917
" 'The Motor Boat and Yachting' Manual," London,

Hulls,"

hulls, as well as

sheet

by

ETT

(54) Stoltz, J.,

D.,

sheet

3.17-ft, 40-kt,

cruiser,

percentages for 10 weight groups in the hull only

kindliness,"

by

SNAME RD

(53)

(49) Phillips-Birt,

lb.

3592-1
i'52)

E., "Weight and the Motor Boat," Yachting,

Jan 1955, pp. 118-120. The author gives typical

V-bottom and round-bottom

10,500

is

WL
SNAME RD
13.22-ft

Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis, 1954

of

by twin screws and twin

DWL

(51)

Monk,

10.21 ft

These craft are of the V-bottom type, with hard

chines and slightly hollow floor sections. The chine
at about 0.30L from the
line crosses the
forward
termination.

(44) Corlett, E. C. B.,

(46)

craft are driven

reverse gear

profiles considered

"Trends in Very High-Speed Craft,

Part 1," The Motor Boat and Yachting, Sep 1954,
pp. 386-388; Part 2, Oct 1954, pp. 446-447
Mason, J., "The Complete Book of Small Boats,"

19.0 ft

19.833 ft

engines of 2,500 horses (shaft power) each. The

weight of each engine (presumably dry) and its

71,

in the design of these boats.

=
=

H, extreme, = 6.083 ft
L/B = 67/19 = 3.526.

M., "Modern Design and Construction Methods as Applied to 95-Ft Patrol Boats,"
SNAME, 1954, pp. 643-687. Figs. 2-5 on p. 644

body plans and bow

67.0 ft

D, molded, amidships

(43) Phannemiller, G.

(45)

71.375 ft

B, molded
B, overall

dynamic and practical reasons for their various

and characteristics.
Jacobs, W. R., "Comparison of Hull Resistance for
'Standard Series' Ships, V-Bottom Motorboats and

give four

LwL =

Beach, D. D., "Power Boat Form," The Rudder, Jan

1954, pp. 38-43, 90. This is an excellent resume of
seven typical modern powerboat forms, represented
by lines drawings in each case, with the hydro-

Flying Boats,"
Apr 1954

"Design Features of Fast Patrol Boats," The Motor

Ship, London, Aug 1955, pp. 208-209. The principal dimensions and characteristics are:

LoA

hulls.

features

(42)

more

the condition of

forced rolling, their motions governed

Planing

(41)

by

speed and

course.

following subjects are covered:

Round

1.75

usual. This

the period

Their Chai'acteristios," The Motor Boat and

Yachting, Jan 1954, pp. 26-31. This article gives a
large amount of technical information and some
all in

= G.14,andGM =

periods of encounter, while in quartering seas

Discussion of the Different Types and

design rules,

L/fi

was very much better with

means that under a wide range of

seagoing conditions, the wave period will exceed
that of the boat. The period of a 100-ft wave is
about 4j seconds; that of a 250-ft wave is 7

1954

RCN

ft,

periods as short as 3 J- seconds, and 5 to 6 seconds

of a 27-ft
Preliminary Pro-

Dimensions," 25

peller

of a 27-ft

on a Model

MB-173, "Full Scale Trials on the

Motor Seaboat," 4 Jun 1954

18.25

110.0 ft, B = 21 ft, L/B = 5.24; "very much

lower weights and gi-eater GM." The following is
copied from the reference:

is

with

B =

L =

Canada

1953

of Tests

ft,

Later D-class

ft.

Reports as follows:

MB-162, "Results of Tests on a Model

Motor Cutter," 6 Nov 1953
MB-164, "Results of Tests on a Model

8f)7

L =

Fairmilo B-class rolled uiicoiiifortahly with

from Motor Boating, 572 Madison Ave.,

York 22, N.Y.
(55)

Clement, E.
Boat,"

"Analyzing the Stepless Planing

Report 1093, Nov 1956.

P.,

TMB

New

CHAPTER

78

Model-Testing Program for a Large Ship

Preliminary

78.1
78.2

Model-Test Data Desired for a Major-Ship

Design
Model-Test Notes for Preliminary ABC
Designs
Use of Stock Model Propellers for First Self-

78.3
78 4
.

Propulsion Tests

Displacement and Draft Conditions

78 5
78.6
78.7
78.8
.

....

Resistance Tests

Wave

Profiles and Lines of Flow

Flow Observations with Tufts; Sinkage and

Trim;
78.9
78.10

Wake

Open- Water Propeller Tests

Preliminary.

78.11

868

78.12
78.13
78 14
78.15
78.16
78.17

869
870
871
872
873

Progress of the hydrody-

namic design, on paper,

is

suspended when:

Neutral Rudder Angle and Maneuvering

Tests
Controllability Tests in Shallow Water ...
Wavegoing Model Tests
Vibratory Forces Induced by the Propeller
Reporting and Presenting Model-Test Data
Te.st Results for Models of the ABC Ship

876
876
877
877
877
879

Comments on Model
Data

879

Tests and Analysis of

Proposed Changes in Final Design of ABC

Ship
Comments on Illustrative Preliminary-Design Procedures of Part 4

78 18
.

874
875
876

Vectors

Self-PropeUed Tests

78.1

868

78 19
.

for the tests relating to

896

898

maneuvering and wave-

going.

Many

(a)

As many

much

as

features have been developed,

of the behavior has

and

been predicted, as

the state of the art permits, working from refer-

ence books and data only

(b)

The

design has been narrowed to say two

alternatives, for

The

design

is

so novel that predictions of its

probable performance can not be

made on a

basis of existing data or experience.

This

is

is

which an evaluation on paper

indicates no preference
(c)

marine architects are not famihar with

of an up-to-date ship-model
testing plant and do not reahze how much
assistance can be rendered in confirming or
modifying a ship design. A typical test schedule
the

the stage at which to

capabilities

some detail.
Model-Test Data Desired for a Major-

therefore described in
78.2

Ship Design. The specific model-test data listed

here are intended to confirm, or other-wise, the corresponding data predicted in the course of the
preliminary hydrodynamic design, worked up in

make towing and

model tests. Few ships, especially

an untried design, can be built so quickly and
cheaply that some time and expense devoted to
model testmg is not worth while. Durmg World
War II a model test worked into a total preliminary-design period of less than one week made it
possible to eliminate one propeller, one shaft,
and one propelhng plant from what had originally
been a triple-screw layout. For a vessel of the
si^e of the ABC ship, and for a design with its
unusual features, a series of tests embracing

the preceding chapters of Part

4.

These cover,

briefly:

self-propelled
of

everything within the capacity of the modern

model basin estabhshment is considered well
justified. It is both good naval architecture and
good advance uisurance. Such a program, laid
out in this chapter, was actually carried through
for the ABC design at the David Taylor Model
Basin before this volume was completed, except

(a)

Resistance of the hull,

ages (bare hull), and then

first

without append-

mth them

(b) Sinkage and trim of the hull; this may be

measured on the hull either when it is bare or
with appendages
(c) Wave profile and flow pattern around the
hull, first without appendages, to determine the
traces of the roll-resisting keels and to check
other features; later -with appendages and with
the propeller (s) working

(d)

Wake

vectors or flow directions at positions

selected for the

arms

of struts to support propeller

bearings, as a guide to orienting or tmsting these

arms into the

(e)

Wake

lines of flow

vectors at the propeller position (s),

with struts, bossings, or other appendages in

place ahead of the propeller(s)

868

MODEL-TESIINC;

Sec. 78.3
(f)

all

PROGRAM FOR

Shaft power required to drive the hull with

appendages, rate of rotation of the propeller(s),

and other self-propulsion factors, first with stock

propellers (s), and then with propeller (s) designed
especially for the hull

Open-water and

(g)

peller(s)

cavitation

data

on

pro-

designed specially for the hull

(h)

Determination of the proper neutral angles

for

multiple

rudders;

observation

dynamic

of

stabihty of route and maneuvering character-

a free-running model; controllability

when backing
istics, Avith

Wavegoing performance of the hull, when

meeting waves from ahead and being overtaken
by waves from astern
Shallow-water and restricted-channel behavior
(j )
(k) Nature and magnitude of the periodic vibration forces imposed on the hull by the propeller.
(i)

displacement

It is not

always possible or advisable to conduct

these tests or to

make them

in the order given.

For example, the preliminary design

resisting keels should not

keels be fitted to the

model

of

roll-

and in the sections

following.

is

10,

Transom-stern,

single-skeg; called transom

stern for short

(2)

niinimiim

schedule.

As is customary at model-testing establishments, the models are to be built to the molded

lines

shown on the drawings, with no allowances

for shell plating.

The appendages, only a part of which are shown

on the drawings available at this stage, are
expected to consist
(a)

of:

Cutwater applied to the forward edge

is

appendage and

is

not to be in place during the

bare-hull tests. (Actually

ABC

of the

considered in the nature of an

it

was

in place

on the

model bow)

(b) Roll-resisting keels, of shape, size, transverse

but a different afterbody. These are

designated for convenience as:
(1)

8f)9

ix; oiilled for. Tiic;

position,

such as might be embodied in a

request for a complete set of model tests.
There are two separate ABC hull forms to be
tested. Each has the same forebody, forward of
Sta.

not

until after lines-of-flow

on the bare hull indicate their

proper positions. In the case of hull designs with
offset skegs and tunnels it should be known from
the flow tests that there is no cross flow under the
skegs, eddying alongside them, or separation and
eddying in the tunnel before shafts and struts
are fitted and self-propulsion tests are made.
Model-Test Notes for Preliminary ABC
78.3
Designs. Rather than to give the preliminary
notes and to describe a detailed model-test
schedule in general terms, apphcable to any
case, the data prepared for model tests of the
prehminary designs of the ABC ship are quoted

The wording

be completed nor the

observations

in full in this section

will

1'

SI

model weight for the partly loaded condition,

approximately 1,650 lb for a 20-ft model, should
be sufficient to care for the necessary midship
bulkheads and connecting bolts; see the last
paragraph of Sec. 78.5.
The models may be made of wood or wax
provided they will be suitable for the entire test

stem. This

all

Arch- or tunnel-stern, with double skegs;

called arch stern for short.

Two separate models may be made or one bow

may be bolted to either of two sterns. So far as
can be determined at present, model tests at
displacements less than about 0.8 the designed

and fore-and-aft extent to be determined

only after lines of flow have been taken for both

hull shapes. In

view

of the

contemplated width
on the ship and

of the roll-resisting keels, 3.5 ft

0.1373

ft

on the model,

it is

desired that the keel

trace on the hull be determined

by

flags or

vanes

at a distance from the hull as well as by lines of

flow on the hull. These traces should extend at
least
(c)

from

Sta. 6 to Sta. 14.

Rudder horn and

single rudder for the tran-

som-stern design. These latter are to have a

contra-shape, designed to recover rotational

but they are to

be omitted in their entirety from the bare-hull
transom-stern model. Drawings showing these

losses in the propeller outflow jet,

appendages are to follow.

for

the arch-stern model.

The double rudders and

the skegs on this model

(d)

Double rudders

are to be adapted for maneuvering tests to be

conducted subsequently, involving movable blades

with stocks that can be turned from the deck.

Only the unbalanced tails of these rudder blades,
above the level of the lower edges of the skegs,
are to be fitted to the bare hull; these may be in
dummy form. The balanced foils below the lower
edges of the skegs are to be added subsequently
as appendages, or else the dummy upper portions
are to be

rudders
(e)

removed and the movable maneuvering

fitted.

Bottom anchor and

recess

HYDRODYNAMICS

870

Cooling water intake scoop and discharge for

to be reproduced.

(f)

main condenser are not

The
ratios,

principal

dimensions,

and design parameters

form
for the

coefficients,

ABC

ship,

at this stage of the design, are listed for the

information and convenience of the Model Basin

Table 78. a. A set of drawings ultimately

staff in

furnished the

Model Basin, with

ing figure numbers,

few words

pomt

is

their correspond-

hsted in Table 78. b.

of explanation are inserted at this

for the benefit of the reader

who may have

noted shght numerical discrepancies here and

there in the tabulated data and in the text. For
example, the bare-hull volumes and displacements
for

transom-stern

the

designs,

and

arch-stern

as listed in Table 78.a,

from those in Table

78. c.

ABC

differ

slightly

Any one who

has de-

signed a ship, or a house, or a machine, appreciates

that the design

is

constantly developing, with

TABLE

78.a Principal Dimensions, Ratios, and

Coefficients for the ABC Design
These data apply to the design at the point where model

tests are requested.

SNAME RD

sheets.

hull,

molded, at the

first

furnished to the

Dimensions,

They are modified slightly in the

The figures given apply to the bare
stage in the design when they were
Taylor Model Basin.

IN SHIP DESIGN

TABLE

Sec.

ISA

78.b List of Drawings Furnished to

THE Model Basin in Connection With the
Model-Test Program fob the ABC Ship

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 78.5

While tests with a stock propeller i'uniisli cmly

an approximation to the shaft power and rate
a range of ship speeds, they serve
to confine the range of the probable wake and
of rotation for

thrust-deduction fractions within rather narrow

With average values inside these Umits it

limits.
is

power and

possible to recalculate the shaft

may

the tip clearanc(!

the 1.0

871

to a<lvaiitag(;

!! loss

planned, these two propellers

ft originally

are considered suitable for the preliminary

propulsion

tests.

than

The

self-

larger wheel has a rake of

but some brief sketching

approximately 6 deg

aft,

indicates that this

small enough not to interfere

with

its

is

performance ahead of the four strut arms.

rate of rotation for a propeller other than the

It appears, therefore, that a standard waterlinc

stock model by the short method described in

model length

Sees. 70.21 through 70.38.

is

The

propeller designer

able to undertake a final design with far

assurance than
the

if

In view of the relatively large wake velocities

to be expected around the inside of the tunnel in

fractions

and other

sented in the alternative

ABC

and

designs, 20

necessary to determine the availability

two stock wheels which have the same scale

ratio as the two models.
Assuming that the ship models are to have an
LwL of 20 ft, ample for the testing of a prehminary
of

if

the propellers are sufficiently large, the

scale ratio X (lambda)

is

510/20

25.5.

the arch-stern design, a reduced pitch for the

outer blade sections of the propeller

Since there are two propeller diameters repre-

design

of 20 ft can be used. The scale ratio

then fixed at 25.5.

more

wake and thrust-deduction

ft, it is

is

he were forced to approximate

design factors by less precise methods.

24

This gives

indicated.

This

prevents

is

definitely

overloading

the

tip

regions and the formation of strong tip vortexes.

TMB

Since

model propeller 1986 was designed

normal stern and

for a single-screw vessel with

has constant pitch for 0.5 to 1.0 R,

heavily loaded in that region

it

will

be rather

when run under the

arch-stern model.
78.5

Displacement and Draft Conditions. The

ABC models are to be run at a relatively advanced

values of X"' of 5.0498, X' of 650.25, and X' of

stage of the prehminary design,

Dividing the propeller diameters by

25.5 gives 0.7843 ft, or 9.412 in, for the 20-ft
wheel and 0.9412 ft, or 11.294 in., for the 24-ft

what appendages are to be carried and their sizes

and shapes are rather well determined. Their
total volume is readily calculated, as is the additional volume below the 26-ft DWL due to the

16,581.4.

wheel.

The

preliminary propeller design by

first

the chart method, similar to that described in Sec.

70.6, indicates

optimum P/D

and

ratios of 0.975

(A later calculation, quoted in

gave an optimum P/D ratio
for the transom-stern wheel of 1.02). With
4-bladed propellers the blade width need not
be large nor the thickness great. Reasonably
modern blade sections, of airfoil type near
the hub and ogival type near the tips, are available
in stock, as are propellers with small or zero rake.
An examination of the TMB stock hst reveals
two right-hand 4-bladed propellers having the

shell plating. It is

when

it is

decided therefore to run

in the designed-load condition at a

known

all tests

model weight

1.045, respectively.

correspondmg to the

full in

with plating and all appendages, when floating

at the designed waterUne in salt water having a
specific volume of 34.977 ft^ per long ton of

Sec. 70.6,

following characteristics:

Item

Diameter of model

propeller, in

Full-scale diameter for X of 25.5, ft

Pitch-diameter ratio

Mean-widtii ratio
Blade-thickness fraction

2,240

lb,

prescribed.

apparently

The corresponding full-scale diameters

is

to

have no
carry no

There are several reasons

illogical

for

this

procedure:

98
0.238
0.038
.

1 1 40
24 22
1 05
0.213
0.047

and

appendages in the bare-hull condition, it may

be expected to float shghtly deeper than the
designed draft when ballasted to the total weight

1986

to be built to the molded

representation of plating,

TMB

is

lines of the respective hull design, is to

229/t

9 652

finished ship weight,

at 59 deg F, 15 deg C.

Since each model

TMB
20

total

are shghtly

than contemplated in the hull design.

However, as it appears that the 20-ft wheel for
the transom-stern hull is on the small side, and as

larger

further study of the tunnel stern indicates that

Tolerances and unavoidable errors in fairing

fines, in making the early volume
calculations, and in shaping the model render it
(1)

the preliminary

almost a coincidence when the model

floats at

exactly the correct draft

due to the added volume

and normal appendages is
usually insignificant. For the two ABC hulls, the
change is less than 2 inches on the ship.
(2)

The change

in draft

of the shell plating


HYDRODYNAMICS

872

TABLE

78.C

Weight and Volume Data for

Model Resistance Tests

All resistance tests in the designed-load condition are
to be run at zero trim fore

and

aft.

All figures given are subject to

designs proceed but wiU be

model resistance

made

tests are run.

minor changes as the

firm before the

first

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 7S.6

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 7S.7

Fig. 78.B

The

subscript

namely 20.5

"W"

kt.

TMB Model 4505 at a Speed Corresponding to 20.5 kt for the Ship

TMB model number on the legend signifies that the model is made of wax.

following the

This range corresponds to about

6 through 22.5 kt for the ship; 1.18 through 4.46

kt for the model. The reason for the emphasis on

the low-speed range is to:
(1) Determine the deep-water resistance corresponding to the low speeds necessary for the
ABC ship in the canal leading to Port Amalo and

in the river leading to

Port Correo

Determine rather accurately, in the bare-huU

condition, the separation drag in the range below
that at which wavemaking occurs.
(2)

Even though

may be

stimulation

considered

necessary by the David Taylor Model Basin to

insure turbulent flow over practically the entire

area of the model hulls

practicable,

made

some

is

it

resistance

desired that,

if

measurements be

in the low-speed range without turbulence

stimulation of any kind.

The

shell plating at

and at a speed corresponding to the ship

trial

speed of 20.5 kt. The lower can-iage platform

furnishes a reference for estimating visually the
sinkage and trmi (by the bow)
78.7

Wave
and

Profiles

when underway.

and Lines

of Flow.

Wave

be taken on both
models, bare-hull condition, at a speed corresponding to 20.5 kt for the ship, 4.06 kt for
the model. The wave profile is to include the

profiles

lines of flow are to

profile across the

transom. (See Fig. 66. R).

For all resistance and self-propulsion tests the

model speeds are to be noted at which the transom
clears; in other

words,

when

the entire area of the

transom is exposed to the air. Undoubtedly this

will be different for the two types of stern. If
necessary to determine this clearing speed the
model is to be run faster than that corresponding
to 22.5 kt. (See Sec. 78.19).
It is desired that the lines-of-flow observations

both ends

of the

ABC

ship

to be welded, with butts and laps both flush.

For the remainder of the length the strakes of
plating are to be raised and sunken, with welded
butts and riveted seams. All excrescences are to
be kept to a minimum, and fairmg is to be careful
and thorough. A type of bottom coating is to
be used that is either self-levehng or inherently
is

smooth. It is beheved, therefore, that a roughness

allowance AC;? of 0.30(10"^), to be applied to
the

ATTC

1947 or Schoenherr friction values,

is

ample to represent the new, clean-bottom condition of the ship.

The usual photographs

of

both models under

the towing carriage are to be taken, at zero speed

and at speeds corresponding to 20.5 kt

for the

when run bare

and then when run

ship, 4.06 kt for the model, first

without the cutwater,

appendages.
Figs. 78.A and 78.B are reproductions of the
photos of the transom-stern model, at zero speed

hull,

with

all

Fig. 78.C

Bow-Quarter View of Transom-Stern

Model Showing Lines of Flow by Chemical Means

The photograph is inverted
of the flow.

to afford better visualization

HYDRODYNAMICS

874

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 78.8

when driven at the model point of self-propulsion

by the stock propeller. Still flash photographs
suitable for reproduction are to be taken from

and from underneath both sterns.

These are to be supplemented by motion-picture
photographs if any unusual flow conditions are
alongside

encountered.
It

be possible to swing the double

should

rudders of the arch-stern model to observe the

change in flow

-with

rudder angle.

Smkage and trim measurements

Stern-Quarter View of Transom-Stern

Ship, Showing Lines op Flow
BY Chemical Means

Fig. 78.D

Model op ABC

are to be
taken at the FP and AP on both models through
the complete range of speeds covered in the tests.
These data are to be recorded when both the
bare-hull

and

tests are run.

at the hull surface mclude practically the entire

The hues should begin

length of the model.

far forward as Sta.

if

practicable, but in

case not farther aft than Sta. 2.

as

any

They should

all the way to the stern.

Fitting-room photographs are to be taken of
the hull to show, as graphically as possible, the

extend

lines of flow resulting

from these

tests.

The

usual

comparison ^vith pubhshed data on sinkage and

The data mth appendages are to enable the
full-scale thrust measurements on the ship to be
corrected for the weight component of the shaft,
propeller, gear,

are to be determined for both types of sterns. In

be made on a body plan.

For determining the proper positions for the
roll-resistmg keels, flag indicators are to be
mounted along the bilges on the model, extending
from the side for a distance equivalent to about

stern

3 ft for the ship.

Figs. 78. C
of

TMB

and 78.D are bow and stern views

model 4505, inverted from the positions

as photographed,

flow as revealed

showing the surface

by a chemical

lines

indicator.

of

The

when measured,

traces derived from the model,

and other rotating parts [SNAME,

1934, pp. 151-152]; see also Sec. 59.16.

The wake vectors at the propeller-disc positions

view

also to

mth-appendages resistance

bare-hull data are required for

trim.

projection of the flowhnes on the transverse plane

is

the

The

of the small hull clearance

and the

still

under the transom

smaller tip clearance inside the

tunnel of the arch stern, consideration is to be

given to the use of the 5-orifice spherical-ended
pitot tube, with its

smaUer head,

for determining

the wake vectors, in place of the 13-orifice tube

with the larger head. In any case, the head

should not be so large as to interfere mth or

modify the floAV it is intended to measure.

For the transom-stern model the wake observaoutward to cover a halfbeam at least as wide as that of the ship section
tions are to be extended

heavy hues of Fig. 66.R in

Sec. 66.28. Fig. 78.C shows clearly how the water
at the sides of the bow sections sweeps around
and flows along under the bottom. The upward-

shown

are those

and-aft

flow

in the

alongside

indicated clearly

m Fig.

the

centerline

skeg

is

78. D.

78.8 Flow Observations with Tufts; Sinkage

and Trim Wake Vectors. Before any appendages
are added to the arch-type stern, flow observations between and around the skegs are to be
;

made

in

the

circulating-water

tufts attached to the model.

channel,

using

It is particularly

desired to learn whether there

is

any evidence

of separation along the roof of the tunnel or of

under the bottoms of the skegs.

Flow observations with tufts are to be made on
both models in the circulating-water channel
cross flow

Fig. 78.E

Model,

The dark
tufts of

Underwater Profile of Arch-Stern

TMB 4505-1, in Circulating- Water Channel

irregular streaks represent flow positions of

dark yarn attached to the model surface.

MODEL-TESriNG PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 78.9

Fig. 78.F

Fish-Eye View of Arch-Stern Model in Circulating- Water Channel

Some

cross flow

is

visible

under the

flat

bottom

of the side skegs.

abreast the propeller disc. (This was not fully

make SP

accomplished; see Fig. 60. M).

partly loaded condition.

Actually, the transom-stern model was not

checked for flow in the circulating-water channel
because of the good flow pattern indicated on the
bare-hull model. The
work schedule was
such that the circulating-water test of the arch-

TMB

stern

were
Figs.

model was not made until all appendages

fitted and the model was self-propelled.
78. E and 78. F are through-the-water photo-

graphs of the after portion of the ABC archstern model,

4505-1, taken in the
circulating-water channel. Other than a slight

TMB

cross flow

under the

TMB

flat

bottoms of the skegs,

It

model with appendages, when both towed and

self-propelled,

are plotted in Fig. 58.B.

survey data are plotted in Fig. 60.

in Fig. 60.N.
78.9

Self-Propelled Tests.

tests are to

Wake-

M and analyzed

be run on both models, carrying

appendages except the

condenser

intake

TMB

all

and

2294 and

1986, over the range of speed specified for the

resistance tests.

The displacements

indicated in Table 78.c. It

is

Df

that the

correction

[Bu

sion tests allow for a roughness of the clean,

applied to the

1933, pp. 37-38] for all self-propul-

ATTC

No overload
When the results

values.

ACf

new

of 0.30(10"^),

as

1947 or Schoenherr friction

tests are required.

of the foregoing tests have

been worked up and evaluated, a new propeller
will be designed and built for the most promising

the alternative designs.

of

propulsion tests

is

new

set

of self-

to be run, over the range of

speeds specified for the resistance tests:

(1)

At the

full-load displacement, draft,

and trim

condition
(2) At the partly loaded conditions, with displacement, draft, and trim by the stern to be as

specified subsequently.

Fitting-room photographs are to be taken of the

Self-propulsion

discharge, using stock propellers

7,

ship corresponding to a

the water passes easily and regularly through the

tunnel and around the skegs.

Sinkage and trim data on the transom-stern

desired

is

R Bull.

and

with the stock propellers in the

tests

are to be as
not necessary to

sterns

and

after quarters of

both models to show

the shape of the hull and arrangement of appendages.

propeller for the transom-stern ABC

designed in Chap. 70 by the Lerbs short

The new
ship

is

method.

The

A new model was not built to this design.

stern appendages on

the transom-stern

HYDRODYNAMICS

876

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 7S.10

the double rudders and to obtain certain turning

characteristics. This model,

selected design for the

ABC

if

it

represents the

hull, is to

be

self-

new model propeller; otherwise

propeller. The weight displacement,

propelled with the

with the stock

draft, trim,

and the

like are to

be for the designed-

down

in

neutral rudder angle for each rudder

is

load condition with appendages, as set

Table

78.c.

The

by a special test, first on the

basis of the optimum steering characteristics
when running ahead, and then on the basis of
good steering and minimum propeller power for
driving the ship in straight-ahead motion. Rudder
angles for maneuvering tests are to be reckoned
from these neutral angles.
Free-running maneuvering tests are to be
to be determined

carried out in the equivalent of deep water, to

determine:

The complete turrung path through a 180-deg

(a)
Fig.

Fish-Eye View of Arch-Stern Model

78. G
4505-1, Looking Up and Aft, With All

and 20 kt, model speed between 3.86 and 3.96 kt,

with rudders at 35 deg; see item (34) of Table 64.e

Appendages in Place

model are shown in Fig. 67.J of Sec. 67.13; those

on the arch-stern model in Fig. 78. G.
78.10 Open-Water Propeller Tests. It is as-

sumed that

for

the stock propellers hsted in

Sec. 78.4, the open-water propeller-test data are

available.

The new model

is

to be characterized

iir

measured and checked, and some quantitative

The new model

between the
and Volume III, the
latter covering the subject of maneuvering, none
of the tests listed here were made on either model.
Because

of the interval elapsing

publication of

78.12

Volume

II

Controllability Tests in Shallow Water.

model
and the steering-gear motor
arranged for distant manual control. If it so
happens that these tests can be conducted in
shallow water, when the model is ready, the depth
dition described in Table 78. c, -with the

propelling motor

24-ft (ship size) propellers should

be free of cavitation if the bottom of the transom
is kept in the water in the one case and the
tunnel is kept full of water in the other. There
appears to be no need of conducting cavitation
tests on a model propeller designed for either type
of huU.
If assistance can be furnished from the Design
Office for the purpose, the new propeller is to be

surface finish.

propeller was designed but not

hence there are no test data for it.
Neutral Rudder Angle and Maneuvering
78. 11
Tests. Tests are to be conducted with the archstern model to determine the neutral angle for
built,

as

arch-stern model, under the designed-load con-

David

predictions indicate that both the special

its

when turning

open water,

and the

values obtained for

of heel

Controllability tests are to be carried out for the

Taylor Model Basin.

The

The maximum angle

ABC

following the standard procedure of the

20-ft

(b)

in (a).

propeller intended to be de-

signed and built specially for the selected

hull design

including advance, transfer, and tactical

diameter, at an approach speed of between 19.5
turn,

to correspond to a full-scale depth of 40 ft,

ft. Otherwise, the tests are to

is

model depth 1.78

be conducted in the shallowest depth available.

The model
(1)

shall then:

Execute a crash-back maneuver.

From a

straight approach path at a speed corresponding

to 20.5 kt, 4.06 kt for the model, the propeUing

is to be reversed within 3 sec, about 15 sec

motor

for the ship,

and an astern torque appUed, as

nearly as practicable equal to 0.8 of the ahead

torque for 20.5 kt. The rate of propeller rotation
astern

is

to be, as nearly as practicable, not in

excess of 0.5 of the ahead rate for 20.5 kt. Obser-

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 78.15

made

vations are to be
position,

rotation,
(2)

Be

torque,

thrust

of the successive ship

if

practicable,

rate

of

and other pertinent data.

at a

speed corresponding to 20.5 kt, with neutral

rudder angle and no perceptible swing, to determine whether or not the model deviates progressively

from

its course,

as

it

would

if it

had dynamic

instability of route.
(3)

Be run ahead

in a speed range corresponding

to 10.25 to 20.5 kt for the ship, 2.03 to 4.06 kt for

model,

the

determine

to

Maximum

characteristics.

its

general

rudder

steering

and

angle

maximum yaw,

if practicable, are to be observed

but no special instrumentation need be provided

for this test.

(4)

Be run

astern at speeds varying from

kt for the ship,

to 8

to 1.58 kt for the model, to

demonstrate that it will turn as directed by the

rudder (s). The rate of propeller rotation is not

0.55

ft for

(b)

when running ahead

left to itself,

(a)

vLb'

L,y

510

877

510

12.42

ft

LwfiO, corresponding to an

Lw =

corresponding to an hw

hwr

17

ft

for

ft

Such other proportion as may appear advisupon before starting the tefsts.
The angle of encounter is to be 180 deg (ship
heading directly upsea), but a few runs are to be
made at angles of encounter of deg (foUomng
(c)

able and be agreed

or overtaking sea).

photographs are to be made of the model

extreme up- and down-pitch positions, in
regular waves of a length which produce the
worst ship behavior.
78.14 Vibratory Forces Induced by the Propeller.
In view of the unusual forms of the alternaStill

at

tive sterns for the

tip clearances

ABC

ship, as well as the small

it would be extremely
some indication of the propeller-

contemplated,

useful to have

excited vibratory forces to be expected on the

limited for this test.

However, at the time of writing (1955) the

instrumentation for this purpose is still being
developed by the David Taylor Model Basin
hull.

78.13

Wavegoing Model Tests.

model at

least 6 or 7 ft long is to

A wavegoing
be constructed

to the hull shape which proves superior (to have

under

the lower propeller power) in the self-propelled

H-8.

tests.

This model

is

to be fitted with all 'principal

erections above the

main deck

level,

it is

Technical and Research Project

available, vibration tests can be

included in a model test program.

78.15

in block

form, as well as with the following appendages:

SNAME

When

Data.

Reporting and Presenting Model-Test

Except

for the notes concerning reproduc-

tions of the model-test data, this section

(a)

(b)
(c)

(d)

Cutwater
Rudder horn on the transom-stern model

Rudder (s)
Bower or abovewater anchor. The

vicinity of this anchor

is

work

of

a large-model-basin

It is

planned that

SNAME

Resistance Data,

Propeller Data, and Self-Propulsion

Data sheets

be made up (by the Design Office; in this

case, the author and his assistant) for the tests
of both models and of the special model propeller
built for the selected model.
Sufficient data are to be observed and recorded
to enable the results to be presented in the form
described for the items following. The data hsted
are to be presented separately for each model
will

is

to be so weighted that the longi-

is about 0.23L, reckoned

about an assumed LCG of 0.505L from the FP.
If possible without special instrumentation, an
estimate is to be made of the natural pitching
period of the model in quiet water, for angles not
exceeding plus and minus 10 deg. The natural
rolling period of the model, for an initial heel of
the order of 30 deg, is hkewise to be determined

in quiet water.

and model

propeller:

(1) Curves of effective power Pe and friction

power Pp both bare hull and mth appendages,
for the fully loaded and partly loaded conditions,
,

be towed through simple

regular waves by a gravity dynamometer, loaded
to give a constant pull as required to tow the
model at a speed corresponding to 20.5 kt for the
ship in smooth, deep water. The waves are to
vary in length from 0.5 to 2.5L, 255 ft to 1,275
ft full scale.

in requesting this

hull in the

to be represented rather

tudinal radius of gy ration

The model

written

estabUshment.

closely to scale.

The model

is

generally in the wording that would be employed

is

to

The wave height of each system is to be:

including calculated values of the wetted surface

for each condition.

The value

previously stated in Sec. 78.6,

is

of

ACf

as

to be taken as

0.30(10"'). (Curves of effective power Pe for

both models of the ABC ship are given in Fig.
78.Nc on page 892 and in Fig. 78.1).

HYDRODYNAMICS

878
(2)

Curves of

power

effective

Pb

calculated for

the Taylor Standard Series model of identical

ATTC 1947 friction data,

with a ACp equal to that for the actual models,
and the reworked TSS data of M. Gertler (this
work is to be done by the Design Office). The
proportions, using the

TSS

curve is to cover the full-load condition only.

(These curves are not plotted but "angleworm"

EHP)

curves giving the ratio (EHP/Taylor

are

found in Figs. 78. Jc and 78. Kc on pages 882, 885).

(3) Body plan showing hues of flow in entrance

and run, wave

zones

if

profile,

determined,

location

and

separation

of

other

flow

details.

IN SHIP DESIGN
(in

Sec. 78.15

ally.

60.M

(Fig.

gram)
(7) Curves

adapted from the

is

TMB

power Pg

of shaft

Pe

Pp), effective power

Pe/Ps

n, ratio of

fraction

wake

t,

for each
propeller,

(or

(or propeller

Pe/Pp), thrust-deduction
and real-slip ratio Sr

fraction w,

model when driven by

and (2) the propeller of

(1)

the stock

special design.

(These are reproduced in Fig. 78.1 for the archstern model and in Fig. 78. Nc for the transomstern model,

when driven by the stock

propellers

given in Figs. 52.U and 66.R).

(8) Open-water characteristic curves of jjo

and IOKq on a base of advance number

78.8).
(5)

Curves

FP and
L on a

of sinkage of

bow and

stern, at the

the AP, plotted as fractions of the length

base of both T, (= V/VL) and F

(These are plotted for the ABC transom-stern
hull in Fig. 58.B and for the arch-stern hull in
.

Fig. 58. C, for

both the towed and the self-pro-

pulsion conditions.
is

discussion of the differences

included in Sec. 58.2).

(6)

Transverse section at the propeller position

'0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

power

rate of propeller rotation

only).

Photographs of pertinent features of the flow

tests with tufts. (See Figs. 78.E and 78.F of Sec.

dia-

(Reproductions of the transom-stern plan are

(4)

wake

the plane of the propeller disc), with

vectors and components indicated diagrammatic-

Kr

the propeller of special design. (See Fig. 78.

TMB

TMB

propeller 1986

propeller 2294.

The

and

Fig.

78.Mc

for

Characteristic Curves of

TMB

for

propeller designed in Chap.

70 was not tested as a model).

(9) Plot of successive positions of ship during a
270-deg turn at a specified speed (between 19.5
and 20 kt for the ship) and with a 35-deg rudder

angle. (This test

was not

carried out)

(10) Controllability in shallow water.

ABC

(No

test

was made on

either

(11) Plot of

wavegoing-speed ratio on ratio of

0.7

0.6

0.9

model)

i.O

I.I

1.2

Advance Coefficient J- \^/(nD)

Fig. 78.

J, for

Model Propeller

1986,

Derived from Open- Water Tests

Sec. 18.17
b

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

879

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

MODEL RESISTANCE DATA

880

qHiP
S

'Sin'y

S.

7^.nR'x

MODEL NO
APPENDAGES.
F^EMARKS.

0.2

Pfi'.lfi:^,

PASSFNGFR

Ifi'S?.-^

CARm

?n

fi

TON
KNOTS

45nR

STEM

CUTWATER

DEE P

.WATER

WATER

COND. STILL( 97271

MODEL

MATERIAL

BASIN SIZE 963'

.MODEL LENGTH.

TFST

nATF

70

TMB
W ATER

LABORATORY
RASIN

Sec. 78.17

X S 'X 22'
l

20.0
OCT. 53

TEMP

MODEL FINISH
TURBULENCE

_WA^
WAX
NONE

^''2

5.0498

A^650 25
)\

^ 16, 581

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 7S.17

L/B,

6.97B

Bv/H_

2.793

A/(nnini

7/(O.IOOL) ^

Q.

C^

i74-qf;

4.371

621

0.717

950

Q.822
n.643

By/Bn^
-H^/Hm

fi

ni

s/v '^
s/j!al_

6.533
15.62

0.5R9

"PA-

0.612

Sllfi
2/,

'PVA-

LOOP

.MAX. IMB/B^_LQQ3

1.0028

.MAX. WLB/B)( I.003

o no

0.8 25

BKW/B^

0.048

0.740

BR/B..

0.147

Q.623
633

0.619

PR/By,

O.OI4

Q.8I2

HS/B..

O 021

-Cp..^

0.935

0.724

KB/H

0.557

EXPANDED
1

Aj^/A^

C...-

-Cpg

881

AND COEFFICIENTS

RATIOS

RESISTANCE

DATA

C,
'IL-

0.449
0.908

HYDRODYNAMICS

882

EXPANDED
FOR
a.

X
LU
(

o
_J
>

0.

UJ

IN SHIP DESIGN

RESISTANCE CURVES
400-FOOT LENGTH

Sec. 78.17

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 78.17

883

MODEL RESISTANCE DATA

SHIP

510

J2l08

S.S. Passenger

26.'086,

Cargo,
4505-1

16, 675

20

MODEL NO
APPENDAGE S Half Rudders. Stem
REMARKS
Arch Stgrn
^ 0.
c

~
5-0.

to n

knot

Culwoler

LABORATORY __XMB
Deep Water
basin
BASIN
MOnFI

SIZE 963'

LENGTH

TEST_6_DATE

51*

20.'0

30

Oct.

66
WATER TEMP.
watfr cond. siiii 1.97?,?)
22'

MODEL

MATERIAL

MODFI

FINISH

53 TURBULENCE

Wax
Wox
None

25.5

A
A'^ z

a'

5.0498

650.25

a' 16,581

HYDRODYNAMICS

884

RATIOS
L/Bx-

6.978

Bv/H.

2.802

MO.OIOLr
V/(n
i

mm

/v''' 3

S/?^^ 3

g8

C|

0.723
0.825
0.655

"pv'PA-

PF-

f 4.396
6. 105

0.935

6.938

0.623

0.612

0.597

-^PVE-

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 78.17

COEFFICIENTS

-Hv /HuBKW/B)^

CpR-

0.938

1.002

.MAX. IMB/Rx 1003

1.0028

.MAX. WLB/BxL2Q3
0.528
C.

0.048

0.462

BR/By

0.147

0.908

0.631

.DR/Bx-

0.014

0.827
0.727

.KB/H_

^WA-

16.61

s/IEL.

Co

125.

0.952

AND

HS/Bx0.557

EXPANDED RESISTANCE DATA

400

.FT.

DIMENSIONS
A 8043.2 TONS S.W.

RX

57.32

-FT.

V 281

20.46

.FT

TRIM

REMARKS.

.FT

FOR

400

FT

LENGTH

LBS

SEcVfT.'*

T 59 F

BASIS.
Schoenherr

FRICTION

328

.FT.'

/O

1.9905

29.786

_FT.2

1.2817 x10-^

FT.2/SEC.

Sec. 7S.17

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM EOR A SHIP

EXPANDED
FOR
D-

UJ
tr

o
_i

\
a.

RESISTANCE CURVES
400

FOOT

LENGTH

885

HYDRODYNAMICS

886
Direction

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 78.17
Plane of Propeller

of

Disc

RotQtio

Fig. 78.L

Fig. 78.0

sistances

Rt

is

EMB

Model Propeller

a plot of the observed total re-

for the transom-stern model,

TMB

4505, both with and without turbulence stimulation. Apparently, stimulation is not required on

do the stimulating devices (short

studs) have any effect on the measured resistance.
Included in the diagram is a plot of the dimensional ratio Rt/V^, where Er is in lb and V is
in kt. It is customary at the David Taylor Model
this model, nor

Basin to make this as a check whUe the resistance

testing
It
staff

is

in progress.

was noted and commented on by the

members

TMB

responsible for testing these models

that their performance during the test runs was

uniformly excellent.
the models settled

When

down

measuring resistance,

quickly, allowing rapid

adjustment of the pan weights. Once the correct

weight was established there was Httle oscillation
of the resistance scriber from the zero Une. In the
self-propulsion tests the actual D/o weights used
on the pan agreed very closely with the calculated
Df values, resulting in remarkably low AD/ corrections [C and R Bull. 7, 1933, pp. 37-38].
This consistency and reliabiUty, for both

models,

is

2294

believed to be due directly to the fact

that separation around the hull

is

limited to the

region abaft the transom and that the separation

points at the water surface always

lie

having waterhne slopes both

less

exactly at

On

a form
and greater than

the outer corners of the transom.

the critical slope for separation, the separation

points

may and undoubtedly do

at slightly

lie

run at the same speed.

The positions depend upon the "history" of the
viscous flow, on a distance basis, reckoned from

different positions for each

the

bow of
The

tion.

the model back to the points in quesseparation

points

may

not

remam

fixed during the constant-speed portion of a run,

and they may not be opposite each other, on the

two sides of the model.
The chemically traced flowlines on the surface
transom-stern model, depicted in Figs.
78.C and 78.D of Sec. 78.7, reveal definite flow
patterns. There appears to be no uncertainty
on the part of the water as to the paths that it is to
dark
follow. There are no excessively wide,
of the

traces indicating undesirable slowing

region.

up

in

any

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 78.17

PROPELLER
9-2$

DIAMETER, D
NO. BLADES,

HUB DIAMETER,

RAKE ANGLE

REMARKS

TEST
DISC

Vq

2.08

ROTATiriN

RIGHT

PROPELLER

TEST

kt,

ARFA Aq 73.169 jn^

REMARKS ABC

SHIP DATA

20.51 ft

f.

VESSEL,

U.S.

DIAMETER,

11.29

A[-

36.364

Q.497
=

11.14

jn

RATIO
d

200

rpm

0.238

/"

0.982

0.0491

tg /n

NAVY

CHARACTERISTICS

np

P/D

ft.

DESIGNED

EMB

EXP AREA,

EXP AREA

9.08

HAND

SALVAGE

FOR

LABORATORY

50

070

TANGFNT

NATURAL

QR ICI NA LLY

DATA

0.180

ri/n

deg

2294
to

PITCH, P AT

ft

MODEL
PROPELLER NO

ft

1.667

DESIGNED

DESIGN

3.696

in^

ft.

l^gxis/D

1088

Ap

30.994

AREA RATIO

0.4 24

rpg

PROJ. AREA,

PROJ.

9.652

P^ 20.13

rpm

ft.

jn

jn'

115

BLADE- SECTION DIMENSIONS AND RATIOS

Trailing

Leading

Edge

Edge

I.

Face

Base Chord
7 Stations

Entrance

Chord
SECT

Length

3 Stations

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

OPEN-WATER TEST DATA
_LMB

BASIN

WATER
FOR

Vo

60

Vo=

470'

SIZE

_deg
4.06

F
kt.

and

42.'7 X

I4.'7

19383

Hq.

TEST NO

lb- sec^/ft'*

10.58

rps^

riATF

Sec. 18.17

2109

R at 0.7 R

APR.

194?

xio'^ft^/sec
=

0.368

,10^

Sec. 7S.17

MODEL-TESriiNG

PROGRAM FOR A

SHIP

889

CAVITATION TEST DATA

TUNNEL JET
.deg F
AIR

Vo

CONTENT

TEST

VAPOR pressure,

DATE

NO

.Ibs/ft2

.METHOD OF MEASUREMENT

/?_

Jb-sec2/

t4

HYDRODYNAMICS

890

IN SHIP DESIGN

SELF-PROPELLED
5IO'73.08'i( 26'.I63. 16573 T

SHIP
S.S.

PASSENGER

APPENDAGES
KEELS.

DEEP

4Fir).S

BASIN

RUDDER.

MODEL

STEM

SIZE

CUTWATER MOnFI

MODEL
SCHOENHERR

FRICTION

FORMULATION

WETTED

SURFACE, WITH APPENDAGES

MODEL DATA

TM

ARnRATORY

CARGO. 20.5 KT racjin

MODEL NUMBER

BILGE

RESISTANCE DATA

WATER

9K3'i(

SI' x

PROP. DATA
??'

20.'0

LENGTH
DISPL.

2177

TRIM

TIIRR

ft

TEMP

1.937!
1.

1133

lO^ACp
ft'

INBOARD

REMARKS
Hq
IN

and

PROPELLER(S)
n

101.33

ARF
FT.

RFVOLUTIONS

DIAMETERS
PITCHES
ROTATION _

NO(S)

TMB 2294

9.652
9.475
R H

MODEL- SELF-PROPELLED TEST

RESULTS

SHEET.

SHEET

STIM.

WATER

Ihrw/i
ft

SCHOENHERR

74.608

Sec. 78.17

NONE
&fi

deg

Ib-sec^/ft**

XIO'^ ft^/sec

Q-^

OUTBOARD

Sec. 78.17

MODEL-TES'l ING

PROGRAM FOR A

SHIP

891

HYDRODYNAMICS

892

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec. 18.17

FULL-SCALE SHIP AND WATER CHARACTERISTICS; DATA AND CURVES

L

510

Bx

73.08

_ft

26.193

-ft

ft

16573

t,

FULL- SCALE

INBOARD

DIAM._

S W,

OF

PROPELLER

48 51 4

25.5

Tn

yt^ 908

34.977
DATA

ft^

.^/

/O

AT

20,5
T

5_9

t"'

I.99Q5

Ib-sec^/
:2/f^^
f

2fil7

.X 10^ ft^/sec

kt

deg

R,

1378

Fn

-XIO

0.270

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 7S.17

self-propulsion

test,

The

optimistic.

893

the

was unduly

estimate

calculation of Sec.

using

60.8,

K. E. Schoenherr's formula [PNA, 1939, Vol. II,

p. 149], was not made until after the hull form
had been completely fashioned and a stock
propeller had been selected for the first SP tests.

Groph of

Even

then, the predicted value of

w was

0.255,

considerably higher than the test value of 0.190

from

Figs.

78.Nb and 78.Nc.

The estimated thrust-deduction

(3)

fraction

of

used in Sec. 66.27, is close to the value of

0.30(0.7) = 0.21, derived by Eq. (60.vi) from K. E.
Schoenherr's simple formulas [PNA, 1939, Vol.
0.20,

II,

Bare

Hull

-r-

With Stimulation

Without Stimulation

pp. 149-150] on the basis of using a streamlined

rudder.

JOodel Resistance,

-6

When

ABC

the transom-stern

for contra-rudders in Sec. 60.9, the

would have been 0.255(0.5)

1.0

1.4

1.8

2.2 2,6

3.0

34

Model Speed

3.8 4.2

4.6

5.0 5,4

56

the transom-stern design, repre-

TMB

model 4505, and analyzing the

speed-power differences between the values calculated on paper and those predicted from the model
tests,

new

^-value

0.128. Utilizing
illus-

trated in Fig. 67. V, and taking account of the

The off-surface vanes mounted along the bilges

hkewise showed no uncertainty as to the proper
water direction. The bilge-keel traces deduced
from them are remarkedly fair.
first

the stern shape of the hull by the method

Plot op Total Resistance R^ and of

Ratio RtIY"^ for TMB Model 4505

Takmg

had

6.2

V, kt

Fig. 78.0

sented by

hull

been fully shaped, and it was known that a

contra-rudder was to be fitted, a smaller value of
t was selected. Takmg the coefficient 0.5 hsted

certam features stand out:

rudder, the predicted thrust-deduction fraction

from the upper graph of Fig. 60. P was 0.135.

There appeared to be little justification for anticipating a low ^-value of 0.07, as was actually
derived from the self-propulsion tests. Neverthethe hull efficiency

less,

by using a wake

assess the effect of the transom in advance. In

it was known that a sizable
bulb was to be used at the bow but it was questionable whether this bulb would be beneficial
at the low T, of 0.908. Actually, the effective
power P^ is about 3.5 or 4 per cent lower than the
TSS effective power at that T^
(2) The wake fraction w of 0.30 used for the
transom-stern hull in the shaft-power estimate
of Sec. 66.27 was derived from the best available
data on the self-propulsion of single-screw models.
It was admittedly optismistic; indeed, since a
value of only 0.190 was achieved in the model

the second place,

of 1.161,

estimated

and a thrustdeduction fraction of 0.135, is remarkably close to

the value of 1.148 derived from the self-propelled
model-test data of Fig. 78. Nb. The hull efficiency
of 1.143, estimated at an early stage of the design
and set down in Sec. 66.27, is Ukewise remarkably
close to

was both conservative and optimistic to

estimate, as was done in Sec. 66.9, that the resistance would be no lower and no higher than that
of the Taylor Standard Series hull of the same
proportions. In the first place, it was difficult to
(1) It

-(]

(4)

fraction of 0.255

both these

figures.

The estimated Pe/Ps

ratio or

r;?

value of

about 0.74 of Sees. 66.9 and 66.27 was admittedly

somewhat random and even more hopeful. The
higher -qp of 0.761 from the model tests may be
due to the care with which the afterbody and
skeg were shaped, in an effort to achieve good
flow to the wheel. On the other hand, it may be
ascribed to the use
(a)

The

of:

contra-fashioning of the rudder-support

skeg and the rudder, which had not yet been

decided upon when the power estimates of Sees.

66.9
(b)

and 66.27 were made

propeller diameter

somewhat

larger than

diameter of 0.7 the draft, one of

the simple rules, would have been 0.7(26) = 18.2
ft, whereas the corresponding diameter was 20.51
the average.

ft for

the stock propeller used.

HYDRODYNAMICS

894

(c)

centerline skeg that

IN SHIP DESIGN

was unusually thin and

narrow, in a deliberate effort to cut down the

thrust deduction.
A designer may well question the usefulness or
the validity of an estimating procedure, recommended for use in the paper stage of a preliminary
design, which says (in Sec. 66.27) that 16,930
horses will be required at the shaft at the designed
speed while the test results of a self-propelled

^r(App)

The

(iv)

Sec. 78.17

(1.05) (166,322)

174,638

thrust-deduction fraction

area factor 0.172 from Fig. 67.V and entering the

upper graph of Fig. 60.P, is 0.135. This procedure

takes account of the presence of the rudder in
each case. The estimated value of the propeller
thrust

T is

174,638/(1

0.135)

201,894

horses. Allowing

say 2 per cent for the resistance of a scoop not

fitted to the model, and for power to drive the
circulating water through the condenser of the
plant, the model prediction corresponds to a reduction of some 19 per cent in
the estimated power. Conversely, the calculation
represents an increase of about 25 per cent in the

main propelling

power predicted by the self-propelled model

must be remembered, however, that Uttle
or nothing was known of the shape or details of
the hull when the first and larger estimate was

The wake

(v)

undertaken.
Actually, a third approximation or estimate

power should have been made

ABC ship after the hues had been
drawn, the appendages designed, and the stock
propeller selected. This could have been done
while the model was being built. With data
available as hsted hereunder, the procedure and
for the

of the shaft

When

(i)

manner

the

been

decided,

(for

the clean,

66.9

is

roughness

new

hull)

allowance

of 0.4(10"')

ACf

of Sec.

reduced to the value of 0.3(10"')

Sec. 78.6. This

0.3)(10"')

of plating the hull has

the

means that C^ + ^Cp is (1.470

Adding the value

1.770(10"').

from Sec.

66.9,

3.016(10"').

Then

of 1.246(10"')

1.770)(10"')

Ct

is

of

+
of

(1.246 4-

Rr = ip/2)V'SCT

=
=

lb.

predicted from the

15.29 kt or 25.82 ft per sec.

The ram-pressure

load over the disc area of

the 20-ft ship propeller

With a

(vii)

T from

thrust

(p/2)AoFi

is

0.99525(25.82)'(0.7854)(20)'

208,609
(iv)

qAo

1b.

preceding of

= T/{qAo)
201,894/208,609 = 0.968. This is somewhat
less than the value of 1.287 predicted in Sec. 66.27.
201,894

lb,

the thrust-load factor Ctl

means that the real efficiency of the propeller

be somewhat higher than previously esti-

It

will

mated.

The rate of
known at the

(viii)

rotation of the ship propeller

not

stage at which this approxima-

tion

is

made.

assumed that

It is therefore

is

its real

based upon the reasoning

of Sec. 34.4. Consulting Fig. 34.B with the Ctl
value of 0.968, the predicted real efficiency tjo
efficiency will be O.Srji

is

0.665.

With a w-value of 0.254 and a i- value

(ix)

the corresponding

(1

0.135)/(1

rjn

is

0.254)

(1

of 0.135,

i)/il

0.865/0.746

w)

1.160.

Assuming an i/K-value of 1.02 from K. E. Schoenherr [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 150], the estimated
propulsive coefficient
(1.160)1.02
(x)

(550) (0.787)

166,322

horses.

ijp

is

'r}o{vH)vR

0.665

0.787.

The predicted

(0.99525) (34.62)'(46,231) (3.016) (10"')

lb.

20.5(0.746)

(vi)

transom-stern

results are outlined briefly in the following:

fraction

Schoenherr formula, using Eq. (60.ii) and the ship

and propeller dimensions at this stage, is 0.254.
The speed of advance at 20.5 kt is 20.5(1 - 0.254)

shaft

test. It

174,638/0.865

model, from Fig. 78.Nb, indicate that the shaft

power need not exceed 13,250

1b.

using the

t,

shaft

power

is

i2j-(App)F/

174,638(34.62) /432.85

13,968

only 5.5 per cent greater than the

Ps

(ii) With the appendages designed, and with no

condenser scoops to be added or cooling water to
be circulated in the model, there is no longer any
reason for doubling the calculated appendage-

13,243 horses derived from the model self-propulsion test. The r;^ of that test, at 20.5 kt, was 0.761

resistance increase of 4 per cent or for adding the

stock propeller used was 0.685 instead of the

full

scoop resistance, as was done in Sec. 66.9.

of resistance for the appendages is

The augment

then taken as 5 instead of 10 per cent,

(ii)
to the
(iii) Applying the 1.05-factor from

Rt

oi

(i)

preceding.

This

is

and the

t/s

only 0.968.

The

of

real efficiency of the

0.665 predicted by the estimate of

(viii)

Values of the propulsive coefficient

preceding.
tjp

ABC

derived

transomstern model, for a range of ship speed from 9 to

23 kt, are plotted in Fig. 78.P. For comparison

from the self-propelled

test of the

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 78.17

Arrows Indicate -Desiqned Speeds

I

Each Case

in

(I)

The procedure

895

for running the

model

self-

"1

propulsion test does not take full account of the

increased roughness effect to be encountered on
the ship as compared to that on the model, even
when the ship hull is clean and new

I
I

^G. Shor^ Design, ^193

EX- Ships

(II)

re-reading of the items previously listed

in this section indicates that all the differences

between the original calculated or estimated performance of the ship and the actual performance
of the model are in favor of the ship design as
represented by the model.
IZ

14

13

15

16

17

18

19

20

Zi

22

3hip Speed, kt
Fig. 78.P

vp FOB

Comparison of Propulsive Coefficient

ABC Ship and Other Designs

Models of

there are plotted similar values for the

arch-stern model, for the

TMB

ABC

model
having a Cb of 0.60, and for three types of merchant vessels of outstanding performance, from
Series 60

factors will carry over into the full-scale ship

on
and at the magnitudes indicated by the

trial,

model

the period 1930-1955.

Incidentally,

In other words, practically everything that has

been done to develop the ship, from the time that
it had principal dimensions and proportions only,
has made it better than the "phantom" ship of
the Taylor Standard Series form having the same
proportions. To assume that all these favorable

Just

the Telfer merit factor of Eq.

Volume

based upon
the model predictions from tests of the transomstern model, is
(34.XXV) of Sec. 34.10 of

I,

shaft

test, is

expecting a great deal.

how much

TF(long tons)F^(kt)

model

0.61

L(ft)Ps (horses)

is

78.18,

tested

and

after

self-propelled

The lower graph

0.61

the transom-stern

510(13,243)

of Fig. 78.

ABC

the

new

12.895

reveals that for

design the increase of

resistance for appendages, over

the modified

with

propeller designed in Chap. 70.

16,573(20.5)'

of

the preliminary design should perhaps be determined only after the model is modified as described in Sec.

of the indicated reduction in

power can be carried into the next stage

most

of the speed

range, averages about 5 per cent. This corresponds

made

an F of 0.2704, and an Fl
is well above the meanline
of Fig. 34.1, from which a value of about 9.5 was
used for the first shaft power approximation of

to the estimate

of 0.07312, this value

However, in the vicinity of 22 kt ship speed, the

effective power with all appendages is lower than
the effective power in the bare-hull condition!

Sec. 66.9.

Since the ship will probably never run at this

For a r,

To

of 0.908,

return to an analysis of the behavior of the

transom-stern
lated shaft

power

the foregoing
of first cost

ABC

is

model, a reduction in calcu-

magnitude indicated

in

this

The

and operation. However,

it

means to

order, with

new weight estimate is in

machinery and fuel weights, as well

as

displacement,

the designer that a

overall

speed, except at light load

that are

appreciably

For a project that is being done

thoroughly it may even mean a revision of the
prehminary design and the running of additional
model tests, on the basis that a revised hull of
shghtly smaller volume will be as efficient as the
diminished.

first hull.

However, before any radical steps are taken,

the following items are to be considered:

when the immersed

hull has a different effective shape, the reason for

comforting from the point of view

of the

earlier in the present section.

anomaly

is

somewhat

of

an academic matter.

variations with speed in the ratio of

(1)

power with appendages to (2) bare-hull

effective power shown by Fig. 78. Q indicate that
the appendage resistance is probably related to
wavemaking around the ship. Further than this
effective

it

has not been possible to account for the unusual

feature described.
It is considerably

more

difficult to

analyze the

TMB

model
performance of the arch-stern design,
4505-1, because of its unusual hull shape and
the almost total lack of reference data for such
a form. Despite the drastic change in shape of the
run from the normal transom stern, and an

HYDRODYNAMICS

896

IN SHIP DESIGN

16

14

Sec. 78.18

20

18

Ship Speed, kt
Fig. 7S.Q

Desiqned Speed

Ratios of Effective Powers, With and Without Appendages, for Transom-Stern and ArchStern ABC Designs

The expected high wake

increase of bare-hull wetted surface of 5.8 per

cent over that of the bare transom-stern hull,

the effective power

Pe

about
2 per cent lower than that of a Taylor Standard
Series hull of the

at designed speed

is

same proportions. This

superi-

above the trial

even more so than for the tran-

ority increases rapidly with speed

speed of 20.5 kt,

In

exist.

fact,

inside the arch did not

the w-value derived from the

was slightly higher than the anticipated value of 0.164. It was known that large
thrust-deduction forces would be generated by
tion fraction

the four strut arms lying in the outflow jet of the

som-stern hull.

Although the several appendages were designed

with great care, the increase in resistance of 18
per cent due to them appears high. However, in

wetted areas of the exposed shaft,

the strut hub, and the quadruple strut arms are
not added to the bare-hull wetted area. Consequently, the pressure drag of these parts is
certain to show up as a large augment of the
specific residuary resistance Cr
Subsequent discussion with designers of tunnel-stern shallowwater craft reveals that appendage resistances
in this type of vessel are consistently high.
this case the

When making

propeller calculations prepara-

propeller,

but

it

was hoped that these would be

by the contra-

partly or wholly compensated

effect

on these arms.

It is possible that there

as well as the thrust-deduction forces.

Nevertheless, the propulsive coefficient of over

0.68

is

extremely high for this type of stern, where

values of 0.50 are considered very good.

Analysis indicates that the real or working

efficiency

tjq

of the large-diameter 24.22-ft pro-

peller at the designed speed of 20.5 kt is

0.750. This is higher

and 78.4, values of the probable wake

and thrust-deduction fractions were determined
by the Schoenherr formulas used for the transom-

cent, than the tjo for the 20.51-ft wheel

model 4505 of the transom-stern ship.

in Sees. 70.6

On

this basis,

admittedly inadequate

but the only one available, the values derived

were 0.273 for the wake fraction

for the arch stern

and 0.164 for the thrust-deduction fraction.

For the designed or trial speed of 20.5 kt, the
arch-stern self-propelled data from Fig. 78.1 are:

Propulsive coefficient np
Wake fraction, 0.072

= P e/Ps =

Thrust-deduction fraction, 0.175

Hull efficiency rj^ = (1 - 0.175)/(1

0.889.

0.686

TMB

prior to the completion of the contract plans.

Nevertheless, the designer

it

is

who has

carried the

convinced that, given a

more time, he can modify and improve upon

A few such improvements are

considerably.

In the
0.072)

of

Ship.

outhned here

about

6.5 points, or 9.5 per

Proposed Changes in Final Design of

In the normal course of a building
program for a multi-milhon dollar ship the design
and model-testing procedure described in Part 4
represents only the early stages of the development

little

Effective power, 12,500 horses

by

78.18

ABC

ship along this far

Shaft power, 18,300 horses

were

upward components of velocity in

the flow passing the two horizontal arms. This
would have increased the appendage resistance
appreciable

tory to selecting the stock propeller, mentioned

stern design.

self-

propulsion test was only shghtly more than onequarter of the estimated value. The thrust-deduc-

first

for the

ABC

ship.

place, the designed waterlines of

both alternative hulls have values of transverse

moment of area It that are certainly on

square

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 78.18

the low side. Furthermore, the change of direction

of the water flomng around and under the forward
sections, forward of the ciuarterpoint at Sta. 5,
is more abrupt than it should be. The almost
obvious step is to widen the designed waterline
still further in way of Stas. 3 and 4, following an

earher change, and to trim

away the

hull lower

in this region. This gives a better path to

The change
the minimum value

reflected in a lowering

the water.

is

of

of the section coefficient

ahead

of the

forward quarterpoint. Sec. 67.10

is

rather

high for good design.

Sta.

this stage, a

10.3 or 0.515L.

The beam

at this section

(Sta. 10.6) fair ed to a value of 73.33 ft rather

73.0

The

ft.

As the

LMA

of

0.530L

design lane of Fig. 66.L

double

circle in

(it

still fell

hes to the

than

within the
left of

the

that figure), and as the ship was

to have a transom stern which

made

it

easier to

obtain small waterline slopes in the run, this

The shghtly larger beam was

accepted as the waterline curvature plot
with this beam proved to have most of the desirable features. The final dimensions and coefficients of the ABC ships as built into the models

to find out just

now

they

The basis for this step

what gives them the performance

have.

What

is

it,

for example,

thrust-deduction fraction

the

that

of

the

of 0.125 or 0.13 in the intermediate-.speed

range

to a remarkably low value of 0.07 in the normal

nearly constant

SNAME RD

sheets of Figs. 78.J

and 78.K.

wake

fraction

and propulsive

but the relative

drops. There is a sUght

coefficient the hull efficiency rises

rotative efficiency

hump

in the

jj^

Cr curve

of the 400-ft ship in Fig.

T, of 0.68, probably because at this

speed the ship is only some 2.5 Velox wave lengths
long. There is a smaller but sharper hump at a
78. Jc at a

T, of about 0.83. For the 510-ft ABC ship the

corresponding speeds are 15.4 and 18.7 kt. From
Fig. 78.Nc it is noted that these humps occur

somewhat beyond the ends of the transition

portions in the t and rfHT curves [where r^HT =
^^ = (1 - t)/{\ - w)]. Beyond 21 kt for the
length

ship, at a T, of
is

about 0.93, when the ship

approaching

propulsive efficiency

1.5

falls off,

wave
as

it

lengths,

the

does in most

ships above the designed speed. However, the

superiority over the Taylor Standard Series hull,

in

respect

to

resistance

and

effective

power,

increases in this range.

After the bUge-keel trace for the forebody had

been determined on the model it developed that
the combination of bilge-keel width shown on
Fig. 73. N and the bilge-keel trace caused the
outer edge of the keel to project beyond the
in the upright position from Sta. 8 forward
to about Sta. 6.5. The requirements of item (48)
in Table 64.f call for no projections beyond the
fair hue of the hull for the first 150 ft from the
stem. Sta. 6.5 is about 166 ft from the FP.
However, for ease in handling, the hull shape

DWL

(a)

to do to improve

transom-stern form to drop from a constant value

ABC

embody one

what

of the alternative designs?

also

should

is,

the hydrodynamic performance of either or both

value was accepted.

are given in the

7.5.

principal question

running range of 18 to 20.5 or 21 kt? With a

few details need to be watched

but not necessarily corrected. One such relates to
the midships portion of the designed waterline
of the ABC ship. In the final fairing of the lines
preparatory to making the model the maximum
section fell at Sta. 10.6 or 0.530L rather than at

At

about Sta.

6.4 to

causes

attention to the fact that this

897

Retain the same leading-end taper but shorten

the keels, moving the leading ends aft from Sta.

is

down

calls

(c)

of the following modifications:

Determine whether the widenhig

of the

DWL

in the entrance, proposed earlier in this section,

would bring the present keels within the

DWL

limits. If not,

search for improvement obviously calls for

a careful determination and rather close study of

the wave profiles and flow patterns around the
hull

and into the propeller at the 16- and 18-kt

speeds, perhaps also at the 21-kt speed.

The fact that, despite an increased wettedsurface area of 5.8 per cent, the resistance of the
arch-stern bare hull drops below that of the
transom-stern bare hull at 28 kt, where the T,
is about 1.240, is well worth looking into. The
remarkably low resistance of both hulls in the
23- to 25-kt range indicates that these forms might
well find application to shorter, high-speed vessels.

On the basis that, of the two alternative sterns,

the transom-stern arrangement has selected itself,
so to speak, the owner-operator now has two
choices. Either

Taper the forward end of the keels to a greater

extent and reduce the width back to at least

he may:

(b)

Sta. 8

(1) Hold the speeds originally called for, adhere

to the schedule already set up, and reduce the

HYDRODYNAMICS
engine power by a substantial amount, of the
order of 15 or more per cent, or he

may

Step up the schedule, retain the engine power

origmally estimated, and increase the ship speeds,
(2)

both sustained and

trial.

The background

for

this

involves

decision

hydrodjTiamics in onlj^ a small way but it is

useful to discuss that small mfluence. Consulting
the speed-power curves of the transom-stern
design in Fig. 78.Nc, and assuming no scale effect

between model and

the ship can

make

ship, it is safe to

assume that
power of

21.1 kt with a shaft

16,000 horses, retaining the former limit of 0.95

times the

maximum

designed shaft power. Step-

ping up the sustained speed to 19.5 kt, at which

about 10,750 horses are required for deep-water,

clean-bottom conditions, means that this speed

IN SHIP DESIGN
prising the large

Sec. 7S.19

ABC

ship of the early chapters

and the motor-driven tenders of Chap. 77, are

carried only far enough to demonstrate the use
of the various graphs, diagrams, and rules
embodied in the text. The Hmited treatment in
these chapters is by no means to be taken as an
indication that the preliminary hydrodynamic
design for an actual ship can or should be limited
to that set down in this volume. Problems of
maneuvering and of wavegoing are discussed more
fully in Volume III, Parts 5 and 6, respectively.
For example, considering first the features
commented upon in the present chapter, relating
to the ship

itself:

apparent from the position of the wave

profile observed on the transom-stern model and
drawn on the afterbody portion of Fig. 66.R that
(1)

It is

can be achieved with a power expenditure of

the transom did not clear at the designed speed,

only 67.2 per cent of the 0.95-maximum limit.

despite previous indications to the contrary. In

This

fact, it did

stUl conservative planning.

is

At the 21.1-kt speed the Pe/Ps ratio drops to

0.75, and the hull efficiency vht to 1.14, with
only small changes in the t and w values. At the
19.2-kt speed these factors have about the same

not clear fully until the speed was far

m excess of any speed that the ship could reasonably have attained.

The

reason appeared to be

the large upward component of flow in the water

just below the lower edge of the transom. Never-

may

a resistance some 4 per cent less

than that of a Taylor Standard Series model of
the same proportions there appeared to be no
reason for changing the existing transom stern
without the benefit of a further extended study.
In any further development of this design, studies
of the separation drag abaft the transom, mentioned in (2) of Sec. 78.6, should be pursued.

not be sufficient to make the increased power

economically worth while.

lower (horizontal) strut arms in the arch-stern

values as at 18.7 kt. In other words, the ship

is

running efficiently, in the higher range, so

far as speed and power are concerned. The rpm's
increase from 110 to 114 at the higher trial speed
but this permits smaller and Ughter gears than
stUl

were originally involved. To be

speed

is

slightly over 4 per cent

The

sure, the sustained

increased only 0.8 kt, an increase of but

from 18.7

kt.

This

history of mechanically driven vessels, ex-

tending back for more than a century and a

is

half,

replete with instances of re-engining at greater

may have been due to inand in displacement. Much of it

was undoubtedly to reduce fuel consumption by
the use of more efficient machinery. Not a Uttle
was carried out to increase the sustained speed,
so as to keep pace with newer ships. The economic
features are not discussed here, but the ship that
benefits the most by this re-engining is the one
which has a speed margin designed into the hull
in the first place. It is a good sign, in a way, that
powers.

Some

of this

creases in load

the

ABC

a better performer at higher

speeds than at the speed for which it was designed.
78. IQ

ship

is

Comments on

Illustrative Preliminary-

Design Procedures of Part 4. The illustrative

examples worked into Part 4 of the book, com-

theless, ^\ith

(2)

The

so-called neutral positions of the

two

design should have been estabhshed before the

design of the quadruple strut-arm and hub

assembly was finished and this appendage was
added to the model. The small-scale assembly
could readily have been constructed to permit
changing these positions on the self-propelled
model, or some special means could have been
provided whereby the flow in this region could
have been observed in greater detail during the
circulating-water-channel test.
(3)

No

attempt

is

made

required to

move

book to
power that would be

in Part 4 of the

calculate or estimate the

the necessary

amount

of cooling

water through the main condenser at the designed

ship speed.

Considering next a few of the ship features

in the early chapters of this part, and
not Avorked out adequately there:

mentioned

MODEL-TESTING PROGRAM FOR A SHIP

Sec. 78.19

made

Furthei' studies should be

(i)

of the internal

arrangements, supplementing the discussion in

Sec. 66.32, to enable the vessel to float at the

mtermediate-load
66. T.

indicated

waterlines

in

Fig.

These should be combined with studies

of

able,

899

the lowest speed at which the 24-kt

of

V-bottom

would actually plane, when carryload. This would indicate

whether the craft could still run in the planing
range if slowed by wind and sea, as mentioned
ing

hull

the

specified

the effect of the variable weights, hi each of the

in (3) of Sec. 77.6.

proposed arrangements, upon the bending moments imposed on the hull structure,

(b) For the examples cited, involving motorboats

which are to be in the water only for the hours in
which they are required to run, the additional
weight due to water soakage is not a problem.
Nevertheless, this item must be considered for
motorboat designs in general.
(c) It is possible that for a motorboat, on which
the propelling machinery receives much less care
than on a large vessel, the reduction from maximum rated power to maximum sustained usable
power should be considerably larger than 5 per

Estimates should be made of the effective

(ii)

and shaft powers and probable speeds in the

variable-load conditions, for both deep and shallow
water
(iii)

The sinkage

of the

bow

at designed speed,

indicated on Figs. 58. B and 66. R,

The widening

as proposed in the

improve
(iv)

is

rather large.

of the designed waterline forward,

first

part of Sec. 78.18, should

this situation.

study,

much more comprehensive than

made of the effect of

that of Sec. 60.15, should be

fouling on the total resistance, on the

thrust-deduction

and the propeller

fi'actions,

(or shaft)

wake and

the propeller thrust,

power.

There was no time or opportunity to design, lay

out, and test a third alternative stem for twinscrew propulsion of the ABC ship, as mentioned
in Sec. 69.5 on page 571.
With respect to the preliminary hydrodynamic
designs of the two small motor-driven tenders for
the

ABC

ship, serving as the illustrative designs

treatment given there is likewise

abbreviated. For a well-rounded project, even of
this limited scope, a number of additional items
should be considered:
in

Chap.

(a)

77, the

determination, by the best methods avail-

cent of the former, as

recommended

for large

vessels
(d)

For

the

particular

illustrative

examples

a comprehensive preUminary design

should include a check on the fore-and-aft trim
with full fuel and crew but with no cargo or
described,

passengers
(e)

An

adequate preKminary design for a fuU-

planing boat should include an estimate of the

vertical

and pitching moments

forces

to

be

expected from propulsion devices carried at the

stern

Definite steps should be taken to reduce the

(f)
running trim of a 35- or 40-ft motorboat which,
as indicated in the early stage of the preliminary

design for the

ABC

The trim hmit

tender,

is

as great as 5 deg.

in this respect probably should

diminish as the absolute size of the boat increases.

APPENDIX

Symbols and Their Titles

Xl.l
X1.2
X1.3

General
List of

Symbols and

Titles

Abbreviations for Positions and Conditions

Xl.l

General.

This appendix

lists

all

900
900
911

the

symbols employed in the text of Volume II except

for a few used and described or defined locally
and not having general application. It is identical,
except for one or two deletions, a few additions,
and minor modifications in titles, to the list of
symbols and their titles in Sec. XI. 5 of Appendix 1
of Volume I, pages 597-611.
Notes relating to prior approval of these symbols, subscripts for use with them, the method of
indexing, and abbreviations accompanying them
are found ui Sees. Xl.l, X1.2, X1.3, and X1.4 on
pages 596-597 of Volume I and need not be
repeated here.

much more comprehensive

and terms, with complete definitions, in the form of a "Nomenclature for Hydrodynamics as Applied to Ship Design," will appear
It

list

is

expected that a

of symbols

16

Greek Alphabet.

X1.4

Abbreviations for Physical Concepts Having

X1.5
X1.6

Abbreviations for Units of Measurement

Scalar Dimensions
Circular Constant Notation

911
912
913


SYMBOLS AND THEIR TITLES

X1.2

Sec.

of a screw propeller
Ap Area, projected blade,
a screw prooutside the boss or hub
Ap Au Propeller
D. W. Taylor,
^0

^Area, disc,

of

peller,

coefficients of

When T

dimensional in character.

Ib-ft,

revolutions per sec,

is

Va

in lb,

is
is

is

in

in ft per sec,

P and D are in ft, Ap = (P/D) (55.0330,,)/

- s^y and Aa = (P/D)(8.7587Cr)/(l - s)'

and
(1

[Taylor, D. W., S

and

P,

1943, p. 101;

vertical

movable control

Area,

a rudder or other

of

surface, lying generally

projected, of stern diving planes of

a submarine
Au Area, immersed transom, projected on a
transverse plane; this does not necessarily correspond to that embodied in the
area ratio fn of D. W. Taylor

tr

Area,

in

ship,

the body

after perpendicular

waterplane, of a ship floating on

Area, maximum transverse

Ax

Beam at the chine, at any designated

a V-bottom planing craft
jBc(Mnx) Beam at the chine, maximum, wherever occurring on a planing craft
BeBeam, extreme, wherever
occurs on the
main
above or below the designed waterline
Bm Beam, designed waterline, at midlength
between perpendiculars
Bp Bu Basic propeller design variables of D.
it

hull,

is

Ad/A^

maximum

is in ft

Beam, designed
area
BrxBeam, maximum,
underwater body, wherever
BwxBeam, maximima,

to

the

of

ler

Ax

ratio, referred

som is at the AP, this is the value of /

dA/dL Rate of change of section

dA/dxRate

the tran-

at the

B/Bx

tip

change of section area with

tip

cantilevered

at designed waterline,

occurs along the length

Aspect

ratio of a hydrofoil of

when

any

Ratio

beam

of the designed waterline

maximum

at the section of

Bx/Hm Ratio,
draft H^f

Bx/d

Ratio,

Bx/Hx
maximum

area;

area

beam-draft,
is

based

on

the

the alternative form

beam-draft, at the section of

Bx/dx

is

the alternative form

Celerity or velocity of a wave with respect

referred

it

occurs,

VgLw/{2T)

Chord length of an airfoil or hydrofoil, such

an expanded propeller-blade section, a rudder
blade, a fin, or other device; alternative symbol I
c

as

Breadth or width in general

Span of a hydrofoil, to
when

the immersed or
occurs

any section to the designed waterline beam

at

area with

to cartesian coordinates

it

of
it

to the undis turbed hquid in which

distance along the x-axis of a ship,

s^Y'

AP.

length along the ship

of

ft.

kind; also b^/An

mean
If

are in

waterline, at the section

wherever

peller

area

and

maximum

b^'/Aproi

maximum

designed waterhne, of the immersed

Bx

of

ratio of

Immersed-transom-area

in revolutions per sec,

is

Bu = (I>/P)(9.4835VCr)/(l - s^y

ratio of a screw pro-

A u/Ax

per sec, and

Bu Beam,

a screw proExpanded-area
Al/{LHm) Lateral-area ratio a surface ship
Ap/AoProjected-area ratio of a screw propel-

to the section of

Bp = {D/P){23.772VCo)/{l -

peller

As/Aa

in Ib-ft,

transom

area

Developed-area

is

and

using a lower-case subscript

section of

in lb,

y-z plane, preferably indicated in the latter case

A WA Area, waterplane, of afterbody

Awe Area, waterplane, of entrance
A WF Area, waterplane, of forebody
A WR Area, waterplane, of run
A IAx Section-area ratio, referred

When T

Taylor, dimensional in character.

Va

underwater body of a ship floating on the surface;

submerged body or ship such as a submarine,
the maximum area as projected on the transverse

Bouss inesq number, expressed as U/ \^gRn

station, for

section, of the

for a

A^

in equilibrium with the gravity force

or not

W.

the surface; not to be confused with A,

as

is

Be

projected,

parallel to the ship centerplane

As

Vortex spacing, longitudinal, a vortex

BBeam at the designed waterline, at any
designated station
B Buoyancy force on a body or
whether
h

street or trail

PNA,

1939, Vol. II, p. 141].

Ar Area,

901

tip, or

Ch

support to

Shallow-water wave speed, in depth h

Critical wave speed or velocity in shallow

Cc

water of depth

h,

= wgh

HYDRODYNAMICS

902

Celerity of an
any medium
Cm Chord length,

elastic or

Cs

in

hydrofoil, or of the

mean

compression wave
of

expanded blade sections

of

average,

or

a screw propeller outside the hub

Chord length, root, of a
Cr

hydrofoil; also the chord length at

Chord length,
Cx Distance from
point

of

tip, of

maximum

midspan

of a

lb,

and

are in

the leading edge to the

of

in Ib-ft,

is

Cp
Crj

hydrofoil

52.889(P/Z))Cg

coefficient

of

lift

Ca

Coefficient,

Admiralty; the value of the

dimensional expression A'''F7P,(or A'^^FVP^),

where
is the weight displacement in tons of

salt

water

Cb Coefficient,
native sjmabol

Cc

= V/iLB^Hx);

block,

alter-

5 (delta)

Coefficient,

NOTE under Cd
Co Coefficient,

cross-force,

C/{qAL); see

D/(().5pAUb)

Co Coefficient,

and P, 1943,

is

torque,

dimensional and

D and R, U and V interchangeably.

It is also possible, for special

work, to substitute

any expression having the same dimensions,

such as (BH), L^, B^, and H^, provided this is
explicitly stated. The symbol q for ram pressure

for

signifies 0.5pf7j or

0.5pVr

S/VVL = S/VVL

Coefficient,

drag or resistance, =
NOTE under Cc In
this particular case, the use of the wetted surface
S is arbitrarily taken as the standard; the use of
any other value equivalent to (length)^ is covered

Ct

= Cp

Rr/iqS)

by a

total

see

special note.

efficient is

or

dimensional and

Coefficient,

T/(n'D^P'). This cois

Cw Coefficient,

mean or average

drag, = Dp/(qS); see NOTE under Co

Cj Coefficient of reduction, of a rudder or
Coefficient,

specific

called the &-Froude

load, of a planing craft,

W/{wB^); the symbol Cld

Cw

becoming obsolete.

speed, usually of a planing

= V/ y/gB; preferably
beam-Froude number

preferred

is

designed

Coefficient,

waterplane,

Aw/{LBx); alternative s3Tnbol a (alpha)

maximum
section,
Cx Coefficient,
Ax/{BxHx)
Cy Coefficient, relation, = Cp/Cw
C,

Cp

Q/(n'Z)'P'). This

is

craft,

possible to use

PNA,

101;

Cv

the mathematical expression for this

coefficient, as for many others in the list, it is

p.

becoming obsolete.
Ch Coefficient, residuary drag or resistance,
= P/(?S) = Ct - Cp; see NOTE under C^
Cs Coeffi cient, wetted -surface, dimensionless,

D/{qA)

NOTE:In

S!,)Cr

1939, Vol. II, p. 141].

Cr Coefficient, thrust, =
drag,

8.4175(P/Z))(1

a hydrofoil section

C Cross force, normal to both the direction of

motion or resultant liquid flow and the direction

in

and

ft:

[Taylor, D. W., S

is

in revolutions per sec,

is

measured parallel to the base chord

Distance from the leading edge to the
Cz
position of maximum camber of the meanline of

section,

When T

Taylor, dimensional in character.

a hydrofoil

thickness

X1.2

Sec.

Coefficient, yawing moment, = N/{qAL);

see NOTE under Co
Cp Coefficient, prismatic, longitudinal, =
V/(LAx)', alternative symbol 0(phi)
Cp Cu Coefficients, propeller, of D. W.
Cn

cantilevered

symmetrical-planform hydrofoil
Ct

IN SHIP DESIGN

flow,

Coefficient,

shearing

stress,

in

viscous

r/q

friction

Cam -Coefficient, added mass, of entrained

water around a body or ship, as related to the

control surface; the ratio of the actual torque

ship

on a ship rudder stock to the torque calculated

for the same rudder angle and relative speed in
open water

area inside a bilge diagonal to the area [L(BDI)]

Ck

Coefficient,

rolling

moment,

K/{qAL);

NOTE under Cc
Ci Coefficient, Hft, = L/{0.5pAhUb)
L/iqAn); see NOTE under Cd

M/(qAL);

see

NOTE

under Cc

Ccp

Coefficient,

bilge diagonal; ratio of th e

center

pressure,

of

hydrofoil; ratio of (the distance

c)

Coefficient, dynamic
of
= W/{qB"-) = 2{C^o)/Cl
CtL Coefficient of square moment
Cdl

for

from the leading

edge to CP) to (the chord length

see

midlength
section,
Cm Coefficient,
Am/{BmHm); alternative symbol /3(beta)
pitching
moment,
Cm Coefficient,

mass
Cbd Coefficient,

lift,

a planing

craft,

waterplane for pitch,

of area of

/^/[(L'B.0/12]

I^/

(0.083L'B;f)

CiT

Coefficient

of square

moment

of area of

Sec.

SYMBOLS AND THEIR TITLES

X1.2

waterplane for

roll,

/7./[(J5.yL)/12]

/,./

former

Clf

Coefficient, lateral area,

Coefficient, load, of

W/{'wB^)]
is

A,^/{LHm)

a planing

symbol

alternative

Cw

is

craft,

but

=
the

preferred

Coefficient,

local specific friction drag, as

distinguished from

Cf

the

mean

or average

coefficient

Cp E
e/{LeA^)
Cp
p/iL,AM)
CpB
CpA

prismatic,

afterbody,

Coefficient,

prismatic,

entrance,

Coefficient,

prismatic,

forebody,

Coefficient,

Va/{LaAm)

Coefficient, prismatic, run,

= Vp/{LkAx)

=
Cpr Coefficient, prismatic, vertical,
V/(AwHx) = Cb/Cw = (Cy.Cx)/Cn. alternative
;

symbol

<^

Cj.L Coefficient, thrust-load,

NOTE under Co

T/{0.5pAoVl);

see

CvM

Coefficient,

virtual

mass, in transient

flow or motion conditions; the ratio of the mass

body or ship and the surrounding enbody or ship.

of the

trained water to the mass of the

This
of

coefficient,

equal to

added mass Cam

CwA

Coefficient,

is

LO

plus the coefficient

always greater than unity.

waterplane,

afterbody,

waterplane,

Coefficient,

waterplane,

C w E Coefficient,
Awe/{LieBx)

entrance,

Awr/{LrBx)
C ws

Coefficient,

forebody,

waterplane,

run

wetted surface, of D. W.
Taylor, = S/ "v/AL, where A is the displacement
in tons of 2,240 lb of salt water of sp.gr. L024
(35.075 ft^ per ton) and L is the mean immersed
Coefficient,

length in ft

CpvA

Coefficient,

vertical,
is

after-

the draft at

length of the entrance

Coefficient,

differential

slope,

total;

vertical,
is

fore-

the draft at

Dw Drag,

run

and

all

other

types

of

wind; the downwind force exerted

wind on a body or ship, to be

relative

distinguished from the axial component ffwiod

Diameter steady-turning path

Diameter,
d/D Boss or hub diameter fraction
a screw
propeller
for a
ACp Roughness allowance,
DsT

of

tactical

Dxact

of

specific,

body

or ship, to be

plate,

added to the smooth,

flat-

turbulent-flow specific friction resistance

coefficient

An

Streamline

spacing

or

stream-tube

width, normal (transverse) to the direction of flow

Differential pressure increase or decrease,

resistance due to presAR Augmentation
sure
from a propulsion device
spacing, along the
As Equip
flow
direction
diAUDifferential velocity increase or deAp

of

effects

otential-line

of

crease, finite

CpvR Coefficient, prismatic, vertical, run, =

r/{AwrII), where H is the draft at midlength
of the

friction,

separation,

pressure,

ds,

prismatic,

= f/{AwfJI), where
midlength of the forebody
body,

of

blade-circle,

finite

CpYE Coefficient, prismatic, vertical, entrance,

Ve/{.AwbH), where H is the draft at midCpvF

during a test at the ship point

self-propulsion
Db Diameter,
of a paddlewheel
De Drag, separation, due to
pressures in a separation zone
Dp Drag, friction
D Drag, hydrodynamic
Di Drag, induced
Dp Drag, pressure
Dji Drag, residuary, = Dt Dp
of a floating body on an
Ds Drag,
inclined liquid surface
the sum of the
Dt Drag,

dn,

prismatic,

body, = V a/{AwaH), where

midlength of the afterbody

by the

A wf/{^fBm)
CwR

rf Draft of a floating body or ship; alternative

symbols
and T;
is preferred
dx Draft of a floating body or ship at the
section of maximum area; alternative symbols
Hx and Tx
D Depth, molded, of a ship hull
D Diameter in general; diameter of a body of
revolution or of a propulsion device
D Drag, as a force opposing motion in a liquid
Df Towing force appUed to a ship model

drags due to relative liquid motion

A wa/{LaBm)

CwF

Mean-width ratio of the blades of a

Ct/cr Taper ratio of a cantilevered hydrofoil
d Diameter, boss or hub, of a screw propeller

Cm/D

screw propeller

(fi.083B^L)

Cla
Cld

903

Base

of

example, log.

Napierian or natural logarithms; for

HYDRODYNAMICS

904

Vapor pressure of water

E Energy; work
E Euler number or pressure
=

p/q

(p

p)/5

coefficient

= Ap/9
airfoil

trail

according

to

Rf = fSV";

W.

Froude,

the

in

equation

this is dimensional

A function
/ Ordinates, back and
or
of an
hydrofoil
/ Ratio
the section area at an end perpen/

face,

airfoil

of

dicular to the section area at midlength. This

W.

D.

is

Taylor's "/" [S and P, 1943, p. 65].

Ratio of the section area A at the FP to

fs
midlength
the section area Am
fo A function applying to a group of geometrically similar bodies or ships
/b Ratio of the section area A at the AP to
sit

the section area

Au/Ait

A^

at midlength.

equal to /r only
transom Hes at the AP.
is

The

ratio

the immersed

if

Head,

of a planing craft

in

ha>

of infinite

submerged body or submarine, top to bottom, or

deck to keel

hw/Lw Steepness ratio of a wave

77Head, total, Bernoulli, = [Uy{2g)]

p/w

the same as the Head, total, sjrmbol hr

Draft of a floating body or ship; alternative

symbols d and T
Shape factor of a boundary-layer velocity
profile, = d*/d, where 6 is momentum thickness

H^ Draft,

aft; generally

measured at the

after

perpendicular

Hd Drag,

keel, as

a vertical distance, repre-

senting a difference in drafts at the forward and

when

the keel line

is

extended

forward perpendicular

IJ

Hp Draft,

Hm Draft,

Hx Draft
h/B
h/L

of

any given

blade, so that

Q = FJi for that blade

Damping force
F

Inertia force
Fy ^-Froude number;

mean, at midlength
immersed transom
at section of

native symbols dx and

propeller,

of

forward; generally measured at the

Hu Draft,

exerted tangentially in the plane of the disc at

Ft,

extreme, wherever occurring along

beam
= V/ 'VgB =
the

is

CP

h;

the length

Submergence-Froude number, where h

= I'wgh = VI's/gh
Blade-disc force a screw

the depth of submergence,

of the

Head, velocity, = U^/(2g)

hv Head, vapor, of a liquid
hw Height of a wave from trough to crest
Head of liquid an undisturbed stream
extent
A (pronounced hull height) Hull height of a

= U/ 'VgL =

specifically,

total, Bernoulli, sjonbol

same as the

hu

He Draft,

Froude number; in general,

Ft 6-Froude number;

the radius

h,

the

to those perpendiculars

F,,

X1.2

total,

and velocity hu

after perpendiculars

F Force in general
FFreeboard

Froude number

Sec.

Head, pressure, due to pumping, = pe/w,

as distinguished from head due to gravity
including hydrostatic
hr Head,
pumping hp

Camber of an
or hydrofoil (6th
ICSTS symbol); also m for meanline camber
/ Frequency; eddy frequency in a vortex
street or
/Friction coefficient of a surface in water,
/

IN SHIP DESIGN
hp

Hull-height to

maximum

Tx
beam

area; alter-

ratio of a

body

Hull-height to length
a body
Hp/LSlope
a ship with a designed
ratio of

of keel, in

drag; keel-drag ratio

Fi

specifically, the

volume

Froude number,

i
Slope of a line defining a form, with reference to a specified or selected axis or plane; may
be expressed as an angle in degrees or as a natural

tangent
Ib

Acceleration due to gravity = w/p

G Girth,
measured generally from the

linear,

DWL

Slope,

in

Slope,

diagonal,

with reference to inter-

section of a diagonal plane

Ie

Depth in general; depth submergence

h Head, hydrostatic, hydraulic, or potential;

bowline or buttock, with reference

to baseplane

of

of

Slope,

and the centerplane

waterline, in entrance, with refer-

ence to centerplane, neglecting local shape at the

a body or ship, such as a submarine

stem; alternative symbol {l/2)aj!

height or depth of liquid

reference to baseplane

ip

Slope

of

floor

(bottom

of

ship),

with

SYMBOLS AND THEIR TITLES

X1.2

Sec.

Slope, waterline,
centerplane
Slope, section
t/e

in run, with reference to

ships,

with reference to baseplane; this slope becomes greater than 90 deg in

way of a tumble home
line,

is

Slope, waterline, general

/ Square moment
area
that plane
about an axis
area
II Square moment
Iff

of a plane surface

of

of
of a waterplane
about the transverse axis through CF, for pitching
motion
It Square moment of area of a waterplane
about the longitudinal axis through CF, for

/jj

through an axis x-x in that plane

Advance

number, or

coefficient,

Fx/(nZ)); F^/CnZ))

is

ratio,

the alternative

Moment of inertia of the mass of a body or

ship; this is a true

moment

of inertia as

com-

pared to the square moment of area of a plane

surface denoted by I
Jl Moment of inertia of a body or ship for

pitching motion, about an axis transverse to the

plane of symmetry

Moment inertia of a body or ship for

about a longitudinal axis
inertia about the
J^ Jy J, Moments
and 2-body axes, respectively
a body
Jjj Moment of inertia of the mass
about an axis x-x
Jabs X(lambda) Absolute advance
Jt

of

rolling motion,

x-,

of

Kr//foThrust-torque

y-,

of

coefficient,

number, or

ratio,

= UA/iimD) = V A/{TrnD) =

factor

Chord length of an
symbol
L Length, the principal

= TD/Q

airfoil

or

hydrofoil;

sion of a ship;

any

longitudinal dimen-

characteristic length, specified

in detail; for special study, the length on the

surface waterline
ship, at

WL

of the

immersed form

of a

any draft and trim

Lift as a force,

when generated by a com-

bination of circulation and uniform flow or by a

deflected flow

Length, afterbody, = L/2

Length, projected, of the area bounded
by the chine of a planing craft
dynamic, due to planing action
Ld
Le Length, entrance, from FP to section of
Lx
Lc

Lift,

maximum

expression

T/{fm'D')

motion

Square moment of area of a free-water

surface, with axes defined for each case
Square moment of area of a plane surface
Iw

UJ{nD) =

not yet worked out for the general case

=
coefficient, non-dimensional,

KtThrust

alternative

in

rolling

905

a surface or area density factor and other relation-

area or to forward end of parallel

middlebody

Length, forebody, = L/2

hydrodynamic
Lm Length of model, as distinguished from
ship length Ls
Lp Length, parallel middlebody, of constant
shape and area
Lr Length, run, from section of maximum
Lp

Lh

Lift,

area or after end of parallel middlebody to

termination or other designated point

WL

or trough to trough
to
hydrodynamic
for
Lbf Length,
analysis, as defined
LoA Length, overall or extreme, wherever

Ls Length of ship, as distinguished from

model length Lm
Lw Length of a surface gravity wave from
crest

crest

effective,

locally

fcConstant of
k

capillarity (6th

ICSTS symbol)

Fractional value, at any point in a propul-

sion device, of the ultimate induced velocity Ui

far astern

Radius of gyration
Surface roughness height, average;
height above a smooth reference surface
Radii of gyration about the
and z-body axes, respectively
a Hquid
KBulk modulus
KRolling moment about longitudinal x-axis
non-dimensional, =
Kq Torque
Ks Equivalent sand roughness; requires also
k

hill

fc

k^

ky

x-, y-,

fc,

of elasticity of

coefficient,

occurring on the main hull, in a direction parallel

to the longitudinal axis
Lpp Length between perpendiculars (6th

WL Length, on designed waterline

beam-fineness
L/Bx Length-beam
greater than unity
L/D Lift-drag
depth-fineness
L/D Length-depth
greater than unity
L/D Length-diameter or fineness

ICSTS symbol)
Lws Length, mean wetted, of a planing
LwL Length, on any given waterline

craft

Lr,

ratio;

ratio,

ratio

ratio;

ratio,

ratio of a

body

of revolution, greater

than unity

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

906

L/h Length to
merged body

m Camber
airfoil

hull-height ratio of a sub-

ordinates of the meanline of an

or hydrofoil section,

reckoned from the

base chord

mMass
or ship,

in general,

= W/g;

mass

of

a body

= A/g

m Metacentric height, = GM, for use in

mathematical formulas
m Strength of a source or sink, such that the
total volume of Uquid per unit time flowing from
a 2-dimensional source of unit depth is 2;rm and
from a 3-dimensional source is 47rm
lUx

Camber ordinate, maximum, of the mean-

of a hydrofoil or

line

blade section, reckoned

from the base chord

Merit factor of E. V.

M
Telfer, described in
Sees. 34.10 and 60.13
MMoment, pitching or trimming, about the
y- or transverse body axis
MMach or Cauchy number, for relating the
speed of a body around which flow is being
studied to the speed of elastic waves in the surrounding liquid

Mcs Moment exerted by a control surface

about a principal axis of a body or ship
TOx/c Camber ratio of a hydrofoil
n
n

Index or exponent in general

Rate of angular rotation, speed, or velocity,

generally expressed as revolutions per unit time;

alternative

symbol w(omega), generally expressed

as radians per unit time

Tuning factor; ratio natural period T of

T^
waves
Angular rate of rotation of a propulsion
device
open water
AnStreamline spacing or stream-tube width,
normal to the direction of liquid motion
NMoment, yawing, about deck-to-keel or
n

of

ship motion to period of encounter

of

rio

in

Sec.

XI.

general; any force

pA pressure intensity
per unit area
Pa Pressure, atmospheric
Pc Pressure, bubble or cavity
Ph Pressure, hydrostatic
Pi Pressure, impact
Po Pressure, ambient; see also Pah and p
Pp Pressure, pumping
+ Ph) = sum
Pah Pressure, ambient, =
in

{jpA

of atmospheric

P-

and hydrostatic

pressures; see also

Pressure, absolute
Pressure, ambient, of the Uquid in an un-

PAb.
Pco

disturbed stream, at a great distance from a body

or ship; this

is

an absolute pressure unless other-

wise indicated

ApPressure,
tive,

differential, positive or negareckoned from the ambient pressure p

Pitch in general; pitch of a propulsion

device

PPower

in general

Planing number, = Dt/Ld

Pb Power, brake
or towrope, = RV
Pe Power,
Pf Power,
PiPower, indicated
Pp Power, propeller, = 2xQn; formerly known
as deUvered power
= 2irQn plus shaft
Ps Power,
P

effective

friction

shaft,

friction

power

Pj. Power,
Pef Pitch,

thrust,

= TV a = TVs

when exerting zero net

thrust
P/D Pitch ratio of a propulsion device
qAngular velocity in pitch about the y- or
transverse body axis
q Dynamic pressure at a stagnation point Q;
ram pressure, expressed by
or (O.SpV^)
flow
in terms
a
Q Quantity rate
effective,

(0.5pf7^)

of

of

of

volume per unit time, where Q

liquid,

V/t; output

of a source or input of a sink

Q Torque,

specifically,

torque applied at a pro-

Friction
of a surface in water,
according to R. E. Froude
S] Amidships in general
S]pp Amidships, defined as the midlength between perpendiculars
^wL Amidships, defined as the midlength on

Qo Torque of a propulsion device in open

water
Qs Spindle moment or torque, on a con-

waterline; alternative SJntrz,

exerted about the stock axis

coefficient

Angular

longitudinal

velocity in roll about the x- or

body

axis

pulsion device

propeller
Qcs Control-surface

trollable

hinge or stock torque,

Angular velocity in swing or yaw about the

deck-to-keel or 2-axis

SYMBOLS AND THEIR TITLES

X1.2

Sec.

R A radius in general
R Resistance, as a force,
r,

a liquid; alternative

Reynolds number in general, = UL/v =

Vhlv
Rb Reynolds number for propeller-blade secZ2

where the velocity term

tions

is

the nominal

liquid velocity past the blade section

space term

and the

the expanded chord length at 0.7R.

is

Here FBUd, = {Vl + [2Tn{0.7R)f\''' and

R, = [(Co.7ie)(FB,.ae)]/''.
Rj d-Reynolds number, with the diameter or
width D as the space term, = UD/v = VD/v
x-Reynolds number, with distance x abaft
i?i
the leading edge as the space term, = Ux/v = Vx/v
Rs 5-Reynolds number, with boundary-layer
thickness 5 (delta) as the space term, = U8/v =
VS/v
Re Radius of curvature of path or turning

Rf Resistance to motion, friction

RhRadius, hydraulic, of a channel; the area

circle

of liquid in a transverse plane divided

wetted perimeter
Rj Resistance,

by the

ideal,

self

total,

tion,

and

sum

all

ratio, real

of the friction, pressure, separa-

other types of resistance due to

motion
Rw Resistance due to gravity wavemaking
^wind Resistance, wind; the axial component
of the force exerted by the relative wind on a

relative liquid

true,

[F^/(n/-')]

of

in

= fL/U,

as the significant dimension,

is

where /

the frequency of eddies shed behind a body

and forming a vortex street or trail

Sj d-Strouhal number, based upon diameter

= fD/U
Sb Surface, wetted, surrounding the bulk
volume of a body or ship
D. W.
S/ VALWetted-surface

as the significant dimension,

coeflBcient of

Taylor, where

is

the weight displacement in

tons of salt water, as defined under A/(0.010L)^;

the

sam e

as

Cws

S/y/VL Wetted-surface

non-di-

coeflScient,

mensional; the same as Cs

S/F'^'Wetted-surface

to (volume'^') ratio

Temperature general
D. W. Taylor, as applied
Terminal
and
a section-area curve; see
to the shape
Thickness in general; thickness an
in

of a model run at the

-propulsion point, = Rt D,
ship
Rp Resistance, pressure, due to forces acting
normal to a surface
Rr Resistance, residuary, = Rt Rf
Rs Orbit radius of the circular motion of a
surface particle in a gravity wave
Rs Resistance, separation
of a body or ship to
Rt Resistance,
motion; the

=
=
Slip
or
[V,/{nP)]
AsEquipotential-line spacing, equal to An,
measured in the direction
liquid motion
S Surface area
general; surface, wetted
SVelocity, discharge, of stack or exhaust gases
S Strouhal number, in general
Si Z-Strouhal number, based upon length L
Sr

opposing motion in
for drag

907

ratio of

tg

ts

of

of

airfoil

or hydrofoil section

<Thrust-deduction

fraction,

Time general
Terminal

(T

Rt)/T

in

ratio of

Ie

W.

D.

Taylor, as applied

to the section-area curve at the

FP

[S

and P,

1943, p. 65]
ta

Thickness

of a screw-propeller blade, pro-

jected to the shaft axis; see

SNAME

Tech. and

Res. Bull. 1-13, 1953, p. 22

ifl Terminal ratio of D. W. Taylor, as applied
to the section-area curve at the AP, in the same

manner

as for ts

Maximum thickness

of

any

selected hydro-

body or ship, along its a;-axis; to be distinguished

from the downwind drag Dw

foil

Rso
wave
RsA

Draft of a floating body or ship; alternative

and d
symbols
T Thrust; usually ahead thrust; specifically,

Radius the
Resistance,
of

rolling circle of a trochoidal

tx

section

still-air;

the wind resistance

due to ship speed alone through

still

air

thrust developed by a propulsion device

TTime or period a complete cycle; natural
of

sSpace

or

distance

in

general,

along

straight line or curved arc

s

Specific gravity of a

liquid, non-dimensional,

represented by the ratio [Weight (or mass) of a

given volume of the Kquid]/ [Weight (or mass) of

period of oscillatory ship motion of any kind

T,Taylor quotient, = V/ VL,

L in ft; this is dimensional
J' (pronounced

the

same volume

Sa

Slip

of

Ty

[V/{nP)]

is

in

toll) Towline tension in general

of towline tension

Components

relative to the x-, y-,

pure water]

ratio, apparent,

where

kt and

a body or ship

and

z-axes, respectively, of

HYDRODYNAMICS

908

Te

Period of encounter of waves, referred to

Thrust,
exerted on a ship by a

a ship or other point

IN SHIP DESIGN

r(l

propeller
direction
Velocity, linear component
longitudinal or x-axis
a body or ship
general;
U, V Velocity or speed

of, in

of

specifically,

in

body or
measurement

or speed of the

ship V, irrespective of units of

UAfVA, y E Velocity

or axial speed of ad-

vance of a propulsion device, reckoned in the

direction of motion of the device, = U Uw =
V - V^ = U{1 - w) = F(l - w)
Ui Velocity, induced, at a great distance
astern of a finite-length hydrofoil with circulation

Vg

Ur,

Velocity

or speed, resultant, of the

flow approaching a hydrofoil, taking account of

induced velocity

Relative impact or striking velocity

Velocity or speed,
the blades of a
propulsion device, = imD
Uw Vw Velocity or speed, wake, resulting
Us
Ut

tip, of

from

all

causes acting around a

body

or ship,

reckoned in the direction of motion

UjA Velocity, induced, axial; the axial component of the induced velocity at a selected point
in a propeller jet with rotation
UiT

Velocity,

gential

induced, tangential; the tan-

component

of the induced velocity at a

selected point in a propeller jet with rotation

Ua>

Fco

Velocity

of the liquid in the undis-

turbed part of a stream or at a great distance

from a body or ship

C/,Velocity, shear,

by Vto/p
Uotb

or

Uo

Orbital

particle in a gravity

Velocity,

linear

in viscous flow,

velocity

of

defined
surface

gential, of the blades of a paddlewheel,

component
body

U Speed

measured
and

at midheight of the blades for a radial wheel

at the blade-trunnion circle for a feathering wheel

Va

Ve

Speed or velocity of advance of

a propulsion device, reckoned in the direction of

motion of the device, = F(l w) = U{1 w)

Vi Schlichting intermediate speed, for analysis
of shallow-water performance
Vm Speed of model, as distinguished from ship

speed Vs
VoSpeed

of advance of a propulsion device

open water; speed of a ship along the approach
path just prior to entry into a turn
Vr Ur Speed or velocity, resultant, of the
flow approaching a hydrofoil
Vs Speed of ship, as distinguished from model
speed Vm
V Velocity of sound in a medium
Vt Towing speed of a tug
in

VsT Speed, steady-turning

Vw Uw Speed or velocity,

wake, resulting
from all causes acting around a body or ship,
reckoned in the direction of motion
F C/co Speed of the Uquid in the undisturbed part of a stream at a great distance from
,

a body or ship
F (pronounced vol)

ume

of

Volume; displacement vol-

a body or ship; alternative symbol V(also

pronounced vol)
Va Volume, afterbody, of a ship
b Volume, bulk, as of a submerged submarine
Ye Volume, entrance, of a ship
p Volume, forebody
p Volume, parallel middlebody
Vr Volume, run

F/(0.10L)' or V/(0.10L)' Fatness or (volume-0.1 length) ratio. This is preferred to a

length/volume ratio because it increases as the
fatness increases, the same as the displacementlength quotient of D.
quotient, where

W.

Taylor.

quotient T^ or speed-length
is

in kt

and L

in ft; this is

dimensional

of,

in direction

or ship, positive

to starboard

V,

measurement

Speed of ship in water of depth h

Velocity, nominal tanV (F of blade

V/\/L Taylor

wave

of transverse or y-a.xis of a

or velocity of the

circle)

tx/c, tx/l

XI.

V,,

roll

velocity of the liquid

liquid U, irrespective of units of

t)

Period of heave
To Thrust of a propulsion device in open water
Tp Period of pitch
Tjj Period of
Ts Thrust, slope, exerted by gravity on a
floating body on an inclined hquid surface
Tw Period of a gravity wave
Thickness ratio of a hydrofoil section
to/D Blade-thickness fraction of a screw
Th

of

Sec.

speed of the body or ship

effective,

propulsion device,

or velocity in general; specifically,

w Velocity,

component of,
from deck to
w Wake fraction of Taylor, = (F
(F - Ve)/V
linear

of the z-axis of a ship,

in direction

keel

- Va)/V =

SYMBOLS AND THEIR TITLES

X1.2

Sec.

w Weight density, or weight per unit volume,

= W/V = pg
Wf Wake fraction, Froude, = (F Va)/Va
Wq Wake fraction, determined from torque
identity

Wake fraction, determined from thrust

identity
W Weight in general; displacement weight;
weight or gravity force; scale weight of a body
where W = mg
or
WWind velocity
WnWeber number, relating to surface tension,
= C7'L/k (kappa) =
see NOTE under
W Wind velocity, relative to ship
WtWind velocity, true, over the earth's
Wt

direction of

surface;

C^,

sometimes called the natural-wind veloc-

W Wind velocity,

still-air,

sA

caused solely by

still air

Longitudinal body
positive forward
0-diml, of a screw propeller,
Radius
= R/Rm^^
reckoned usually in an ahead
Xo Motion
X

axis,

ratio,

x'

axis,

body
y

or ship along

symbol C w
a Ratio,

linear or scale, full-size

of

hydrodynamic

its

longitudinal or a;-axis

force on a

X (lambda)

Nominal angle of incidence on a control

neglecting
(1/2)q:b Angle of entrance,
shape at the stem; alternative symbol is
Angle of attack of a hydrofoil, hydrody-

ua

surface

half,

local
oti

namic, measured from the attitude or position of

zero hft to the direction of the resultant velocity,
taking induced velocity into account

Angle, neutral, between the zero-hft posiand the body or ship axes
ao Angle of attack of a hydrofoil,
alternative symbol a^
as Angle of attack of a hydrofoil, stalhng
Angle of attack of a hydrofoil,
alternative symbol ao
acR Angle of attack of a hydrofoil,
Advance angle for a propeller-blade
element, = tan"' [VA/{2irnR)] for the radius R
Angle bossing termination, extreme after
ai^

zero-lift;

zero-lift;

ttz

critical

of

fi

distance,

any point

perpendicular

in the

to

the

boundary layer

of a

viscous liquid

floor if or "deadrise" in a planing craft; angle of

obliquity for a flat surface impacting a Uquid

Angle of
in turning
Coefficient, midlength section; alternative
symbol Cm
Hydrodynamic pitch angle of a screw-prodrift

Transverse body
positive to starboard
Motion
reckoned usually to starboard
or to the right of the
Y Component of hydrodynamic force on a

peller

body

induced velocity into account

axis,

axis,

2/0

a;o-axis

or ship along its transverse or y-axis

Vertical body positive from deck to keel

Shaft convergence, expressed as an angle
axis,

Zc

or slope with reference to the centerplane, after

projection on the baseplane

Zd

Shaft

declivity, expressed as

an angle or

slope with reference to the baseplane, after projection

/3

fii

blade section at any radius R,

symmetry
r (gamma,

S (delta)

z-axis

of

of

Angular

surface from
5
5

of

its

capital)

Circulation,

strength

of,

around a hydrofoil or body

of

of

axis
of

taking

7 (gamma) Projected angle of roll

7 Dihedral angle, measured from the axis of a
hydrofoil to a normal erected on the plane of

on the centerplane

Motion
Az Sinkage
a body or ship when moving on
the surface
a Uquid
Z Component
hydrodynamic force on a
keelward or
body or ship along
ZNumber
blades in a propulsion device
a (alpha) Acceleration, angular
a Angle of attack
a hydrofoil, geometric
encounter of waves, between the
a Angle
2o

body or ship
symbol

to model, greater than unity; alternative

edge, with reference to the baseplane; slope of

Normal

surface, to

of ship

;S(beta)

direction, tangent to the sea surface

X Component

and the direction

a = 180 deg.

tion of a control surface

ity

the motion of a ship in

909
travel

motion. For a head sea,

a Designed waterplane coefficient; alternative

ship,

C/'i)/ k;

wave

its

displacement of a control

neutral position

Coeflacient, block; alternative symbol Cb

Thickness of a boundary layer in viscous flow
Advance ratio of D. W. Taylor, = nD/V
a

When n is expressed in rpm, D in ft, and Va

was done by Taylor,
and equal to 101.33/7
as

bs
axis

Angle,

bow

in kt,

this ratio is dimensional

plane, with reference to ship

HYDRODYNAMICS

910

Thickness of the laminar sublayer a

Angle, neutral, a control surface
Sp Angle, diving plane or horizontal control
surface, with reference to body or ship axis
reference to ship axis
8r Angle, rudder,
Angle, stern plane, with reference to ship
of

5l

viscous boundary layer

of

Sat

Avith

8s

axis
6* (delta

boundary

star)

'Displacement

thickness

of

IN SHIP DESIGN

Efficiency, mechanical
=
Efficiency, propeller, in open
{Kr/Ka)[J/{2T)] = (r7)/(2,mQo)
Efficiency, propulsive = Ps/Pp = VoVhtir
Efficiency, relative rotative, = vb/vo =
Vb/vo
Efficiency, shafting
0(theta) An angle in general
Angle of pitch or trim in a
with
7/m

r]p

qji

^An increment or decreA(delta, small capital)

ment; see also the combination symbols Usted
under the letter D
ACp (using small capital delta) Increment of
specific friction resistance due to surface roughness

large capital)

Displacement

weight

or scale weight, in tons of salt water (see item

Momentum thickness

Br

ds

plane, of the

craft

or

A/(L/100)' Displacement-

length quotient of D.

having a

W. Taylor

sp.gr. of 1.024 at

59 deg

equivalent to 63.863 lb per

ton of 2,240

lb,

and

ft'

for salt

or 35.075 ft'

for a length

per

in ft; this is

dimensional and is equal to the displacement, in

English long tons, of a geometrically similar ship
ft

long

of a

body

or ship; alternative

symbol

(also

(epsilon)

Angle

Drag-lift
Slope
f

of

downwash

of the surface of a gravity

wave,

Angle, vertical path, between the hori-

zontal plane and the velocity vector of the motion

CG

Efficiency, general
Elevation, surface, a wave, with reference
to a plane, usually the
=
Vb Ve Efficiency, propeller, behind ship
VoVr
Efficiency, gearing
of

still-water level

rio

hull,

(1

0/(1

Efficiency, ideal
Efficiency,

riK

in

J p.hB

ideal,

{imD)

design,

to

V a./

= VE/irnD)

Ratio, linear or

body
number

scale, full-size

or ship

greater

:20 model;

Magnification factor in resonant motion

a doublet, or close-coupled
=
dynamic,
Viscosity,

;u(mu)

n Strength of
source and sink

coefficient

of

r{i2M)/{dU/dy)
j'(nu)

Kinematic

viscosity,

coefficient of,

m/p
l(ksi)

Angle, tab, with reference to the control

surface on which
p(rho)

it is

mounted

Mass density, or mass per unit volume,

= m/ = w/g

~ ^)/l
Cavitation index, =
Cavitation index based on angular velocity,
e)/{0.5pn'D'')
=
for propeller
Cavitation index based on liquid
o-(sigma)

(pAba

tests,

with jet rotation

propeller

Angle, leeway, or of leeway

Coefficient, absolute advance, =

cn

Pe/Pt
T],

w)

factor

X (lambda)

7)

77 Efficiency,

of kinematic capillarity

the constant of capillarity

is

KGoldstein

of a ship

skeg

take account of the number of blades

IX

of the

line of a contra-guide

Coefficient

where k

k/p,

reckoned with respect to the horizontal

r)(eta)

median

than unity; for example, 20th scale or

alternative symbol a (alpha)

or sidewash

ratio of a blade section or hydrofoil

(zeta)

with reference to the ship center-

to model, generally expressed as a

pronounced vol)
Vb Volume, bulk; alternative symbol Vb

K(kappa)

X,

V (pronounced vol) Volume; displacement vol-

with reference to the ship center-

ending

water

or 15 deg C,

boundary layer

uj

c/-\

Slope,
Slope,

of

plane, of the incident flow on a contra-rudder

following) gravity load on the water for a planing

A/(0.010L)'

refer-

divided by the length L.

Jo

and other factors

ume

ship,

the designed waterline at the end perpendiculars,

100

97

ence to the designed or normal attitude in the

fore-and-aft plane. Its natural tangent is the
algebraic difference of the changes in elevation of

=/:(-f)

A (delta,

Avater,

7)0

layer,

XI .2

Sec.

<ru

<Tv

(pAb,

XI.

Sec.

velocity, for propeller tests,

SYMBOLS AND THEIR TITLES

= (pAb. e)/(0.5pFi)
CB Center of
CE Center of

Surface tension
Indexes of dynamic stability of
route
Cavitation index or number,
2(sigma, large capital) Sum, summation
T(tau) Shear, intensity of internal, in the
0-

0-1

0-2

etc.

ffcR

critical

viscous flow of a liquid, proportional to (dU/dy);

shearing stress
To

Shear

effort,

boundary

Angle,

geometric pitch or heUx, of a

screw-propeller blade at any radius

Angle of
or
reckoned about
the longitudinal ship axis
Potential function such as a velocity
=
potential, where u =
w = d<p/dz
Coefficient, prismatic, = /{LAx);
native symbol Cp
Coefficient, prismatic, vertical; alternative
heel, Ust,

<f>

roll,

body or ship
the wind blowing

of a

as for

sail

CF Center of flotation; geometric or moment

center of the surface waterplane area A w

Center

CG
body

of gravity or center of

mass

of

or ship

CM, CMt

M Metacenter, for transverse in-

clination

CMl Ml Metacenter,
,

intensity in a viscous liquid at a

solid-surface
<^(phi)

on a

911

buoyancy

for longitudinal incli-

nation

pressure
hydrodynamic forces
CS Static center; center resultant weight
W and buoyancy B
CCF Center cross forces applied normal to

CP Center
on a body

of

of

of

of

of

the direction of motion of the

CG

and normal to

<l>

d(t>/dx, v

d<j)/dy,

alter-

<i>

<t>v

the direction of

lift

sarily at the center of

area
CWL Construction waterline, as a position
only
0-dimlNon-dimensional, as applied to phys-

CLA Center of lateral area of the underwater

body, as projected on the plane of symmetry
CLP Center of lateral pressure; not neceslateral

symbol Cpv

Angle of yaw
Current or stream function
Radial stream function for a source
Radial stream function for a sink
^s Stream function for the flow around
^(psi)

}p

apphed to flow having

1^0

ical expressions; also as

4'K

characteristics variable in one dimension only

stream form

w (omega)

Angular speed or

velocity, generally

expressed as radians per unit time; alternative

sjnnbol n, generally expressed as revolutions per
unit time

0(omega, capital)

Gravity

potential,

due to

the earth's gravity force.

XI. 3

Two-dimensional, as applied to
3-diml Three-dimensional, as applied to flow,
shape, and the
DWL Designed waterline, as a position only
FPForward perpendicular, designed
LELeading edge
MP-Mid perpendicular
PPBetween perpendiculars; pivoting point
SKSink, as a drain for radial flow
SO Source, as a source of radial flow
TETrailing edge
TPTowing point or towed point
WLWaterline in general; free-surface water2-diml

Abbreviations for Positions and Con-

ditions.

C Center
ESeparation

point on a body in a stream,

where the relative flow velocity becomes zero at
the body surface in the process of reversing direc-

like

point along the intersection of the

any

fine in

may

tion

KAny

flow,

shape, and the like

or

condition, undisturbed

may

Sp.gr.

not be at the

by waves;

this

DWL

Specific gravity.

baseplane with the plane of sjonmetry

NNeutral
body

or ambient-pressure point

in a stream,

where

U = U

Origin of coordinates
Q Stagnation point on a

and p

body

on a

in a stream,

and the
dynamic pressure equals the ram pressure q
where the relative flow velocity

APAfter perpendicular,
CA Center of area

is

zero

designed

XI. 4

Abbreviations

for

Having Scalar Dimensions.

Physical

Concepts

The superposed bar

Pa,

or vinculum over the groups of letters in this

section indicate that they represent scalar quantities,

measurable in orthodox units.

BD Bilge-diagonal

offset,
at any station,
measured on the diagonal plane from the center-

line intersection to the hull surface


HYDRODYNAMICS

912

BG Pendulum

stability height, as of a sub-

when the

marine,

ne gUgi ble and

CM

waterplane area

surface

position

BMl Metacentric radius for longitudinal inclimaximum

BDI Bilge-diagonal

intercept,

wh en

PWL Length

measured be-

measured at mid-

width,

of the parallel or straight-sided

portion of the designed waterline

area, reckoned as a height

when

above the baseplane

projected to Bx/2; also called "deadrise"

and abbreviated

DR

RF/Bx

Ratio,

XI .5

Abbreviations for Units of Measurement.

extended to the vertical at Bx/2

BKW Bilge-keel

by

RF Rise of floor at shell at section of maximum

area

tween (1) the intersection of the bilge diagonal

with the centerline at the designed waterline and
(2) the intersection of this diagonal with the floor
h ne,

to change trim, followed

appropriate unit

nation
Bilge radius at section of

X1.5

taken as the midlength of the middle-

MCT -Moment

radius for transverse

inclination

BR

is

Sec.

body.

CB

coincides with

BM, BMx Metacentric

is

IN SHIP DESIGN

rise of floor to

beam.

BKW/Bx Ratio, bilge-keel width to designed

water line beam at the section of maximum area;
Blew is measured at midlength because it is

For convenience these abbreviations are placed

in natural groups involving length, area, volume,
weight, pressure, power, time, and the like,
rather than in alphabetic order.
The same abbreviation applies to both the
plural and singular of the word(s) it represents.
Periods are not inserted after any abbreviation or

usually greatest there

part thereof.

w herever this width is a maximum

BD/BDI Ratio, bilge-diagonal offset to bilge-

length or

diagonal intercept, at any station

BR/Bx
line

Ratio, bilge radius to designed water-

beam, at the section

of

maximum

area

PR Dea drise; see last part of definition forRF

GM, GiMx Metacentric height, transverse,

CG to CM, for transverse inclination

from

GMl Metacentric height,

CG to CMl for longitudinal

longitudinal,

incUnation

HS Half

siding at flat keel, wherever

maximum
HS/Bx Ratio
flat keel,

of the greatest

wherever

section of

maximum

it is

half -siding at

occurs, to the

it

from

beam

at the

area

KB Center of buoyancy above baseplane

KG Center of gravity above baseplane
KM, KMt Distance of metacenter above

KMl Distance of metacenter above baseplane

for longitudinal inclination

minimum, above

b asepl ane

KB/H Ratio

of height of center of

buoyancy

above baseplane to draft

LCB Longitudinal
FP, in fraction

LCF Longitudinal
FP,

center of

of L; alternative

buoyancy abaft
Lcb

center of flotation abaft

in fraction of L; alternative

LCG Longitudinal

Lcf

Lea

LM ALongitudinal position of section of maxiLma

area abaft FP, in fraction of L; alternative

If

inch
sq
square inch
sq
square foot
foot
sq yd, yd^ square yard
ydyard
sq mi, mi^ square mile
fmfathom
mimile; nautical mile unless
otherwise indicated
mm millimeter sq mm, mm^ square millimeter
cm centimeter sq cm, cm" square centimeter
sq m, m" square meter
m meter
km kilometer sq km, km^square kilometer
in

in, in"
t^

ft

ft, f

cubic inch
millimeter
cubic foot
cu
cu cm, cm' cubic centimeter
cu yd, yd' -cubic yard
cu m, m' cubic meter
U.S. gallon
Imp. gallon. Imperial, equal to 1.201 U.S.
gal
bbl barrel

cu

in, in^

mm, mm^ cubic

ft, ft'

gal,
gal.

center of gravity abaft FP,

in fraction of L; alternative

mum

Area

Length

cu

height at side,

listed here.

Volume

baseplane for transverse inclination

KS Sheer

Trigonometric abbreviations are well known

and are not

a vessel has parallel middlebody, this

Weight
kip a thousand pounds
ounce
kgkilogram
pound
ton be further specified)

oz
lb
t

(to

SYMBOLS AND THEIR TITLES

XI.

Sec.

913

pounds per square inch; above

atmospheric or gage pressure, unless otherwise

with the non-dimensional formulas which express

their values as multipliers of well-known 0-diml
numbers. Following these are the dimensional

specified

forms, as applied to English units of measurement.

Pressure
lb in^, psi, psig

pounds per square foot

lb in'

It is important that consistent units be employed in the formulas listed hereunder, as well
as in all other pure formulas, containing physical
concepts only. For example, in the English

14.2 lb in'

system of measurement, units should be lb, ft,

and sec. The same value of g should be used for

lb ft^, psf

pounds per square inch, absolute

roughly
atm atmospheres of pressure, in units
14.7
kg cm" kilograms per sq cm, in units of roughly
psia

of

all

Moment

the expressions.

Angles and Arcs

or Torque

inch-pound
foot-pound
kg-mkilogram-meter

degrees arc
radians, 360/

in-lb

deg

ft-lb

rad

of

(2 tt)

Length-Displacement Constant. The ratio

of the length

of the ship to the length of the

same volume

side of a cube having the

placement

or

of dis-

as the ship.

Power

horse, a unit power, English units unless

otherwise specified
hp horsepower
bhp brake power, in English horses
power, in English horses
ehp
ihp indicated power, in English horses
php propeller power, in English horses
shp shaft power, in English horses

of

in

effective

Speed-Displacement Constant. The ratio of

V of the ship to the speed of a wave with

the speed

a length equal to half the length of the side of a

cube having the same volume of displacement

or

as the ship.

Time and Rate

micro second, one millionth a second

msmillisecond
sec second
minminute
hr -hour
per second
per sec foot
fps or
per minute
per min foot
fpm or
cubic foot per second
cfm cubic foot per minute
cms cubic meter per second
ops cycles per second
gpmgallon per minute
per second
hz hertz, frequency
rps revolutions per second
rpm revolutions per minute
mph miles (generally geographical) per hour
mps meters per second
kt knot, one nautical mile per hour

2ir2

of

us

ft

(feet)

(feet)

ft

cfs

of

= V4ir

W,

displacement constant
lOOOfi '^

X L6 Circular Constant Notation. The several

symbols of the circular constant notation of
R. E. Froude and G. S. Baker are listed here,

to the displacement

. Here

_9_

lOOOff

At

wV
=

= wV.

V
V' At

39.79Cj

where Ct is the total specific resistance coefficient

based on ^^^ as the reference dimension.
(L)

speed

Temperature

divided by the square of the speed-

1 cj^cle

deg degree
deg C degree Centigrade
deg F degree Fahrenheit.

3.545F,

One thousand times

Resistance Constant.

the ratio of the resistance

weight

VgV

Speed-Length Constant. The ratio of the

V of the ship to the speed of a gravity wave

of length equal to half the length

(p)

of the ship.

3.545F

Speed-Prismatic-Length Constant. The ratio

V of the ship to the speed of a wave

of the speed

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

914

of length Cp{L), where Cp is the prismatic coeflBcient of the ship and L is the ship length.

stants,
lb,

where

is

in kt,

is

Sec.

in ft,
is

in

A
ft^,

and Pe

horses:

\2-K

Wetted-Surface Constant. The ratio of the

ship wetted surface S to the area of one face of a
cube having the same volume displacement V or

0.3057 ^1/3

0.5834

2.5066

(s)

= 427.1^^^

1.055

0.746

as the ship.

o
TI2/3

o
V72/3

There are given hereunder the familiar dimensional expressions for the several circular con-

There

is

no Appendix 2

in this

Vl
V
Vc7(LJ

volume.

0.0935

XI.

in long tons of 2,240

is

is

in English

APPENDIX

Mechanical Properties of Water, Air,

and Other Media

General
Reference Data for Weights, Volumes, and
Mass Densities of "Standard" Fresh and

X3.1
X3.2

Saltwater

X3.4

Other Mechanical Properties of Fresh and

Salt Water at Atmospheric Pressure; Dynamic Viscosity and Surface Tension
.

General.

X3.1

There are many

fluids.

water,

of

air,

published

and other common

The tabulated values

shown, are

these sources,

in

all sufficiently precise for

the

usual problems in engineering design.

Nevertheless it is disconcerting, to a student or
especially to
field to

an engineer, when shifting from one

another, say in a time of national emer-

gency when everyone is harassed, to encounter a

group of different values for what is apparently
a standard state of some medium. Furthermore,
certain ratios in everyday use in naval architecture are by no means consistent when derived in
several different ways. To clarify this situation
for the marine architect a set of so-called "standard" values has been evolved, for both fresh

and

salt water.

in the sections

Elastic Characteristics of

X3.8

Mechanical Properties of Air and Exhaust

Gases at Atmospheric Pressure and at
Sea Level
Mechanical Properties of Other Liquids and
Gases
Chemical Constituents of Sea Water

Common

They

are described

which

follow.

X3.10
X3.ll

of State of Fresh

921

922

Liquids

List of Pertinent References

and tabulated

set of standard

The

Salt Water.

mass

922
924
924
925

so-called standard unit weights,

densities, temperatures,

ities in

use for

and by model

many

specific grav-

were
most part because they were
round numbers, easy to remember, and easy to
use. Indeed, if they approximated 1.0, they were
often thrown away. That they were anything
but consistent among themselves was not too
important, because the deviations involved were
generally of smaller magnitude than the overall
precision of measurement of the various operabasins, at least in America,

selected for the

tions.

They began with

35

ft^

the use of the round numbers

per ton for sea water and 36

ft^

per ton for

These gave values of 64.000 lb per

ft' for salt water and 62.222 lb per ft' for fresh
water, based on long tons of 2,240 lb. Incidentally,
because some seas in the world contain fresh
water in their upper levels, the term "salt water"
fresh water.

used in this book;

is

embodied in
these "standard" water values are by no means
necessary in making first and second approxima-

contrast to "fresh water."

five significant figures

and

years by naval architects

values for air already exists.

While the

and Salt

Water and Other

920

while often differing within the range of significant

figures

X3.7

X3.9

sources of information concerning the mechanical

properties

Data on Change
Water

918

920

neering Units

X3.5

X3.6

915

Mass-Density Values of Fresh and Salt

Water, in English and Metric Engineering
Units
Kinematic-Viscosity Values of Fresh and
Salt Water, in English and Metric Engi-

X3.3

915

When

it

also stands in

round numbers were used, the

better

specific

tions or in the early stages of a ship design, they

gravity of salt water on a basis of fresh water

came out as 36/35, or 1.0286. Since this was

lend themselves to the desk-machine calculation

larger than the ratio existing in

now almost

oceans,

universal in the later stages of a

ship design, or in the preparation of technical

of the

Model Basin,

half a century ago, adopted a smaller value of

reports.

1.024.

Reference Data for Weights, Volumes,

and Mass Densities of "Standard" Fresh and

it

X3.2

most parts

the U. S. Experimental

The

origin of this figure

is

not

known but

was embodied in all the calculations of the 1910

edition of D. W. Taylor's "The Speed and Power

915


916

HYDRODYNAMICS
TABLE

All data are for a

X3.a

water temperature of 59 deg

of 10.

Title

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec.

X3.2

Reference Data for Standard Water

or 15 deg

C and

a latitude of 45 deg. All logarithms are to the base


Sec.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER

X3.2

TABLE
The

X3.C

Standard Characteristics op the Water Used

basin water

is

assumed to be at an average temperature

Title

of

in

917

Several Model Basins in North America

68 deg F, 20 dcg C.


918

HYDRODYNAMICS

IN SHIP DESIGN

TABLE X3.e Mass Density of SALT WATER, 3.5 Per Cent Salinity,

Sec.

X5.3

Embodying Variation With Temperature

The values given are in English engineering units of slugs per ft'. They correspond to those adopted by the American
Towing Tank Conference in 1939 and published in SNAME, 1939, p. 416. To convert them to pounds weight, multiply
by the local acceleration of gravity g.

Temperature,


Sec.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER

X3.3

TABLE
The

X3.g

Mass Density of SALT WATER,

3.5

values given are in metric engineering units of slugs per meter'.

Temperature,

919

Per Cent Salinity, Embodying Variation With Temperature


HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

920

TABLE
The values

X3.i

listed are for (lO^);- in meters^

figures in this table are

Fresh

Sec.

X3A

Kinematic Viscosity of Fresh and Salt Water, in Metric Engineering Units

somewhat doubtful.

per sec.

The

salinity of the salt

water

is

3.5 per cent.

The

fifth significant


Sec.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER

X3.6

TABLE
The data

X3.j

in this table, expressed in English engineering units, are taken

Temperature,

921

Mechanical Properties op Fresh Water at Atmospheric Pressure

from H. Rouse [EMF, 1946,

p. 364].


HYDRODYNAMICS

922

TABLE
The data on vapor pressure

IN SHIP DESIGN

Data on Change of State op Fresh and Salt Water

of fresh water are taken from H. Rouse [EMF, 1946, Table XI, p. 364]. The note

Sec.

X3.7

X3.1

concerning
taken from page 67 of the book "The Oceans: Their Physics, Chemistry, and General
Biology," by H. U. Sverdrup, M. W. Johnson, and R. H. Fleming, 1942. Table 29 on page 116 of the reference, not
reproduced here, lists the "maximum vapor tension in millibars" over water of 3.5 per cent salinity for a range of temperature from 2 deg C to 32 deg C.
the vapor pressure of sea water

Temperature,

is


MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER

X3.8

Sec.

mechanical properties of air at atmospheric

pressure and at sea level, depending upon what

in the

source
of his

consulted. A. H. Shapiro, in Volume I

book "Compressible Fluid Flow," 1953,

is

pages 612-613, gives the following principal data,

to

which supplementary data have been added:

Height above sea

Temperature, T
Speed of sound, c
Pressure,

level,

h Oft

59 deg F, 15 deg
1,117 ft per sec
2,116.2 lb per

ft'

14.696 psi
29.91 inches of

Hg

o 759.7 mm. of Hg
Mass

0.002378 slugs per

density, p

Weight density,

0.0765 lb per

Coefficient of viscosity,

ft'

ft'

3.719(10"') slugs per

^x

ft-sec

Kinematic

1.564(10"")

viscosity, v

per

ft^

sec.

Corresponding data for

temperature from
deg
listed in Table X3.n.

For possible use

air,

over a range of

to 200 deg F, are

in wind-resistance calculations,

as well as for the design of stacks and other

outlets to carry exhaust gases

and products

of

TABLE X3.m Bulk Modulus of Elasticity of Fresh

AND Salt Water at Atmospheric Pressure
are taken from H. Rouse [EMF, 1946, p.

The data

except that the value of

K for fresh water at

364],

100 deg

is

increased to 332,000 to agree with a faired curve of these

values.

from

The X-value

this curve.

Temperature,

for 59

deg F, 15 deg C,

is

interpolated

923


HYDRODYNAMICS

92-1

TABLE

X3.p

60

The data

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec.

X3.9

Density Characteristics of Common Liquids and Gases Under Atmospheric Pressure at

in these tables are

Deg P

adapted from those given by H. Rouse [EMF, 1946, Appendix, Tables VII,

VII, p. 3581.

Liquids

Under Atmospheric Pressure at

60

Deg F

p. 357,

and

Sec.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AND Wy\TER

X3.ll
(a)

Chlorine

(f)

Potassium

(b)

Sodium
Magnesium

(g)

Bromine

(h)

Strontium

(c)

(d)
(e)

Sulphur
Calcium

(i)

Boron

(j)

Silicon

I.

Chloride, Cl-

18.98 parts per thousand

SOr

Sulphate,

Bicarbonate,

Bromide, Br"

0.065

F~
Boric acid, H3BO3

0.0013

Fluoride,

II.

Sodium,

Na+

MgBr,

or

"Of

0.400

Ca"*""*"

alkali"

possible that

generators,

(1)

reason

why

may

book referenced previously:

(6)

(7)

(8)

be the

the analysis which follows does not

agree in certain respects with the data presented

in the

(5)

condensers,

evaporators, heat exchangers, and the hke, some

of the constituents are altered. This

1949, p. 75].

List of Pertinent References.

Refer-

of data in this

appendix are

listed

hereunder:

by the time the sea water,

the form of steam

[MESR, Nov

1949].

(3)

with these constituents plus its dissolved air

and gases, is mixed up with shipboard machinery
in

magnesium bromide, 0.01 percent.

magnesium chloride is most objectionable

these, the

and magnesium hydroxide are found in the scale

on evaporators may not mean that these compounds were present in the sea water being
evaporated, in just that form [Brush, C. E., and
Browning, R. C, "Notes on Prevention of Scale
in Evaporators," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 21 Jan

(4)

is

or calcium carbonate, 0.01 percent

Just because calcium sulphate, calcium carbonate,

0.0133 parts per thousand.

figures in the original table, the total

roughly 34.48 parts per thousand.

It

2.72 percent

Adding up the exact

is

salt),

magnesium chloride, 0.38 percent

magnesium sulphate, 0.17 percent

because it breaks down, forming hydrochloric acid,

MgCl, + 2H2O = 2HC1 + Mg(0H)2 Other acids formed
from these solids are: Carbonic, sulphuric, and nitric.
These can be neutralized by compounding properly with

(2)

0.380

K"""

Strontium, Sr^^

or

and groups

10.57 parts per thousand

1.272

Calcium,

or

ences consulted in the preparation of the tables

0.026 parts per thousand.

Magnesium, Mg^^
Potassium,

MgClj

MgSOi
CaCOa

X3.ll

0.14

follows:

NaCl, or sodium chloride (common

2.65

HCOs"

by weight, as

solids

These and the remaining data in this section are

taken from the extensive information assembled
by H. U. Sverdrup, M. W. Johnson, and R. H.
Fleming in "The Oceans: Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology" [Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
New York, 1942].
Although the chemical compounds in sea
water appear to be present in proportions that
are remarkably constant, it is difficult to isolate
and measure them by present methods of analysis.
Table 35 on page 173 of the reference lists these
constituents in two groups:

925

"Sea water contains about 3.5 percent of dissolved

(9)

Rouse, H., EMF, 1946, Appendi.x, pp. 357-365

Rouse, H., (editor), EH, 1950, AppendLx, pp. 10041012
Rouse, H., and Howe, J. W., BMF, 1953, Appendix,
pp. 231-238
Eshbach, O. W., (editor), "Handbook of Engineering
Fundamentals," Wiley, New York, 1st ed., 1936
"Landolt-Bornstein Physikalich-Chemische Tabellen
(Chemical-Physical Tables)," edited by W. A. Roth
and K. Scheel, Julius Springer, Beriin, 1923-1936
"Smithsonian Physical Tables," Smithsonian Institution, Washington, ninth revised edition. Vol. 88, 1954
"International Critical Tables," McGraw-Hill, New
:

York
"Handbook of Chemistry and Physics," Chemical
Rubber Publishing Company, Cleveland
Sverdrup, H. U., Johnson, M. W., and Fleming, R. H.,
"The Oceans: Their Physics, Chemistry, and
General Biology," Prentice-Hall,
1942.

Inc.,

New

York,

APPENDIX

Useful Data for Analysis and Comparison

X4.1
X4.2

General

Customary Units of Measurement in the

English System
X4.3 Ratios Between English Units of Measure-

General.

X4.4

926

X4.5
X4.6

926

ment; Standard Values

X4.1

926

Hydrodynamic

and

analysis

Conversion
English-Metric
and
Ratios,
Metric-English
Ratios of Ship Parameters and Coefficients
Frequently Used Numbers, Their Powers, and
Logarithms
.

some system

of measurement.

The

929
930
932

units of the

design can rarely proceed very far without getting

English engineering system, listed in Table X4.a,

into the realm of numbers, for expressing magni-

are used in this book unless indicated otherwise

tudes and intensities of one kind or another.

The recent phenomenal growth in the availability of tabular material [Luke, Y. L., "Numer-

for a particular case.

ical Analysis,"

310], prepared

Appl. Mech. Rev.,

and published

Aug

1955, p.

and

for the scientist

the engineer in general, should find

its

counter-

part in an expansion of similar material for the

naval

architect

and

marine

engineer.

This

appendix, taken in conjunction with Appendix

is

3,

considered a minor but appreciable beginning

and marine architect.

X4.2 Customary Units of Measurement in the
English System. It is customary, although not

for both hydrodynamicist

universal,

to

express

the

magnitudes

of

all

important physical terms or concepts in units of

TABLE
Symbol

X4.a

The

"consistent" units of the English system

and the second.

Ratios Between English Units of Meas-

are normally the pound, the foot,

X4.3

urement; Standard Values.

Most

of the ratios

between units used to express given concepts are

simple numbers, learned in elementary school.
Examples applying to the length concept are
1 yd = 3 ft and 1 mile = 5,280 ft. However,
certain other relationships are not so simple, nor
do they always remain fixed. One such ratio is

number
by 360/2ir
the

57.3.

of degrees in a radian, represented

57.2956, usually abbreviated to

Another familiar example

feet in

is

the

number

of

a nautical mile. This ratio has had a

Customary Units of Measurement

in

the English System


Sec.

X4J

USEFUL DATA FOR ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON

TABLE

The number

Ft per

sec

X4.b

of significant figures

Corresponding Values of Speed, in Four Different Units

ia

limited to those used in rapid engineering calculations.

927


HYDRODYNAMICS

928

TABLE
For

T,

X4.C

this tabulation the corresponding values

= V/Vl

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec.

X4.3

Correspondinq Values of Taylor or Speed-Length Quotient and Froude Number

have been taken as

V/y/^ =

0.2978F/v'i and V/y/L = 3.S5SV/\/gL

Sec.

X4.4

USEFUL DATA FOR ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON

TABLE X4.C Continued

= V/VgL

929


HYDRODYNAMICS

930

TABLE

X4.d

Sec.

X4.5

Corbbspondinq Values op Displacbment-Lbnoth Quotient and O-Diul Fatness Ratio

The

IN SHIP DESIGN

conversion factors used here are described in Sec. X4.5.

Sec.

X4.5

HYDRODYNAMICS

932

whether they are dimensional or

the concepts forming parts
dimensional parameters are given certain

definite values

dimensionless.
of

When

IN SHIP DESIGN

Sec.

X4.6

quently used in hydrodynamic ship-design problems, together with their frequently used powers

and with logarithms

of these

numbers

to the

then possible to express their

relationships to the dimensionless values, for any
given system of measurement. There are tabu-

base 10, are listed hereunder in a form to make

them readily available for calculation purposes.

lated in this section certain ratios which occur

in

accepted values

frequently in

it is

the

treatment of hydrodynamic

problems in ship design.

One such ratio in everyday use is that between
the Taylor quotient T^ and the Froude number
F By definition and accepted practice, T^ =
.

YI \/L, where V is in kt and L in ft; by consistent

=

units, F

V/'s/^L, where

is in ft

per sec,

and L in ft. The ratio between

Ta and F depends upon the "standard" value
assumed for the acceleration of gravity g and
the length of a nautical mile. At a latitude of
45 deg and at sea level, g is taken as 32.174 ft per
sec''. For this book, 1 nautical mile is 6080.20 ft.
g in ft per sec",

Then

^ F

(ft

per sec)

in Parts

and

12,

logio

144,

log.o

=
=

1,728,

logio

3.23754

3.281 ft per meter.

logio

0.51601

logio

0.22760

logio

0.16643

logio

0.22732

0.2978

-^y^

1.07918

2.15836

SPEEDS AND VELOCITIES

1.6889 ft per sec for Ikt, in
this book,

1.467 ft per sec for

mph,

(ft)

2.

LENGTHS AND AREAS

national knot, 1954,

V32.174L

\/gL

0.5921,

logio

9.77240

2.8524,

logio

0.45521

1.

0.2978r,

(1.6889)'

ACCELERATIONS
=

3.358F

0.2978

For rule-of-thumb work,

T^

0.3T

and

32.174

ft

\/32.174

10i^/3.

Corresponding values of the pair T, and F

and the pair F and T, are listed in Table X4.c,
for a range sufficient to cover all design problems
,

and ships, small and large.

Another conversion that needs to be made
often is the one between D. W. Taylor's displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)^ and the
0-diml fatness ratio F/(0.10L)^ A conversion

for boats

5.6722,

logio

=
=

0.75375

0.17630,

logio

9.24625

per sec'

logio

1.50751

\/32.174

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
When Knu) =

1.2285(10"'), then
1

1.2285(10"')

When

0.8140(10')

then

1.2817(10"'),

factor has to be fixed here because of Taylor's

1

use of a specific gravity for salt water of 1.024,

corresponding to a volume of 35.075 ft^ per long
ton.

For converting from the displacement-length

quotient to the 0-diml fatness ratio, the former is

multiplied by 0.035075 or divided by 28.510. To

1.2817(10"')

0.7802(10')

WAVE ACTION
=

obtain values of the displacement-length quotient

from the 0-diml fatness ratio, multiply the latter

by 28.510 or divide it by 0.035075.

Table X4.d lists corresponding values of these
two quantities.
Used Numbers, Their
X4.6 Frequently
Powers, and Logarithms. The numbers fre-

is

accordance with the general subjects discussed

1.6878 ft per sec for inter-

1.6889F(kt)

For certain special numbers the grouping

=
6.2832

V2^ =
1

V2^

2.50663
0.39894.

2.2629 English units

.2493 metric units

Personal-Name Index
In the case of persons having a great many actual envolume, only the most important are included.

in the

With a few

exceptions, the

names

Abbott, I. H., 74, 272, 606, 608

Abell, T. B., 39, 77, 440, 726
Acevedo, M. L., 86, 107, 109, 113,
130, 319
Acker, H. G., 564, 565
Ackeret, J., 579
Adamson, G., 271, 272
Aertsson, G., 98, 126, 279
Ahlborn, F., 35, 37, 141, 144
Airy, Sir G. B., 183
Aitken, R. L., 765
Akimoff, N. W., 39
Alexander, F. H., 752, 753
Allan, J. F., 131, 132, 608, 787
Allen, R. C., 785
Allen, W. G., 733
Allison, J. M., 270
Amtsberg, H., 126, 687
Amundsen, R., 796
Anderson, M. A., 331
Anderson, R. E., 74
Aquino, A. Q., 262, 368, 371
Archer, C., 796

Arnold, R. N., 82, 144, 150

Arnott, D., 549
Arthur, R. S., 184

Ashton,

R.,

255,

841,

842,

866

of people

Acknowledgements section

ning on page

tries in this

v, are

mentioned

Barnaby,

W.,

S.

xix,

154, 540

Barnett, J. R., 817

Barr, G. E., 336
Barry, R. E., 561, 711, 726

Bateman, H.,

130, 343

2, 4,

Bates, J. L., 228, 231, 236, 237, 355,

465, 700

Baule, A., 70

Baumann,

H., 440
Bayard, N., 765

Bazin, H., 129

Beach, D. D., 845, 855, 867

Beatty, K. O., Jr., 95
Beaufoy, M., 99, 187
Beebe, R. P., 752
Belcher, Sir E., 781
Bell, A. G., 272
Bell, L. G., 157
Bellante, E., 704
Benard, H., 6, 38, 141
Bengough, G. D., 122, 125

Benson, F. W., 205, 608

Benson, J. M., 272
Bergeron, T., 185
Berggren, R. E., 609
Bertin, L. E., 183
Betz, A., 25, 69, 71, 129, 337, 343,
533, 534, 607

Attwood, E. L., 175, 479, 818

Audren, V., 713
Aupetit, A., 787
Ayre, Sir Amos L., 316, 537

Bienen, Th., 607

Babcock, W. I., 755

Bacon, D. L., 82

Biermann, D., 141, 293

Bigelow, H. B., 172, 184
Biles, H. J. R., 279
Biles, J. H., 227
Bindel, S., 312
Binder, R. C., 2, 922
Bion, C. W., 764

Baler, L. A., 103, 104, 116, 127, 255,

Birkhoff, G., 4, 134, 158, 206, 216,

Baader,

236, 340, 579, 651-653,

J.,

658, 698, 724, 855, 862, 863, 866

553, 670, 672, 755, 763, 786, 865

Baines,

W.

217, 219, 221, 319

Bisplinghoff, R. L., 271

D., 104, 131

185

Baird, G., 336

Bjerknes,

Bairstow, L., 39

Bjerknes, V., 185

Baker, G.

Blake, F. G.,

S., 25, 39, 40, 95, 98, 99,

125, 132, 144, 234, 262, 269, 278-

280, 359, 415, 416, 465, 582, 585,

600,

608,

650,

660,

764,

913

Bakhmeteff, B. A., 130

Baldwin, F. W., 272
Ball,

W.

E., Jr., 51

Barakovsky, V., 779

Barbour, H. J., 773
Barkla, H. M., 269, 308, 310, 787
Barnaby, J. W., 157
Barnaby, K. C., 126, 280, 284, 375,
474, 478, 752, 787, 833, 850, 853

of this volume, begin-

not duplicated in this index.

J.,

Jr.,

158

Blanchard, U. J., 271

Blank, H., 416
Blasius, H., 104, 129
Bleuzen,

J.,

250

Block, W., 177, 179

Blum, J., 189

Borden, A., 51, 293

Bottomley, G. H., 719, 720
Bottomley, W. T., 157
Bowen, F. C., 571
Bowers, W. H., 155
Boyd, G. M., Jr., 271
Brabazon, Lord, 572
Bradlee, F. B. C., 571
Bragg, E. M., 242, 335, 336, 509,
640-642, 663, 664
Brahmig, R., 418, 437, 440
Brand, M., 42, 61
Brard, R., 39, 71, 250, 413, 416
Brazell, N. J., 367, 568
Brehme, H., 600
Breslin, J. P., 704
Bridge, I. C., 335, 336
Bridgman, P. W., 4
Briggs,

H.

B., 157

Briggs, L. J., 82

Brin, C. B., 337

Brodetsky,
Brodie, J.

S.,

S.,

157

665, 674

Browne, A. D., 440

Browning, R. C., 925
Bruckhoff, 129
Brunt, D., 275
Brush, C. E., 925
Bryant, C. N., 129
Buchi, G., 337, 687
Buckingham, E., 4

Budd, W. I. H., 236, 474

Buermann, T. M., 271, 273
Biiller, K. J., 272, 273, 755
Bunyan, T. W., 433, 733
Burge, C. H., 565
Burgers, J. M., 129
Burgess, C. P., 228, 765, 787

Burke, A. A., 414

Burkhardt, J. E., 358, 572, 575,
580, 598
Burrill, L. C.,

144, 153, 158, 159,

338, 352, 374, 440, 579, 599, 605,

608, 609, 625, 630, 762

Burtner, E., 569

Bustard, E. E., 460

Cafiero, D., 413

Blumerius, R., 336

Bobyleff, 48
Boetcher, H. N., 156

Caldwell, A., 691, 715

Boie, C., 441

Carrier, G. F., 131

Bollay, W., 271

Cauchy, A.

Booth, H., 39

933

Calvert, G. A., 99, 359

CampbeU,

I. J.,

40, 42, 43

L., 183
Chambliss, D. B., 271

HYDRODYNAMICS

934
H. I., 752, 787
Chapman, C. F., 280
Chapman, F. H., 187, 204
Chapelle,

Charpentier, H., 4
Chartier,

C, 607

Christofferson, V., 805

Christopher, K. W., 331

Chu, H., 43, 45

Chu, P. C, 43, 45
Church, O., 77
Churmack, D. A., 276, 349
Clark, L., 696, 781

Claughton, H., 652

Clement, E.

P., 271, 837, 840, 841,

846, 850, 866, 867

Coales, J. D., 77, 195

Cockerill (Shipyard), 338

J.,

82

Cole, A. P., 439

Cole, F.

IN SHIP DESIGN

722
M., 4, 99, 129, 139,
243, 331, 467, 651, 787, 866
Davies, D. G., 329, 331
Davies, E. T. J., 272
Davis, A. W., 144
Davis, H. F. D., 125, 591, 592
Davidson, K.

Davis,

W.

S.

F.,

Dawson, A.

75,

704

J.,

135, 554, 674

De Groot, D., 154, 827, 867

de Luce, H., 236
Denes, G., 787
Den Hartog, J. P., 144

700, 736, 756, 792, 805, 809, 810,

J. T., 303, 305, 770

Comstock, J. P., 98, 416, 548
Conn, J. F. C, 113, 144, 311, 440,
596
Connelly, D. S., 651
Cook, F. E., 705
Cook, G. C, 816
Cook, S. S., 349
Coombes, L. P., 271, 272
Cooper, F. E., 816
Cooper, R. D., 144
Coqueret, F., 360, 553
Corbett, J., 817
Corlett, E. C. B., 572, 632, 650, 867
Cornbrooks, T. M., 778, 779

ColHns,

Cornish, V., 175, 183, 184

241
Couch, R. B., 117, 126, 139, 243,
378, 379
Cowles, W. C, 756
Cowley, W. L., 77, 195
Cox, O. L., 703
Crabbe, E. R., 82
Craig, R. K., 456, 565
Cramp (Shipyard), 234
Crane, C. H., 753, 754, 786, 787, 865
Cross, A. W., 755
Crouch, G. F., 834, 853
Crowley, J. W., 270
Crump, S. F., 147, 158
Cotterill, J. H.,

Cummins, W. E.,
Cunningham, D.

69, 71

B.,

772

Curr, R., 755

816

De

Rusett, E. W., 652

de Saint-Venant, J.-C. B., 183
de Santis, R., 650
Desel, R. F. P., 303, 305, 339, 770
de Verdiere, G., 242, 713
de Vito, E., 479, 496

262

Daily, J. W., 150, 159, 649

Eiffel, G., 293, 588,

589

Eisenberg, P., 42,

147,

155,

157,

292

Eisner, F., 130

EUis, J.

457
279

J.,

Ellis, R.,

W. M., Jr., 293, 704

Emerson, A., 153, 158, 195, 765
Epshteyn, L. A., 631
Ericson, N., 805
Ellsworth,

J., 807
Erismann, M. C, 786
Eshbach, O. W., 270, 279, 925,
928-930
Eustaze, S., 564
Everett, H. A., 237, 817

Ericsson,

Fage, A., 82
Fairbairn, W., 227
Farrell,

K.

Fauber,

W.

287

Dudebout,

Forbes,

A., 32, 70, 104, 129, 335,

Fea,

L.,

P., 285,

H., 269

579

Fenger, F. A., 536

Ferguson,

M.,

J.

Fermann, W.

Dudgeon, J., 531

Duggan, G. H., 789-790
Duncan, W. J., 4, 608
Durand, W. F., 73, 118,

Dyer, J. M., 773

Dyson, C. W., 589

511

Ferrell, J. K.,

Ferris,

W.

A. D., 125

Fottinger, H., 40, 47, 50, 61, 70

Fournier, Adm., 221

Fowler, H.
169, 180,

Fowler,

M.

S.,

39

E., 106

Fox, Uffa, 3, 276, 786, 787

Franklin, B., 337
Freeh, F. F., 779

Freeman, H. B.,

97, 152,

Easter, E. W., 673

Freimanis, E., 791, 792

Frick, C. W., 704

Ebel, F. G., 503

Froude, R. E.,

C, 184
Eckhardt, M. K.,

127,

116,

E., 588, 859

Forest, F. X., 236, 248, 301

337, 338, 479

607, 643, 820, 823, 865

98,

257, 274, 278, 280, 287, 314, 509,

95
T. E., 236, 502
Fisher, C. R., 755
Fisher, J. W., 154
Flachsbart, 0., 74
Flamant, G., 183
Flamm, O., 38
Fleming, R. H., 184, 185, 921, 922,
925
Flodin, J., 804
Flugel, G., 37, 78, 608
Foerster, E., 237, 359, 607, 674
Forbes, R. B., 571

227, 272, 321, 331, 335, 415, 564,

Dahlmann, W.,

T., 172, 184

Edstrand, H., 153, 157, 597, 609,
792, 798, 799
Edward, J., 764
Edwards, V. B., 674
Eggert, E. F., 47, 154, 244, 245,

687
Diehl, W. S., 270, 271, 291, 323
Dieudonnfe, J., 157
Dillon, E. S., 508, 513
Dimpker, A., 440
Diproso, K. V., 82
Dislere, 129
Dodero, E., 547
Doell, H. A., 579
Doherty, C. S., 271
Dorey, S. F., 635
Douglas, W. R., 537
Doust, D. J., 787
Douty, J. F., 787
Downer, H. C, 756
Doyere, C, 316
Dryden, H. L., 2, 4, 82, 131
DuBosque, F. L., 3ll, 790-793
Du Cane, P., 833, 834, 866
67, 371, 568,

865
Curry, M., 275, 276
Curry, W. H., 82
Curtiss, G. H., 269
Cutland, R. S., 131, 132, 325
J. F.,

Edmonson, W.

Fancev, M., 312

Dewey, D. R., 49
Dickmann, H. E.,

Currie, W., 561

Curry,

Eden, C. G., 39

158,

de Rooij, G., 228, 553, 558, 684,

C, 674

Collar, A. R., 342

Eckman, V. W., 185

510, 514, 684

Deacon, G. E. R., 184

de Berlhe, B., 673
de Bothezat, G., 141
Deetjen, R., 336, 648

Denny, Sir M. E., 311, 712, 791

Denny, W., (Shipyard), 241
Deparis, G., 358

Coffee, C. W., Jr., 273

Cohen,

C,

Darnell, R.

1,

157

99, 241, 457, 585,

586, 752, 906, 913

Eckart,

610, 627

Froude, W.,

3,

99,

129,

140, 183,

PERSONAL-NAME INDEX
185, 241, 306, 311, 370, 390, 440,

748, 781

W.

G., 70
E.,

211, 215, 216, 218,

Guins, G. A., 837, 865

Guntzberger, H., 286, 440
Gutsche, F., 80, 82, 85, 144, 579,

656

Gagnatto, L., 286

Gaillard, D., 183
Gamon, T. A., 865
Gannett, H., 660
Garabedian, P. R., 158
Garber, H. J., 49
Gardner, H. A., 125
Gardner, J. H., 336
Garibaldi, R. J., 438
Garthune, R. S., 413
Gates, S. B., 82
Gatewood, R., 183
Gautier, J., 242

Gawn, R. W.

607, 608, 687

Haack, M., 415

Haas, H., 532
Hadeler, W., 865
Hadler,

Hama,

334, 357, 378, 519

F. R., 132

Hamilton,
Hamilton,

J.,

662

W.

S., 98,

Hammar, H.

L., 125, 153, 157, 158,

386, 585, 586, 608, 609, 631

596
Gerstner, F., 174, 182
Gertler, M., 42, 132, 223, 231, 301,

303, 318, 472, 878

Ghiradi, L., 818

Gilbarg, D., 158

H. W., 340
Gillmor, H. G., 331
Gill, J.

256

G., 805

Hancock, C. H., 49, 98, 416

Hankins, G. A., 4
Hannan, T. E., 609
Hanovich, I. G., 276, 349
Hansen, M., 129
Hanson, H. C., 547, 773, 774
Hanzlik, H. J., 703
Hardy, A. C., 279, 672, 653, 772
Harlemen, D. R. F., 185
Harper, M. S., 255
Harris, J. E., 125

Gilmore, F. R., 168

Harris,

R. G., 157

Harrison, M., 168

608, 609

I.,

J. B.,

Giroux, C. H., 665

Hart, M., 335, 647, 648, 689

Glauert, H., 18, 71, 343, 352, 609

Hartman,

Gleyzal, A. N., 441

Harvald, S. A., 243, 245, 246, 262,

359, 368-370

Goldstein,

S.,

Goodall, F.

79, 80,

2,

C,

105, 607

547, 671

Goodall, Sir S. V., 82

Goodrich,

773

J. F.,

Gouljaeff, N., 805

Graef, E. W., 764

Graemer,

L.,

Graham, D.
Graham, D.
Granberg,

794
609

J.,

705
773, 774

P., 125,

W.

J.,

Granville, P. S., 131

Gras, v., 336

Grasemann,

C.,

790

Gravier, G., 572

Gray, T. L., 666

Green, A. E., 167
Green, C., 791
Green, R., and H., 338
Greening, H. B., 685
Greer, J. F., 269
Grenfell, T. E., 725, 726, 866
Griffiths, R.,

523

Grim, O., 441

Gross, C. F., 791

Grunberg, V., 272

Grupp, C. W., 273
Gruschwitz, E., 98, 130
Guidoni, A., 272
Guillonde, L., 564

935

W.

Herrnstein,

H., Jr.,

141,

293

Hess, G. K., Jr., 441

Hess, R. L., 441

Hewins, E. F., 372, 704

Heyerdahl, T., 3, 698
Hidaka, K., 180
Higgins, T. J., 51
Hill, J. G., 82, 335, 688, 605, 609,

Hagan, H. H., 306, 364

Hagen, G. R., 722
Halldin, G., 805

Gebers, F., 38, 103, 130, 335, 336,

Ginzel,

S.,

219, 221, 608, 609

Fuhrmann,
Fuller,

Guilloton, R.

G., 766

Harvey, E., 157

Harvey, H. F., Jr., 705
Harvey, J., 786
Harvey, J. F., 67
Havelock, Sir T. H., 67, 206, 207,
210-213, 215-219, 331, 391, 416,
440, 441

610, 616
Hind, J. A., 662
Hinterthan, W., 586
Hinz, M., 674
Hiraga, Y., 130, 267, 311
Hobson, C. A., 639
Hoerner, S. F., 272, 281, 291, 293296, 323, 727, 748, 749
Hogner, E., 132, 161, 184, 211
Hollander, A., 157
Holm, W. J., 126
Holmberg, G., 805
Holmes, G. C. V., 571
Holstein, H., 432, 440
Holt, W. J., 765, 773

Homann,

F., 131

Hook, C., 272

Hoppe, H., 98,
Horn,

130, 262

F., 40, 47, 61, 109,

HI,

127,

319, 336, 607, 608, 687

Home,

L. R., 441

Hotchkiss, D. v., 339, 340

Hovgaard, W., 161, 266

Howard, R. G., 82
Howe, J. W., 2, 94, 141, 776, 925
Hsu, E.-Y., 42
Hubbard, P. G., 51
Hughes, G., 104, 132, 144, 279,
282, 286, 684
Hughes, W. L., 144
Hunnewell, F. A., 805
Hunter, A., 444, 770
Hunter, H., 144
Huntley, H. E., 4

Hawksley, T., 227

Hay, A. D., 141
Hay, J. S., 112,275
Hay, M. F., 764, 809

Hutchinson, J. F., 252

Hay, N., 51

Ijsselmuiden, A. H., 552, 564

Hayes, 337
Hayes, H. C, 144
Heoking, J., 634
Heckscher, E., 242, 416
Heiser, H. M., 416
Hele-Shaw, H. S., 20, 33, 36
Hellerman, L., 71
Helm, K., 336, 337, 416, 439
Helmbold, H. B., 343, 607
Helmholtz, H., 144
Henry, J. J., 228, 755, 762
Henschke, W., 276, 336, 360, 656,
687, 773
Herreshoff, L. F., 754, 787, 862, 866
Herreshoff, N. G., 669, 754, 784,
790, 862

Ikada,

Idle, G.,

816

Igonet, C., 242, 262, 704

S.,

360

Imlay, F. H., 273

Ince, J.,
Inui, T.,

183,208
222, 300

Ippen, A. T., 185

Irish, J. M., 154
C. O'D., 175, 287
Isherwood, B. F., 663, 807
Iselin,

Izubuchi, T., 257

Jacobs, E. N., 74
Jacobs,

W.

R., 215, 221, 867

Jaeger, H. E., 774

James, R. W., 176, 184

Janes, C. E., 259
Jasper, N. H., 349, 362, 500, 571

HYDRODYNAMICS

936
Jastram, H., 674
Jeffreys, H., 184
Joerg,

W.

L. G., 929, 931

Joessel, 74

Johnston, L., 270

Jones, B. M., 82

B.

D., 228, 283, 307, 634, 752,

786, 790

Kotik,

G., 98, 121, 125, 130, 131,

V., 126

Lovett,

Sir H., 2, 48, 71, 141, 181,

184, 185, 215, 420, 441

J. H., 130,

Lamonds, H.

256

95

A.,

Land, N. S., 272

Landweber, L., 16, 42, 102, 110,
128, 131, 132, 141, 301, 395, 396,

410, 422, 423, 427

Lang, H., 674

Langhaar, H. L., 4
Lankester, S. G., 144
Lap, A. J. W., 104, 132, 279, 312;,319
Latimer, J. P., 268, 866
Lattanzi, B., 704
Laubeuf, M., 244, 415

Lavine,

131, 132

J.,

I.,

Lavrent'ev,

930

M.

A., 184,

250, 313

Leehey,

273

P., 271,

Lefol, J.,

368

Legendre, R., 39

Lehman, W.

F., 266, 268, 271, 851,

866

Kinoshita, M., 218, 360, 734

Kirby, F. E., 336, 664, 797, 804

Kirchhoff, G. R., 208

Lerbs,

H. W.

Kito, F., 637

Levi-Civita, T., 184

131, 132

Klein, E., 144

Klikoff,

W.

Knapp, R.

A.,

42

T., 157, 158

Knight, M., 82

Knowler, H., 271, 272

Koch, J. J., 50, 431, 433-436, 440
Koning, J. G., 74, 75, 77, 130, 231,
244, 279-281, 290, 291, 319, 325,

272

Lavrent'ev, V. M., 222, 228, 229,

W.

S.,

E., 128, 287

Lovell, L. N., 335

Leland,

Klebanoff, P.

M.

Kretzschmar, F., 336

Kriimmel, O., 183
Krzywoblocki, M. Z., 131, 132
Kuethe, A. M., 82
Kurr, G. W., 704
Kutta, W., 25

Laute, W., 47, 98, 256

W.

Long,

Lord, L., 845, 865

Lorenz, H., 221
Losee, L. K., 765, 768

Lamble,

S.,

271, 866

82

Losch, F., 608

Laufer,

194

S., Jr., 132,

Jr.,

Krappinger, O., 336

Kreitner, J., 416

596, 607, 608, 650, 661, 739

Kennard, E. H., 33
Kennedy, A., Jr., 755, 791
Kent, J. L., 25, 40, 47, 204, 244,
279, 325, 415, 608, 764
Kermeen, R. W., 158
Kerr, W., 144
Keulegan, G. H., 184

Loeser, O.,

Loftin, L. K., Jr., 609

206, 216, 217, 221, 319

J.,

W.

Locke, F.

Kramer, K. N., 608

234, 279, 282, 337, 359, 372, 439,

Kielhorn,

206,

319, 369, 371, 851, 866

Kostyukov, A. A., 391
Kotchin, N. E., 272

Lamb,
438, 441, 580,

Kelvin, Lord, 71, 160, 161

J. J., 189,

V.,

Labberton, J. M., 574

Lackenby, H., 104, 113, 129,
205, 311, 325
Lagally, M., 69, 71, 141

585-587, 591, 600, 609

Kaplan, C, 42
Kapryan, W. J., 271
Karhan, K., 98, 131, 132
Kari, A., 804
Kassell, B. M., 805
Keeton, H., 182
Keith, H. H. W., 588
Keldysch, M. V., 272

Kendrick,

T. O., 570
Lock, C. N. H., 343, 416
Locke, D. and A., 790

A., 158

Laas, W., 178, 179

Joukowski, N., 84
Judaschke, F., 805
Jury, S. H., 49

Kempf,

Lisle,

W.

Konstantinov,
Koppen, 276

215-217, 221, 262, 266, 268, 271,

Johnson, A. J., 434, 441

Johnson, E., 765, 791
Johnson, H. F., 796, 797, 799, 805
Johnson, J., 566
Johnson, J. B., 157
Johnson, M. W., 184, 185, 921,
922, 925
Johnson, R. W., 765, 865
Johnson, V. D., 865
Johnson, V. E., Jr., 159

Kemp,

Lindgren, H., 798, 799

713, 714, 765, 793

Korvin-Kroukovsky,

Johansen, F. C, 416
John, F., 441
John, W., 227
Johns, A. W., 221

Kaemmerer, 272
Kaemmerer, W., 335
Kane, J. R., 349, 437,

IN SHIP DESIGN

331, 375, 376, 416, 609, 650, 684,

237
E.,

47,

583,

605,

607-610, 619, 656

Lewes, V. B., 125

Lewis, E. v., 123, 126, 456, 508, 513
Lewis, F. M., 144, 335, 418, 426- 428,
430-433, 440, 580, 585, 588, 591,
592, 595, 597, 609, 637
Lewis, R. G., 40, 42, 43

Lewy, H., 158

Liddell, E., 465

Lindblad, A. F., 250, 509, 514, 755

W.

J.,

554

Low, D. W., 779

Lowery, R., 445
Luders, A. E., Sr., 865
Ludwieg, H., 608
Luke, W. J., 369, 370
Luke, Y. L., 926
Lundberg, S., 440
Lunde, J. K., 67, 161, 211-222,
391, 416
Lutzky, M., 144
MacMillan, D. C., 565
Macmillan, J. F., 548
Macovsky, M. S., 81, 147, 157
Macy, R. H., 805
Maginnis, A. J., 540
Malavard, L., 50, 51
Malglaive, P. de, 279
Mallock, 38
Mandel, P., 143, 147, 151, 288-290,
294, 295, 678, 691, 694, 714, 727,
729, 734

Mann, C.

F. A., 773, 774

Manning, G.

C., 161, 182

Marchet, P., 51
Markland, E., 51
Marmer, H. A., 184
Marran, F. L., 835
Marriner, W. W., 415
Marshall, D., 129, 144
Marussi, A., 180

Marwood, W. J., 433,

Mason, C. J., 663
Mason, J., 867
Mason, M. A., 184
Mason, W. P., 157
Mathews, S. T., 755

434,

441

Matthews, L. H., 774

Matveyey, R. T., 274
Maxwell, C., 208

May,

A., 441
McAleer, J. A., 764
McAUster, F., 583
McCarthy, E. W., 779
McEh-oy, W. D., 157
McEntee, W., 47, 120, 125, 279,
579, 673, 764
McGoldrick, R. T., 236, 349, 431,
433, 437-441, 580, 600, 609
McGraw, J. T., 158

PERSONAL-NAME INDEX
McKann, R. E., 273
McKay, D., 228
McKee, A. I., 810
McKee, P. B., 82

Nixon, L., 469, 786

Nolan, R. W., 279, 563, 564
Noonan, E. P., 438

Nordstrom, H.

McKenzie, I. L., 865

McKinney, E. G., 77
McLachlan, G. W. P., 790

McNown,

J.

S.,

42, 48,

515, 676

Mendl, W. V., 805

Metzler, D. E., 776
Meyer, E. R., 879
Michel, P., 359

W.

176, 184

J., Jr.,

Pitrc, A. S., 125, 279, 331

855, 920

Plessct,

W.

Normand,

H., 329, 414

J.-A., 157,

479

Norton, P. H., 82
Norton, H. P., 548

Melville, G. W., 237

Picrson,

Pinkerton, R. M., 74
Pistolesi,. E., 71

596, 679, 772, 792, 798, 850, 854,

Norloy,
152, 157,

P., 98, 250, 311, 388,

937
Piercy, N. A. V., 82

M.

S., 157,

158

Plum, J., 272, 852

Pluymert, N. J., 228
Poisson, S. D., 183
Pollard,

Nowka, G., 321, 445, 660

Numachi, P., 158

32, 70,

J.,

104,

Nystrom,

J.

Middendorf, 221

Ober,

786

Miedlich, P., 537

O'Brien, T. P., 609

Pommellct, A., 173

Pond, H. L., 157
Popper, S., 415
Posdunine, V. L., 153, 631
Pournaras, U. A., 271
Powell, J. W., 240

Millar, G. H., 269,

Oetling, J. J., 272

Prandtl, L.,

Miller,

734
609
Olsen, H. M., 791
Olson, C. R., 413
Olson, R. M., 158
Orlando, M., 702, 704

Nutting,

W. W., 272
W., 187, 188, 191, 204

Miehell, J. H., 189, 211, 219

270
R. T., 273, 865

(.)kada, S.,

Millikan, C. B., 129

Okeil,

Milne, D., 182

Milne-Thomson, L. M.,
48, 69, 71, 185, 420
Minorsky, V., 358

2, 21,

25,

Mitchell, A. R., 333, 660, 667, 669672, 674

Mitchell, E. H., 791

Mohr,

E., 71

Monk, E., 829, 832,

Moody, C. G., 178

833, 867

Moore, A. D., 67
Morgan, W. B., 338, 610, 627
Morris, H. N., 114, 132
Morwood, J., 787
Mosher, C. D., 755
Mossman, E. A., 704
MouUin, E. B., 431, 440
Mueller, H. P., 333, 337, 436, 594,
656, 658
Mueller, J., 157, 594
Munk, M. M., 71, 77, 214, 343

Munk, W.

H., 184

Munroe, F. A., Jr., 662

Murnaghan, P. D., 2, 4
Murray, A. B., 266, 268, 269, 271,
785-787,

Nakamura,
Nansen,
Napier,

S.,

866

300
797

P., 796,

J. R., 187,

Narbeth,
Neifert,

847-851,

840,

207, 210, 227, 335

J. H., 187,

H.

S.,

547

R., 351, 361

Neuerburg, E. M., 427, 432

Neumann, G., 176, 184
Nevins, H. B., 787
Nevitt, C. G., 464, 465, 496
Nicholls, H. W., 424, 439
Nichols, H. J., 579
Niekerson, A. M., Jr., 241, 349
Nickum, G. C., 773
Nicolson, D., 658, 865
Neidermair, J. C., 170, 478, 496
Nikuradse, J., 114, 130
Nimitz, C. W., 558

M.

Prohaska, C. W., 428-436, 440, 441,

588, 589, 592-594

Parsons, Sir C. A., 153, 600, 678,

701, 754

Parsons, H. de B., 516, 775, 777

Parsons, J. P., 82

82

J.,

Peres, J., 50, 51

J.,

W. G.

440
A., 82,

270

Perry, B., 140, 271

Peskett, L., 228
Peters, S. A., 865

Petrich, J. P., 773

Phannemiller, G. M., 867

Phillips-Birt, D., 653, 786, 822, 823,

834, 835, 837, 843, 853, 854, 862,

863, 866, 867

Phipps, G. H., 210

Pien, P. C., 198, 218, 334, 357, 368,

374, 378, 519

J.,

184

Rabbeno, G., 632, 703

Rabl,

S. S.,

272

Randall, L. M., 704

Rankin, G. P., 756

Rankine, W. J. M.,
68, 70,

xix, 39, 57-59,

117, 166, 183, 187, 194,

208-210, 219, 335, 368, 370, 443,

549, 708, 715
Rasmussen, A., 415
Rattray, M., Jr., 158

Rayleigh, Lord,
Rayner, P., 410

Paulus, 328, 390, 415

Pavlenko, G. E., 222, 270, 313, 316,
319, 765
Payne, M. P., 129
Peabody, C. H., 103, 169, 227, 237,
240, 279, 370, 371
Peary, R. E., 796
Peebles, P. N., 49
Pengelly, H. S., 175, 479, 818

Perring,

Proudman,

Pugh, M. D., 773

Purvis, P. P., 241

Rawlins, T. E., 49

184

Paulding, C. P., 791

Perkins, A.

H. S., 705
H. N., 276, 552, 562

Preiser,

Prins,

Panagopulos, E. P., 241, 349

Parkin, B. R., 158

S.,

129-131,

Praznik, O., 474

Ormondroyd, J., 670, 672

Ormsby, R. B., Jr., 82
Osbourne, A., 372
Owen, G., 772, 787
Owen, P. R., 42
Owen, W. S., 228, 482
Ower, E., 565

Patton, R.

2, 40, 99, 125,

141, 607

E.,

Paterson, C.

129, 335,

337, 338, 479

4,

183

Reber, R. K., 43
Reed, T. G., 82
Reilly, J. R.,

704

Relf, E. P., 50, 141

Rennie, G. B., 781

Retail, R., 312

Rethy, 48
Reynolds, 0., 99, 129, 157, 817
Riabouchinsky, D., 4
Richards, G. J., 141
Richardson, E. G., 82, 144
Richardson, P. M., 95
Richardson, H. C., 270, 272, 865
Richter, E., 279, 565
Riddell, A. M., 687
Riebe, J. M., 77
Riegels, P., 42
Riehn, W., 335
Rigg, A., 259, 260
Roach, C. D., 334, 378, 390
Robb, A. M., 103, 160, 311, 390,
416, 486, 764
Robertson, J. C., 354, 596

HYDRODYNAMICS

938
Robinson, A. W., 779
Robinson, H. F., 228
Robinson, J. H., 351, 361
Robison, D., 773, 777
Robison, J., 183
Roebling, D., 806
Roeske, J. F., 228
RoUand, E., 754

Romani,

Schiffer,

Schlichting, H., 103, 125, 130-132,

181, 242

SchUchting, O., 391, 392, 394-396,

399, 410
Schlick, 0., 439

Schmidt, H. F., 703

Schmidt, W., 416, 586-589

L., 51

Romano,

P., 360,

Schmierschalski, H., 333, 655

553

Schneider, A. J. R., 158

Ronan, K. M., 270

Roop, W. P., 125, 679

Schoenherr, K. E., 74-77, 82, 102,

Roscher, E. K., 687, 688

Rosenberg, B., 49, 413

Rosenhead, L., 141
Roshko, A., 144
Ross, Sir

C,

130, 151, 153, 262, 279, 301, 336,

'

833

Rota, G., 415

Roth, W. A., 925
Rothe, 221
Rotta, J., 131
Rougeron, C, 308
Rouse, H.,

2, 4, 8, 16, 25, 31, 48, 51,

73, 75, 85, 94, 104, 128, 130, 141

142, 152, 153, 157, 183, 208, 291,

615, 649, 676, 776, 777, 920-925

Rubach, H., 141

Rumsey, J., 337
Runeberg, R., 795-797, 799, 804
Runyon, J. P., 141
Rupp, L. A., 338, 349, 362, 500,
571, 579, 755
Russell, J. S., xix, 183, 207, 209,

227, 244, 651, 665

Russell,

N.

665

S-,

IN SHIP DESIGN

H. F., 272
M., 158

Schertel,

Russo, V. L., 236, 255, 282, 431,

695, 707
Ruthven, J., 338

369, 371, 374, 585, 587, 594-598,

602, 603, 607, 608, 610, 630, 634,

713, 720, 722, 893, 894

Schoeneich, 275, 279

Schokker, J. C. A., 427, 432

Smith,
Smith,
Smith,
Smith,
Smith,
Smith,

A. G., 268
E. H., 575
F. v., 791
L. P., 152, 153, 586, 607, 631

R. A., 773
R. H., 42
Smith, R. M., 805, 865
Smith, S. L., 311, 422
Smith, W. W., 116, 126, 279, 285,
564
Smith-Keary, E. M., 650
Snyder, G., 773
Sokol, A. E., 795
Solberg, H., 185
Soloviev, U. I., 276, 349
Sottorf, W., 270-272, 279
Spanner, E. F., 773

Sentid, A., 656

Spannhake, W., 85, 704

Sparks, W. J. C., 205
Speakman, E. M., 227
Spencer, D. B., 347
Spooner, C. W., Jr., 268, 841, 842,
866
Springston, G. B., Jr., 271
Sprinkle, L. W., 155
Squire, H. B., 564
Sretensky, L. N., 217
Stalker, E. A., 564

Serrin, J. B., Jr., 158

Stanton, T. E., 129, 144

Seward, H. L., 394, 395

Seydell, 338
Sezawa, K., 221, 440

Stapel, G., 674

Shaffer, P. A., 157

Steel, D.,

Shalnev, K. E., 158

Steele, J. E.,

Schroder, P., 270

Sohubauer, G. B., 131, 132

Schubert, R., 271
Schultz-Grunow, F., 102, 130, 131
Schumacher, A., 179
Schuster, S., 416
Schutt, J., 415
Schwabe, M., 141
Sedov, L. I., 271

Shannon,

J. F., 82, 144,

St.

150

Shapiro, A. H., 923

Sharman, C.

F., 49,

Denis, M., 139, 218, 243, 378,

421, 441

50

33

270
Steinman, D. B., 144
Stephens, E. 0., 765
Stephens, O. J., II, 784

W.

787

Sharp, G. G., 234, 564, 565

Stephens,

Shaw, H. R., 835

Shaw, P. S., 867
Shearer, J. R., 217
Shearing, D., 774
Shelton, G. L., Jr., 51

Stevens, A. D., 774

Salisbury, J. K., 105

Shepheard, Sir V. G., 125, 552, 563

Stivers, L. S., Jr., 74, 272, 606,

608

Sambraus, A., 271

Saunders, H. E., 331

Sherlock, R. H., 564

Stokes, Sir G. G.,

185

Sherman,

Stoltz, J.,

Sasajinaa, H., 114, 132

Shigemitsu, A., 47, 129, 241, 257, 311

Stracke,

M., 270
Siestrunck, R., 50, 51
Silovid, S., 312
Silverleaf, A., 609

Strassel, H.,

Sachsenberg, G., 272

Sadler,

H. C, 241, 255, 336, 415,

664, 683, 755, 764

Salet, G.,

Sassi, S.,

50

P.,

Shoemaker,

600

Savitsky, D.,

266, 268, 271, 851,

866
Sawyer, J. W., 131
Sawyer, W. T., 85
Sayre, C. L.,

Jr.,

Scarborough,

W.

271
G., 378, 565, 581,

597
Schade, H. A., 703
Schadlofsky, E., 418, 440

271

J.

Simmons, L. F. G., 77, 141, 195

Simmons, N., 158
Simonson, D. R., 795, 798, 805
Simpson, D. S., 228, 446, 469, 688,
765, 770, 772-774, 820, 832, 855,

Schaeffner, C. R., 756

866
Simpson, G.

Schafer, O., 98, 262

Sims, A.

Schaffran, K., 336, 586, 587

Skene, N. L., 785, 787, 820, 834,

Scheel, H., 787

835, 854, 865

Skramstad, H. K., 131
Slocum, S. E., 4, 607

Scheel, K., 925

Scheffauer, F. C., 778, 779

J.,

C.,

175,

684
818

P., 228, 786,

Stevens, E. A.,

Jr.,

125, 228, 279,

640, 790, 791

Stewart,

W.

C., 156

Stilwell, J. J., 271,

273
129,

183,

867

W.

L., 81, 147,

157

608

Streeter, V. L., 2, 43, 45, 67, 106

Streever, O.

J.,

Stuntz, G. R.,

705
Jr.,

334,

357,

378,

519
Styer,

W.

S.,

779

Suarez, A., 866

Siiberkrub, F., 336, 688

SuUivan, E. K., 236, 255, 282, 378,

565, 581, 597, 695, 707, 733

Sund, E., 319, 331

W. J., Jr., 707

Surugue, J., 51
Sutherland, W. H., 47, 255
Sverdrup, H. U., 184, 185, 921, 922,
925
Surber,

PERSONAL-NAME INDEX
Swan, H. F., 804
Swan, J., 377
Symonds, R. F., 770, 772, 774

Troost, L., 74, 77, 104, 130, 132,

231, 279-281, 290, 319, 325, 343,
359, 370, 375, 576, 587, 597, 605,

Tachmindji, A. J., 350, 352

Taggart, R., 199, 200, 203, 205
Takagi, A., 300, 303, 772
Takahashi, W. N., 49
Talen, H. W., 132
Tanner, T., 82
Tasseron, K., 338, 579
Taylor, A. R., 773
Taylor, D. W., 4, 24, 40, 47, 59, 103,
180, 188, 204, 242, 248, 274, 298,

307, 317, 325, 331, 368, 407, 415,

467, 482, 485, 489, 493, 509, 517,

608-610, 621, 625, 650, 684, 713,

714, 765, 793

Troucer,

564

J.,

Trowbridge, H. O., 772, 774

Truscott, S., 271
Tulin, M. P., 158, 159, 632
Tupper, K. F., 416
Turnbull, J., 169, 182
Turner, R. F., 790

439, 440

Ward, C. E., 335, 659, 665, 672, 073

Ward, K. E., 47, 74, 270
Ward, L. E., 272
Ward, L. W., 765, 865
Ware, B. E., 787
Warholm, A. O., 243
Warner, E. P., 786
Warren, C. H. E., 273
Warrington,

Aken,

204

Watsuji, H., 552

Watts, Sir P., 415

Weaver, A. H., Jr., 255
Weber, E. H., 183

Valensi, J., 564, 565

van
van
van
van
van

J. N., 188,

Wasraund, J. H., 805

Watanabe, W., 440

UUyott, P., 49
Upson, R. H., 42
Ursell, F., 441

586, 620, 642, 678, 764, 901, 918

Taylor, G. I., 49, 50, 71, 157

Taylor, J. L., 125, 424, 430, 431,

939
Walker, V., 39
Walker, W. P., 113,311,822
Wallace, W. D., 144
WanlesB, I. J., 228, 237, 700

J. A., 338, 579,

637

der Hegge Zijnen, B. G., 129

135, 154, 231, 243, 262, 279-281,

Weber, W., 183

Weeks, A. F., 154
Wehausen, J. V., 81, 147, 157, 211
Weick, F. E., 343, 607
Weinblum, G. P., 71, 177, 188-194,

Teubert, O., 335, 640, 643, 648, 673

Thaeler, A. S., 228

290, 312, 319, 325, 375, 399, 465,

204, 206, 211, 215-219, 222, 323,

Thayer, E., 465

Theodorsen, Th., 630
Thews, J. G., 125
Thiel, P., Jr., 765, 865
Thiele, E. H., 805
Thieme, H., 205, 271, 564
Thomas, J. B., 764
Thompson, R. C, 481
Thomson, W., 182
Thorade, H. F., 184
Thornton, K. C, 537
Thornycroft, Sir J. I., 157, 673
Thorny croft (Shipyard), 338
Thorpe, T., 285, 287
Thurston, R. H., 187

605-607, 610, 631, 634, 650, 682,

Taylor,

640

S.,

Telfer, E. V., 3, 104, 125, 318, 319,

757

824

Teller, C. R.,

Tideman, B.

J., 99,

Driest, E. R., 4

K. T., 157
Lammeren, W. P. A.,

Iterson, F.

74, 113,

687, 706, 713, 714, 722, 726, 729,

421, 441
Weinig, F., 270, 272, 609
Weinstein, I., 271

765, 793

Weissinger,

485, 537, 540, 585-587, 596, 602,

Tietjens, O. G., 2, 37, 40, 130, 141,

272

608, 619

Weitbrecht, H. M., 114, 359, 371

595-597, 602, 605, 609, 610, 621,

Wendel, K., 417, 420, 427, 430, 431,

441

625, 656, 688

Werback, C. E., 765, 834, 853, 858

Weske, J. R., 703

van Meerten, 70

Van
Van

Patten, D., 271, 272

Zandt, T. E., 71

Vaughn, H.

779

B., Jr.,

Vedeler, G., 479

Vennard, J. K., 2,
Veres, G. A., 447
Vertens, F., 272

4, 8, 44, 76,

157

Vincent, S. A., 117, 231, 465, 474,

479, 483, 485, 553

103, 129

J.,

J. D., 312, 319, 360,

van Manen,

Vinogradov,
Viskovid,

I.,

I.

799, 804, 805

V.,

157

West, C. C., 777

West, H. H., 547
Wheelock, C. D., 169, 170
White, M., 276
White, Sir W. H., 227, 331, 337, 415
Whiteley, A. H., 157
Wickwire, C. J., 787
Wieghardt, K., 131
Wigley, W. C. S., 206, 207, 211, 217219, 243, 244, 510

131, 153, 211, 228, 236, 248, 301,

Volpich, H., 335, 336, 355

Wilda, 221
Wilhams, E. B., 537
Williams, H., 125
Williams, M. E., 651

360, 374, 424, 429, 433, 440, 441,

von Doenhoff, A.

Williams,

Tingey, R. H., 600, 606, 608, 633,

Visscher, J. P., 125

634
Todd, F. H.,

Vladimiroff, A., 272

3, 99, 101, 126,

130,

485, 519, 631, 764

Todd, M. A., 189

Togino, S., 47, 241, 257, 311
Tollmien, W., 71

Tolman, R.

C., 4
Tomalin, P. G., 540, 820, 833, 854,
859, 862, 866
Toogood, 337
Torda, T. P., 416
Towne, S. R., 865

Townsend, A.

A., 131

Trask, E. P., 237

Traung, J.-O., 298, 300, 771-773

Trilling, L., 158

Volker, H., 686, 683

E., 74, 272, 606,

608

von Kdrmdn, Th.,

6,

38, 42,

130, 141, 607

von Larisch, Graf, 184

Vossnack, E.

Votaw, H.

J.,

427, 432

C., 181

Waas, H., 542, 670

Waeselynck, R., 158
Wagner, H., 270
Wagner, R., 38, 732
Walchner, O., 157
Walcutt, C. C., 864
Walker, R. J., 349

103,

W.

L.,

156

Williamson, B., 765

Williamson, R. R., 221
Wilson, R. C., 659, 673
Wilson, T. D., 227
Winter, H., 73, 82

Winzer, A., 422, 423, 427

Wislicenus, G. F., 25, 85, 649

Wood, G., 818

Wood, R. McK., 157, 343
WoodhuU, J. C., 441
Woolley,

Work, C.

J.,

Wormald,

183

E., 144

Workman,

J. C.,
J.,

448

755

HYDRODYNAMICS

940
Worthen, E.

P.,

704

Wright, E. A., 98, 99, 141, 286, 411,

413, 416, 764, 765
Wrobbel, J. F. K., 764
WyckoEf, C. D. S., 791

Yamagata, M., 359, 608, 734

Yamamoto,
764

T., 47, 241, 257, 311,

IN SHIP DESIGN

Yang, C. S., 374, 599, 609

Yarrow, A. F., 311, 331, 410, 669,
671, 673
Yarrow, H., 415
Yokota, S., 47, 241, 257, 311
Yoshida, E., 114, 132
Young, A. D., 42
Young, C. F. T., 125
Young, D. B., 293

Young,
Young,

E., 42

T., 183

Zahm, A.

F., 25, 40, 129, 141, 419,

421
Ziloher, R.,

336

Zimmerman, 0. T., 930

Zimmermann, E., 170,
Zuehlke, A.

J.,

756

176,

183

Ship-Name Index
In addition to the ship names occurring in the text,
there are listed here a few class names, such as "Export
Line ships," to cover cases where individual ship names
are not given.

In man}' cases the pages listed in this index contain

only references to the subject of the abbreviated index
entry, and not the subject itself. For example, under
Allegheny in the column below, page 233 of this volume
does not embody a reproduction of the body plan but
tells where it may be found.

Berlin, old paddle steamer, wheel data, 335

Bismarck, battleship, bower anchor stowage on deck,

556
Bremen, German lifesaving "cruiser," 818
Bremen, hydrofoil-supported boat, 273
Bremen, New York harbor ferryboat, 791
Bridge, supply ship, displacement of appendages, 296
rudder area, 714
Bristol Queen, modern paddle steamer (1947), description
of model paddlewheel tests and self-propelled model
tests, 336
Britannia, pass'r vessel of 1840, general data, 228
Britannia, royal yacht, air-flow tests on model, 563

Abner T. Longley, Honolulu fireboat, 775

A. D. Haynes II, large river pushboat with long tunnels,

Brunsbiitiel,

669

Brunshausen,

with

single

Bryderen, early icebreaking steamer, 804

Akron, airship, achieving easy transition to parallel middlebody, 194, 196

boundary-layer measurements on model, 97
longitudinal potential flow around, 42
Alarm, lightship, 815, 816
Albert, vessel of 1853 with hydraulic propulsion, 338
Aldebaran, French minesweeper, towing tests, 312
Alexander, Russian icebreaker, 804
Algonquin, USCG icebreaking cutter, 805
Alki, Seattle fireboat, 777
Allegheny, pass'r-cargo vessel, standard body plan, 233
Altmark, fast tanker, ref data on parallel DWL, 231
Ambrose, lightship, 816
America, pass'r liner, ref data on parallel DWL, 231
multiple model tests, 502
section coeff in entrance, 516
self-propelled model test data, 379
Ammonoosuc, high-speed cruiser of 1867, self-propulsion
model test data, 377
Amsterdam, triple-screw tug, 674
Antilles, pass'r liner, projecting bulb on, 510
Arctic, store ship, rudder area, 714

Bunker

Arcturus, shrimp trawler, 773

ARD

screwprop

well

abaft sternpost, 568

Aegir, early icebreaking vessel, 804

ARD

8, ship-shaped floating drydocks, 780, 781

1,
Argonaut, U. S. submarine (of 1928), with crossed recessed
anchors, 557
Arizona, battleship, projecting bulb on, 510
Arrow, ultra-high-speed displacement-type yacht, 755
Asheville, gunboat, displacement of appendages, 296

Ashworth, channel steamer, boundary-layer vel

full-scale

profile,

98

wake measurements, 262

Augsburg, motorship, full-scale towing tests with rotatingblade props, 337

Aquitania, Atlantic liner of 1915, general data, 228

ATF-163,

fleet tug,

flow pattern around stern, 255

Badger, Lake Michigan car ferry, 791

Baltimore, (old) cruiser,

wave

profile, lines of flow,

248

Bangor, early ship of 1845 with machinery aft, 571

Benjamin Fairless, Great Lakes ore carrier, 758, 760
Berkshire, pass'r-cargo vessel, standard body plan, 233

941

Hill, fast pass'r-cargo vessel,

232
BB49-5/,
233

class, battleships (of 1919),

standard body plan,

standard body plan,

body plan, 232

Cameron, ferryboat, 792
Captain Crotty, Houston fireboat, 777
Carabobo, Venezuelan ferryboat, 791
Carl D. Bradley. Great Lakes self-unloading bulk carrier,
755
Carmania, pass'r liner, ref to photos of triple screws, 521
Carol Virginia, tuna clipper, 773
Castalia, twin-hull channel steamer of 1874, 790
Cerberus, proposed semi-globular battery with underwater
mushroom anchor, 558
Charles Belleville, French suction dredge, 779
Chaleaurenaull, French cruiser, photo of Velox waves, 240
Chester, (old) scout cruiser, displacement of appendages,
296
Chryssi, tanker, variation in blade thrust around disc, 349
wave profile at stern, 241
Cincinnati, double-ended ferryboat, body plan and DWL,
793
general dimensions and data, 791
towing tests of, 311
City of Erie, lake paddlewheel pass'r steamer, body plan,
663
general information on, 663
City of New York, old paddlewheel steamer, general data,
665
City of Paris, pass'r vessel, ref data on parallel DWL, 231
Ciudad de Barranquilla, hopper dredge, 779
Clair de Lune, 152-ft French trawler, 774
Clairton, cargo vessel, center-of-wind-pressure data, 285
effect of relative wind on bow, 281
full-scale thrust measurements of 1931, 310
lines of flow and wave profile in run, 252
boundary-layer measurements, 98
unpublished
variation of thrust-load coeff with speed, 346
Clemson, destroyer, displacement of appendages, 296
Calijornian, cargo vessel, standard

TMB

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

942
Cliffs Victory, fast

Columbia

Great Lakes ore

carrier, 758,

Dixie, destroyer tender, variation of residuary resistance

760

(old, of 1890), triple-screw cruiser, design notes,

521
stern arrangement, 237
Cormnodore Preble, early ship of 1845 with machinerj' aft,
571
Commonwealth, (old, prior to 1861) paddle steamer, general
data, 665
Commonwealth, (new) paddle steamer, wheel data, 641, 643

standard body plan, 232

Concordia, old paddle steamer, wheel data for, 335

Eagle

Edgewater,

and

self-

data on parallel

DWL,

231

with straight-element hull, 764

Corsicana, tanker, ref data on parallel DWL, 231
Cossack, destroyer, full-scale trials in varied depths of
ferryboat

water, 415, 416

City,

San Diego Bay

ferry,

Cuba, pass'r vessel, standard body

C. W. Morse, paddle steamer, wheel data, 335
Cyclops, collier, standard body plan, 232

curves, 236

and

hull coeffs, 228

DWL,

model

self-propulsion

231

test data,

377

variation of residuary resistance with speed, 307

CS-Sl-Al cargo

CZ-SU

ship, ref

DWL, 231
DWL, 231

data on parallel

cargo ship, ref data on parallel

C-3 cargo vessel, body plan, 236

curve of propulsive coefficient, 895
ref data on parallel DWL, 231
variation of power with displacement and trim, 357
wake survey, 3-diml, on model, 361
CS-S-AS, reference data on parallel DWL, 231
C4-S-la, Mariner class with variations, 3-dimI wake
surveys on models, 361-363
C4-S-A1 cargo vessel, ref data on parallel DWL, 231
C4-S-B2, converted to Great Lakes carrier, 756

D. C. Endert,

Jr.,

tests of, 311,

vessel,

ram

773

see Liberty ship

EC2-S-C1 cargo

vessel, ref

data on parallel

DWL,

231

Farragut, destroyer, effect of wind on bow, 281

rudder with short length on top, 710

Flandre, pass'r liner, projecting bulb on, 510

Flying Cloud, clipper ship, designed waterUne, 228, 230

Fram, polar expedition ship, 796
experience with ice over deck, 797

Froude, large independently powered model, test data, 371

wind-resistance tests on, 279

German

San Martin,

iceship for research

and supply, 801^

M. Humphrey,

Gimcrack
battleship,

Great Lakes ore

carrier, 756, 758,

760, 761

standard body plan, 233

sail coefficients,

787

Glacier, icebreaker, general information, 801,

photo of Velox

Goeben,

German

803

battle cruiser, photo of Velox waves, 240

Geota Lejon, icebreaker, 805

waves, 240

Canadian

iceship, general data, 800,

Direklor Schliiler, triple-screw tug, 674

Dixie, fast launch

EC2-G-AW2;

George

or bulb, 510

Deluge, Milwaukee fireboat, 777

D'Iberville,

338
Ermack, early Russian icebreaker, 804
Ernest LaPointe, Canadian icebreaker, 805
Ernest T. Weir, Great Lakes ore carrier, 756, 758, 760
Escanaba, USCG icebreaking cutter, 805
Essayons, seagoing hopper suction dredge, 779
Europa, Atlantic liner, general data, 237
Evangeline, pass'r vessel, standard body plan, 232
Evergreen State, large auto and pass'r ferry, 792
plated sponsons on, 794
Export Line ships, 1930, curve of propulsive coefF, 895
Express, early iceship, 804
Express, twin-hull channel steamer, 790

803, 806

319

and processing

Delaware, battleship, projecting

Deutschland, small

572

aft,

Z. Svilzer, early icebreaking steamer, 804

General

312

fishing

Elbjorn, icebreaker, general information, 801, 803, 805

El Djezair, pass'r steamer with machinery

independently powered 72-ft model,

tests of Victory ship geosims,

Deep Sea,

Greene, Great Lakes ore carrier, 756

E. J. Kulas, Great Lakes ore carrier, added mass of
entrained water in shallow-water areas, 433, 441
Elbe, Ughtship, 816
Elbert H. Gary, Great Lakes ore carrier, 755

sheer data, 549

of run, 234, 235, 236

Cl-S-Dl concrete steamer, body plan, general data, 764
self-propulsion model test data, 377, 378
C-S cargo vessel, body plan, hull coeffs and section-area

data on parallel

harbor ferry boat, 791

Enterprise, of 1853, with unsuccessful hydraulic propulsion,

Cl-A merchant ship, U. S. Mar Comm design, ref data

on parallel DWL, 231
Cl-M-AVl small merchant vessel, body plan and lines

ref

New York

Empress of Britain, pass'r liner (of early 1930's), with

two large and two small props, 573
Enem, large whale catcher, general information, 774

792
plan, 232, 233

principal dimensions

beam wind,

Edith, early ship with machinery aft, 571

Em.

Coverack, British lifeboat, 818

Croum

I patrol boat, effect of

Edward B.

Crnite di Savoia, pass'r liner, general data, 237

ref

World War

straight-element hull, 764

propulsion model test data, 379

smoke-exhausting arrangement, 564

Coquivacoa,

class,

286

Condi, French cruiser, photo of Velox waves, 240

Conqueror, small tuna clipper, 773
Constitution, pass'r liner, resistance, propeller,

with speed, 307

Dominion, scow-type yacht with tunnel, 789, 790
DUKW, amphibious landing craft, 806
DD 364 destroyer, ref data on parallel DWL, 231
DD 4BO-4BB destroyers (of 1919), standard body plan, 233
DD 692 class, U. S. destroyers, wind load on multiple-ship
moorings, 128

by C. H. Crane, 753

802

Gopher Mariner, cargo ship, added-mass coefficient, 424

small-scale body plan, 236
Governor Miller, Great Lakes ore carrier, 758, 760

SHIP-NAME INDEX
Greal Northern, triple-screw pass'r vessel,

body

plan, 237,

238

943

propulsion model teat data, 379

smoke-exhausting arrangement, 564
InsuUnde, motor lifeboat, 818

design notes on triple-screw hulls, 521

reference data on parallel DWL, 231

Into, Finnish icebreaker,

section coeff in entrance, 616

Iowa

standard body plan, 233

Greater Buffalo, Greater Detroit, lake paddlewheel pass'r
steamers, body plan, 664

data on feathering paddlewheels, 336

general information, 663, 664
Greyhound, towed hulk, analysis of full-scale towing data,
103
presentation of original data, 129

towing tests by W. Froude, 311

towing tests in shallow water, 390
virtual-mass coeffs for straight-ahead motion, 440

Gudnm,

774

115-ft trawler,

Gwin, old torpedoboat,

full-scale change-of-trim data,

331

Hakuhasan Maru, cargo vessel, full-scale wind-resistance

tests, 276
Hamburg, pass'r vessel, plates for measuring friction drag
in side of ship, 130

retardation measurements on ship and model, 439

Hamilton, destroyer, full-scale change-of-trim data, 331
full-scale vibration measurements, 440

measured

310

full-scale thrusts,

TMB boundary-layer observations,

Ky/A

with T,

Jack, 6-meter yacht, 785

Jackdaw, light-draft gunboat, 673

Jackdraw, (of 1863) unsuccessful hydraulic propulsion, 338
Jaycee, tug with straight^element hull, 765
Jean Bart, French battleship, tandem breakwaters on, 555
Jill, 6-meter yacht, 785
John Bowes, collier of 1852 with machinery aft, 571
John D. McKean, New York harbor fireboat, 777
John G. Munson, Great Lakes self-unloading bulk carrier,
756, 758, 760
John J. Rowe, triple-screw river towboat with Kort nozzles,
687
John J. Walsh, ferryboat with straight-element hull, 764

John N. Cobb, fisheries research vessel, 774

Joseph H. Thompson, Great Lakes ore carrier, 756, 758, 760
Johnstown class of Great Lakes ore carriers, 756, 758, 760
Jupiter, collier, rudder area, 714
Kaiserin Auguste Viktoria, pass'r

98

calculations,

variation of residuary resistance with speed, 307, 308

variation of

805
photo of Velox waves, 240
Iris, Royal Navy dispatch vessel, ship data, 227
Isbrytaren, early icebreaking steamer, 804
(old), battleship,

309, 310

variation of thrust-load coeff with speed, 344, 346

Hamilton, destroyer model, center-of-wind-pressure data,

285

wind on bow, 281

sample boundary-layer vel profile, 99
boundary-layer data, 98
unpublished
wind-resistance tests, 279
Hammonton, New York harbor ferryboat, 791
Harry Coulby, Great Lakes ore carrier, 755, 758, 760
Harvard, coastwise pass'r vessel, body plan, 237
Hashike, Japanese ship, towing tests on model, 311
effect of relative

TMB

Francisco Bay ferryboat, 791

HD-4, early hydrofoil-supported boat, 272
Helgoland, German lifesaving "cruiser," 818
Helgoland, with twin rotating-blade propellers, 657
Helsinghorg, Danish railway ferry, 791
Henderson, transport, displacement of appendages, 296

Hayward, San

rudder area, 714

Hendrik Hudson, river paddlewheel steamer, general data,
663, 664
Herman Apelt, fast German rescue ship, 818
Heron, light-draft gunboat, 673
Heywood, naval transport, section coeff in entrance, 516
Himalaya, pass'r liner, recessed anchor stowage, 557
Hindenburg, merchant vessel, flow data close aboard, 98
Holger Dansk, icebreaker, general information, 800, 802
Hortensia-Bertin, tuna clipper, 773

Huntington, Ught cruiser, unexplained anomaUes of shallow-

water operation, 414

river paddle steamer, model tests of paddlewheel, 336

Hugo Marcus,

Ice Boat No. 2, early iceship, prior to 1888, 804

Independence, pass'r liner, resistance, propeller,

and

self-

liner,

wind-resistance

276

Kanawha, tanker, rudder area, 714

Kapetan Belousov, icebreaker, general data, 801, 803, 806
Kathmar II, 60-ft motor cruiser, speed trials, 865
Kish Bank, lightship, 816
Kista Dan, iceship with fins protecting propeller, 799, 805
Kon-Tiki, balsa-log raft, estimating hydrodynamic resistance, 3
with movable centerboard planks, 698
II, whale catcher, very high sheer at bow,
549
Krisjamis Valdemar, Russian icebreaker, 804

Konan Maru

Labrador, icebreaker, general data, 800, 802, 805

Lajayette; see Normandie
LCF and LCT landing craft, 809
LCI{L) landing craft, 764, 765

Lebanon, naval auxiliary, rudder area, 714

Le Nord, channel paddle steamer, data on alterations to
wheels, 335

Leviathan, Atlantic Uner (of 1914), standard

body

plan,

232
Leviathan,

British

aircraft

of

cruiser

Standard Series
Lexington,

lines,

1890's,

source of Taylor

298

carrier

(of

1926),

displacement of

appendages, 296
Liberty ship, U. S. Mar Conmi design EC2-G-AW2,
change-of-trim data, 328, 330
Lieut. Flaherty, Boston harbor ferryboat, 791
Lt. James E. Robinson, Victory ship, variation in thrust,
torque, and transverse forces during a revolution,
350-352
3-diml wake surveys at light and intermediate displacements, 361, 364, 365
LSM 458, landing craft, towing vessel for YTB 602, 311
with Kirsten rotating-blade props, 311
Ducinda, paddle steamer, ship and model wave profiles, 241

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

944
Lucy

Ashtoii, ex-paddle steamer, driven

of trim dviring ship trials,

by gas

jets,

change

estimated augment of velocity and resistance due to

potential flow, 111-113
general dimensions and characteristics, 311
list

ness, 113

pitometer log boundary-layer traverses, 98

propulsion by gas jets, 311
tests of large family of geosim models, 319
thrust measurements, 310
Lurcher No. 2, lightship, 815, 816
Lusiiania, Atlantic liner, effect of full streamlining on

upper works, 279

for, 502
Ly-ee-Moon, use of hollow mast as ventilator, 566
Lymington, ferry with Voith-Schneider propulsion, 791
L6-S-A1 Great Lakes bulk carrier, body plan, 756
L.V43, L.V.74, L.V.94, U. S. lightships, 815, 816

extensive planning

Maainal, Kort nozzle tug, with openwork aftfoot, 518

airship; see

model

test

Allen, tanker,

DWL

of test reports, 311

permissible roughness height for hydrodynamic smooth-

Macon,

and ship-trial data, 378

photo of flow pattern, 255
Mary E. Petrich, large tuna clipper, 773
Mary Powell, river paddle steamer, cutaway forefoot, 668
designed afterbody waterline, 228
entrance
slope, 667
general data, 663, 664
Massachusetts, early ship with lifting prop, 807
with machinery aft, 571
Massachusetts, fast pass'r-cargo vessel, standard body
plan, 232
Maui, pass'r ship of 1917, with machinery aft, 571
Mauretania, (old, of 1907), Atlantic finer, extensive planning for, 502
powers on inboard and outboard shafts, 574
reference data on parallel DWL, 231
resistance of upper works, 561
wind-resistance calculations for, 276
wind-tunnel tests on above water model, 279
Mayflower, j'acht, displacement of appendages, 296
Melik, light-draft steamer, 673
Memphis, river steamer, general data, 665
Mermaid, tuna clipper, 773
Messina, hydrofoil-supported boat, 273
Meteor, research ship, stereoscopic wave photos from, 179
Minerva, paddle steamer, ship and model wave profiles, 241
self-propelled

Martha E.

325

Akron

Magenta, French battleship, photo of Velox waves, 240

Magiinkook, merchant ship with excessively full stern, 135
Maine, battleship of 1903, observed wave profiles, 239
Majestic, Atlantic liner of 1889, with overlapping screwprops, 540

Makrelen, torpedoboat, full-scale tests in varied depths

of water, 415, 416
Malolo, pass'r vessel, section coefT in entrance, 516

standard body plan, 232

Manhattan, Atlantic Uner, body plan and general huU
data, 236, 237
proposal for complete streamlining of upper works, 561
reference data on parallel DWL, 231
self-propulsion model test data, 379
Manhattan, twin-skeg design of U. S. Mar Comm, model
data as follows:
plan, 236

body

boundarj'-layer data, 99

contours of long'l wake velocity abaft skeg, 359

self-propulsion data, 379

Minneapolis, (old, of 1890), triple-screw cruiser, design

notes on, 521
Missourian, cargo vessel, standard body plan, 232
Modego, tuna clipper, 773
Moltke, German battle cruiser, photo of Velox waves, 240

Monitor, hydrofoil-supported sailboat, 273

Monitor, U. S. ironclad of 1862, with under-the-bottom
anchor, 558
Monocacy, river gunboat, displacement of appendages, 296

Monterey, pass'r liner (of 1932), self-propelled model test

and ship-trial data, 378

Moosehead, pass'r ferry, standard body plan, 233
Moreno, Argentine triple-screw battleship, 521
Morris, (old) torpedoboat, full-scale change-of-trim data,
331
Mt. Carol, standard body plan, 233
Mt. Clinton, standard body plan, 233

wake-survey diagram, 3-diml, 361

wave profile and lines of flow, 252, 253

Manning, USCG cutter, observed wave profiles, 240
Manukai, Manulani, cargo vessels with machinery aft, 571
Marie Henriette, channel paddle steamer, 336
Marilyn Rose, tuna clipper, 773
Marine Robin, C-4 converted to Great Lakes carrier, 756
Mariner class, fast cargo vessels, data as follows:
body plan and wave profile, 236
curve of propulsive coeff on T, 895
,

discharge opening for circulating water, 704

wind on bow, 282

on rudder, 733
principal dimensions and hull coeffs, 228
section-area curves, 236
speed and power from ship-trial data, 378
wavy bilge-keel traces, 255, 695
3-diml wake-survey diagrams, 361-363
Mariposa, pass'r liner (of 1932), reference data on
section coeff in entrance, 516

submarine

(of

19301,

with crossed

recessed

anchors, 557

Natchez class of river towboats, 673

of 1863, with hydraulic-jet propulsion, 338
submarine (of 1930), with crossed recessed

Nautihis,
Nautilus,

anchors, 557

Neptune,

collier,

effect of

wind and fouling

resistances,

279

rudder area, 714

New York harbor ferryboat, 791

New Mexico, battleship, mathematical fines for blisters, 187
New Orleans, suction dredge, 779
New York, pilot boat (of 1897), drift^resisting characterNetherlands,

pitting

231

Narwhal,

125,

effect of relative

DWL,

Napier, fast twin-screw launch by Yarrow, 753

Narvik, German destroyer, transom stern on model, 531

parallel

istics, 771
with deep V-sections, 515
New York, river paddle steamer, body plan, 663
cutaway forefoot, 668
slope, 667
entrance

DWL

SHIP-NAME INDEX
general data, 664

Newton, cargo vessel with transom stern, 764

Normandie, Atlantic liner, contours of wake fraction abaft
bossings, 359, 360
excessive vibration of structure, 365
expanded resistance data, 298
general dimensions and characteristics, 237
resistance, propeller, and self-propulsion data for model,
379
variation of residuary resistance with speed, 307
North Carolina, (old) heavy cruiser, tests of three geosim
models, 319
Northampton, bay ferry, with bow rotating-blade prop,
776, 792
Northern Pacific, triple-screw pass'r vessel, body plan,
237, 238
design notes on triple-screw hulls, 521
standard body plan, 233
Northwind class of USCG and USN icebreakers, 796

Ocean

915

variation of residuary resistance with speed, 307, 308

Vulcan, cargo ship, report of sea trials in waves, 169

Oceamis, large tanker, with all deckhouses aft, 563, 762

Oland, early icebreaking steamer, 804
Old Colony, fast pass'r-cargo steamei', standard body plan,

232
light cruiser, displacement of appendages, 296
overlapping screwprops, 520, 541
standard body plan, 232
Oranje, pass'r vessel, double rows of discontinuous bilge

Omaha,

keels, 692
extreme tumble home, 552
smoke-stack tests on model, 564
wind flow over upper works, 562
wind-velocity vectors over hull and superstructures, 276
Oriental, steam yacht, variation of resistance with speed,

307

wave

profiles

and

Phelps, destroyer, effect of wind on how, 281

Philip R. Clarke, Great Lakes ore carrier, general data, 756,

758, 760
self-propulsion

model

test data, 377,

378

Piemonte, Italian cruiser, wave profiles, 240

Pioneer, shallow-water pushboat with arch-type stern, 527

bow bulb

Pola, light cruiser, large

Pomona

on, 514

Victory; see Tervaele

Poughkeepsie, ferry with propellers on

fin keel,

791

President Coolidge, pass'r vessel (of 1931), reference data

on

parallel

DWL,

231

President Tajt, pass'r vessel, ref data on parallel

Preussen, sailing ship,

Princess

Vancouver,

of

DWL,

231

wave observations from, 178

Princess Anne, Chesapeake

Bay

792

ferry, lengthened,

steamer,

ferry

rotating-blade

propeller for exerting transverse thrust, 654

Prins Christian, Danish railway ferry, 791
Prim Eugen, heavy cruiser, body plan with blisters, 768
bower anchor stowage on deck, 556, 557
fairing caps for propellers, 601
fairing for strut and propeller hubs, 744
reference data on parallel DWL, 231
section at roll-resisting tanks, 238
shield on forward side of stack, 564
Proteus, collier, rudder area, 714
Pruitt, destroyer, thrust measurements on, 310
PT 20/54, hydrofoil-supported boat, 273
PT 8, fast motor torpedoboat, chine position, 838, 839

Puffin, early lightship (1887), 815

Putnam, destroyer, resistance augment due to fouling, 123
Pvt. Joseph F. Merrell, New York harbor ferryboat, 791

P1-S2-L2 pass'r vessel,

P3-S2-DA1, U. S. Mar

wave photos from,

data on parallel DWL, 231

design of proposed pass'r

ref

Comm

liner (1949), general

Orion, collier, rudder area, 714

Oriskany, aircraft carrier, stereoscopic

How, 248, 249

lines of

wind-resistance test of model, 279

dimensions and characteristics,

228, 237

178, 179

Orizaba,

pass'r-cargo

vessel,

standard body plan, 232

Queen Mary, Atlantic

liner,

hmited ship data

for,

228

Orsova, pass'r liner, with special derrick posts, 566

Overfalls, lightship,

at inlet scoops, 703

816

Pacific, self-propelled

hopper dredge, 779

Pacific Trader, cargo vessel, full-scale

wake measurements,

262
wind-tunnel tests on abovewater model, 279

Panama, pass'r-cargo

vessel (of

reference data on parallel

DWL,

1939),

body

Paa-de-Calais, channel paddle steamer, data on alterations

to wheels, 335

DWL,

231

Pennsylvania, tanker, body plan, wave profile, and lines

of flow,

B. McLean, Canadian icebreaker, 805

Rex, pass'r liner, general dimensions and characteristics,

237

231

and self-propulsion test data, 378

launch by Electric Launch Co., 753

Pasteur, pass'r liner, ref data on parallel

Ralph J. Columbo, Boston harbor ferrj'boat, 791

Ramapo, tanker, displacement of appendages, 296
Rappahannock, store ship, rudder area, 714
Raritan, USCG icebreaking cutter, 805

R
plan, 234

resistance, open-water,

Panhard, fast

and velocity measurements

Raleigh, light cruiser, pressure

Osprey, lightship, 816

236

and hull coefTs, 228, 236

section-area curves, 236
self-propelled model test data, 378
wake-fraction data, 368, 369
Pensacola, heavy cruiser, center-of-wind-pressure data, 285
effect of relative wind on bow, 282
large bow bulb on, 514

DWL, 231
Marshall, Great Lakes ore carrier, 756, 758, 760

reference data on parallel

Richard

M.

Rijeka, cargo ship, sea tests

of,

312

Rivadavia, battleship, triple-screw, 521

Rival, of 1870, with hydraulic-jet propulsion, 338
Roosevelt, polar expedition ship of Peary, 796

Ruytingen, lightship, 815

principal dimensions

S-boat,

German,

of

World War

IT,

chine position, 838

fast displacement-type craft, 755

Saint Joan, French trawler, 774

Salinas, tanker, center-of-wind-pressure data, 285
effect of wind on bow, 281
wind-resistance test of model, 279

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

946
Salt

Lake

City,

heavy

cruiser, large

bow bulb

wind-resistance test of model, 279

Sampo, Finnish icebreaker, 804
San Fernando, San Florentino, single-screw

on, 514

Francisco, (old) cruiser,

wave

profile

and

tankers,

lines of flow,

248

German merchant vessel, body plan, 234

measurements on model in moving water, 98
full-scale thrust measurements, 310
open-water test data for model prop, 334
self-propelled model test data, 378

San

Francisco,

flow

stereoscopic
Sore

wave photos from,

machinery

San Leandro,

177, 178

pass'r-cargo vessel

Francisco,

aft,

tuna clipper, 773

Russian icebreaker, 804
Szechenyi, paddle tug, with double wheels abreast on each
side, 336
SI 19, German torpedoboat, change of trim in shallow
water, 328
full-scale test in varied depths of water, 415, 416
increase in shallow-water resistance by inspection, 409
resistance and trim in varied depths, 390
S4-S2-BB3, U. S. Mar Comm design, ref data on parallel
DWL, 231
S4-SE2-BD1, ref data on parallel DWL, 231
Traveler, 121-ft

Svialogor,

variation in torque during propeller revolution, 349

San

Sun

of

the 1910's, with

571

tanker, wind-tunnel tests of abovewater

Tagoog, paddle tug, with wheels on each quarter, 337

Talamanca, pass'r-cargo ship, excellent bossing termination, 684,

747

section coeff in entrance, 516

model, 279
Sandpiper, self-propelled hopper dredge, 779
Santa Ana, Santa Barbara, pass'r-cargo vessels, standard

body plan, 233

Santa Elena, merchant

ship, rough and smooth velocity

98
Santa Helena, tuna purse seiner, 773
Santa Luisa, pass'r-cargo vessel, standard body plan, 233
Santa Rosa, pass'r vessel, center-of-wind-pressure data, 285
effect of wind on bow, 281, 283
Santa Teresa, pass'r-cargo vtssel, standard body plan, 233
profiles,

Schuyler Otis Bland, cargo ship, body plan, hull coeffs,

and section-area curves, 236

and coeffs, 228
self-propelled model test data, 378

principal dimensions

use of largest practicable prop, 597

wake-fraction data, 368, 369
Sea Otter, small merchant ship, with under-the-bottom
multiple propellers, 653, 654
Sealrain, general description, 762

sheer data, 549

Talbot, torpedoboat, full-scale change-of-trim data,

331
Tannenberg, merchant ship, contours of wake fraction at

prop positions, 359

open-water test data of regular and special ship props,
334
unpublished boundary-layer velocity profiles, 98
Tashmoo, river steamer, body plan, 663
general information, 663, 664
paddlewheel data, 642, 643
Tennessee, battleship, displacement of appendages, 296
resistance augment due to fouling, 123
Terra Nove, sealing vessel, 774
Terror, minelayer, self-propelled model test data, 379
self-propelled model test data when running astern, 388
wave profile and lines of flow, 252
3-diml wake-survey diagram, 361
Tervaete, Victory ship, results of fouUng on, 126
rodmeter velocity

profiles,

98

with temporary bow, 782, 783

Seraing I, of 1860, with "articulated" paddlewheels, 338
Seraing II, of 1860, with hydraulic-jet propulsion, 338
Setter II, whale catcher, 774
Sewell Avery, Great Lakes ore carrier, 758, 760

Teutonic, pass'r liner of 1889 with overlapping screwprops,

Sheikh, river gunboat, 673

Tirpitz, battleship,

standard body plan, 232

Sirius, French minesweeper, towing vessel for Aldebaran,
312
Sisit, Finnish icebreaker, 805
Snaefell, channel steamer, boundary-layer profiles on, 312
full-scale wake measurements, 262
Sobjornen, torpedoboat, full-scale trials in varied depths

Tjaldur, Danish warship, photo of Velox waves, 240

Selfridge, destroyer,

Siboney,

pass'r-cargo

vessel,

of water, 415, 416

Sotoyomo, tug, wave profile and lines of flow, 248, 249
Southern Cross, pass'r liner with machinery aft, 571
Southern Soldier, whale catcher, sheer at bow, 549

Japanese icebreaker, 805

Soya Maru,
Spartan, Lake Michigan car ferry, 791
Stadt Wien, river vessel, Unes of, 336
Standard Arrow, tanker, standard body plan, 232
Starkodder, early icebreaking steamer, 804
St. Ignace, Great Lakes icebreaking car ferry, 797, 804
Louis Socony, tunnel-stern towboat, 674
Marie, Great Lakes icebreaking car ferry, 804
Storebaelt, Danish railway ferry, 791
Sultan, light-draft steamer, 673
St.
St.

540
Theta, iceship with fins protecting propeller, 799

Thommen,

river steamer,

model

tests of paddlewheels,

336

Thule, icebreaker, general information, 800, 802, 805

Tom M.

Girdler,

bower anchor stowage on deck, 556

Great Lakes ore

carrier, 756, 758,

760

Truman 0. Olson, U. S. Army vessel with cycloidal rotatingblade props, 337

Turbinia, experimental turbine-driven craft, condenser-

scoop arrangement, 701, 702

photo at full speed, 244
proposed very thin prop blades, 600
single-arm struts, 678
ultra-high-speed displacement-type vessel, 754
Turret, turret ship with

machinery

Tyler, pass'r-cargo vessel, standard

Tl-M-BT

aft,

571

body

plan, 232

inland tanker, change-of-trim data from model,

328, 330

DWL, 231
data on parallel DWL, 231
sinkage in shallow water from model tests, 666
3-diml wake survey on model, 362
T2-SE-A1 tanker, change-of-trimdata from model, 328, 330
Tl-M-BTl

tanker, ref data on parallel

T-2 class tanker,

wave

profiles

ref

and

lines of flow at full-load

conditions, 256, 257

and ballast

SHIP-NAME INDEX
U-lll, German submarine, "offset" surfaces on a discontinuous-section hull, 768
Vacationland, large quadruple-screw ferry, 791
Valley Transporter, large river pushboat with long tunnels,

669
Vanguard, battleship, with excellent anchor recesses, 557
Veritas, fast launch by Gielow, 753
Victory ship, U. S. Mar Comm design VC2-S-AP3, ohangeof-trim data for model, 328, 330
3-diml wake surveys at light and intermediate displacements, 364, 365
Victory, Great Lakes ore carrier, 755
Vingt-et-Un II, fast launch by C. H. Crane, 753
speed-power and other curves, 865
Viper, British gunboat of 1863, with twin screws, 338
Voima, icebreaker, general information, 801, 803, 805
Voltaire, French warship, photo of Velox waves, 240
V-1, submarine (of 1925), displacement of appendages, 296
VCS-S-AP3; see Victory ship

W.

Alton Jones, tanker, single-screw, 22,000-horse propulsion,

568

Wampanoag, high-speed
model

cruiser

of

1867,

self-propelled

377
Washington, (old) armored cruiser, resistance and selfpropulsion test data, 378
Washington, battleship (of 1941), added mass of water
around deep skegs, 438, 439
Waterwitch, of 1866, with hydraulic-jet propulsion, 337, 338
Welborn C. Wood, destroyer, condenser-scoop tests, 703
White Hawk, hydrofoil-supported boat, 272
test data,

947

Widgeon, minesweeper, displacement of appendages, 296

Wilfred Sykes, ore sliip, general data, 758, 760
self-propelled model test data, 378
variation of residuary resistance with speed, 307
class of USCG and USN icebreakers, machinery
installation, 805
view of hull, 798
Windsor, cargo vessel, compound flare forward and aft, 552
Worden, destroyer, with successful deflection-type bossings,
686
Wrangel, destroyer, boundary-layer velocity profiles on, 98
full-scale towing tests, 311

Wind

XPDNC,

fast Herreshoff launch, 753

body plan, 237

Yarmouth, pass'r vessel, section coeff in entrance, 516
standard body plan, 232
Ymer, Swedish icebreaker, 805
Yudachi, Japanese destroyer, full-scale towing tests, 257,
311
resistance augment due to fouling, 123
YTB 500, harbor tug, full-scale thrust measurements, 310
open-water test data for fixed-pitch prop model, 334
variation of thrust-load coefficient with speed, 346
YTB 502, harbor tug, full-scale thrust measurements, 310

Yale, coastwise pass'r vessel,

towed by

LSM

458, 311
use of controllable propellers on, 338

ZS7,

German

destroyer,

screwprops, 635

with

corrosion-resisting

steel

Subject Index
Appendix 1 of this volume contains an alphabetical list of symbols, letter groups, and abbreviations, with
These features are therefore omitted from the subject inde.x.
Rules Followed in Making up this Index. All principal words in the part headings, chapter headings, section headings,
and te.xt and in some cases the figure captions and table headings are included in the subject index. In general, this
takes in nouns and adjectives but not verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and articles.
Abbreviations. To make the entries as descriptive and useful as possible, yet to keep them concise, abbreviations or
short forms are employed, where necessary, for words that are familiar and frequently used. Plurals are formed by adding
the customary "s" and "es" to the shortened nouns.
Examples are the following:
General.

their short titles.

Abbrev

SUBJECT INDEX
Added mass

of entrained liquid; see

Mass

Adjustable features in propdev design, 578

fins on raft Kon-Tiki, 698

Advance

coefficient, calculation of for a screwprop,

Aeration of separation zones, 140

Afterbody buttocks, design of, 519
Air, and exhaust gases, mechanical properties

wind resistance

"Angleworm" curves, description of, 303

use of, 316
Anomalies, unexplained, in confined-water performance,
414

613

"Antilift" developed
of,

922

of ships, estimated, 274

ship, estimated,

on models, 563

separation zones, 140

of,

arch-stern

915

classification

increase of with height above surface, 274

data from, 73
Airscrew propulsion, 658
Allowance(s), design and performance, 454
for ABC ship design, 456
estimated curvature, in friction-resist

wake

velocity

110

577

shadowing, for appendages in tandem, 292

graphs of, 123, 124
Alphabet, Greek, 900
specific fouling,

Alternative preliminary ship designs, preparation

of,'

501

806

Analogy, electric, bibliography on, 50

delineation of flow patterns by, 49, 67
Analysis, diagram, for wake-survey data of

ABC

ship,

367

for arch type of stern, 525

hydrodynamic ship requirements, 460

model-test data on ABC ship, 879
observed flow at screwprop position, 259
principal requirements for motorboat, 826
ship-design, useful data for, 926

TMB 3-diml wake-survey diagram, 362

wake behind a

ship, 261
wetted surface, 493
Analytical and mathematical methods,
provements in, 219

necessary

im-

ship-wave relations, 217

Anchor, installation, under-the-bow, proposed, 558
mushroom, proposed for ABC ship, 558, 559
recesses, design of, 556
Anchored ship, friction drag of, 128
Angle(s), blade-helix, of screwprops, 340, 341
control surface, neutral, setting of, 736
entrance, of designed waterline, 479
hydrodynamic pitch, /3j, first approx for screwprop,

type of single-screw stern, 521

flow analysis for, 525
Area(s), -balance ratio, of a control surface, 721
bilge-keel, 692
control-surface, determining by new procedure, 715
first approx, for preliminary design, 713

maximum-,

neutral rudder, model tests for, 876

symm

hydrofoil,

section,

optimum

longitudinal position

of,

482
paddlewheel blade, finding, 642
340
expanded, finding, for new design, 602
of, 713-720
sail-, to wetted-surface ratio, for a yacht, 786

ratio(s) of screwprops, definitions of,

rudder, determination
silhouette, of a ship

above water, 277

wetted, of a hydrofoil, 5

Arm,

615
second approx, 616
coeff data for

675
tandem, shadowing allowances for, 292
varjdng flow, 293
inception and effect of cavitation on, 145
large, resistance of, 295
lift data for bodies representing, 291
motorboat, design of, 842, 862
movable, design of, 706
resistance, calculation of, 288
for submarines, 295
individual, per cent, 289
overall, customary values, 288
scale-effect problems in connection with, 288

in

curve, section-; see Section-area

of predicting pressure resistance, 321

and press

290

295, 296

tandem, resistance of, 292

use of flow diagrams for positioning, 258
vibration of, design to avoid, 700
Aquino wake-fraction formula, 368
Arch stern, ABC ship, afterbody plan, 523
appendages for, 681

diagrams, 239

151

of,

short, definition of, 108

flow, abaft a screw propeller, 259

-of-attack

145

fixed, design of,

in ship design, 574

of,

of,

of drag,

ferryboat, design of, 793

on appendage drag, 292

hydrodynamic design

by type

fairing of, in general, 742

calcs,

roughness; see Roughness

craft,

design, 681

drag data for bodies representing, 291

effect of wake velocity on, 292

powering, and reserves, graphic representation, 576,

Amphibious

632

design of control surfaces and, for motorboats, 862

displacement

Airfoils, typical, test

for

ABC

cavitation on, occurrence

resistance of ships, estimating, 274

velocitj',

of,

Appearance features of hull sheer line, 547

Appendage(s), abreast and in tandem, modifications in
drag for, 293
added-mass data for water surrounding, 438
and hull combinations, design of, 526

565

leakage, to screwprop, avoiding, 631

mechanical properties

and use

propeller, shaping of hull adjacent to, 536

passenger-ship model, 563

test techniques

d(,'f

gaps ahead of rudders, 712

currents around superstructures, 561-563

ABC

by surface props,

Aperture(s), and clcaranc-cM for propdevs, 537

entrainment, precautions against, 747

-flow pattern over

949

Angle(s), trim, for planing craft, 840

strut; see Strut

Arrangement, physical, of submarines, 810

Aspect ratio, data on effect of lifting surfaces with low, 866
effective, for fins and skegs, 698
ship hydrofoils, 83

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

950

Assumptions, general, for added-mass calculations, 417

propelling raachinerj', 443
in calculation of wavemaking drag, 212
Astern maneuvering, rudders for, 735
Asymmetric body, distribution of vel and press around, 43
formed by sources and sinks, 46
propulsion, notes on, 651
Asynmietric hull forms, design notes for, 787
ATTC 1947 friction-resistance formulas, 102
meanline, 104
Attitude, changes of, for fat forms, 329
planing forms, variation with speed, 329
running and ship motion diagrams, 325
of planing craft, 850
predicted, of planing craft, 851
Augment of resistance see Thrust deduction
Automatic flap-type rudders and planes, 735
Auxiliary propulsion for sailing yachts, 652
"Awash" condition of a submarine, occurrence of, 812
Axial-component wake-fraction diagrams, 358
velocity components in screwprop outflow jet, 260
Axis, stock, positioning rel to control-surf blade, 720
Axisymmetric bodies formed by sources and sinks, 42
;

Bibliography and references,

condenser scoops, 703

partial

and

selected,

on:

confined-water effects, 415

vessel design, 659
controllable propellers, 579
damping, vibration, and added-mass effects, 439-441
distribution of vel and press around hydrofoils, 81, 82
dredges, self-propelled, 779
dynamic lift, 269
eddy systems, 144
electric analogy for flow patterns, 50

ferryboats, (mostly double-ended), 790-792

fishing vessels, 771-774
fouling, 125
friction resistance, 128-132

geometric waves, 182-185

Great Lakes cargo carriers, 755, 756
hydrodynamics and hydraulics (books), 2
hydrofoil-supported craft, 271-273
icebreakers

Kort

and

iceships, 799, 804-806

nozzle, 687

Lagally's Theorem, 71
life-saving or rescue boats, 817, 818

816
mathematical lines for ships, 204
mechanical properties, air and water, 925
model propellers, open-water test data, 333-335
wind-resistance tests, 278
motorboats, 865-867
paddlewheels, 335-337
planing and planing craft, 269
lightships,

Back flow around

ships in canal locks, 414

Backing power from self-propelled model tests, 388
Baker (G. S.) model 56C, lines and resistance data, 234
Balance, buoyancy and weight, first longitudinal, 497, 498
Balance, degree of, in control-surface design, 720
portion of rudder, pressure field of, 711
ratio, area-, of control surface,

721

length-, of control surface, 721

weight, longitudinal, for light draft, 500
Balanced rudders, design notes for, 720

'running-attitude diagrams, 331

sailing-yacht design, 786, 787

screw-propeller design, 606-609

Ballast condition, estimated lines of flow in, 256

ratio for saUing yachts, definition of,

singing of propellers, 144

786

Barnaby (K.

sinkage and change of trim, 331

sources and sinks, 70

Baseplane and propeller-disc clearances, 540

Telfer

C.) powering coeflacient for small craft, 833

Barrel or basket area of rotating-blade propeller, 656

Basic concepts for calculations and predictions,

method

of predicting ship resistance, 318, 319

theoretical resistance calculations, 221, 222

factors in ship design, 442

theory of similitude, 4

screwprop design variables of D. W. Taylor, 586, 901,

902
Bates (J. L.) effective-power data for prelim design, 355
Beaching, keels; see Keels, resting
vessels designed for, 808
Beam, and draft for preliminary design, 468
as a design feature in confined waters, 662
-draft influence on residuary resistance, 298, 299
-Froude number, definition and use of, 11
on ship length, dimensional graph of, 470
selection of, in a new design, 468, 470

WL, max, design lane for fore-and-aft position, 481

Bearing, thrust, relation between screwprop thrust and
load at, 347, 348

Beaufort wind-velocity scale of U. S. Navy Dept, 284

Bed clearances in shallow-water operation, estimate of, 666
Behavior, probable, prediction for a prelim ship design, 459
shallow-water, first approx to, 501
ship, in confined waters, predicting, 389
Bibliography and references, partial and selected, on:

added-mass, vibration, and damping

cavitation, 167-159
change of trim and sinkage, 331

straight-element ship designs, 764, 765

effects,

439-441

thrust and towing-pull measurements, 311, 312

tunnel stern vessels, 673

vibration, damping,

vortex streets or

and added-mass

trails, 141,

effects,

439-441

144

wake, 262
wake-fraction diagrams, 359, 360
wavemaking resistance, 217-219

waves, geometric and general, 182-185

subsurface, 185
yacht design, 786, 787
Bilge(s), diagonal, hull shape along, 517
keel(s); see Keels

prediction of flow pattern at, 255

radius, formulas for computing, 477
Blade (s), area, paddlewheel, determining, 642
circle of paddlewheel, definition of, 640
control-surf, positioning stock axis rel to,

curvature

of, for

proportions
rotating-,

720

paddlewheel, 646

of, for

a paddlewheel, calculated, 641

propeller;

see

Propeller

(general

fication)

rudder, stock axis position relative to, 720

classi-

SUBJECT INDEX
Blade(s), sorewprop, choice of number, 599
for ABC ship, 612
screwprop, edges, shaping

twin-screw, section shapes

of,

606

vertical, as

helix angles, 340, 341

ABC

ship,

ABC

thickness, calculation for

Bow; see also Stem

Bow, abovewater section shapes

design considerations for, 605

underwater, design of, 517, 768

projecting, design of, 517, 560, 561
Blocking effect between appendages, 293
Blunt-ended vessels, design of, 755
Boats, fishing, special reqmrements for, 770
life-saving or rescue, design of, 816
motor, design, general considerations, 820
high-speed planing, design data for, 823
Body(ies), and ship lines, mathematical formulas for, 187
any, determination of velocity around, 24
asymmetric, formed by sources and sinks, 46
isotachyls around, 45
velocity and pressure distribution around, 43
axisymmetric, formed by sources and sinks, 42
drawing streamlines around, 31
in unsteady motion, added mass of water around, 417
mathematic methods for delineating, 186
of revolution, cavitation data for, 151
pressure coefficients around, 42
refs to vel and press distribution around, 40-45
plans, ship, ABC, transom-stern, 491
arch-stern, 523
estimated flow pattern on, 255
shallow-water, 663, 664
single-screw, 234-236

"standard", 231-234

submerged, calc of bulk volume and wetted

drag coefficients for, 322

surf,

322

pressure resistance as function of depth, 323

typical, representing appendages, drag of, 291

and vel and press diagrams, 31

streets, 141

yawed,

refs to flow patterns about, 38, 40

2-diml and S-dirnl, refs to vel and press data, 43-45

velocity

and pressure diagrams for, 43

and disadvantages, 677

Bossing(s), advantages

around

shafts, design of,

682

contra-guide or deflection type, design rules, 686

endings, adjacent to propdevs, design of, 536
or struts, selection of, 677
short, design of for

termination

of,

ABC

684, 747

at the, 551

shaping

of,

513

single-ended ovoid for, 514

systematic resistance data for, 510-512

diving plane(s), design rules for, 736
profile(s),

for

491

ABC

ship, 511

and free-running, design, 632,792

propeller(s), coupled

housing, design

of,

797

separate shafts for, 792

raked, possible advantages
rudders, design

of,

507

735

of,

shaping, for confined waters, 667

snubbing of, for ease of construction, 508

temporary, design of, for damaged ships, 781

crest, height and position, estimate of, 244
lag of abaft stem, 245
Bowers (W. H.) cavitation criteria, 155
Box-shaped forms, self-propelled, design notes, 779
holds, design of dry-cargo ships with, 762

-wave

Bracket, shaft; see Strut

Bracketing design technique, 458

twin-screw, 236

and vortex

95

by Ferguson, 511
anchor installation under the bottom, 558
cavitation, check on, 514
comparison of resist with that of normal bow, 512
design for ABC ship, 511
lanes for, 509
notes on, 508, 509
parameters, 485
rules of W. C. S. Wigley, 510
layout diagram, 513
for ABC ship, 510
position and proportions of, 485, 508-514

see also Bulge

vibrating,

of,

ship, 109, 110

bulb, analysis of Taylor resist data

Blasius friction-resistance formula for laminar flow, 104

various, flow patterns

ABC

on ship drag calculations, 213

variation with x-distance from stem, 95, 96
velocity profiles for two ships, 97
Boussinesq number, definition and use of, 16
effect of

shape, final, for ABC ship, 627

shaping by cavitation criteria, 621
shaping and finish, 633
strength and deformation, 634
-thickness distribution, 620
widths of, 340
cavitation diagrams for selecting, 605

on and prediction

-layer characteristics, data

ship, 627-629

section, selection of type, 605

Blister(s)

683

Bottom anchor

624

prediction of cavitation on, 149

profile, choice of, 602

skew-back, for
raked, use of, 600

for, list of refs,

docking keels, 686

wetted surface, calculating procedure, 108

installation proposed for ABC ship, 558, 559
Boundary, change of added mass in unsteady motion near
a large, 432

hollow-face, disadvantages of, 627

outline for

951

Bossing(s), transverse section shapes, 683-685

ship,

685

Brake horsepower ; see Power

Breakwaters, deck, design of, 554
Bridges, pontoon, floats for, 782
Bulb bow; see
Bulge(s)

Bow and

Stern

see also Blister

prediction of ship flow pattern at, 248-257

517
underwater, design of, 768
Bulged fender strakes, design notes for, 560, 769
Bulk modulus, fresh and salt water, 923
volume, calculation of, for a submerged body, 322
side, design of,

for a submarine, definition of, 457

Bulwarks, design of, 554
freeing ports and slots in, 554, 555

Buoyancy, balance, longitudinal,

center

of, shifts

in

CG

first

approx, 497

position to suit, 498

HYDRODYNAMICS

952

Buoyancy, longitudinal center of, usual positions for, 486

reserve, requirements in design, 546
Burrill (L. C.) method to derive thrust and torque for a
screwprop, 352
Buttock, lines, reversed curvature in, 492, 493
mean, for planing craft, 839, 840
shapes, for planing craft, 839
slope and curvature for confined water, 668
Butts and laps, shaping and facing of, 740, 741
Calculated and experimental

comparison

resist,

of,

for, 1

critical, 10, 11

on typical hydrofoil, 150

not involved, screwprop design procedure when, 625
number(s), definition of, 8, 11
in salt water, tables of, 147-149

limits

nomogram

for, 147,

150

of,

without, screwprop blade widths, 625

Celerity of trochoidal wave, tabulated data, 165-168

resistance, 86

overall wetted surface and bulk volume, 106, 322

performance of a screw propeller, 592, 613, 629
miscellaneous propdevs, 332
pressure resistance, mathematical methods for, 206
modern developments in, 210
resistance, theoretical, reference material on, 221
total, of a submarine and surface ship, 313
screw-propeller efficiency, expected, 629
ship design and performance data, 1
performance, practical benefits of, 220
pressure resistance due to wavemaking, 215
resistance, earlj' efforts, 207
thrust-load factor for a screwprop design, 613
of a screw propeller, 345
wave resistance, ship forms suitable for, 219
wavemaking drag, assumptions and limitations, 212
resistance, 215
components of, 216
Camber, deck, diagrams for, 554
selection of, 553
ratio, in screw-propeller design, 625
Canal(s), locks, predicting ship resistance in, 413
water-surface slopes in, 660
Canoes, design of hulls for, 752
Cargo carriers, Great Lakes, design notes on, 755
vessels with box-shaped holds, design of, 762
Cascade effects on hydrofoils, data for, 84
Casting fillets, use of for fairing, 742
Catamaran hulls, definition and design problems of, 788

and use

of,

Cavitation, bibliography, selected, 157-159

bulb, check on, 510

shaping, 621

circular-arc blade section

NSP, for 3-bladed screw

of W. H. Bowers, 155

camber

lines,

623

propellers, 154

criterion, factors in, 146

data, for bodies of revolution, 151

symmetrical hydrofoil, 161

model screw propeller, 153
effect and inception, on ships and propellers, 145
on screw-propeller performance, 152
erosion, prediction of, 156
hub, and swirl core, prediction of, 155
typical, for

number,

relation of to pressure coefficient, 10, 11

on hydrofoils and propeller blades, 149

comments on propellers for, 631
propeller performance under, 156

friction drag, for a ship, 126

criteria, for blade-section

on ships and appen-

super-, design

for submarines, 295

blade and paddlewheel proportions, 641
effective and friction power, 354

definition

or

prediction

resistance, 288

Cauchy number,

effect of,

index(es), for three axisymmetrio body heads, 152

nomogram for, 150

occurrence of on ships and appendages, 145

photographing, on model and ship propellers, 153

ship behavior in confined waters, 389

appendage

and

dages, 145

216

Calculating, advance coefficients for a screwprop, 613

and predicting, basic concepts

IN SHIP DESIGN
Cavitation, inception

Center of buoyancj^, height above baseline, 479

usual longitudinal positions of, 486
gravity, height above baseline, 479
position, long'l, for planing craft, 840
Center-of-pressure location, calc, for planing
for hydrofoil,

craft,

849

80

planing form, 267

Center-of-wind-pressure data for typical ships, 285

layout for
location,

Change

ABC

ship,

283

284

of state of water, data on, 921

trim; see

Trim

Changes proposed in

final

ABC

ship design, 896

Channel(s), calculation and use of hydraulic radius, 409

references to flow patterns in, 36, 39
restricted, prediction of ship behavior in, 409-415
slopes, water-surface,

data on, 660

steering in offset positions along, 413

Chart(s), design, for screw propellers, 584, 596

data from, 335

propeller-series,
listing of,

comments

on, 589

584-588

preliminary design procedure, 592

requirements for, 584

Chemical constituents of sea water, 924
Chine(s), abovewater, design

comments

on, 560

dimensions, for motorboat design, 846

elevations, for planing craft, 839

placing of in straight-element forms, 763

shape, proportions, dimensions, for planing craft, 837

Chisel type of screwprop blade trailing edge, 636

Chordwise pressure distribution about hydrofoils, 81

proportions of control-surface sections, 722
Circular constant notation, 913
Circulation, and lift, spanwise distribution of, 83
formulas for calculating, 72
theory, application to screwprop design, 609
Clearance (s), aperture and tip for propdevs, 537
bed, in shallow water, estimate of, 666
hull, for paddlewheels, 645
propeller-disc and baseplane, 540
tip, for motorboats, 859
in tunnels, 669
Close-coupled rudders, design of, 726
Closures for rudder hinge gaps, 726
Clubbing of skeg ending at aftfoot, def of, 537

SUBJECT INDEX
Coatings, propeller, to resist erosion, 635
Coefficient(s), added-mass, definition of,

419

estimate for vibrating ships and snrewpropa, 433,

436
advance, calculating for a screwprop, 613
and designed waterline shapes, 228
related data

shapes, for

on typical

ships,

223

DWL's, 228

ship parameters, ratios

953

Contra-guide bossings, design of, 686

skeg ending, design of, for ABC ship, 532, 534
WIj's, relation of to median line, 533
-horn for ABC ship, design of, 733
-rotating screwprops, design comments, 655
-rudder, design of, 729
-struts, abaft screwprop, layout, 682
-vanes, for paddlewheels

930

and sternwheels, positioning,

virtual-mass, 418, 419

688
proposed arrangement of F. Siiberkriib, 689
Control surface(s), and movable appendages, design of, 706
angles, neutral, setting of, 736
area, determining by new procedure, 715
first approx to, 713
design of, 706
structural, affected by hydrodynamics, 723
determining areas of various, 715
motorboat, design of, 862
Controllability model tests in shallow water, 876
Controllable features in propdev design, 578
propellers, list of references, 579
performance data on, 338
Conversion graphs, 931
ratios and tables, 928-930
Coordinates, ship, 0-diml representation of, 189, 190, 192
Cores, swirl, predicting, 155
Comers, inside, requiring no fillets, 742
Corrosion-resisting steel to resist propeller erosion, 635
Coupled bow propellers, design notes, 632

waterline, selecting, 478

Cove(s),

of,

and upper works, 279, 322

submerged bodies, 322
2-diml and 3-diml geometric shapes, 291
form, dimensions, and rel data on typical ships, 223

drag, for hulls

product, for screwprop blade sections, 617

maximum-section, selecting, 468, 469
moment-of-area, square-, of DWL, 478
pressure, or Euler number, 8
lift-,

relation to cavitation index, 10, 11

table

of, 27,

30

prismatic, longitudinal, selecting, 467

propulsive,

ABC

and other

determination
ranges

of,

ships,

895

375

of,

376

section, along length, for

variation

ABC

517

ship,

517

of,

of typical ships, 516

specific, definition of, 5

thrust-load, variation with speed, 344-346

Complex

position

and shape, on discontinuous-section

forms, 560, 561

wind-drag, for ship types, 280

172

sea, synthetic, delineation of,

amphibious, hydrodynamic design

Craft,

of,

waves for design purposes, 171

Comparison and analysis, useful data for, 926
Components, major resistance, ratios of, 313

full-planing, design procedure for, 821

Compound

planing; see Planing

design

551
hydrofoils, test data from, 75
rudders, design notes for, 726
fairing propeller hubs forward
flare,

Compromises

hydrofoil-supported, bibliography on, 271-273

multiple-hulled, design problems

of,

in ship design, general

of,

draft

for,

and displacement

comments, 444

model

special design features for,

822

750
818

tunnel stern, powering of, 672

ultra-high-speed displacement-type, design notes, 754

flow pattern for light or ballast, 256

in,

Conformal transformation, description and uses of, 25

Constant notation, circular, 913
Construction, adherence to design details, 459
mechanical, of screwprops, 633
Contour(s), maximum-section, layout of, 476
of Re/ A, typical, for TSS, 29
from Gertler-TSS data, 302
Rw for Japanese fishing vessels, 300
residuarj'-resistance coefficient Cr, 301-303
rudder, ABC ship designs, 728, 729
stem and stern; see Profiles
stream-form, 2-diml, around single source, 52
Contra-features, for diving planes, 736
propdevs for use with, 579
'

of,

of the future,

871

probable variable-weight, 463

variable-load, screwprop submersion and trim
wavegoing, limits for, 458
Confined waters; see Water(s)

825

special-purpose, classification of, 750

design
tests,

for,

references to tabulated data, 228

semi-planing, design, 823

911

for

788

preliminary design study, requirements

hydrodynamic design, 819

745

partial bibliographj' on, 703

Conditions, abbreviations

of,

small, powering of, 824

Concepts, basic, for calculations and predictions, 1

physical, having scalar dimensions, abbrev for, 911

Condenser scoops,

806

498

Crest see
;

Wave

Criteria for cavitation, blade-section shaping by, 621

factors in, 146

on screwprops, 154
separation and eddying, 133
Criterion, Goldstein, for
face,

hydrodynamically smooth sur-

112

Taylor (D. W.), limiting depth for ship trials, 407

number, when occurring, 11
-speed ratio in shallow water, definition of, 393

Critical cavitation

nomogram

for,

395

wave speed and water depth, table of, 661

Crossed anchor chains and hawsepipes, use of, 557
Current(s), river, reference data on, 660
surface-water, due to natural wind, 287

Curvature, allowances in friction-resistance calcs, 110

buttocks, for confined-water operation, 668

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

954

Design(s), appendage(s), motorboat, 862

Curvature, dimensiouless, measurement and plotting

196
flow, in screwprop blade, design corrections
hull, and resistance, relation between, 194

movable, 706

of,

for,

625

for shallow-water design, 665

beaching vessels and landing

bilge-keel, 692-694

notes on anah'sis, 195

bossings, contra-guide or deflection tj'pe, 686

0-diml, graphic determination, 196

fairing type, for shafts, 682

bow, propellers, 632
rudders, 735
temporary, for emergencies, 781
bulb bow, 508, 509
canoes, 752
chart(s), screw-propeller, 584
data from, 335
contra-guide skeg ending, 532
-horn for ABC ship, 733
-rotating screw propellers, 655
-rudder, 729
control surface(s), 706
motorboat, 862
structural, affected by hydrodynamics, 723
detail, adherence to in construction, 459
of underwater hull, 504
devices to produce vert and transv thrust, 654
discharge openings through shell, 701
discontinuous-section hulls, 768
displacement-type motorboats, 754, 823
diving planes, bow and stern, 736
dry-cargo vessels, 762
edges of appendages, leading and trailing, 675
equalizing powers of multiple propellers, 573
essence of, 444
facilities for abovewater smoke and gas discharge, 563
features, applicable to confined waters, 659
general, abovewater form, 546
hydrodynamic, of amphibians, 806
propeller, comments on, 596
self-propelled dredges, 777
special, small-craft hulls, 822, 823
supporting horns for rudders, 690
ferryboat hull and appendages, 793
final ABC ship, proposed changes in, 896
fins, fixed stabilizing, 697
torque-compensating, 699
fireboats or firefloats, 774
fishing vessels, 770
fixed objects in a stream, 675
screw-propeller shrouding, 687
stabilizing skegs or fins, 697
for conflicting steering requirements, 713
hydraulic- and pump-jet propulsion, 648

longitudinal, flowplane, 199

instruction plan, 198

of section-area curve, 199

radius

of,

2-diml, formula for, 195

on friction drag, 110

from nose to body, 196
value of fairness and, in ship lines, 193
0-diml, method of measuring, 196, 198
surface, effect

transition, gradual,

plot of

DWL for ABC ship,

506, 507

ABC

section-area curves for

ships, 544

Curve, section-area; see Section area

Curved surface; see Surface

Cutwater

for

ABC

ships, 511

blunt stem, design

Cycloidal propeller

676

of,

see Propeller, rotating-blade

Cylinders, drag of appendages approximating, 291

Damping

effects, partial

bibliography on, 439

Deck(s), camber, diagrams

for,

554

selection of, 553

details

and abovewater

profile,

553

straight-element ridge type, 554

Deduction, thrust; see Thrust

Deep-water waves, relation to shallow-water waves, 180
Deflection of flow around separation zones, apparent, 139
-type bossings, design rules for, 686
Deformation of screw-propeller blades, 634

Degree

to avoid vibration, 700

as a compromise, 444
basic factors in, 442

estimated friction allowances for, 110

of balance of control surfaces,

Delineating, flow patterns

by

720

electric analogy,

49

mathematic, of section-area curves, 198

ship forms, mathematical lines for, 186
source-sink flow diagrams, 52
synthetic, 3-component, complex sea, 172-175

2-diml stream-form contours around single source, 52

Density, mass, reference data on, 94

"standard" fresh and

salt water, 915,

918

Depth(s), equivalent, of channels, def and calc

given, 2 per cent speed reduction in, 403

of,

412

-length ratios of ship hulls, data on, 496

limiting, for ship trials,

2 per cent

from D. W. Taylor, 407

404
on pressure resistance, 323

resist increase,

submerged body,

effect

water, given, practical resist-speed cases involving, 396

ABC ship, appendages for arch-stern, 681

changes in final design, 896
motor tenders, additional design items for, 899
preliminary, model-test notes, 869
principal hull data, 870
roll-resisting keels, 695
abovewater section shapes, 551
alternative preliminary, preparation of, 501
amphibians, hydrodynamic, 806
anchor recesses, 556
and drag data for hydrofoils, 83
performance allowances, ABC ship, 454, 456

Design(s),

appendage(s), fixed, 675

craft,

808

minimum

thrust deduction, 541

reduction of drag, sinkage and squat, 661

galvanic-action protectors, 704

general, of the propdevs, 567

horns, supporting, for rudders, 690

hull(s), and appendage combinations, 526

752
paddlewheel diameter and position to, 643
water flow applied to, 545
hydraulic-jet propulsion, 648
hydrodynamic, effect of unrelated factors, 502
fine, slender,
rel of

SUBJECT INDEX
Design(s), of motorboats, additional items to consider, 899
problems of submarines, 809
second, modifications for, 896
improvements, field for future, 444
keels, bilge-, 692-694

for

ABC

ship,

for

rules, general, for

length, 470
bulb bows, JE values for, 509
Bwx positions, 481
Cp values, 466
Cx values, 469
displacement-length quotient, 466
fatness ratios, 466

L/B

ratios,

screw propeller, 582

bibliography, partial, 606-609
blade,

470

484

waterline, 480
ts of

DWL,

numbers

of,

for

ABC

ship,

612

'

positions, 483

terminal value

stern diving planes, 736

783

bibliography on, 786, 787

schedule for a ship, 444

695

parallel middlebody,

bow and

sailing yachts, aspects of,

beam on

LMA

maneuvering astern, 735

motorboat, 724

docking, drift-resisting, resting, 695

landing craft, 808
lane(s),

955

Design(s), rudder(s), close-coupled and compound, 726

509

shapes by Lerbs' short method, 627

width, 605
design references for circulation theory, 610

methods and procedures, 583, 596

prehminary, comments on features, 596
design procedure with series charts, 592
Schoenherr combination of steps, 630
wake-adapted, 609
second hydrodynamio, modifications for, 896
shallow recesses, notes on, 748
shells, racing,

WL entrance angles, 479

752

ship, basic factors in,

442

launches, fast, 752

definition of, 442

long, narrow, blunt-ended vessels, 755

guaranteeing performance of new, 459

motorboat(s), displacement-type, 823

general considerations, 820, 843
of limited draft, 858

on basis of chine dimensions, 846

motor tenders for ABC ship, principal requirements
for preliminary design stud}', 825

movable appendages and control

multiple-hulled craft, problems
propellers, equalizing

surfaces, ,706

of,

powers

788
573

of,

-skeg stern, 531

paddletrack propulsion, 638

paddlewheel, details and mechanism, 645
feathering, for ABC ship, 644

hydrodynamics of, 638

variations from normal, 648
planing craft, check on basis of chine dimensions, 846
interdependence of hull-design features, 843
selecting hull features, 835

ABC ship, model-test notes for, 869

hydrod}'namic, of a motorboat, 819
of Part 4, comments on, 898
preparation of alternate, for a ship, 501

preliminary,

ship, steps in the,

460

procedure, for full-planing craft, 821

modification of normal, for hull with keel drag,

543
propdev(s), miscellaneous, 638
to

meet maneuvering requirements, 580

propeller(s), for supercavitation, 631

rotating-blade, 656

propelling machinery, effect

on

hull,

570

protectors, galvanic-action, 704

pump-jet propulsion, 648

rapid response to rudder action, 735
recesses, shallow,

hull, rel of

paddlewheel diam and propulsion

748

requirements, for a screw propeller, 583

ready-made, interpretation, 454

statement of principal, 446
rotating-blade propellers, notes on, 656
rudder(s), alternative sterns,

ABC

ship, 727

to,

643

hydrodynamics applied

442
major, model-test data for, 868
skegs, fixed, 697
smoke-stack, 564
sound-gear location, 705
special hull forms and special-purpose craft, 750
specs, involving hydrodynamics, formulation, 446
partial, for a passenger-cargo ship, 447
steps for Lerbs' short method for screwprop, 630
straight-element hulls, 762
bibliography on, 764, 765
adaptation to shallow-water vessels, 666
structural control-surface, affected by hydrodynamics,
723
strut, for exposed rotating shafts, 678
submarines, hydrodynamio problems, 809
surface propellers, 650
tandem screw propellers, 655
technique, bracketing, 458
torque-compensating fins, 699
tunnel stern, 669
underwater hull, detail, 504
unsymmetrical single-screw stern, 528
utility-boat, round-bottom, 858
wake-adapted screwprop, by circulation theory, 609
water inlet and discharge openings, 701
Designed waterhne; see Waterline
parallel, reference data on, 231
waterplane, shape of vessel near, 504
Designer, first task of the, 446
ship, general problems of, 454
Detail, deck, and abovewater profile, 553
design, adherence to in construction, 459
notes on paddlewheel, 645
of underwater hull, 504
Developable hull surfaces, hnes for ships with, 765
to,

Devices, propulsion; see Propdevs

trim-control, use of for planing craft, 840

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

956
Devices, trim-control,

Plum

stabilizer,

840

Diagrain(s), analysis, wake-, for

ABC

ship,

367

Flow

flow; see

and knuckles, 560

on a rudder and horn, 743
transverse, in abovewater body, 561
Discontinuous bilge keels on liner Oranje, 692
Discontinuities, longitudinal,

Diagonal, bilge, hull shape along, 517

about hydrofoils, list of references, 78

analysis of, 239
flow and flow net, around various bodies, 31
for positioning appendages, use of, 258
upper works configurations, 276
lines-of-flow, typical, on ship models, 248
model surface-flow, analysis of, 250
polar, for hydrofoils, 75
list of references, 76

-section hulls, design of, 768

friction drag on, 127
Displacement, and draft conditions for model tests, 871
trim, effect of changes on resistance, 310
changes, effect on effective power, 355
-length quotient, first approx, 465, 466
relation to fatness ratio, 930, 932
of appendages, 295, 296
-tj-pe craft, ultra-high-speed,

pressure, details of, 9

motorboats, design

running attitude and ship motion, 325

trim and wetted surface, for planing craft, 851
source-sink flow, delineation of, 52
streamline, published, references to, 32
surface-flow, on models, anah'sis of, 250
velocity and pressure, around various bodies, 31
2-

and 3-diml bodies, 43

volume and

considerations

size,

of power, equal,

among

on hydrofoils, 81

radial thrust, of screwprop, first approx, 615

analysis of, 362

3-diml, 360

optimum, comments on, 597

paddlewheel, relation to hull design, 643
selection of, 597

schematic ship forms, 47

ship forms, prediction of, 257
Diverging waves, effect on calculated resistance, 220
Diving planes see Plane(s)

Docking keels, design

data on Great Lakes oreships,

695

Double- or multiple-chine hull form, design

typical ships, 223-228

blade and paddlewheel, calculating, 641

chine, design check of for motorboat, 846

planing craft, 837

physical quantities, 4
principal, first approx, 464

second approx, 475

ship, basis for selection,

457

transverse, for shallow-water running, 662

Dimensionless general equations for ship forms, summary

of, 192
longitudinal curvature, graphic determination, 196
instruction plan, 198

numbers; see Number

of,

of,

762

-ended ships; see Ferryboats

propelling plant and propdevs for, 792
solutions to equations of motion, 6
Doublet, and circular stream form, 61
definition and use of, 18
Doubly refracting solutions, use in flow studies, 48
Draft, and beam for preliminarj' design, 468

568

limiting, of propdevs,

quantitative use

of,

sketches, 697
vertical bossings as, 686

icebreakers, 800-803

displacement conditions for model tests, 871

trim variations, estimated, for ABC ship, 481, 498
immersed-transom, 530
increased, with age, comments on, 566
limited, design for

motorboat

of,

858

square, for confined waters, definition

of,

393

variable, first statement, 483

variations, estimated, with variable weights, 481

Drag,

summary of data on, 8

representation of ship surface, 189
ship coordinates, definition sketch for, 189
surface equations, application of, 191

relationships,

Dip and dip

ratio of paddlewheel, definitions of, 639

Direction of rotation of propdevs, for ship design, 572
Disc, clearances for propellers; see Clearances
of,

83

Differential pressures at screw propeller, data on, 343

drag

lift,

and pressure, about asymmetric body, 43

around bodies, references to, 44
body of revolution, 40
hydrofoils, and list of refs, 80, 81

velocity

Diameter, pitch-, ratio; see Pitch

Diameter(s), hub and propeller-disc, 612
screw-propeller, Burtner formula for, 569
fqr hub, 601

propeller-,

448

and magnitude on planing-craft bottoms, 266

second approx, 616

flat,

of,

multiple propellers, 573

pressure, chordwise,

spanwise, of circulation and

rel

754

pressure, along a vee entrance, 48

TMB 3-diml,

Dimension(s), and
758-760

of,

Distribution, blade-thickness, for screwprop, 620

wake-fraction, at propdev positions, 358

-survey,

design

823

for,

291

274
wind on bow, 281

of ships, estimating,

resistance with

appendage(s), abreast, modifications

classification
effect of

wake

by

in,

293

type, 290

velocities,

292

abovewater hulls and upper works, 279

submerged bodies, 322
typical 2-diml and 3-diml geometric bodies,

coeff(s), for

291

and hub diameters, design

notes, 612

Discharge, abovewater gas and smoke, 563

openings, water, design of, 701
underwater, gas and smoke, 565
Discontinuities, estimating drag

air,

and

of,

294

graphs, typical, for hydrofoils, 73, 74

confined-water, design for reduction, 661

and spheres, 291

appendages, 291
and gaps, 294

cylinders, ellipsoids,

data for bodies

like

holes, slots,

SUBJECT INDEX
Drag, data for hydrofoil planforms and sections, 83
due to ice, as for icebreal<ers, 794, 796
exposed rotating shafts, 293
fiat plates

and

291

discs,

for drawing streamlines, 31

technique, 50
Element, straight-; see Straight

hydrofoil, formulas for calculating, 72

543

modifications for appendages abreast, 293

pipes for suction dredges, 777, 778

predominant type,
290

classification of

rigging, design to reduce,

Elliptic ellipsoids, definition of,

appendages by,

of,

139, 321

slope, estimate of, 321

for,

hull, skeg,

methods

of,

31

the final design of screw propeller, 629

Dredges, self-propelled, special design problems, 777
Drift and leeway, estimated, due to wind, 286
-resisting keels, design of, 695
Drive, vertical-shaft, for screw propellers, 653
Dry-cargo vessels, design of, 762
Drydocks, floating, self-propelled, 779
Ducts and channels, refs to flow patterns in, 36, 37, 39
passages, friction data for water flow in, 105
amphibian, peacetime uses of, 806
Djmamic forces, equilibrium of static and, on submarine,
812
lift, and planing, quantitative data, 263
coefficient of planing form, graph for, 265
determination of, 264
self-propelled motorboat models with, 864
metacentric stability, check of, 553
definition of, 443
viscosity, and surface tension, 920
reference data on, 94

DUKW

196

design

contra-guide skeg, design

wind, irregular structures, formulas for, 276

lateral, 285
masts, spars, and rigging, 566
with wind on bow, 281
Drawing, final design, ABC screw propeller, 628
streamlines, various

nose outhne, formulas

Emergence points, faired shafts at, 746

Emergency running, temporary bow for, 781
Empirical data, use of in modern ship design,
Endings, bossing,

motorboats, 862

43

around, 43

Elliptic ellipsoids, flow

566

separation, estimate and approx

still-air, of

Electroanalogic methods, 51
Electrolytic tank arrangements, 49

friction; see Friction

keel, design of hull with,

957

Electric analogy, delineation of flow patterns by, 49, 67

bibliography on, 50

of,

xix

536

of,

532

Energy, in surface-wave system, calculation

Engines, number and position of, 570

of,

163

English-metric conversion ratios, 928-930

English system, units in, 926

units of measurements, ratios between, 926
Enlargements around propeller shafts, fairing, 744
Entrained water, added mass of; see Mass
Entrainment, air, precautions against, 747
Entrance, angle of designed waterline, 479
selection of section shapes in, 515

vee, pressure distribution along, 48

EPH

streamlined section (Ellipse-Parabola-Hyperbola),

678
Equal-velocity contours; see Isotachyl

Equalizing powers for multiple screw propellers, 573

Equations, and formulas, pure, use

xx, 7

of,

of motion, multiple solutions to, 6

summary

of general 0-diml, for ship forms, 192

0-diml ship-surface, application

of,

191

Equilibrium, static and dynamic forces, for submarine, 812

Erosion, cavitation, prediction and prevention of, 156
propeller, coating

and materials to

Estimating, added-mass

coefficients

resist,

for

635

vibrating

ships

and propdevs in confined waters, 433, 436

added mass of water in unsteady body or ship motion,
417

and wind resistance of ships, 274

bow-wave heights and positions, 244
air

Earthquake wave or tsunami, 181

Echo-ranging gear, design notes for locating, 705
Eddies, circulation strength of, in streets or trails, 142
references to flow photographs of, 37

Eddy

draft variations, 481

drift

and leeway due to wind, 286

effect of lateral channel restr in subcritical range,

410

and friction power, 354

flow at propdev positions, 258
effective

frequency, definition sketch for, 16

relations for vortex trails, 142

pattern for light or ballast conditions, 256

systems, references to, 144

Eddying, separation, and vortex motion, reference data,

133
Edges, leading and trailing, design of, 675, 676
screw-propeller blade, shaping of, 606
to prevent singing and vibration, 636
Effect, and inception of cavitation on ships and props, 145

forces

on a moored

ship,

287

hull volume, first approx, 471

metacentric stability, first, 478

power, first approx, for round-bottom motorboat, 853

propdev

efficiency,

332

resistance of discontinuities, 294

relative rotative, estimate of, 374

screwprop characteristics for motorboats, 859

thrust from insufficient data, 346
shaft power, second approx, for planing craft, 847
ship-wake fraction, 368
stern-wave heights, 245
thrust and torque variation per rev for screwprops, 348
total resist for submerged and surface ships, 313

screwprop, calculating expected, 629

weight, first approx, 463

scale; see Scale

Effective power; see

wake

Power

fraction, definition of, 615

Efficiency, ideal, shaft-power estimate

propdev, estimate

of,

by use

332

real, propeller, variation in.

333

Elastic characteristics of water, 922

of,

383

for planing craft,

828

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

958

Estimating, weight, for round-bottom motorboat, 853

principal, second, for surface ship,

474

second, for planing-huU motorboat, 831

third approx, for motorboats, 863
Euler number, definition and use of, 8-1
Exhaust, gases and air, mechanical properties, 922
underwater, for propelling machinery, 545
Expanded-area ratio of screw propeller, 602
chord length of screwprop blade derived from meanwidth ratio, 340
Experimental and calculated ship resist, comparison of, 216

basic, in ship design,

welding, use of for fairing, 742

on raft Kon-Tiki, 698

ahead of movable rudders, 75, 77, 719
fixed stabilizing, design of, 697
flexible cantilever type, calc of added mass, 438, 439
fulcrum or stabilizing, on ultra-high-speed motorboats,
862

Fin(s), adjustable,

procedure, for motorboats, 828

Factor(s), absolute size, in

Fillet(s),

maneuvering requirements, 452

442

conversion, English-metric, 928-931

Jennej', to prevent air leakage to propellers,

Fireboats and firefloats, design problems, 774

Fire-fighting monitor, improved design, 776
Fishing vessel(s), bibhography on, 771-774

design

of,

770

Japanese, illustrations

standard

series,

of,

771, 772

Japanese, 300

and mooring, 743

merit, for predicting shaft power, 380

Fittings, recessed Ufting

reduction, for calculating added masses, 430

Five-screw (propeller) installations, notes on, 521

Fixed appendages, design of, 675
guards and fenders, design of, 699

section shape, for vibrating ships, 429

thrust-load, 343, 345

calculating for a screwprop, 613

variation with ship speed, 344-346

unrelated, effect on hydrodynamic design, 502
Faired principal ship lines, practical use of mathematical
formulas for, 203

and

hull smoothness, achieving, 749

problems of, 738
appendages in general, 742
definition of, 738
designed waterhne of ABC ship, 200
enlargements around shafts, 744
exposed shafts at emergence points, 746
for inside corners, 742
hub, screw-propeller, 601, 744, 745
importance of, 738
mathematic, of
entrance, ABC ship, 200-202
necessity for in ship lines, 193, 194
propeller hubs, 745
section-area curve, 198
ship lines by mathematic methods, 199
underwater, on a ship, problems in achieving, 749
Fairness and curvature, value of in ship hnes, 193
Fat forms, changes of attitude and trim, 329
hull forms, vessels with, 770
ships, resistance data for, 303-306
Fatness ratio, first approx, 464-466

Fairing,

DWL

objects in a stream, design, 675

screwprop shrouding, design of, 687
stabilizing skegs or fins, 697
Flap, controllable, for planing craft, 840

hinged, for closing propeller tunnels, 671

-type rudders and planes, automatic, 735

Flare,

compound, design procedure

strakes, design of, 560, 700

Ferryboat(s), hulls and appendages, design

requirements and references

Fetch, for wind waves, 176
Fields, velocity

of,

793

790

and pressure around a

Filleting at inside corners,

Fillet(s)

for,

for,

551

Fleet tug, displacement of appendages, 296

Floating dry docks, self-propelled, 779, 780
Floats for pontoon bridges, 782

Flooding spaces,

due to flow through, 323

free-, resistance

Floor, rise of, in mid- or maximum-sections, 476, 477

magnitude, for planing craft, 836

Flow, abaft a screw propeller, 259
adequate, to propdevs in confined waters, 668
air-, pattern, over ABC ship, estimated, 565
passenger-ship model, 563
analj'sis for arch-type stern, 521

and

force data for hydrofoils, 72

pressure around a hydrofoil, 80

around special forms, 46

in a liquid, formulas for, 7

around an irregular 3-diml bodj',

ship, prediction of, 239

43, 46

special forms, 46

at propdev positions, determination

relation to displacement-length quotient, 930, 932

Feathering features, in propdev design, 578

paddlewheels, definition and design sketch, 640
propellers, design data for, 651
Fender(s), constructed as bulges, design of, 769
fixed, design of, 699

of,

358-366

estimated, 258, 259

screwprop positions, anal3'sis of observed, 259,

366, 367
back, around ships in canal locks, 414
curvature, in screwprop design, corrections for, 625
data, viscous, 86
summary of formulas for, 87
deflection around separation zones, apparent, 139
derivation of formulas for 2-diml and 3-diml, around
sources and sinks, 17-24

hydrofoil, 82

742

see also Fairing

diagrams, about hydrofoils,

list

of refs, 78,

79

upper works, 276

ship, analj'sis of, 239

for

at strut-arm endings, 679, 680

source-sink, delineation of, 52

casting, use of, for fairing, 742

surface-flow,

738
fairing, and problems of hull smoothness, 738
root, for screwprop blades, shaping, 606

use of for positioning appendages, 258

definition of,

748

torque-compensating, design of one type, 699

Fine, slender hulls, design notes, 752

on model,

analj'sis of,

250

3-diml radial, data for constructing, 64

uniform, data for constructing, 65

SUBJECT INDEX
Flow, equations

of,

double solutions

to,

and moment data for hydrofoils, 72

by ink trails around model, 138, 139
tufts on model, 137-139

force,

indicated

induced, in screwprop

jets,

343

into propdev positions, data on, 341

lines of,

determined from models, 248, 873

diagi'ams, typical, 248-250

under ship bottom, 253

liquid, general

formulas relating

to, 7

drawing of, 31
observations with tufts on models, 137-139, 874
off-the-surface, on models, interpretation of, 254
pattern(s), around geometric and other shapes, 31-33
ship forms, prediction of, 239
variation with Cx, 251
simple shapes, references to photos of, 34, 35
when yawed, 38, 40
simple ship forms, 39
source-sink pair, 2-diml, 54
stream-form shapes, formulas for calculating,
nets,

67
typical hydrofoils, 78, 79

delineation of

by

electric analogy,

49

bibliography on, 50

around ship forms, 39, 40

or ballast conditions, 256

for ideal liquid

light

in ducts

pairs, 58

bodies, 38, 40
255
on body plan, estimating, 255
prediction of, 239
source-sink, by colored hquid, 67
electric analogy, 67
graphic construction, 54
2-diml, around source and sink, 54
for three source-sink pairs, 59
for two source-sink pairs, 58
3-diml, graphic construction of around 3-diml
source and sink, 62
photographs for hydrofoils, list of references, 79
potential, quantitative rel bet press and vel in, 25, 26
probable, at a distance from ship surface, 256
source-sink, delineation of, 52
studies, use of doubly refracting solutions for, 48
surface, on models, analysis, 250
through free-flooding spaces, resist due to water, 323
ship, at the bilges, prediction of,

under-the-bottom, on models, 253

viscous-, data,

and

friction-resistance calculations, 86

corrections for in screwprop design, 625

water, as apphed to hull design, 545

Flowlines, sketching, for

transom-stern

ABC

new

design, 494

ship,

495

moored

287
typical planing craft, definition diagram, 264
principal, on a planing craft, 264
static and dynamic, equihbrium of on a submarine, 812
thrust and toi-que, created by screwprops, 348
velocity, and pressure of natural wind, 284
vibratory, induced by propeller, 877
Fonn(s), abovewater, layout of the, 546
and shape data on typical ships, 223
asymmetric hull, 787
discontinuous-section, design of, 768
fat hull, design of, 770
ship, estimating,

geometric, separation around, 140

hydrofoil and equivalent, flow and force data for, 72

layout of the abovewater, 546

normal, modification for shallow water, 666
parent, choice
of

of, for

ship lines, 488

Taylor Standard

223-225

Series,

planing, operating requirements for, 824

204
good performance, comparison of new design
with, 496
predicting distribution of vel and press around,
257
schematic, distribution of vel and press around,
47
suitable for calculating wave resistance, 219

ship, geometric variation of,

of

simple ship, flow patterns around, 39

special, flow, velocity, and pressure around, 46

2-diml doublet, 61

and channels, 36, 37, 39

laying out around two source-sink
photos of, around hydrofoils, 79
shapes and bodies, 34, 35
potential-, around bodies, 31
for ideal liquid around yawed

959

Force(s), on a

Flowplane curvature, longitudinal, 199

Folding propeller, design data for, 651
Force(s), and fiow data for hydrofoils, 72
exerted by or on bodies around sources and sinks in
a uniform stream, 68
moment, and flow data for hydrofoils, 72

and design of, 750

and quadruple-screw vessels, 520
stream, circular, and the doublet, 61
contours and streamlines around 2-diml source, 52
hull, classification

stern, for twin-

shapes, formulas for calculating, 67

solid, definition of,

variety

of,

66

produced by sources and sinks, 67

2-diml, calculations for, 17

construction from line sources and sinks, 59

graphic determination of vel around, 57
3-diml, calculations for, 20
of, 62
molding a new, 488

graphic construction

underwater

hull,

Fonnula(s), for calculating circulation, hft, drag, 72

ship friction resistance, 99

stream-form shapes, 67
friction-resistance, for

smooth

plates, 102

general, relating to liquid flow, 7

mathematical, for delineating ship hues, 187

faired principal lines, 203
power, for planing-type motorboats, 834, 835
round-bottom motorboats, 853, 854
pure, use

of,

ship powering, for steady ahead motion, 354

stream-function and velocity-potential, derivation for

2-diml flows, 17
3-diml flows, 20

hydrodynamics, 2
of, 87
wake-fraction, of Aquino, 368
Schoenherr, 369
wind drag of superstructures, 276
Fouled-huU condition, estimated shaft power
useful, in theoretical

viscous-flow,

summary

for,

385

Fouling, effects of ship resistance, prediction of, 120

factor, loeaUty, definition and use of, 122

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

960
Fouling, factor, proposed table

Gas(es), and smoke discharge, abovewater, design, 563

underwater, comments on, 565

122

of,

references relating to, 125

graphs

resistance, allowances,

of, 123,

exhaust, and

124

factors affecting, 117

Fraction, hull-force, for control surfaces, 718

velocit.y,

of,

of miscellaneous propdevs,

Freeboard, and sheer for general service, 547

protected waters, 547

forms, separation

wavegoing, design values, 548

2-dimI and 3-diml, drag data

for icebreakers, 797

waves; see Waves

Geometry

Freeing ports in bulwarks, required area, 554, 555

Frequency, eddy, definition sketch for, 16
relations for vortex trails, 142
of trochoidal waves, data on, 165-168

propdev and hull vibration, relation

of,

of and flow around, 5

Gertler prediction of residuary resistance, 318
reworking of TSS data, 301-303
Gill axial-flow propeller, long'l section through,

580

1947 or Schoenherr, 104

on

128

126

straight-element and
hulls,

discontinuous-section

specific, of

a liquid, definition

of,

87

and residuarj^, typical percentages, 314

wetted length and surface of planing craft,
268
bibliograph}', selected, 128-132

resistance,

from SNAME ERD sheets, 402

development of formulas for calculation of,
of

99,

316

formula(s), comprehensive, 101

of a planing hull, 128,
specific, tables of for

in turbulent flow, 102

268
models and ship, 101, 102

Froude friction-resistance formulas, 103

number, and 7",, tables of, 928
definition and use of, 11
ratio to Taylor quotient, 11, 928, 929, 932
submergence-, for transom sterns, 530

Greek alphabet, 900

Guard(s), and fenders,

755

fixed, design of,

699

rudder, for ferryboats, 794

Guide, contra-; see Contra-

and salt
number as,

corresp to unit press, fresh

water, 28, 29, 916

expression of cavitation

11

Heavy

weights, long'l position in a planing craft, 850

and lateral wind moments, 285

Height(s), above surface, increase of wind velocity with,
Heel, angle

of,

274
sheer, in fractions of

related to

wave

wave, and steepness

to

wave

WL length,

549

steepness, 548
ratios,

169

length, ratios in ship design, 170

Helix angles, blade-, of sorewprops, 340, 341

tables of, 12-14

Full-planing craft, design procedure for, 821

-scale thrust and towing measurements on ships, 310-

Hillman straight-element shallow-water

Hinge gaps, rudder, closures for, 691, 726

hull,

666,

667

Historical highlights, introduction of, xx

312
Function, stream, formulas for typical 2-diml flows, 17
3-diml flows, 20
radial, for 2-diml source-sink pair, 55

Funnel see Smoke

;

Future, special-purpose craft of the, 818

Galvanic-action protectors, design of, 704

Gaps, ahead of control surfaces, design of, 709-712, 735

rudders, 712
holes, and slots, drag data pertaining to, 294
rudder hinge, closures

Head(s), and pressures, ram, tables of, 28-30

axisymmetric, cavitation data for three types, 152

calculations, 86

smooth plate

of,

carriers, design notes,

tabulated hull data, 758-760

power, estimating, 354

for

Great Lakes cargo

127

summary

formulas,

339
Goldstein criterion, for hydrodynamically smooth surf, 112
factor
for sorewprop, 616, 617

Graphs, conversion, English-metric and metric-English,

931
Gravity, acceleration of, var with latitude, 917, 918

data, water flow in internal passages, 105

craft,

of the ship, 0-diml, 189, 191

Geosims, definition

Friction allowances for surfaces of varjdng roughness, 115

ship, calculation of,

291

for,

variation of ship forms, 204

whale catcher, 550

tentative, 548

ratio(s), for

drag of moored

phenomena around, 140

shapes, added mass for, 419

deck, tentative graph for, 547, 548

ATTC

638

formulas relating to liquid flow, 7

hull features, determination of, 457
problems of ship designer, 454
Geometric bodies, drag coefficients of, 291

ship models, for maneuvering tests, 876

coefficients, specific,

stacks, 564

design features of abovewater form, 546

Free-flooding spaces, flow through, resist due to, 323

-running bow propellers, design of, 632

minimum,

mechanical properties, 922, 924

minimum, from

Gebers friction-resistance formula, 103

General considerations in preliminary ship design, 460

718
thrust-deduction; see Thrust deduction
wake; see Wake
rudder-force, definition

air,

-jet propdevs, data on, 337

for,

726

History of operation as basis for fouling, 119, 120

Hogner's contribution to Kelvin wave system, 161

Holes, gaps, and slots, drag data, 294
Hollow-face prop-blade sections, use and disadvantages
of, 627
Hollows and humps in resist curves, 466, 467
supporting,
for rudder, design notes, 690
Horn,
Hotchkiss propeller, explanatory diagrams, 339
Housing bow propeller, design of, 797

Hovering, applied to a submarine, definition

Hub(s), cavitation, predicting, 155

of,

809

SUBJECT INDEX
Hub(s), diameters, and screwprop-disc, 612
screwprop, 601
sorewprop, fairing of, 601, 745
type of, 633

profile for surface ship,

in motorboats,

friction-resistance formulas, 104

Hull(s), abovewater,

comments on

drag coefficients

for,

wind-fiiction resist, 2S0'

279

proportions for strength, wavegoiiig, 496

adjacent to propdev positions, sliaping of, 536

and appendage combinations, design, 526

screwprop vibration frequencies, relation of, 580
asymmetric, design of, 787
blunt-ended, long and narrow, design of, 755
design, detail, of the underwater, 504
features, motorboat, interdependence of, 843
relation of paddlewheel diameter and position
to, 643
water flow applied to, 545
discontinuous-section, design

of,

504

of,

506

vibration and jiropdcv frequencies, relation

vortexes, predicting, 155

Hughes

961

Hull(s), underwater, detail design

768

of,

volume, first estimate, 471

with keel drag, design procedure, 543
Humps and hollows in Rr curves, diagram, 467
Rt curves, diagram, 466
Hydraulic-jet propdevs, data on, 337
propulsion, design notes for, 648
radius, definition and sketch, 409
of channels, calculation of, 409, 412
Hydrodynamic(s), applied to ship design, 442
design, effect of unrelated factors, 502
of amphibians, 806
preUminary, of a motorboat, 819
problems of submarines, 809
second, modifications for, 896

formulation of design specifications involving, 446

of reference books on, 2
paddlewheel propulsion, 638
list

friction drag on, 127

endings adjacent to propdevs, 536

design of, 770

pitch angle ft of screwprop, first approx, 615

second approx, 616

features, determination of general, 457

-diameter ratio, 617

requirements of a ship, analysis

fat,

for planing craft, selecting, 835

ferryboat, design for, 793

fine

and

of,

460

principal, of a small craft, 825

slender, design of, 752

structural control-surface design, effect of on, 724

-force fraction for control surfs, definition of, 718

form(s), asymmetric, 787

special, classification

and design

of,

750

underwater, molding a new, 488

formulas for wind drag of irregular, 276
fouled-, condition, estimated shaft

power

for,

385

theoretical, useful formulas in, 2

Hydrodynamically smooth surface, criterion for, 112

Hydrofoil(s), compound, lift data and CP positions, 75-77
test data from, 75
distribution of velocity and pressure around, 80
drag data for, 83

inner, of submarine, definition of, 810

effective aspect ratio for equivalent ship, 83

laying out other types, 502

flow, force,

lines,

preparation for model

tests,

566

outer, of a submarine, definition

of,

and use

of,

810

827-852

827
friction resistance of, 128
pressure, of submarine, definition and use of, 810
profile, underwater, 506
proportions of, for a surface ship, 464
selection, for motorboat, 827
resistance, total, calculation of, 313
round-bottom motorboat, first space layout, 852
weight estimate, 853
shape, along bilge diagonal, 517
and propulsion, on a submarine, 813
selection of for large ship, 476
for round-bottom motorboat, 854
in entrance and run, 515
ship, general formulas for wind drag of, 276
in unsteady motion, estimated added mass of
water around, 417
rel of paddlewheel diam and position to, 643
small-craft, design of, 822
smoothness, fillets, and fairing, 738
straight-element, allowances for drag on, 127
bibliography on, 764, 765
design of, 762
surfaces, abreast screwprops, design notes, 672
type, selection of for motorboat, 827
first

space layout

of,

and moment data

for,

low-aspect ratio, empirical study

multiple-, craft design, 788

planing, design

580

859

72

of,

as lifting surfaces,

866
planforms and sections, design and drag data, 83
polar diagrams for simple, 75, 76
prediction of cavitation on, 149

-supported craft, bibliography, 271-273

symmetrical, cavitation and

lift

data, 151

leading and trailing edges, 676

typical, cavitation limits on, 150

flow patterns around, 78

test data from, 73
velocity

with

flat

and pressure fields around, 82

and round edges, data on, 73, 74

Icebreakers, bibliography on, 804-806

and design problems of, 794-799

minimum, 797
general data and references on, 799
tabulated data for modern, 800-803
definition

freeboard,

transverse section for, 796

and design problems, 794-799

method to predict shaft power, 383
liquid, velocity and pressure diagrams for, 31
Illustrative prelim design procedures, comments on, 898
Iirunersed-transom drafts and speeds, 530
Iceships, definition

Ideal efficiency

stern, design of, 529

Improvements in design, field for future, 444
Inception and effect of cavitation on ships and props, 145

Inclined bar, to

make

air-filled

ditch for prop shaft, 685

HYDRODYNAMICS

962

data on, 784

Increased, draft with ship age, comments, 566
resistance, limiting depth for 2 per cent, 404
Increasing the power and speed of an existing ship, 387
Inclined, waterlines

on

sailing j'achts,

Index, cavitation, definition and use

of, 10,

11

roughness, factors in, 114

Induced flow in sorewprop jets, 343
velocities in screwprop jets, data on, 343
Induction openings, positioning of for wavegoing, 701
Ink trail on ship model in circ-water channel, 138, 139
Inlet and discharge openings for heat exchangers, design,

701
openings, multi-vane type, 702

underwater, positioning to remain submerged, 701

Inner hull of submarine, definition and use of, 810
Installation, galvanic-action protectors, 704
Interdependence of motorboat hull-design features, 843
Interference effects, between blade sections in cascade, 84

wave, general rules for, 243

Intermediate speed ratio in shallow water, graphs of, 394
Internal passages, friction data for water flow, 105
shearing stresses in water along ships, 94
ready-made ship-design requirements, 454

Interpretation,

streamline traces and tufts, on ship models, 250-255

wake diagrams,

3-diml, at sorewprop positions, 362

Isotachyls around an ellipsoid midsection, 45

J-class sailing yachts, reference to lines drawings of, 228

Japanese fishing boats,

illustrations of, 771,

Jenney

fins,

772

300

-vessel standard series,

to prevent air leakage to propellers, 748

Jet(s), diameters, screwprop, ratio of inflow-outflow,

342

variation of with thrust-load coefficient, 343

augment of velocity at rudder positions, 707

axial and rotational velocity components in, 260

outflow,

position of multiple rudders relative to, 708

outlines for screwprops, inflow

and outflow, 343

337

-propulsion, gas or hquid, data on,

hydraulic, data on, 337

design notes on, 648

pump-, data on, 337

design notes on, 648

Joukowski

airfoil sections,

drag data

for,

84

Keel(s), bilge-, area, 692

design diagrams, 692, 693

of,

691, 692, 694

for

ABC

ship,

695

discontinuous, on liner Oranje, 692

gaps and offsets between sections, 692

structural considerations in design, 694
traces

by flow

streamlines, 692

transverse shape and section, 694

deep, of a motorboat, 842

docking, design

of,

695

sketches, 697
vertical bossings as,

686

drag, design of hull with, 543

drift-resisting, design of,

resting, design of,

roll-resisting,

695

695

design of for

ABC

ship,

695

and in tandem, 692

position, type, number, 691
Kelvin wave system, modified by E. Hogner, 161
in parallel (abreast)

IN SHIP DESIGN
Kinematic

viscosity, reference

data on, 94

values of for water, 919, 920

Knuckles, abovewater, design

Koch added-mass data

of,

560

for confined water, 434

Kort nozzle, definition sketch and design references, 687

Kramer's contours of ideal efficienc}', 614

Lackenby friction-resistance formula, 104

Lag of bow-wave crest, graph for, 245
Lagally Theorem, description of, 68
references on, 71

Laminar-sublayer thickness, in turbulent flow, 104, 120

variation with i-distance and speed, 105
Landing and beaching, vessels designed for, 808
Landweber local-friction-resistance formula, 102
Lap and Troost friction-resistance formula, 104
Laps and butts, shaping and facing of, 740, 741
Lateral wind drag, 285
moments and hull angles, 285
Launches, fast, design of, 752
Layer, boundary; see Boundary
LCB, usual fore-and-aft positions of, 486
Leading edge(s) of appendages, design of, 675, 676
Leakage, air, to screwprops, avoiding, 631
separation zones, 140
Leeway, estimated, due to wind, 286
Length and long'l curvature in shallow-water design, 665
-balance ratio, control surface, 721, 727
-beam ratio for ships, 470
planing craft, 838
ship, first approx, 465
trochoidal wave, tables of, 165-168
waterline, first approx, 464
wave, to wave height, ratios in ship design, 170
wetted, of planing forms, 268
Lerbs' 1954 screwprop design method, for ABC ship, 611
summary of steps, 630
Level, change of with speed, 325
Life-saving or rescue boats, 816
Lift, -coefficient data for symmetrical hj'drofoil, 151
graphs, typical, for hydrofoils, 73, 74
product, for sorewprop blade sections, 617-619
data for bodies hke appendages, 291
-drag ratios for airfoils and hs'drofoils, refs on, 76
dynamic, bibliography on, 269-271
determination of, 264
quantitative data on, 263
self-propelled motorboat models with, 864
hydrofoil, formulas for calculating, 72
spanwise distribution of, 83
Lifting fittings, recessed, design of, 743
-surface correction factor, for sorewprop, 619
Light-load condition, estimated flow pattern in, 256
Lightships, or light vessels, design notes for, 814
Limen, of a rough surface, 112, 114
Limitations, present, of mathematical methods, 2
Limits for wavegoing conditions, 458
Line(s), choice of parent form for, 488
faired, use of formulas for, 203
fairing by mathematical methods, 199
hull, preparation for model tests, 566
layout, ABC planing-type tender, 843
round-bottom tender, 855
of constant pressure derived analytically, 218

SUBJECT INDEX
Lme(s),

diagrams for ship models, 248

of flow, in ballast condition, 257
observed on models, 873
-of-flow

procedure for a ship, 432

change of, near a large boundary, 432
coefficients, definition of, 419

sheer, for various ship types, 550, 551

limitations of, 192

references relating to, 204

use of for ships, 186, 193

with developable surfaces, 765
sources and sinks, definition of stream functions, 60
use of for 2-diml forms, 59
Taylor Standard Series, 224
condenser
Lips on
scoops and discharges, 701-703

common,

elastic characteristics,

entrained, mass of; see

Mass

elliptic sections,

427

floating streamlined bodies,

422

geometric shapes, 419-423

reference data on, 94

and pressure diagrams

mass, added; see Mass
velocity

for,

31

mechanical properties, gases and, 924

velocity and pressure diagrams for, 31
Lissoneoid of Rankine, diagram of, 208
List; see Heel
Load distribution, equalizing among multiple props, 573
Locality fouling factor, definition and use of, 122
Locating echo-ranging gear on merchant vessels, 705

propdevs on a ship, 368

propeUing machinery in a ship, 443, 570
Locks, canal, predicting ship resistance in, 413
Logarithmic propeller-series charts, 588-590, 593
Logarithms of numbers frequently used, 932
first,

LCB, with good

"standard" fresh and salt water, 915, 918

Masts, design to reduce wind drag, 566
Materials, propeller, to resist erosion, 635
Mathematical and 0-diml representation of ship surf, 189
calculation of wavemaking drag, assumptions in, 212
deUneation of section-area curve, 198
determination of selected points on ship, 203
entrance, ABC ship, 200-202
fauing of
section-area curve, 198
formulas for deUneating ship lines, 187
faired fines, use of, 203
fines for ships, fimitations of, 192

DWL

practical use of, 186, 193

references for, 204

methods

497

center of buoyancy, usual positions for, 486

fit

effects, partial bibliography on, 439

entrained water around a ship in unsteady motion, 417
for bodies with fore-and-aft asymmetry, 422, 423

selected

ideal, flow patterns for, 31

gravity, to

ships, 433
data for large, thin, vibrating cantilever, 439
water around appendages and skegs, 438

modes of motion, 419-423

submerged spheroids, 422
Mass density, Hquids and gases, 924

922

flow, general formulas relating to, 7

Longitudinal, buoyancy balance,

liquid, calculation

estimated, for vibrating propdevs, 436

ship, mathematical, formulas for delineating, 187

Liquid(s),

963

Mass, added

hull lines, 498

for calculating pressure resistance,

delineating bodies

and

ships,

fairing ship fines, 199

necessary improvements

curvature, analysis, notes on, 195

in,

219

flowplane, 199

predicting pressure resistance, 321

in shallow-water design, 665

present fimitations

maximum-area

above water, design, 560

section,

optimum

heavy weights,

in planing craft, 850

(theoretical) surface waves,

data on, 160

Mathematics, proper use

of in engineering problems, 3

Maximum,

optimum

-area section,

long'l position of, 482,

483

prismatic coefficient, selecting, 467

497
weight balance of a
Low-aspect ratio hydrofoils, behavior as lifting surfaces,
866
Low ship speeds, resistance data for, 306
ship, first,

Mach number,

definition and use of, 7

Machinery, propeUing; see Propelling
Magnus Effect on exposed rotating shafts, 678
Main-ballast systems of submarine, description of, 811
Maneuvering, and steering, behavior, first approx, 501
swinging props for, 737
turning, model tests, 876
astern, rudders for, 735
behavior, first approx, in prehminary design, 501

diagram, for ship requirements, 451

requirements, absolute size as a factor

sections for ships, 191, 193

positions for, 482,

483
position,

of,

representation of ship surface, 189

0-diml, graphic determination, 196

discontinuities

206

186

in,

452

in ship design, 450

propdev design to meet, 580

submerged, on a submarine, 813
swinging props for, 737
Mass, added liquid, assumptions when calculating, 417, 418

-section coefficient, selecting, 468, 469

contour, layout, 476, 477

WL beam, best fore-and-aft position, 481

ratio of screwprop blades, formula for, 341
Measurement(s), abbreviations for units of, 912
Engfish units of, 926
ratios between, 926
Mechanical construction of screwprops, 633

Mean-width

properties, air

and

and exhaust

gases, 922

920
other liquids and gases, 924
water, air, and other media, 915
Mechanism, paddlewheel, design notes, 645
Median line of contra-guide features, 533
Merit factors, for predicting shaft power, 380
fresh

salt water,

Telfer, for ABC ship, 895

Metacenter, height above basefine, 479
Metacentric stability, and pendulum, on submarine, 912
dynamic, check of, 553
definition of, 443
first estimate of in preUminary design, 478

HYDRODYNAMICS

964

Meteorologic conditions affecting ship design, 448

Metric-English conversion ratios, 928-930

484
longitudinal position of midlength of, 483
systematic resistance data, 306
Miscellaneous propdevs, design of, 638
performance of, 339
Mode(s) of motion, added masses for selected, 419
of vibrating screwprop, 437
Model(s), ABC ship, test results for, 879
and ships, bibliography on confined-water effects, 415
observed resistance data for, 297
flow data, presentation and reporting of, 877, 878
lines-of-flow diagrams, 248-250

Middlebody,

parallel, design of, 483,

off-the-surface flow data, observation

tation,

residuary

IN SHIP DESIGN
Moored

ship, friction drag of, 128

Mooring fittings, recessed, design of, 743

Morrish formula; see Normand formula
Motion(s), ahead, steady, ship-powering data
diagrams, ship, 325

equations

of,

multiple solutions

vortex, reference data on, 133

wave, in shallow water, compared with deep water, 180

definition of, 819

design, general considerations, 820

preliminary hydrodynamic, 819

n-ith limited draft,

resistance data, observed, 297

screwprops, open-water tests, 632, 876

self-propelled tests, 377, 632,

875

backing power from, 388

on motorboats with dynamic lift, 864
use of stock screwprops for, 870
series, sj'stematic resistance data, 298

250

ship, analysis of the surface-flow diagrams,

wake around

or behind a, 259-262

diagrams for, 248

submerged, towing of, 322, 323
surface-flow diagrams, analysis, 250
test(s), controllability in shallow water, 876
data, ABC ship models, analysis and comments,
tj'pical lines-of-flow

of, selected,

Motorboat(s), bibhography on, 865-867

and interpre-

variation with speed, 306-308

354

added liquid masses for, 419

vibrating screwprop, 437
unsteady, added mass of water around ship in, 417

mode(s),

264

resist, rate of

to,

for,

858

of, 823
round-bottom, first space layout, 852
weight estimate, 853
rudders, design of, 724
Movable appendages, design of, 706
Multiple, -hulled craft, design problems, 788
propellers, design to equaUze powers of, 573
rudders, single or, 708
-screw stern body plans, typical, 236

displacement-type, design

-skeg stern, design

of,

531

solutions to equations of motion, 6

Mushroom anchor

ABC

for

proposed

ship,

under-the-

bottom, 558, 559

NACA

blade-thickness forms, 621, 623

Narvik class
transom stern, model, 531
Natural winds and waves, average relation between, 176
Nets, flow, drawing of, 31
Neutral control-surface angle for rudder(s), setting, 736
rudder angle and model maneuvering tests, 876
Niedermair wave, definition and use of, 170
Nomenclature; see Appendix 1
Nominal wake fraction, definition of, 615
Nomogram for cavitation index, depth, water speed, 150
critical-speed ratio in shallow water, 395
square-draft to water-depth ratios, 393
Normand (J.-A.) formula for height of CB, 479
Nose outhne, elliptic, formulas for, 196
Notation, circular constant, 913
list of sj'mbols, 900
Nozzle, Kort, definition sketch and design references, 687
Number(s), blade-Reynolds, definition and diagram of, 15
Boussinesq, def and use of, 16

DD

879
desired for large ship design, 868

on typical

ships, resistance from,

297

reporting and presenting, 877

rotating-blade props, 337
hull lines for, 566

maneuvering, 876
motorboats, with dynamic lift, 864
neutral rudder angle, 876
notes for preKminary ABC design, 869
open-water and self-propelled, 632
resistance data from, 297
self-propulsion, data from, 377, 875
wavegoing, 877
when backing, 388
testing methods, EMB, 129
program for large ship, 868
total resistance, variation with T,, 308-310
TSS, improving the performance of, 474
wave profiles, 241
wind resistance, 277, 278
bibliography of model tests, 278
Model 56C of G. S. Baker, lines and resistance data, 234
Modulus, bulk, fresh and salt water, 923
Moment (s), and forces on typical planing craft, 264
-coefficient graphs, typical, for hydrofoils, 73, 74
force, and flow data for hydrofoils, 72
lateral wind, and heel angle, 285
pitching, on hydrofoil, 80
principal, on a planing craft, 264
Moment-of-area of
coefficient, selecting, 478
Monkey rudders, on sternwheel craft, 709
Moored ship, estimating forces on, 287

WL

Cauchj", 7
cavitation,

tables

and Euler, def and use of,

and nomogram, 147-150

d-Reynolds, def of, 15

dimensionless, quantitative use

summary and

table

of,

of,

frequently used, powers and logs

Froude, def and use of

8, 10,

of,

931

tables of, 12-14

Mach, 7
of propelling engines, 570

propulsion devices, 567

roll-resisting keels, selecting,

screwprop blades, choice

for ABC ship, 612

of,

691
599

11

SUBJECT INDEX
Number(s), Planing, def and use
Reynolds, calculation
tables of, 88-94
variations

of,

IG

of,

15

483
resistance data, systematic, 300

Parameters, bulb-bow, 485

15

of,

Strouhal, application

Weber, def and use

of, 16,

of,

143

ship, ratios of coefficients and,

16

a;-Reynolds and 5-Reynolds, def

Objects, fixed in a stream, design

of,

of,

transom-stern, 485
Parent form see Form
Passages, internal, friction data
Pattem(s), flow; see Flow

15

Offsets, of frame stations, calc of,

675

from faired

lines,

TSS

of,

stream, construction of from line sources and sinks, 59

wave; see

tests, 632,

stability, definition of,

in variable-pressure
inlet,

of ship, calculation of, 1

good, ship form, comparison of

701
Ovoid, 3-diml, construction, with single 3-diml source, 23

Paddletrack propulsion, design features, 638

Paddlewheel(s), bibhography on, 335-337
blade area, determining, 642
design, layout for ABC ship, 644
notes on hydrodynamics of, 638
variations from normal, 648
details and mechanism, design notes, 645
diameter, relation to hull design, 643
feathering, definition and design sketch, 640
performance data on, 335
profile, 241,

positioning and shape of contra-vanes abaft, 688

of,

design lane for, 480

reference data on, 231
middlebody, detail design, 483, 484

230

new

design with, 496

miscellaneous propdevs, 339

positioning to remain submerged, 701

Operating conditions, two or more, powering for, 388
requirements for planing forms, 824
Operation(s), in confined waters at supercritical speeds, 412
shallow-water, modification of normal forms for, 666
Optimum diameter for a screwprop, 597
Orbit radii of trochoidal wave, decrease with depth, 169
Orbital velocities for surface particles of trochoidal waves,
162, 166, 16S, 169
Outboard propulsion, with vertical screwprop drive, 653
Outflow jet, of screwprop, axial and rotational vel components in, 260
position of multiple rudders relative to, 708
Outline, expanded-blade, for ABC ship, 624
sketch, first, of a large ship, 486, 4S7
small craft, 827, 828, 852, 853
Outer hull, of submarine, definition of, 810
Overall problem of the ship designer, 454
ship appendage resistance, values for, 288
wetted surface of submerged body, calculation of, 322
Overboard discharges for heat exchangers, design notes,

Parallel designed waterline, definition

414

references to, 223

water tunnel, 334

and wave

in,

on controllable and reversible props, 338

paddlewheels and sternwheels, 335

876

and discharge, design, 701

position, long'l, rel to hull

stabiHty on submarine, 812

813

254

data from, 333-335

Openings, water

Wave

Pendulum and metacentric

Ogival heads or noses for appendages, 676

Open-water model screw-propeller

water How, 105

203

parent form, 225

Off-the-surface flow data on models, interpretation

for

Performance, allowances, design and, 454

for ABC ship, 456
confined-water, unexplained anomahes
data, from jet propdevs, 337
screwprop design charts, 335

ship, 0-diml, representation of, 190, 192

for

030

Oblique tunnels for shallow-water craft, 670, 671

Obliquity of hull not used in calculating wetted surf, 108
Observations of flow with tufts, 874
Observed resistance data for models and ships, 297
Oceanographic conditions affecting ship design, 448
Offset running positions in channels, data on, 413

0-diml

965

Parallel middlcl)ody, longitudinal position of midlength,

643

new ship design, guaranteeing, 459

propdev, and power, lack of rehable data for confined
waters, 411
predicting, 332

screwprop(s), effect of cavitation on, 152

under supercavitation, 156

220
Periods of trochoidal waves, tables of, 165-168
Persistence of wake abaft a ship, 261
ship, practical benefits of calculating,

Phenomena;

see particular kind desired

Photograph(s), flow, in ciro-water channel, 137-139, 874,

875
references to, 34, 35
of flow

about hydrofoils,

refs to,

79

stereoscopic, of ocean waves, 177, 179

Photographing cavitation on model and ship props, 153

Physical arrangement of submarines, 810
concepts having scalar dimensions, abbrev for, 911
Pioneers in marine architecture, mention of, xx
Pitch angle, hydrodynamic,
ft, first approx for screwprop,
"
615
second approx, 616
-diameter ratio, hydrodynamic, for screwprop, 617
proper, for ABC ship, 620
screwprop, 598
variation with radius of screwprop, 598
Pitching moment on hydrofoil, 80
Plane(s), and rudder(s), positioning, 706
bow, general design rules, 736
diving, automatic flap-type, 735
bow, design of, 736
contra-features for, 736
positioning of in design, 706
diving, sections, selection and proportions, 722
stern, design rules for,

736

Planing, craft, bibliography, 269-271

bottoms, typical pressure distribution on, 266

design of, 823
forces on, definition diagram, 264
full-,

design procedure, 821

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

966

Planing, craft, principal forces and

moments

Power(s), estimated,

264

on,

increasing the, of an existing ship, 387

maximum

space laj'out, 827

friction resist of, 128

hull, first

of

to maintain constant speed

shaft, estimated,

shallow-water vessels, 663, 664

single-screw, 234-236

first

Plating, shell, approx to

volume

prediction

291

of,

of,

airfoils

of,

and

486

601, 633

hydrofoils, 75

358

factors for estimating, 358

of,

358
ahead motion, 354

388
in ship design, 574

of references, 76

Pontoon bridges,

vessels,

second approx, 493

estimate for planing craft, 847
third approx, ABC ship, 894
shallow-water, lack of reliable data on, 411
Powering allowances, for two or more operating conditions,

simple hydrofoils, 75
list

method, 383

for steady

specific smoothness problems, 739

Plots, 0-diml waterline curvature, 506, 507
Plum stabilizer for trim control on planing craft, 840

Points, percentage, definition

when wavegoing, 449

ideal-efficiency

approx, for a ship, 471

methods and

twin-screw, 236

drag

574

planing craft, 832

merit factors for predicting, 380

"standard", 231-234

Polar diagrams for

by

from similar

Plan(s), body, estimating the ship flow pattern on the, 255

flat,

of,

for fouIed-huU condition, 385

tender, layout of lines, 843

and

designed shaft, definition

numbers frequently used, 932

reserve, in propelling maohinerj', 575

number, definition and use of, 16

quantitative data on, 263
factors involved in, 263

Plates, circular

round-bottom motor-

formulas, for round-bottom motorboats, 853, 854

graphs of dynamic-lift coefficient, 265

operating requirements for, 824

ABC

for

lack of reliable data for confined waters, 411

forms, center-of-pressure location, 267

-type

first,

boat, 853

variation of attitude and position with speed, 329

floats for,

data, ship, for steady ahead motion, 354

782

Ports, freeing, required area for surface ships, 554, 555

reserves, graphic representation, 576,

Position{s), abbreviations for, 911

small craft, notes on, 824

center-of-gravity, longitudinal, for planing craft, 840

577

tunnel-stern craft, 672

engines, propelling, in the hull, 570

Prandtl-Schlichting friction-resistance formula,

longitudinal, center of buoyancy, 486

Predicting, attitude, running, of planing craft, 851

heavy weights in planing craft, 850

maximum-area, 482
paddlewheel, rel to hull and wave profile, 241, 643
planing craft, variation with speed, 329
propdev(s), data on flow into, 341

design rules for, 568

estimated flow

at,

wake diagrams

at,

258
358

propeller, analysis of flow conditions at,

691

running, predicted, of planing craft, 851

screwprop, analysis of observed flow at, 259

basic concepts underlying, 1

boundary-layer data for ABC ship, 109

cavitation erosion, 156
on screwprop blades, 149
curves of Rr and Pe, 308, 354
fouling effects on ship resistance, 120
pressure resistance, by analytic methods, 321

by merit

contra-vanes abaft paddlewheels, 688

at bilges, 255

by Gertler adaptation of TSS

by Taylor TSS contours, 317
by Telfer's method, 318

resistance

superstructure and upper works, 561

underwater inlet openings, to remain submerged, 701

Potential flow, patterns around bodies, 31
ratio, for shallow water, definition of, 395
396
velocity-, expression, formulation of, 214
formulas for typical 2-diml flows, 17
of,

model

in canal locks, 413

sinkage and change of trim, 325

EMB methods,

388

velocity

brake, first approx, for planing-type motorboat, 832

distr, design to equalize, with multiple screws, 573

257

effective,

and

self-propelled

friction, calculation of,

tests,

354

effect of displacement and trim changes, 355-357

estimating, 354
use as estimate basis for motorboat, 847

equalization

among

multiple propdevs, 573

data, 318

speed and power of ships, by

surface-wave profile, 246
thrust-deduction fraction, 369-371

3-diml flows, 20

Power (s), backing, from

380

flow patterns, 239

and planes, 706

stock axis rel to control-surf blade, 720

graphs

factors,

shallow-water resist by inspection, 408

ship behavior in confined waters, 389

Positioning, appendages, use of flow diagrams for, 258

rudder(s),

03

procedures and reference data, 1

propdev performance, 332
residuary resistance, from series data, 316
running position, of planing craft, 851
shaft power, 358

259

propelling machinery in a ship, 570

roll-resisting keels, selecting,

wake
wave

129

and pressure distribution around ship form,

fraction,

368

profile around a ship, 246

wind resistance for ABC ship, 282

Preliminary design(s), ABC, model-test notes

alternative, preparation of, 501
hydrodynamic, of a motorboat, 819

for,

869

SUBJECT INDEX
Preliminary design(s), mptorboat, principal requirements for, 825

Profile(s)

for

comments on illustrative, 898

screwprop, with series charts, 592

procedure,

steps in the, 460

Pressure(s), and flow around a hydrofoil, 80

special forms, 46
in a hquid, formulas for, 41

28-30

of,

velocity diagrams around bodies, 31

for 2-diml

and 3-diml

bodies, 43

distribution about asymmetric body, 43

body

of revolution. 40

hydrofoil, 80

schematic ship forms, 47

ship forms, prediction

of,

257

2-diml and 3-diml bodies, references to,

fields

44
around a hydrofoil, 82

relationships in potential flow, 25, 26

around special forms, 46

axial-, distr in screwprop inflow-outflow

jets,

343

of,

ship, 511

Prohaska added-mass data

coefEcient(s), def of, 11

distribution

ABC

underwater, 500
screwprop blade, choice of, 602
skew-back for ABC propeller, 627-629
ship-wave, typical, 239
small-scale, preparation of, 486
sketch of, 487
stern, 491
and rudder shape, 709
surface-wave, prediction of, 246
transom-stern ABC ship, 492
velocity, in ship boundary layers, 97
list of references, 98
wave, determined from models, 241, 873
from stereoscopic photos, 180
prediction of, for any ship, 246
sketching, for new design, 494
transom-stern ABC ship, 495
typical, for ships, 239
3-component, complex sea, 175
wind-wave, by modern methods, 177
Program, for model testing, for large ship, 868
hull,

section-area curve, 485

heads, ram, tables

967
bow, 491

around axisymmetric bodies, 42

relation of to cavitation index, 10, IJ

tables of, 27, 30

for shallow water, 434, 435

Projected area of hydrofoil, def of, 5
Projections, major abovewater, in the main hull, 560
Propdev(s), (of many kinds and types)

corresp to unit heads, fresh and salt water, 28, 29

diagrams, graphic, details of, 9

and

differential, at screwprop,

aperture and tip clearances, 537

adequate flow

data on, 343

distribution, along a vee entrance, 48

direction of rotation, 572

about hydrofoils, 81
on model afterbody, 258
planing-craft bottoms, 266
velocity and, around a hydrofoil, 80
an asymmetric body, 43
schematic bodies and ship forms, 44,
257
hull of submarine, definition and use of, 810
lines of constant, derived analytically, 218
chordT\nse,

efficiencies,

gas-jet,

miscellaneous, design

performance

number and type

mathematic methods of calculating, 206

by analytic methods, 321
modern developments in calculation of, 210

vapor, of water, 146, 147, 921

Rankine Ussoneoid, 208

of natural wind, 284

of,

25

284

Principal design req'ts for surface ship, statement of, 446

dimensions, coeffs, features, for typical ships, 223-228

approx, 464
second approx, 475
preliminary design requirements for motorboat, 825
analysis of, 826
weights, second estimate, for surface ship, 474
Prismatic coeflBcient see Coefficient
Profile(s), abovewater, and deck details, 553
afterbody, arch-stern ABC ship, 524, 527
first

of,

638

339
567

411
predicting, 332
positions,

wind, location of center

magnitude of, 283

of,

of, 638
performance, lack of reliable data for confined waters,

on a submerged

relationships, quantitative, in potential flow,

of,

paddletrack, design features

and limiting dimensions, 568

data on flow into, 341

estimated flow at, 258

of ship,

and force

data on, 337

hydrauhc-jet, data on, 337

45, 47,

prediction

variations along a

332

of,

general design of the, 567

body, 323

velocity,

estimate

for double-ended vessels, 792

observation on a rudder, layout for, 9

ram, for fresh and salt water, 28-30

ship,

confined waters, 668

design to meet maneuvering requirements, 580

bodies of revolution, 42

resistance, as a function of depth,

to, in

hull vibration frequencies, relation of, 580

shaping hull adjacent to, 536

wake diagrams at, 358
pump-jet, data on, 337
rate of rotation of, 572
torque, disadvantages of unbalanced, 579
type and number, 567
used with contra-devices, 579
Propelled, seU-

see Self-propelled

PropeUer(s), (general classification)

efficiencies,
Gill,

estimate

of,

332

longitudinal section through, 339

Hotchkiss, explanatory diagrams, 339

Kirsten-Boeing; see Propellers, rotating-blade
limiting dimensions for a ship design, 568
materials and coatings to resist erosion, 635
multiple, design to equalize powers of, 573

photographing cavitation on ship, 153

HYDRODYNAMICS

968

Propeller(s), positions, for a ship design, 568

rotating-blade, "basket" diameter, 536

design notes, 656

test results on,

337

values of real efficiency, 333

shafts, design of bossings for, 682

exposed, fairing

of,

in cavitating range, 153

in variable-pressure water tunnel,

650

self-propelled tests with, 377, 632,

swinging, for steering and maneuvering, 737

ABC

ship, design of

by Lerbs' short

method, 611
disc

and hub diameters, 612

final design,

area ratios, 340

340
627

selection of, 605

of,

634

comparison
fisting of, 584-588
requirements for, 584

and moments

of,

589

shafts, design of bossings for,

682

per,

348

exposed, fairing enlargements around, 744

shrouding, fixed, design

widths, 340, 605

687
single-bladed, comments on, 600
submergence in all operating conditions, 500, 571
submersion under variable-load conditions, 498

632

housing, design

performance data on, 338

revolution, variation of forces

-series charts,

sections, hollow-face,

of,

under supercavitation, 156

reversible,

606

prediction of cavitation on, 149

bow, design

all times, 500, 571

outflow jet, augment of velocity at rudder position, 707
performance, effect of cavitation, 152

preliminary design with series charts, 592

blade(s), edges, shaping of,

helix angles,

on self-propelled models, 592, 870

position, anal.vsis of flow at, 259

628

rake for blades, 612

strength

stock, use of

334

875

necessity for full submergence at

vibratory forces induced by, 877

PropeUer(s), screw,

mean-width ratio, formula for, 341

mechanical construction, 633
model, and ship, photos of cavitation, 153
open-water test(s), 632, 876
data, 333, 878

744, 746

singing and vibration prevention, 636

surface, design of,

IN SHIP DESIGN
Propeller(s), screw, materials to resist erosion, 635

of,

797

cavitation criteria, 154

inception and effect

of,

145

characteristic curves, open-water test, 334, 878

of, 655
682
controllable, fist of references, 679
performance data on, 338
corrosion-resisting steel, to prevent erosion, 635
coupled, design of, 632
design, 582
bibliography, 606-609
charts, data from, 335
circulation theory for, 609
comments for supercavitating range, 631
features, preUminary comments, 596
Lerbs' short method of 1954, summary of, 630
procedures, 583, 596
requirements for, 583
Schoenherr's combination of steps, 630
to exert vertical and lateral thrust, 654
designed to operate under supercavitation, 631
diameter, selection of and optimum, 597
disc and hub diameters, 612
-disc clearances, 540
drawing the final design of, 629
efficiency, calculating expected, 629
estimate of characteristics for motorboats, 859
thrust and torque variation per revolution, 348
expanded chord length from mean-width ratio, 340
feathering and folding, definition of, 651, 652
design data for, 651
flow abaft a, 259
free-running bow, design of, 632
hollow-face blade, use and disadvantages of, 627
hubs, diameter, 601, 612
fairing of, 745
hull surfaces abreast, 672
jet diameters, inflow and outflow, 342, 343

contra-rotating, design features

-struts abaft, layout of,

of,

swinging, for steering and turning, design notes, 737

tandem, design features of, 655
thrust, approximation of from insufficient data, 346
relation to load at thrust bearing, 347, 348
tip clearances for motorboats, 859
submergence, adequate, 541
torque, unbalanced, compensating fins for, 699
disadvantages of, 579
under-the-bottom, 653
values of real efficiency, 333
vertical drive for, 653
vibrating, estimated added-mass coefficients for, 436
modes of motion, 437
vibratory forces induced by, 877

Voith-Schneider; see Propellers, rotating-blade

Propelling machinery, for double-ended vessels, 792

general assumptions, 443

location of in ship, 570

reserve of power, 574, 575

t.vpe and design, effect on hull, 570
underwater exhaust for, 545
Properties, mechanical, of air and exhaust gases, 922
water, 915
fresh and salt water, 920
other liquids and gases, 924
Proportion(s), blade and paddlewheel, calculated, 641
chine, for planing craft, 837
chordwise sections, control surfaces, 722
hull, abovewater, for strength, wavegoing, 496
of a surface ship, 464
selection of for motorboat, 827
immersed-transom stern, 529
principal, second approx, 475
shape data, Great Lakes oreships, 758-760
icebreakers, 800-803
typical ships, 223-228
Propulsion, airscrew, 658

SUBJECT INDEX
Propulsion, and hull shape for a submarine, S13
asymmetric, notes on, 651
auxiliary, for sailing yachts, 652

bow screwprops
data,

self-,

and, 632, 792

on models of typical

377

factors, ship-and-model, for typical vessels, 380-382

performance data on, 337

hydraulic-jet, available performance data, 337

design notes, 648

Propulsive coefficient,
of,

ABC

ships,

895

375

waterline

Pull, towing, measured on ships, 310

Pump-jet propdevs, available performance data on, 337

propulsion, design notes for, 648

craft, classification of,

750

750

of the future, 818

Pure formulas and equations, use of, xx, 7

Pushboat, Hillman, body plan and profile, 667

of, 27,

list of;

efficiency, variation in,

see

BibUography

source abbreviations

xx

for,

in specific coefficients, 5

Refracting solutions, use of in flow studies, 48

Relations, analytic ship-wave, features derived from, 217

Relationship,

quantitative,

between vel and press in

potential flow, 25, 26

Relative rotative efficiency, finding, 374

Requirement(s),

applying

formulation

of,

to

hydrodynamic

variation of total resistance with, 308-310

of,

11

Froude number,

design, ferryboats, 790

fireboats,

11, 928,

932

774

fishing vessels, 770

for screwprop, 583

Race, propeller; see Jet, outflow

Racing shells, design of hulls for, 752
Radial flow diagrams, 3-diml, data for constructing, 64, 65
stream functions, 53
stream functions for 2-diml source-sink pair, 55
thrust distribution for screwprop, 615, 616
Radius, and pitch variation of screwprop, 598
bilge, computing, 477
hydraulic, definition and sketch, 409, 412
of channels, calculation and use, 409
of curvature, 2-diml, formula for, 195
Rake for ABC screwprop, determination of, 612
Raked screwprop blades, use of, 600
Ram pressures and heads, in fresh and salt water, tables,
28-30
Rate of rotation, in propdev and ship design, 572
screwprop, determining, 597
Ratio(s), area, of screwprops, 340

aspect; see Aspect

786
between English units of measurement, 926
bilge radius to beam Bx, 477, 912

ballast, definition of,

conversion, English-metric, 928-930

paddle blades, 639

features,

446

departures from letter of specifications and, 454

Quotient, speed-length, 11

dip, of

30

to length, 470

333
Recessed lifting fittings, design of, 743
Recesses, for anchors, design of, 556
shallow, design of, 748
Reduction factors for calculated added masses, 430
of 2 per cent speed in water of given depth, 403
Reference(s), area, length, or volume, definition of, 5
data and prediction procedures, 1
for properties of water, 915

terms

Quadruple-screw vessels, stern forms for, 520

Quantitative data on dynamic lift and planing, 263
separation, eddjdng and vortex motion, 133
Quantitative effect of shallow water on ship speed and
resistance, 390
relationships between vel and press in potential flow,
25

relation to

beam

Real propeller

ranges of typical values, 376

Taylor, definition and use

and wave heights, 169

and press coefficients, tables

steepness,
velocity,

and other

Protectors, galvanic-action, design of, 704

of,

reserve-bouyancy, 547

786
909
ship parameters and coefficients, 930
square-draft to water-depth, 393

pump-jet, available data on, 337

design notes, 648
submarine, 813

design

of refa, 76

scale, a(or X),

paddletrack, design features, 638

Purpose, special-,

and hydrofoils, list

major resistance components, 313
pitch-diameter, for screwprop, 598
hydrodynamic for screwprop, 617
lift-drag for airfoils

sail-area to wetted-surface,

outboard, 653

determination

expanded-area, of screwprop, 602

fatness, first approx, 464
freeboard, tentative, 548

ships,

devices; see Propdevs

gas-jet,

969

Ratio(s), effective aspect, for ship hydrofoils

submarines, 809
life-saving or rescue boats, 816

hghtships, 814
principal, statement of,

446

propeller-series charts, 584

readj'-made, interpretation, 454

fundamental, for every ship, 443

hydrodynamic, analysis, 460
maneuvering, propdev design for, 580
ship size as a factor in, 452
operating, for planing forms, 824
prehminary design study of motorboat, 825
principal hydrodynamic, analysis of, 826
rescue or life-saving boats, 816

reserve-buoyancy, 546

secondary ship, tabulation, 452

713
submarine operating, 809
yacht-design, 783
Reserve and powering allowances, 576, 577
buoyancy, requirements in design, 546
of power, in propelling machinery, 575
steering, design for conflicting,

speed, desirability of, 574, 575

Residuary resistance see Resistance
;

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

970

Resilient material in sorewprop tunnel roofs, 672

Resistance(s),

estimating, 274

air, of ships,

Resistance, surface ship, estimate

Telfer's

method

of,

313

of predicting, 318

on models, 872

and drag with wind on bow, 281

tests

appendage, calculation of, 288

for submarines, 295
customary values, 2SS
augment of; see Thrust deduction
calculated, and experimental, comparison of, 216
for planing craft, 848
surface and submerged ships, 313
of appendages, 288
ship forms suitable for, 219
theoretical, references on, 221
changes of, with changes in displacement and trim, 310
components, major, ratios of, 313
data, from model tests of typical ships, 297
observed, for models and ships, 297
parallel middlebody variations, 306
systematic, from model series, 298
typical shallow-water, 389, 390
very fat ships, 303-306

theoretical calcs of, reference material on, 221

low speeds, 306

deep-water, found from shallow-water data, 400
discontinuities, estimating,

due to flow

294

in free-flooding spaces,

experimental and

323

calculated, comparison of, 216

fouling, factors affecting, 117

graphs

of,

123, 124

friction; see Friction

unusual forms, 3
depth for, 404
individual appendages, per cent, 289
kinds of for ships, summary, 313
large appendages, 295
limiting depth for 2 per cent increase, 404
overall, for appendages, 288
pressure, analytic methods of predicting, 321
mathematic methods of calculating, 206
modern developments in calculation of, 210
of submerged bodies as function of depth, 323
rate of variation of residuary (for model), with speed,

hydrodynamic,

of

increase, 2 per cent, Umiting

306
residuary, contours

from TSS, 299

prediction from Gertler data, 318

Japanese fishing-vessel series, 300

TSS contours, 316, 317
specific, from Gertler-TSS data, 302
variation of with speed, 306-308
on planing forms, 269
shallow-water, found from deep-water data, 400
predicting resistance by inspection, 408
quantitative effect of in subcritical range, 390
ship, early efforts to calculate, 207
in canal locks, predicting, 413, 414
predicting fouling effects on, 120
summarj- of kinds of, 313
slope, estimating, 321
specific, definition of,

-speed data, finding, for shallow water, 397, 400

determination of O. Schlicting in shallow water,
definition diagram, 392
still-air

and wind, 278, 322

ships, estimate of,

and R-r/V"^ ratio for ABC ship model, 893

comparison of calculated and experimental, 217

total,

estimated, for submerged and surface ships, 313

methods of approximating, 315

of model and ship, variation with

T,,

308

per ton, for typical ships, 309

variation of with speed, 308, 310

on planing forms, 269

and residuary, 314

subdivision into friction

wavemaldng, calculation

of, 215
comparison of calculated and experimental, 216,
217
due to diverging and transverse waves, 220
tabulation of typical components, 216
wind, and CP layout for ABC ship, 283
ship still-air, 322
bibhography of model tests, 278
-friction, of abovewater hull, 280
models and testing techniques. 278
motorboats, 862
of irregular structures, formulas for, 276
ships, estimating, 274
prediction for ABC ship, 282
with wind on bow, 281
Response, rapid, to rudder action, design for, 711, 735
Resting keels, design of, 695

Restricted and shallow waters; see Water(s), confined

Restrictions, lateral channel, in subcritical range, estimated
effect,

410

Reversible features in propdev design, 578

performance data on, 338

Revolution, body of, cavitation data for, 151
velocity and pressure distribution around, 40
Reynolds number, blade-Reynolds and d-Reynolds, 15
propellers,

calculation

of,

15

tables of, 88-94

x-Reynolds and 5-Reynolds, 15

Ridge-type straight deck, 554
Rigging, design to reduce wind drag, 566
Rise-of-floor magnitude for planing craft, 836
River steamers, typical, general data, 664, 665
water-surface slopes and currents, 660
Roll-resisting keels see Keels
Rolling periods, estimated, for ABC ship, 497
Root fillets for screwprop blades, shaping, 606
;

Rotating-blade propeller; see Propeller (general classification)

Rotation, determining rate

of, for

screwprop, 597

and rate in propdev and ship design, 572

Rotational vel components in screwprop outflow jet, 260
direction

of, 374
Rough-hull condition, estimated shaft power for, 385
Roughness, allowances, determination of, 115
plot of three types, 100
tentative individual, 117
drag variation along length, 739

Rotative efficiency, relative, estimate

equivalent sand, 113

subdivision into five types, 314

submerged bodies and

torpedoboat, in shallow water, 390

friction,

313

allowances

for,

index, factors in, 114

on

flat surfaces,

115

SUBJECT INDEX
Roughness, on a rudder and horn, 743
structural, working limits, 740, 74]

971

Schmidt type of flush inlet scoop, 702

Schoenherr combination of steps for screwprop design, 630

surface, practical, definitions of, 114

friction formulation, 100,

Round-bottom motorboat, first power and weight estimates,

853

specific friction-resist coefTs, partial tables of,

space layout, 852

ABC,

Schultz-Grunow friction-resistance formula, 102

855
858

laj'out of lines,

example

of,

Scoops, condenser, injection, design, 701

partial bibliography on, 703

Rudder(s), action, design for rapid response

and plane areas, 715
positions,

to,

Screw or screw

735

propeller; see Propeller, screw

multiple-, sterns, 236

706

single-,

body

plans, typical, 234-236

and moment diagram, 717

angle, neutral, from model tests, 876
apertures and gaps ahead of, 712

three-

-area data for merchant-type ships, 714, 715

triple-, vessels,

automatic flap-type, 735

balance portion, pressure
bow, design of, 735

twin-,

ship force

sterns, arch type, 521

general arrangement, 518

or flap-type, design

of,

726

water, chemical constituents

726

simple, faired propeller hubs forward

of,

745

ABC

520

of,

of,

172

924

waves; see Waves

Seagoing; see Wavegoing
762
of,

452

Section(s), blade, screwprop, selection of types, 605

shapes, final, for

G. H. Bottomley, 719

flap-type; see Rudder,

of,

Secondary ship-design requirements, tabulation

ship sterns, 727

of horns for, 690

-fin assemblies of

for,

Seatrains, to carry railway cars, description

design notes for, 729

two

521

five-, installations,

Sea, complex, 3-oomponent, delineation

of,

contra-; see Contra-

design(s) for

and

shapes of, 237, 238

and quadruple-, stern forms
body plans, typical, 238

field of, 711

close-coupled and compound, design

compound

104

wake-fraction formula, 369

selecting hull shape, 854

tender,

utility-boat, design,

ABC

ship,

627

shaping by cavitation criteria, 621

coeff along length, variation of for ABC

compound

automatic, 735
for

102

local friction-resistance formula, 102

ship, 517

maneuvering astern, 735

and moment, lateral, by model

force

in entrance, for typical ships, 516

tests, 716,

717

proposed method of estimating, 715

control surfaces, chordwise proportions, 722

discontinuous; see Discontinuous

-force fraction, for control surfs, definition of, 718

half-, of five strut shapes,

hinge gaps, closures for, 691, 726

horns, design notes, 690
motorboat, design of, 724

huU, shapes of in design, 515

hydrofoils, symmetrical, leading and trailing edges, 675
maximum, layout of contour, 476, 477

position relative to screwprop outflow jet, 707, 708

positioning

of, in

shaping

and proportioning, 722

of, relative

single or multiple,

section coefficient, selecting, 468, 469

maximum-area, longitudinal position

design, 706

sections, selecting

to stern, 709

shape (s), abovewater, design

708

in,

predicted, of planing craft, 851

Russian ship data, tabulated, 229

of,

551

for planing craft, selecting, 835

shallow-water running, 662

234-238, 249, 252, 253

Running attitude, and ship motion diagrams, 325

planing craft, 850
predicted, of plam'ng craft, 851
position(s), and steering, offset, in a channel, 413

in entrance

and run, 515

strut-arm, for ultra-high speeds, 680

ship, mathematical, 191

small-scale, preparation,

sketch

of,

486

487

Section-area curve(s), dehneation, mathematic, 198

fairing of, 198
final, for

ABC

ABC

ship, 542,

543

planing-type tender, 845

Sail-area to wetted-surface ratio of yachts, 786

for

Sailing yacht(s), auxihary propulsion for, 652

round-bottom tender, 858

ship, 0-diml plot of, 544
preliminarj^ 485
reference data for drawing, 230
selection, sketching, and shaping
TSS parent form, 224

design, aspects of, 783

brief bibliography on, 786,

483

factors for vibrating ships, 429

selection of section shape in, 515

shapes of typical ships

of,

roll-damping features in, 477

rudder, chordwise, selecting and proportioning, 722

torque and ship-turning moments, 720

tubular, conditions for, 726

Run,

679

787

Sand roughness, equivalent, 113

Scale effect, in predicting shaft power, 379-382

problems in appendage resistance, 288

Schedule, design, for a ship, 444
Schlichting, intermediate speed in shallow water, 392
O., shallow-water procedure, features of, 394
speed-resist determination in shallow water,
definition diagram, 392

0-diml ordinates

of,

of,

482

226

Self-propelled box-shaped vessels, design notes, 779

dredges, design features, 777
floating drydocks, 779

model

tests,

backing power from, 388

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

972
model

Self-propelled,

tests, curves,

377-379

when backing, 3SS

strut-arm section, for ultra-high speeds, 680

transverse, for shallow-water vessels, 662

data from, 377, S75

for screwprops, 632

motorboats, nith dynamic

lift,

864

use of stock screwprops, 870

Semi-planing small craft, design of, 823

Separation

133

criteria,

for buttocks, 136

waterlines, 135

detection

of,

drag, approx

321

of, around a ship, 139

on ship drag calculations, 213
phenomena around geometric forms, 140
zone(s), aeration of and leakage into, 140
apparent flow deflection around, 139

estimate

effect

extent

Ship(s),

136

of,

indicated

by

tufts, 137,

254

584
Japanese fishing-vessel, 300
model, residuary resistance from, 298, 316
standard, Taylor, contours of Rr/A, 298
Gertler reworking of, 301
parent form for, 223-225
section-area curves, 224
0-diml ordinates of, 226
0-diml offsets for, 225
systematic, resistance data from, 298
Shadowing allowances for appendages in tandem, 292
Shaft(s), and struts, exposed, design of, 678
exposed, fairing enlargements around, 744
requirements

for,

of at emergence, 746

rotating, drag of, 293

strut design for, 678

power; see Power

propeller, design of bossings for,

682
744

fairing enlargements around,

Shallow and restricted waters; see Water(s), confined

water; see Water(s), shallow
Shape(s), abovewater

bow

characteristics for
coeffs, for

ABC;

see

ABC

ship

and wind resistance, estimating, 274

analysis of wake around and behind, 248, 250, 254, 261
and models, bibliography on confined-water effects,
air

omitted from wetted-surface calculations, 109

on ships, typical, 134
Series, charts, propeller-, comments on, 589
listing of, 584-588
modification of design procedure, 596
preliminary design procedure, 592

and

vessel, near DWL, 504

Shearing stress, internal, representative values for water,
94
Sheer and freeboard, for general service, 547
protected waters, 547
deck, for the sake of appearance, 547
length, 549
heights, in fractions of
related to wave steepness, 548
ship
types, 551
lines, 0-diml, for five
Shell(s), plating, approx to volume of, 486
smoothness problems on, 739
racing, design of hulls for, 752
Shingle trim-control device on planing craft, 840

WL

136
of,

Shape(s), stem, at various waterlines, 508

of motorboat, 842

section, design of, 551

round-bottom motorboats, 854

415
observed resistance data

for,

297

propellers, effect of cavitation on, 145

behavior in confined waters, predicting, 389

boundary-layer characteristics, data on, 95
cavitation on, occurrence of, 145
data, Russian, tabulated, 229
typical, tabulated, 223-228
design; see Design
designer, first task of, 446

general problems

of,

454

dimensions, basis for selection of, 457

existing, increasing the power and speed of an, 387
fat,

changes of attitude and trim, 329

very, resistance data for, 303-306

flow patterns; see Flow

form(s), geometric variation

of, 204
mathematical methods for delineating, 186
of good performance, comparison of new design
with, 496
predicting vel and press distribution around, 257
schematic, distribution of vel and press around, 47
suitable for calculating wave resist, 219
summary of 0-diml equations for, 192
hull, general, formulas for wind drag of, 276
submerged and surface, calculating resist of, 313
in unsteady motion, added mass of water around, 417

inception and effect of cavitation on, 145

DWL's, 228

proportions data, typical ships, 223

lengths and speeds, Reynolds

numbers

for,

lines,

chine, for planing craft, 837

mathematical, selected references, 204

use of, 186
mass, added, in unsteady motion, 417
mathematical methods for delineating, 186

designed waterhne(s),
typical,

first

sketch, 479

228

geometric, added masses for, 419

vibrating, comparison with vibrating ship, 423

2-diml and 3-diml, drag data, 291

hull, along bilge diagonal, 517

and propulsion, on a submarine, 813

476
round-bottom motorboat, 854
835
shallow water, 662
in entrance and run, 515
selection,

for

section, for planing craft, selecting,

94

involving developable surfaces, 765

buttock, for planing craft, 839

model(s); see Models

model-testing program for large, 868

moored, estimating forces on, 287
motion; see Motion
diagrams, 325
observed resistance data for, 297

operation in confined waters, design features for, 659

parameters and coefficients, ratios of, 930

performance, practical benefits of calculating, 220

SUBJECT INDEX
Ship(s), persistence of

wake behind

a,

powering data for steady-ahead motion, 354

prediction of behavior in confined waters, 389

ending, contra-guide, design, 532

endings adjacent to propdcvs, 530

principal dimensions of typical, 223

requirements, fundamental, for every, 443

resistance; see Resistance
skegs and appendages, added-masa data

for,

fixed stabilizing, design of, 697

motorboat, design notes, 842

438

multiple-, stern, design of, 531

speed and power increase for existing, 387

very low, resistance data for, 306
smoothness and fairness, achieving, 749

and wind

still-air

termination

resistance, 322

of,

191

friction drag calculation for, 126

mathematical and 0-diml representation
probable flow at a distance from, 256

wetted, computation

of,

of,

189

T,,,

and

solids, 7,

for, 170,

171

prelim design study, requirements, 825

hydrodynamic design, 819-822
references to tabulated data, 228

semi-planing and planing, design

823

of,

special design features, 822

gas discharge, abovewater, design, 563, 565

minimum, 564
564

hulls,

of,

resist,

plans, 234-236

Sound gear on merchant

patterns,

864

vessels, location of,

705

by colored

liquid,

67

construction of 2-diml, 54
3-diml, 62

67
stream functions

electric analogy,

pair, 2-d)ml, radial

Source(s) and sink(s),

forces

exerted

for,

55

by or on bodies

around, 68

shallow and restricted waters, 328

line, definition

and sketches

of,

60

delineation of flow patterns around, 59

references to, 331

data, for four cargo ships in shallow water, 328-330

661
for,

Size, absolute, as a factor in

281

738

Source-sink combinations, derivation of <j)- and i^-formulas

for flow around, 17, 20
references to streamline diagrams around, 39
flow diagrams, delineation of, 52

arrangement and designs, 518

unsymmetrical, design of, 528
Sink; see Source and sink
Sinkage, and trim data from models, 874
in open, deep water, 325

of,

819

Source abbreviations for references, xx

stern, arch type of, 521

design for reduction

of,

660
555

Solutions to equations of motion, multiple, 6

to,

or multiple rudders, 708

Sinusoidal waves, formulas

rivers,

Solitary-wave speeds for shallow-water depths, 661

143
prevention on screwprops, 636
of screwprops, refs to, 144
Single, -bladed screw propeller, 600

body

Small craft, definition

powering of, 824

Snubbing of stem; see Stem

Soakage for wooden motorboat

Singing and vibration, apphcation of Strouhal number

-screw

and
294

for,

Smoothness, hull, and fairing, definition

importance of, 738
hydrodynamic, criterion for, 112
problems, specific, 739
underwater, achieving on a ship, 749

and ordinates

drag data

holes,

masts, deck erections, drag and wind

of references for, 4

profile, abscissas

294

ports, freeing, required area of, 554,

and

stack(s), design,

Simple ship; see Ship

waves for design purposes, 171
Simplified ship form; see Straiglit-element

Sine-wave

and

gaps,

gas velocit}',

Side blisters or bulges, design, 517

Silhouette area of a ship above water, 277
from abeam, typical surface-ship, 283
of,

resistance, 293,

underwater, 565

Short appendages, definition of, 108

bossing, shape for ABC ship, 685
Shrouding, fixed screwprop, design of, 687

list

on

thrust, estimate of, 321

water-surface, canals, channels,

Slots,

Smoke and

waves, data on, 160

celerity, in liquids

and

varying water-surface, drag and thrust data, 321

D. W. Taylor for Umiting depth, 407

-turning moments and rudder torque, 720
and shape data, 223
proportions
typical,
resistance from model test data, 297
vibrating, comparison with geometric shape, 423
estimating added-mass coefficients of, 433
-wake fraction, estimated, 368
-wave interference alongside ship, 243
profiles, tj'pical, 239
relations, 217

Similitude, principles

propeller-shaft, effect

surface, of trochoidal waves, 163, 164

308-310

trials, criterion of

Shock-wave

DWL

resistance

106

total resistance, variation with

rudder support, design, 690

of, 747
Skew-back in ABC propeller blade profile, 627-629
screwprop design, 603, 604
Slime, formation of and effect on friction resistance, 118
Slope(s),
at entrance, graph for, 479
in run, 480
of buttocks for confined waters, 668
partial, for

straight-element design, partial bibliography, 764

surface, and submerged, estimate of total resist, 313

equation, 0-diml, application

973

Skeg(s), added-masa data for water around, 438

deep keel and, design for motorboats, 842

261

170

maneuvering

Skeg(s), acting as docking supports, 690

req'ts,

452

multiple pairs, flow pattern around, 59

partial bibliography on, 70
two pairs, dehneating flow pattern for, 58
variety of stream forms produced by, 67

2-diml flow pattern around, 56

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

974
and

Source(s")

smk(s"), 3-diinl, flow pattern around,

66

Space layout, first, for planing hull, 827

round-bottom motorboat hull, 852
Spanwise distribution of circulation and lift, 83
Spars, design to reduce T\ind drag, 566
Special and submerged forms, estimate of resistance, 313
-purpose craft, classification and design, 750
of the future, 818
-service vessel, preliminary hydrodynamic design, 750
gravity, of a liquid, def of, 5
resistance, def of, 5

smoothness problems, 739

of,

merchant vessel, 447, 449-453

involving hydrodynamics, formulation, 446

Specification(s), design, for a

partial, for a passenger-cargo ship, 447

ready-made, interpretation of, 454
ship, departures from letter of, 454
Speed(s), and power, effect of shallow water on, 390
increasing the, for an existing ship, 387
changes in level and trim with, 325
corresponding values, in four sets of units, 927

deep-water, from shallow-water resist-speed data, 400

economical and practical, in shallow water, 660
-length quotient, and F, tables of, 928
variation of total resist with, 308-310

model residuary resist with, 306-308

reduction of 2 per cent in given depth of water, 403
rate of var of

requirements, for a

new

ship,

449

reserve, desirability of, 574, 575

-resistance determination of O. Schlichting in shallow

water, definition diagram, 392

306
solitary-wave, for shallow water, 661
supercritical, confined water operation
sustained, discussion of, 455-457
very low, resistance data

at,

412, 413

forms, 269
Sponsons, notes on design of, 560, 561
Spray strips, for planing craft, 841
to counteract engine torque, 580, 699
Square-draft, definition and sketch of, 393
to water-depth ratio, 393
nomogram for, 393
Squat, and attitude diagrams, 325
of,

661

check

of,

553

definition of, 443

metacentric and pendulum, on submarine, 812

first estimate of, 478
pendulum, on a submarine, 813
range of, preliminary check, 553
Stabilizer, Plum, for trim control on planing craft, 840
Stabilizing fins, fixed, design, 697

notes on aspect ratio, 698

salt water, reference

data on, 915

tentative, for ship design

and evalua-

tion, 172

waves

for design purposes, 171

dynamic and, on submarine,

812
Steepness ratios in waves, data on, 169
Steering and maneuvering, behavior, first approx, 501
swinging propellers for, 737
in offset positions in channels, 413
requirements, design for conflicting, 713
Stem, blunt, cutwater for, design of, 676
construction of, 508
shape at various waterlines, 508
of motorboat, 842
Stereoscopic wave photos, 177, 179
Stern(s), ABC ship, rudder designs for two, 727
arch-, ABC design, appendages for, 681
arch type, flow analysis, 525
for single screw, design of, 521
bulb, proposals for, 599
contra-; see Contraguide, design notes for, 532
diving planes, design rules for, 736
forms for twin- and quadruple-screw ships, 520
immersed transom, design of, 529
multiple-screw, typical, 236
skeg, design of, 531

491

and rudder shape, 709

single-screw, arch type, 521

transom,

strut-arm shapes for, 680

values of, in four English units, 927
var of attitude and position of planing craft with, 329
model residuary resist with, 306-308
total and residuary resistance with, on planing

design for reduction

and

wave systems,

general arrangement, 518

for,

ultra-high, displacement-type craft, design of, 754

Stability, dj-namic metacentric,

fresh

profiles,

shallow-water, from deep-water resist-speed data, 397

quantitative effect of in subcritical range, 390
ship,

Static forces, equilibrium of

Specific coefficients, definition of, 5

terms, derivation and use

weight, definition of, 5

Stack see Smoke

Standard series; see Series
use of in estimating ship drag, 298
values, for engineering concepts, in English units, 926
"Standard" body plans, 231-234

ABC

sMp,

profile of,

492

edge, flow under rounded, 531

in section-area curve, 485

Narvik class DD, 531

parameters for, 485
shaping of, 530, 531
tunnel, craft, powering of, 672
669
bibhography on, 673
unsymmetrical single-screw, design of, 520
-wave crest height and position, estimate of, 244
Sternwheels, performance data on, 335
Still-air and wind resistance of motorboats, 862
ship, 278, 322
Sting mounting for submerged bodies, 323
Stock(s), axis, positioning rel to control-surf blade, 720
model screwprops, for model self-propulsion, 592, 870'
Straight-element hulls, bibhography on, 764
design of, 762
design

of,

vessels,

friction drag on, 127

use for shallow-water vessels, 666

ridge-type deck, 554

Strakes, bulged fender, design

of, 769
Stream form; see Form
Stream fimction, for flow around rod and sphere, 41

formulas for 2-diml flows, 17

3-diml flows, 20

SUBJECT INDEX
Steam

function, pattern for 3-diml sourco-sink pair, 66

radial, for 2-diml source-sink pair,

55

Stream patterns, 2-diml, construction of from line sources

and sinks, 59
Streamline(s), delineation of around a single source, 52
various bodies, 31

2-diml sources and sinks, 54

3-diml sources and sinks, 62

derived analytically, 218
diagrams, from source-sink combinations, 39
published, 33

Surface(s), developable, drawing lines for ships with, 765

flow diagrams on models, analysis

hull,

of

roughness, practical definitions

Street or

vortex,

trail,

6,

141

estimate of total resistance

mathematical and 0-diml representation

probable flow at a distance from, 256

wave(s), profile on a ship, prediction

system, calculation of energy

94

189

of, for

new

Strips, spray, for planing craft, 841

appendages and bare

Strouhal number, application

calc for transom-stern

of,

16

Structural considerations, bilge-keel design, 694

of overall, for a

roughness, working hmits on, 740, 741

advantages and disadvantages, 677

arm(s), design, 678
drag of elliptic and streamlined sections, 291
position at strut hub, 680
section (s), leading and trailing edges, 676
placing in lines of flow, 678
shape(s) for ultra-high speeds, 680
half-sections of five, 679
selection of, 678, 679
bossings, or, selection of, 677
contra-, abaft sorewprops, layout of, 682
Subcritical range, effect of lateral channel restr in, 410
shallow water on resistance and speed in, 390
Sublayer thickness in turbulent flow, laminar, 104, 120
Submarine (s), bulk volume of, 322
design problems common to all, 809
Submerged and surface forms, est of total resist for, 313
body, calculation of bulk volume and wetted surface,

coefficient, 0-diml,

and data

for,

322

maneuvering of a submarine, 813

ship models, questionable practices in towing tests
of, 322, 323
vessels, calculation of appendage resistance, 295
Submergence, immersed transom, Fj values for, 530
propeller-tip, necessity for adequate, in design, 500,

541, 571
Submersible, definition and description of, 810
Submersion, screwprop, and trim, under variable load, 498
inadequate, avoiding air leakage with, 631
Subsurface waves, bibliography on, 185
Supercavitating range, definition of and design for screw-

631

Supercavitation, screwprop performance under, 156

Supercritical speed; see Speed (s)
Superficial or wetted area of a hydrofoil, 5

Superstructure(s), air-flow diagrams for, 276

and upper works, design of, 561

general formulas for wind drag of, 276

246
215

design, 493

hull, calculation of,

ABC

106-109

ship, 109

submerged body, 322

contours

106, 107

of,

computation for a ship, 106

diagram for a planing craft, 851

Strut(s),

pressure resistance as function of depth, 323

of,

in, 163,

theoretical, data on, 160

wetted, analysis

in,

of,

tension and dynamic viscosity, 920

Stress, internal shearing, representative values for water,

props

313
126

for,

friction-resist calculation for,

of screwprop blades, 634

coefficients

114

of,

-water currents due to natural wind, 287

Strength, abovewater hull proportions for, 496

322
drag

322

of,

ship, application of 0-diml equation to, 191

see Fairing

upper works, advantages and disadvantages, 561,

562

250

of,

abreast screvvprops, 672

hydrodynamically smooth, 112

overall, wetted, of submarine, def and calc
planing, bibliography on, 269
propellers, design procedure for, 650

patterns around ships, references to, 39

Streamlining

975

Surface control; see Control

longitudinal curvature,

water

and length

of shallow-

665
of planing forms, 268
to sail-area ratio, 786
craft,

0-diml contours for calculation

of, 106,

107

Sustained speed, discussion of, 455-457

Swinging props for steering and turning, design notes, 737
Swirl cores, predicting, 155

Symbols and

their titles, 900

Symmetrical propeller-blade sections, design and use
605
Synthetic complex sea, delineation of, 172
Systematic wake variations, use of, 572

Tables; see item desired

Tandem appendages, shadowing allowances
screwprops, design features, 655

Tank,

for,

of,

292

electrol3ftio, for plotting equipotential lines, 31, 49

Tanqua viscous drag, definition of, 118
Tanvis viscous drag, definition of, 119
Taylor, D. W., criterion for limiting depth for ship trials,
407
friction-resistance formulas, 104
Standard Series, contours of TJ^/A for, 298
data, Gertler reworking of, 301-303
prediction of residuary resistance, 317
parent form for, 223-225
performance, bettering of, 465, 474
section-area curves, 224
superiority of for certain Cp values, 474
Taylor Standard Series, 0-diml offsets for, 225

and use of, 11

Froude number, 11, 932

quotient, definition
ratio of to

tables of, 928, 929

Telfer extrapolation diagram, 320

friction-resistance formula, 104
method, list of references, 318-319
of predicting ship resistance, 318

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

976
Telfer, merit factor for

ABC

Temporary bows, design

of,

ship,

Transition, gradual, abaft elliptic 3-diml nose, 196

895

sharp, between portions of VVL's, 197

781

Tender, planing-type, for ABC ship, lines, 843

requirements for, 826
round-bottom, for ABC ship, hnes, 855
requirements for, 825
Tension, surface, and dynamic viscosity, 920

Transom

Terminal values t for DWL's, design lane for, 509

Termination of skegs and bossings, 684, 747
Testing program, model, for a large ship, 868
techniques for wind-resistance models, 278
Tests, controllability, of model in shallow water, 876
model; see Model
Theoretical surface waves, data on, 160
wave patterns on water surface, 160

Thickness, blade-, radial distribution for screwprop, 620

boundary-layer, variation with x-distance, 95, 96
laminar sublayer, in turbulent flow, 104, 120
variation with length and speed, 105
sea, delineation of, 172

Three-component complex

-dimensional flow around rod and sphere, 41

stream functions, diagram of, 41

wake-survey diagrams, 360

analysis of TMB, 362
-screw installations, notes on, 521
Thrust, bearing, rel bet screwprop thrust and load at, 347
calculation for a propeller, 347
-deduction fraction, determination by model tests, 879
estimate by "cylinder" method, 372, 373
for ABC ship, 542
of, from hull shape, 542
predicting, 369-371

prediction of

minimum, design

W.
for,

J.

Luke, 369

slope, estimate of,

237, 238

of,

Trochoidal wave(s), deep water, data on, 166

definition drawing, 162
elevations and slopes of, 163, 164

orbital velocity in deep water, 162, 166, 168, 169

profile, ordinates for,

163

sketch of surface slopes, 164

system, formulas for, 162, 163

when towing, 346

344-346

factor, calculating, for a screwprop,

613

theory,

summary

of,

161

Troost and Lap friction-resistance formula, 104

data derived from, 345

measured, on ships, 310
screwprop, and thrust-bearing load,

Triple-screw vessels, typical shapes

orbit radii, change with depth, 169

321

-load coeff, variation per rev, for a screwprop, 349

5\ath ship speed,

Trimarans; see Catamarans

lengths, periods, velocities, 165-168

541

distribution, radial, of screwprop, 615, 616

due to water-surface

stern; see Stern

Transverse dimensions for shallow-water running, 662

discontinuities, above water, 561
force tests on models, in rudder tests, 716, 717
moment-of-area coefficient for DWL, selecting, 478
thrust, design of devices to produce, 654
waves, effect on calculated resistance, 220
Trials, ship, limiting depth of water for, 407
Trim, and displ, effect of changes on resistance, 310
draft variations, ABC ship, due to variable
weights, 481, 498
resistance data for torpedoboat in shallow water,
390
sinkage on models, 874
angle for planing craft, 840
change of, effect on effective power, 355
for fat forms, 329
towed and self-propelled models, 327
in open, deep water, data on, 325-328
shallow and restricted waters, 328
on models, towed and self-propelled, 327, 874
with speed, 325
-control devices, use of for planing craft, 840
data, typical shallow-water, 390
diagram, running, for ABC planing-type tender, 849
propeller submersion and, under variable load, 498

rel bet, 347,

348

estimating from insufficient data, 346

slope, estimate of, 321

transv and vertical, design of devices producing, 654

var per rev for screwprops, est of, 348, 350, 351
Tideman friction-resistance data, 103

Tip clearances, for propdevs, 537

of propellers for motorboats, 859
submergence of screwprops, adequate, 541

symbols used, 900

Torpedoboats, old, general data on, 753
Torque, coeff, variation per rev on a screwprop, 350, 351
-compensating fins, design of, 699
unbalanced, of a propdev, disadvantages, 579
variation per rev for screwprops, est of, 348, 350-352
Towing, emergency, temporary bow for, 781
pulls on ships, measured, 310
Tracked vehicles as amphibious craft, 806
Tracks, paddle; see Paddletracks
Trail or street, vortex, 6, 141, 142
Trailing edges of appendages, design of, 675, 676
Transformation, conformal, description and uses of, 25

Trough; see Wave(s)

Tsunami or earthquake wave, 181
Tubular rudders, conditions calling for, 726
Tufts, model flow observations with, 874
partly reversed, view of, 137, 139
use of for determining flow, 137, 254
Tug, fleet, displ of appendages, 296
Tumble home, design data for, 551
Timnel(s),

in

multiple-skeg

sterns,

design

notes,

oblique, in shallow-water craft, 670, 671

stern (s), craft, powering, 672

Titles of

design

of,

669

vessels, bibliography on, 673,

Turn

674

of ship in loose or tight circle, 6

Twin-screw body plans, 236

vessels, stern forms for, 520

Two

or

more

solutions to equation of motion, 6

types of flow or performance, 6

per cent resist increase, limiting depth for, 404
speed reduction in water of given depth, 403
Type(s), huU, selection of for motorboat, 827

propeUing machinery, effect

of,

570

roll-resisting keels, selecting, 691

531

SUBJECT INDEX
Ultxa-high-speed displacement-typo craft, design
Unbalanced propdev torque, disadvantages, 579

of,

754

Under-the-bottom anchor installation, 558

screw propellers, 653
Underwater exhaust for propelling machinery, 545, 565
form, molding a new, 488
hull, detail design of, 504
profile, 506
ship smoothness and fairness, 749
Unequal power distr in multiple props, design to avoid, 573
Units of measurement, abbreviations for, 912
in English sj'stem, 926
ratios between English and metric, 926
Unsteady motion; see Motion
Unsymmetrical single-screw stern, design of, 528
Upper works, air-flow diagrams for, 276
drag coefficients for, 279
shaping and positioning, 561
Useful data for analysis and comparison, 926
Utility-boat design, round-bottom, example, 858
Vanes, contra-; see ContraVapor pressure of water, 146, 147, 921, 922
Variable draft, first approx, 483
-load conditions, screwprop submersion and trim in,
498
-weight conditions, buoyancy, stability, weight data,
499
probable, first approx, 463
second statement of, 482
selected incUned WL's for, 499
Variation(s), attitude of planing craft with speed, 329
estimated draft for ABC ship, with variable weights,
481
forces and moments throughout screwprop revolution,
348
from normal hulls for shallow-water running, 666
paddlewheel design, 648
geometric, of ship forms, 204
model residuary resistance with speed, 306-308
parallel-middlebody, resistance data, 306
pitch with radius of screwprop, 598
pressure, along a Rankine lissoneoid, 208
rate of, model resistance with speed, 306
resistance with speed-length quotient, 308
on planing forms, 269
trim, weight, and volume, 310
rise-of-fioor, in planing craft, 836
section coefficient along length, 517
thrust-and torque per revolution for screwprops, 348
-load coefficient with speed, 344-346
total resistance with T,, 308-310

wake, systematic, use of, 572

wind force with heel angle, 285
velocity with height, 274
Vectors, wake, determined on models, 874

Vee entrance, pressure

distribution along, 48

Velocity and pressure diagrams around bodies, 31

2-

and 3-diml

bodies, 43

distribution around

body

of revolution, 40

hydrofoil, 80

schematic ship forms, 47

asj'mmetrio body, 43
ship forms, prediction of, 257

977

and pressure fields around a hydrofoil, 82

distr around 2-diinl and 3-diml bodies, 44
around body, determination of by flow net, 24

Velocity,

special forms, 40

2-diml stream forms, graphic determination

axial-, distr in

screwprop inflow-outflow

jets,

of,

57

343

distribution around schematic ship forms, 47

on hydrofoil, 80
around a hydrofoil, 82
induced, in screwprop jets, data on, 343
liquid, determination of around any body, 24

fields

orbital, in trochoidal waves, 162, 166, 168, 169

potential, expression, formulation of, 214

formulas for typical 2-diml flows, 17

3-diml flows, 20
pressure, and force of natural wind, 284
relationships in potential flow, 25, 26
profiles in ship

boundary

layers, list of references,

98

typical, 97

and pressure coefficients, tables of, 27, 30

trochoidal waves, tables of, 165-168
wake, effect on appendage drag, 292
wind, increase of with height, 274
Vertical and transverse thrust, design of devices to produce,
654
bossings as docking keels, 686
center of buoyancy position, by Normand formula, 479
gravit}^ position, estimated, 479
drive for screw propellers, 653
thrust, design of devices to produce, 654
ratios

Vessels

and types
and vortex streets, 141

see specific kinds

Vibrating bodies

geometric shape, comparison to vibrating ellipsoid, 423

screwprop(s), estimated added-mass coeffs for, 436

modes

of motion,

437

ship hull, comparison with vibrating elHpsoid, 423

estimated added-mass coefficients for, 433

Vibration, characteristics considered in design, 580, 598
frequencies, relation of hull

and

propeller,

580

motorboats, 859
of ship appendages, avoidance of, 700
partial bibliography on, 439
prevention of on screwprops, 636
problem in shallow water, handling, 673

hull, in

resonant, Strouhal number in, 143

Vibratory forces induced by propeller, 877

Virtual-mass coefficient, 418, 419

Viscosity, dynamic,

and surface tension, 920

reference data on, 94

kinematic, reference data on, 94

values for water, 919, 920

various fiquids and gases, tables

of,

919-922

Viscous flow; see Flow

Volimie, bulk, calculation for a submerged body, 322
definition and description of, 454
distribution, tentative, for

ABC

ship,

-Froude number, definition of, 11

hull, first estimate, 471
of submarine pressure hull, discussion
second approx for ABC sliip, 497
"standard" fresh and salt water, 915

Von Karman

498

of,

friction-resistance formula, 103

Vortex(es), hub, predicting, 155

motion, reference data on, 133

457

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

978

Vortex(es), references to flow photographs

spacing, long'l
streets

and transv in a vortex

of,

Water(s), -depth to square-draft ratio, 393

37

street,

141

eddy-frequency relations, 142

references to, 144

trails,

schematic diagram

of,

mass-densitj' values

ABC ship, 367

around or behind ship or model, 248, 250, 254,
261

bibliography on, 262

TMB

3-diml, analysis of, 362

diagrams at propdev positions, 358
bibliography on, 359, 360
effective, definition of, 615
formula of Aquino, 368
Schoenherr, 369
graph of D. W. Taylor, 369
nominal, definition of, 615
ship-, estimate of, 368
patterns abaft ship-shaped bodies, 39

-fraction,

around

inlet

and discharge openings, design, 701

shallow,

and

366

systematic, 572

on appendage drag, 292

Water(s), added-mass coefficients for vibrating ships, 433
data for skegs in, 438
adequate flow to propdevs in confined waters, 668
air and, mechanical properties of, 915
confined, behavior in, first approx, 501
predicted, of a ship in, 389

of,

data

in,

328

389

design factors for, 666

features applicable, 659
drag, sinkage, squat, design for reduction, 661
effect(s),

bibliography on, 415

410
414
estimated added-mass coeff for vibrating ship in,
433
lack of reliable data on power and propeller
performance in, 411
operation at supercritical speeds, 412
practical definition of, 389
predicting ship behavior in, 389
resistance curves of R. Brard for Suez Canal
model, 413
running in, transverse section shapes for, 662
ship performance, unexplained anomalies in, 414
sinkage data in, 328
speeds, economical and practical, in, 660
straight-element hull for use in, 666
deep-, resist and speed from shallow-water data, 400
depth, given, practical resist-speed cases involving, 396
2 per cent speed reduction in, 403
limiting, of D. W. Taylor, for ship trials, 407
of lateral restrictions in subcritical range,

summary

of,

restricted; see Water(s), confined

behavior

in, first

controllability

approx, 501

model

tests in,

876

definition of, 389

on speed and power, 390

of, 414

effect of,

summary

estimated effect of lateral channel restrictions in

subcritical range,

410

operation, modification to normal forms for, 666

resistance data, typical, 389

found from deep-water data, 400

prediction by inspection, 408
section shapes for, 662
speed from deep-water data, 397
transverse dimensions for, 662
vessels,

adaptation of straight-element form

666

-velocity effect

of trim

325

390
for,

vectors from model tests, 874

definition

in,

quantitative effect on ship resistance and speed,

ships, references to, 39

transom-stern ABC ship, 366

3-diml, 360-366
variations, behind ships, 259-262

change

323

of, 920
917-919

of,

mechanical properties of, 915, 920

open, deep, change of trim and sinkage
restricted, definition of, 389
sea, chemical constituents of, 924

persistence of, behind a ship, 261

-survey diagrams, definition sketch

torpedo, 366

to,

mechanical properties of, 915

standard or reference values for, 915-920

609

of,

anah'sis diagram for

diagrams,

922

kinematic-viscosity values

'Wake(s), -adapted screwprop, design

of,

elastic characteristics of,

flow through free-flooding spaces, resist due

fresh and salt, data on change of state, 921

and vibrating bodies, 141

typical, 663

vibration problems

673

in,

wave(s), data, 181

relation to deep-water waves, 180
of, 392
"standard", mass density, volumes, weight, 915
reference data for, 915, 918, 920

speed, definition

vapor pressure

of, 146, 147,

921

Waterline(s), afterbody, transom-stern

beam, maximum, fore-and-aft

curvature, 0-diml, of
plots,

ABC

ship,

ship,

507

506

designed, fairing of for

first

ABC

position, 481

sketch

of,

ABC

ship,

200-202

479

505
of ABC
shape, 479
ships,

typical ships, 230

parallel, reference

data on, 231

inclined, for variable-weight conditions,

499

on saiUng yachts, data on, 784

length, first approx, 464
parallel, definition of, 230
design lane for, 480
shapes and coefficients, designed, 228
slope, at entrance, graphs for, 479
run, 480
stem shapes at various, 508
Waterplane^, coefficient, data for selecting, 478
shape of vessel near designed, 504
WaveCs), actual wind, tabulated data for, 175

bibliography on, 182-185

complex, for design purposes, 171

506

to,

SUBJECT INDEX
Wave(s), conditions, tentative, for ship design, 172
crest, bow, estimate of height and poaition, 244
lag abaft stem, 245
deep-water, comparison with shallow water, 180
diverging, effect on drag, 220
earthquake, or tsunami, 181
geometric, references to, 182

and steepness ratios for design purposes, 169

bow and stern, predicted, 244
to wave length ratios for ship design, 170

height(s),

979

Wavegoing, requirements

Wavemaking, pressure

in ship design,

resistance

Weber number,

definition and use of, 16

Wedge-type trim-control device on planing

Weight(s), balance, longitudinal,

and evaluation,

172
transverse, effect

on drag, 220

trochoidal, definition drawing, 162

elevation

and

slopes of, 163, 164

length-velocity-period relations, 165-168

orbit radii, change with depth, 169
orbital velocity in deep water, 162, 166, 168, 169

sketch of slopes, 164

summary

of theory, 161

tables of lengths, periods, velocities, 165-168

tsunami or earthquake, 181

deep and shallow water, 180-182
wind, patterns and profiles by modern methods, 177
velocities in

tabulated data, 175

Zimmermann,

definition and use of, 176, 177

Wavegoing, abovewater hull proportions for, 496

conditions, limits for, 458

freeboard

model

548
877

for,

tests,

first

craft,

840

approx, 497, 498

for light draft, 500

estimate,

tentative "standard", for design

210

comparison of calculated and experimental, 217

conditions, variable-, 463

systems, Kelvin, modified by Hogner, 161

of,

due to diverging and transverse waves, 220

tabulation of typical components, 216

Kelvin system, 161

lengths, in deep and shallow water, 182, 183
miscellaneous, general data for, 181
ocean, stereoscopic photo of, 179
typical profiles, 178
patterns around 2-diml forms, 39
on water surface, theoretical, 160
profile(s), alongside models, 241
observed on models, 873
of ocean waves, from stereo photos, 180
ship, typical, 239
sketching, for new design, 494
synthetic, 3-component, complex sea, 175
surface, prediction of, 246
transom-stern ABC ship, 495
trochoidal, 163, 164
typical, for ships, 239
relations, analytic ship-, 217
to natural wind, 176
resistance calculations, ship forms for, 219
shallow-water, comparison with deep-water, 180
data on, 181
ship, data on, 160
simple and standard, for design purposes, 171
sinusoidal, formulas and ordinates for, 170
-speed, ratio in shallow water, definition of, 395
speed, solitary, for shallow water, 661
tables of, 165-168
steepness ratios encountered at sea, 169
stern-, estimate of height and position, 245
surface, theoretical, data on, 160

due to calculation

resistance, calculation of, 215

interference along a ship, general rules for, 243

subsurface, bibhography on, 185

449

first,

for a ship, 463

planing craft, 828

round-bottom motorboat, 853

second, for planing-hull motorboat, 831
third, for motorboats, 863
estimating procedure for motorboat, 828
heavy, longitudinal position in a planing craft, 850
principal, second estimate, 474
specific, definition of,

5
-speed-power factors for average vessels, 383
small craft, 824, 832, 853
"standard" fresh and salt water, 915
Weitbrecht equivalent sand roughness values, 114

Welding fillets, use of for fairing, 742

Wetted area of a hydrofoil, definition

of,

length of planing forms, 268

surface; see Surface

Wheel, paddle; see Paddlewheel

propeller; see Propeller

Wheelock wave,

definition and use of, 169, 170

Width, blade-, of screwprops, 340
cavitation diagrams for selecting, 605
design of, 605
Wigleys (W. C. S.) design rules for bulb bows, 510
Wind, drag, and resistance, with wind on bow, 281
coefficients for ship types, 280
irregular structures, formulas for, 276
lateral, 285
masts, spars, rigging, reducing, 566
-effect calculations, examples for ABC ship, 282, 285
capsizing moments, 286
force, velocity, and pressure, nominal, 284
friction resistance of hull, comments on, 280
moments, lateral, and heel angles, 285
natural, surface-water currents due to, 287
force, velocity and pressure of, 284
relation to waves, 176
pressure, location of center of, 284, 285
magnitude of, 283
resistance, 322
and CP layout for ABC ship, 283
model(s), and testing, notes on, 278
typical, 277
of motorboats, 862
of ships, estimating, 274, 322
prediction for ABC ship, 282
still-air, 278
tests, bibliography of, 278
with wind on bow, 281, 282
velocitj', increase with height above water surface,

274-276
velocities

and Beaufort

scale of U. S.

wave(s), patterns and profiles by

Navy Dept, 284

modern methods, 177

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

980

Wind, wave(s), systems, tentative "standard,"

for design,

tabulated data

sailing, auxiliary

propulsion

for,

652

yacht(s), design, bibliography on, 786, 787

lyi
for,

175

Works, upper, positioning

of,

561

Yawed

notes for, 783

tabulated data on old, 228
bodies, references to flow patterns about, 38, 40

Yacht(s), -design requirements, 783

J-class, reference to lines

drawings

references to tabulated da:ta, 228

of,

Zimmermann wave,

228

definition

and use

Zone, separation; see Separation

of,

176, 177

siiiiiliiiii